I.S.T.A.
Carnevali e folclore delle Alpi Riti, suoni e tradizioni popolari delle vallate europee
Maggio 2012
CARNEVALI E FOLCLORE DELLE ALPI
Riti, suoni e tradizioni popolari delle vallate europee
Soggetto promotore: LOntànoVerde - I.S.T.A. Coordinatore del progetto e impostazione grafica: Luca Giarelli. Segreteria organizzativa, revisione testi e traduzioni: Marta Ghirardelli. Commissione scientifica: Luca Giarelli, Marta Ghirardelli, Loris Bendotti, Ivan Faiferri, Federica Nember. L’edizione di questo libro è stata curata da: Luca Giarelli. Immagini: Luca Giarelli (p. 229, 234, 245), Giovanni Mocchi (p. 230), Carlo Toini (p. 231), Alessio Strambini (p. 232), Linda Armano (p. 233), Manuel Schiavi (p. 235, 243 - Fig. 29), Irene Borgna (p. 236) Carmelo Prestipino (p. 237 - Fig. 17), Massimo Centini (p. 237 - Fig. 18), Andrea Arcà (p. 238 - Fig. 19 e 20), Emiliano Migliorini (p. 239), Marcello Canclini (p. 240), Franco Irranca (p. 241-242), Giacomo Camuri (p. 243 - Fig. 30), Marta Villa (p. 244), Manfred Waltner (p. 246), Le Orme dell’Uomo (p. 238 - Rilievi Fig. 19 ), www.fragmentoftime.com (p. 238 - Fig. 20). Rielaborazione cartografica di mappa di pubblico dominio e resa grafica ai fini della pubblicazione a cura di Luca Giarelli. Foto di copertina: Fronte: Luca Giarelli, Linda Armano. Retro: Manuel Schiavi, Luca Giarelli, Franco Irranca. Profilo montuoso: Monte Concarena, Valle Camonica. Senza il permesso scritto è vietata la riproduzione del presente lavoro sotto qualsiasi forma. Isbn: 978-88-66189-48-0 Prima edizione italiana, maggio 2012. Seconda ristampa.
Il progetto «Carnevali e foclore delle Alpi» è stato possibile grazie a:
Via Moreschi, 2 25072 Bagolino (Brescia) Tel. 9365.902009 Fax 0365.903749 info@zanettiarte.com www.zanettiarte.com
«Dalle radici della Cultura tradizione locale un prodotto tipico italiano» Polenta del Badalisc info@badalisc.com www.badalisc.com
Comunità Montana di Valle Camonica Parco dell’Adamello Piazza Tassara, 3 25043 Breno (Brescia) www.parcoadamello.it
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Provincia di Brescia Assessorato alle Attività e Beni culturali, Valorizzazione delle Identità, Culture e Lingue Locali www.provincia.brescia.it
Indice
pag.
5
»
7
Il Badalisc di Andrista: MASchera di Cevo in Valle Camonica
»
15
La Scasada dol Zenerù e l’uso rituale dei campanacci
»
29
Il Carneval Vecc di Grosio in Valtellina
»
41
L’Homo Salvadego: una figura folclorica della Rezia alpina
»
51
Plodar Vosenocht: il carnevale di Sappada nelle alpi venete
»
59
Il carnevale di Bagolino in Val Sabbia
»
69
»
77
Il carnevale di Valdieri tra riscoperte e rifunzionalizzazioni
»
85
Il bal do sabre e il carnevale di Bagnasco del secolo XVI
»
95
La spada sulla roccia: arte rupestre, etnografia e danze armate
»
105
Le danze armate nelle Alpi
»
115
Le bande musicali nelle feste di carnevale tra Ticino e Italia
»
123
Presentazione
Luca Giarelli - Marta Ghirardelli
INTRODUZIONE: Le calende di gennaio e il carnevale
Italo Sordi
Parte I - Il convegno Luca Giarelli
Giovanni Mocchi Carlo Toini
Alessio Strambini Linda Armano
Nerio Richiedei Il carnevale di Allein in Valle d’Aosta
Manuel Schiavi
Parte II - Le Alpi Irene Borgna
Carmelo Prestipino
Andrea Arcà
Massimo Centini
Emiliano Migliorini
3
Carnevali nelle valli bergamasche Seriana e Brembana
»
135
Bormio e il Podestà dei Matti
»
143
Maschere ornitomorfe tra folclore e arte rupestre
»
153
I carnevali di Prad am Stilfserjoch e Stilfs in Vinschgau
»
159
San nicolò e i krampus: la sfilata dei Diavoli a Vipiteno
»
171
The Schemenlaufen in Imst
»
183
The Chauche-vieille in FRENCH literature and oral narrations
»
195
Bibliografia
»
207
AbstractS
»
221
immagini
»
229
Franco Irranca
Marcello Canclini Giacomo Camuri Marta Villa
Loris Bendotti - Marta Ghirardelli Manfred Waltner
Stamatios Zochios
Parte III - Apparati
4
Abstracts 1. The Andrista Badalisc: a mask of Cevo in Valle Camonica
The Badalisc is a folkloric figure of Andrista, a hamlet of Cevo municipality in Valle Camonica. This mask is represented as a beast with an hairy body, very tall, with a huge mouth, blazing eyes, horns, and completely silent. As tradition goes the Badalisc is captured in the woods around the village on the evening of the 5th of January, after being awakened by sounds. He is taken to the centre of Andrista village by its hunters. The beast is accompanied by figures such as his captor, who keeps him tied up, the old woman and the old man, two figures who are committed to clean and sweep the street, and the Signorina, a male dressed as a woman. All the event participants are men. In the evening there is the Discorso del Badalisc (Badalisc’s speech), where the animal, through an interpreter, reveals the secrets and the gossips about the inhabitants with a nursery rhyme. The day after the Andrista children go from door to door to ask some flour to cook a typical dish called polenta.
2. The Scasada dol Zenerù and bells traditional use
Scasada dol Zenerù, that is to say the chasing out of Great January, the longest and coldest month of the year, is a rite that takes place on the evening of the 31st of January in Ardesio, and in the past all over Valseriana, a valley in the mountains near Bergamo. In times past, children and young people, but nowadays people of all ages, gather to chase Zenerù away holding cowbells in their hands or hanging them round their belts together with clappers, tins, lids and pots. Similar rites using cowbells to chase away the winter and to welcome the spring are to be found in several agro-pastoral areas from the Alps down to southern Italy and this is a proof of their ancient and common roots. The use of cowbells, and the wearing of traditional costumes as a propitiatory rite, is to be found all over Europe, from Spain to Bulgaria, from Germany to Greece: sometimes coinciding with Carnival or other religious feasts.
3. The Grosio Carneval Vecc in Valtellina
Grosio is a pleasant Valtellina town which is situated at the foot of Mount Storile, on the highway that connects Lake Como to the Stelvio Pass. The bond that the Grosio people have with the their land and agriculture goes without saying: almost every family owned some cattle in order to integrate the salary of the men who migrated to Switzerland to work as bricklayers. These conditions left a visible sign on the social and economic life of the township. Grosio celebrates Carnival the first Sunday of Lent because of the changes made to the Gregorian calendar in 1582 and which were not accepted by the Grigioni, who at that time occupied Valtellina. Another feature is the parade of the old masks and costumes, that even today concludes in the square in front of the parish church of Saint Joseph. There is a variety of different characters, some are double masks. 221
Abstracts
Carneval Vecc and the Magra Quaresima lead the parade, the first character is rather robust and plumb, whereas the other is haggard and limping. They symbolize the contrast between the two periods of the year. Toni e l’Ors represent the bear with its tamer, which once were commonly present at all fairs where animals were exhibited. L’Altoni is a person dressed in rags and wearing gigantic shoes. The Paralytic is carried by an attractive nurse. Finally there is la Bernarda, who is an allegory of a family walking up towards the Alps of the Grosio valley.
4. Homo Salvadego: a folkloric figure in the alpine Raetia
The dualism between Nature and Culture is expressed by an anthropomorphic creature, depicted in a variety of ways in different locations in the ancient territory of Raetia. The Homo Salvadego (Wild Man), a symbolic figure of the conflict Man/Nature and Nature/Culture, is physically tall and hairy with broad shoulders. Even his hair and beard are unkempt but his face is that of a man. The best conserved illustration of the HomoSalvadego is that found in the camera picta in Sacco, Valtellina. Other examples are on the house of Harliquin in the province of Bergamo (San Giovanni Bianco, Oneta hamlet in Val Brembana), on the Poschiavina Gate in Tirano (Valtellina) and on the coat of arms of the Ten Jurisdictions League (Grisons Canton, Switzerland). Some legends narrate the fact that the Homo Salvadego lived on the slopes of Mount Sassalbo above Poschiavo, Switzerland. The Homo Salvadego character is also depicted in various ways during Carnival time. Its protective nature is clearly depicted on the frescoes found on the door of homes or cities, as it seems to guard these place. Sometimes he is described as a cultural hero who taught men the art of cheese-making, metalwork or farming.
5. Plodar Vosenocht: the Sappada Carnival in the venetian Alps
This text deals with the Carnival in Sappada, a village next to Belluno where the linguistic structure comes from German. Sappada’s carnival begins after the Epiphany, but people begin to disguise from the third Sunday before Ash Wednesday. It takes place during three Sundays. Each of them is centered on a different social class reflecting the ancient structure of society in Sappada. Carnival is composed of Pettlar Suntag (poor people Sunday), Paurn Suntag (peasant Sunday) and Hearn Suntag (Rich people Sunday). All this is followed by Lunedì Grasso (Italian definition of the day before Mardi Gras), called also Lunedì del Rollate (Rollate’s Monday), when all men disguised as Rollate parade all along the village entering the houses. Rollate dressing up begins with a pair of brown and white striped trousers, called Hiilhouzn in the local dialect. Long time ago trousers were made of blankets used to cover the cows in winter. They were made of line in the white part and of wool in the black one. Then they wear the fur (pelz) made of six sheepskins. One of the most important feature of the Rollate is the wooden mask concealing his own identity. Wooden masks, which are still realized by private local sculptors, are one of the most charming aspects of the Carnival. The actual peculiar feature of this mask is the Rolln, round cowbells tied around their waists giving the name to the mask.
6. Bagolino Carnival in Val Sabbia
The Bagolino carnival date back at least to the 16th century, as documented by the writings preserved in the municipal archives. Traditionally there are two distinct groups of masks: the Balarì (dancers) and the Mascher (masks). 222
Abstracts
The Balarì are masked dancers who perform exclusively on Carnival Monday an d Tuesday. They perform dances in the streets and in village squares. The dances are accompanied by music played by violins. The Mascher, on the contrary, have a more lower-class nature: the characters move wildly into the crowd with grotesque masks and wooden clogs. They often pick on people by touching their genitals. They wear male and female costumes and they usually move in pairs disguised as vecio (old man) and vecia (old woman).
7. Allein Carnival in Val d’Aosta
The rural town of Allein is situated in Italy, at the center of the Valle del Gran San Bernardo, called Coumba Freida in Provençal dialect because of the constant drafts of cold air blowing in it. The Carnival of Allein is animated by fifty people dressed up as Landzettes, traditional costumes representing a sort of allegorical transposition of the uniforms of Napoleon’s troops that in May 1800 crossed Colle del Gran San Bernardo to begin the Italy campaign. The Landzettes are bizarre and somewhat disturbing masks, who are characterized by the special costumes they wear, entirely handmade and adorned with beads, sequins and mirrors sewn onto strictly red clothes; they firmly held in their hand a mule tail, which is deeply rooted in popular credence as it is believed to chase away both evil spirits and the cold winds of winter. At the head of the bènda (the masked group) you can enjoy the charismatic presence of Gueuda, who is the oldest (or the most experienced) in the masked group and who is in charge of the flag of the group. The purpose of this event, which in two days will pass through all the different surroundings of the town, is to bring sounds, colors, joy and good humor to the families residing in the country, who reciprocate the fun masks by offering them drinks and traditional Valle d’Aosta delicacies.
8. Valdieri Carnival in Piedmont
Valdieri is a small alpine town in the Maritime Alps. Some years ago, thanks to the fieldwork of some anthropologists, the ancient Carnival mask was rediscovered and reintroduced with the participation of local people. The article tries to investigate the mechanism of the rediscovering of the rye bear after a hibernation lasted more than fifty years. Why choosing to bring the rye bear back to life? How and how much has changed the Valdieri Carnival along the decades? What’s the meaning of this alpine Carnival today? Is still a local festival for local people or instead a touristic event? Which role played the anthropologists in the revival of the Carnival? And, finally: what’s about the future of the fragile rye bear? The Valdieri Carnival is now something very different from the ancient Carnival: it is now a festival and not a ritual linked to predictions about the agricultural cycle anymore. The rye bear has become a very «politically correct» Carnival mask and the Carnival itself is today more an event for children than something for adults: the nowadays Carnival is the mirror of the nowadays alpine society - not so different from the urban one. Maybe the bear must disappear for ever or perhaps the traditional Carnival will survive side by side with new invented festivals. There are also those who says that we are already waiting for a new cultural morning in the Alps.
223
Abstracts
9. The Bal do sabre and the 16th century Bagnasco Carnival
Bagnasco village is located on a plain of the Tanaro valley between Ceva and Ormea; since 1814 it has been a village of the border between Savoy Piedmont and Liguria. In 1900 this community of one thousand inhabitants rediscovered the tradition of the «armed dance», which now is danced during international meetings. The Bagnasco Bal do Sabre has experienced several changes, already starting from the prehistoric myth, about which however there aren’t any traces in the rock art of Tanaro Valley, up to the Saracen, and ending with local historical events. The documentary sources of Bagnasco show that the Carnival was celebrated already in XVI century and the Abbadia della gioventù («The abbey of youth») was the protagonist of the event; considering these documents it is possible to sustain that during this celebration the Bal do Sabre was performed. So we can assume that the Bal do Sabre was the dance of the Bagnasco Carnival , the only secular party in the community, and today it is a characteristic element of the identity of the country.
10. The sword on the rock: ethnography, rock art and sword dances
The heart of the traditional sword dances of Europe seems to beat in the Italian and French western Alps, particularly in Cenischia and Susa valleys, where the greatest concentration of related feasts can be found. In the hamlets of Venaus, Giaglione and San Giorio di Susa the traditional dances of the Spadonari (“men holding a big sword”) are still performed, mainly around the carnival period. In the same area some interesting engraved rocks were found since 1991. Seven figures of warriors holding a sword are similar to the Valcamonica rock art Iron Age figures; the linear-body ones are dated to the IV-II cent. BC, the square-body ones to the Roman period, being probably gladiators. At least three points demonstrate that the movements and the costumes of the real Spadonari are represented by the engraved figures: the traditional jump is depicted by the bent knee position and by the earth line, while the head-gear ribbons are clearly detailed. The swords are not so long as the medieval ones, engraved on other petroglyphs of the area. Regarding the origin of the Spadonari sword dance, historical records do not date back beyond sixteenth century AD. Sword-men engraved on the rocks show the traditional Spadonari movements; as they can be dated to the last centuries BC, a similar chronological attribution seems suitable also for the origin of the sword dances. In this way such a case appears to be a perfect and rare model of interaction between archaeology and ethnography. For the interpretive aspects, archaeological and ethnographic points of view are connected by the topics of youth and passage to the adult age, achieved during feast days by duelling matches or dance exhibitions; both performances are able to satisfy the need, particularly strong during the young age, of ostentation and of passing courage and skill tests.
11. The sword dances in the Alps
The sword dance is a tangible memory of a tradition whose roots are almost certainly to be sought in the practices linked to the most archaic season rites. Sword dance or armed dance is quite a generic denomination including different types of dances practised using side arms or sticks. There are various denominations indicating them: Bal de sabre - along with linguistic variations according to the dialect in question (Piedmont), Bacchuber (Pont de Cervières), Des olivettes (Provence), Schwerttanz (Germany) etc.
224
Abstracts
The author, who has studied the sword dances still practised in Piedmont, presents a survey analysing the many expressions of this ancient rite, its pre Christian origins, its contaminations with modern folklore as well as the various anthropological implications implied. It is worth remembering that the sword dance acquired its own physiognomy in the Middle Ages. It was characterised by a ritual procedure governed by precise rules and it subsequently found its maximum expression between the 14th and the 18th centuries. Starting from the second half of the 19th century its diffusion underwent an abrupt reduction, quickly disappearing soon after. What is even worse it is that it left very few sources of information in order to try to restore with hindsight the old practice. Armed dances fit in the agricultural calendar, often Christianized, but whose substratum emerges on various occasions characterised by clear connections with cults and rites linked to paganism.
12. Musical bands in Carnival recurrences between Ticino and Italy
Audio is the most significant dimension of any carnival. Although it is expressed through different forms, practices and genres, it remains a crucial component of the rites and festive events connected to carnival. In the majority of the events associated with carnivalesque events, the production of sound (produced by musically organized elements as well as by the changeable element of commotion, racket, noise) provides the background for the ritual development of the festive structure and sometimes determines its meaning. In some European carnivals, musical bands or similar instrumental ensembles are given a central role in generating sound. The objective of this article is to highlight some aspects of the function that band-type musical ensembles play within carnivalesque rituals in the case of several carnival festivals in Italy and Ticino. The troupes under investigation range from «musical bands» (large musical groups with a diverse array of instrumentation) to smaller formations (such as brass-only groups or instrumental ensembles with an important rhythmic-percussive component). To this end, I will compare research carried out in several carnivals in Ticino, which were previously characterized by bandelle and now animated by guggenband performances, with similar cases and I will compare these with additional examples (from Schignano, in the province of Como, and Frosinone, in Lazio).
13. Carnivals in Bergamo valleys: Val Seriana and Val Brembana
In the valleys of Bergamo there are many carnivals with special characteristics. In Val Seriana, in Albino, there is the tradition of Ol poer Piero (the poor Peter). In the past during the Mardi Gras at St. Giuliano square a gallows was prepared and on it a puppet called «Poor Peter», later on burned, was hung. In Bani of Ardesio the representation of the Mascheràda dol magna is staged: Burtolì, the personification of the Carnival and who symbolizes the scapegoat, is destined to die. For this reason he makes a will in a parodistic way. In Ornica, in Val Brembana, Il rogo della Vecchia («The old woman burning») was staged. In Valtorta the masks instead move in pairs in the streets accompanied by the accordion player. The parade is closed by the méda, the unmarried aunt. In Dossena occurs instead La mascherata macabra («The macabre masquerade»), in which the main characters are the old man and the old woman, who always fight, the daughter, the doctor, the notary, the musicians, the death, the devil and the donkey. 225
Abstracts
14. Bormio and the Podestà dei Matti
Years ago, in Bormio, in the day celebrating St. Anthony the Abbot burst on the scene the Carnival and I Matti (literally «the Madmen», a group of youth disguised in festive dresses and masks), who under the order of their leader took the upper hand with the wise men of civil and religious power in the old Contado. They decided who was destined to become the Podestà dei Matti («The Podestà of the Madmen»). Then they awaited for the Tuesday in the last week of Carnival when the Podestà dei Matti, dressed in real splendor, was paraded around the town on a sedan-chair or on a sled, followed by a train of masked young among whom stood out the Arlecchino and the Dottorazzo ( «The mad Doctor»). The real Podestà was deprived of his power and the Podestà dei Matti became the town leader. Meanwhile in the main piazza of Bormio, in a batty discourse, the Arlecchino laid out before the public the events that occurred during the year, above all those most sensitive and those not know by everybody. For a whole week, the Podestà dei Matti and his followers gave themselves up to crazy partying between meals and abundant drink. Saturday was the last day of the party and in the square a large bonfire was lit over which a big pot of polenta was cooked to distribute it to the poor. The ancient group of Matti accompanying the Podestà, and the Podestà himself, almost always ruined themselves because of the binges and the excesses. For this and other reasons, the celebration was definitely abolished back in 1766. The modern day company of Matti celebrate only one day, in which then they concentrate the highlights of their Carnival week enjoyment.
15. Bird masks between folklore and rock art in the central eastern Alps
As tradition goes, on the evening of the 5th of January in Rauris (Austria) the streets are crossed by groups of four or five Schnabelperchten: masks with beaks. Their movable beak, which hides the face, is artfully held back by big colored headscarves which are knotted under the chin. These masks advance with a broom sweeping their path, all of them carry a basket on their back and one of them brandish a big wooden scissors. The protagonist of this action are boys, young men dressed in old clothes for women. This event could be a part of a context concerning other central eastern Alps folkloristic manifestations and ancient cults. Besides, the Rauris masks could have a connection with the rock art of Valcamonica, where engravings that seem to represent human beings with beak-shaped masks are reported.
16. Saint Nicholas and Krampus: the devils procession in Vipiteno
On the evening of the 5th of December the town of Vipiteno (Sterzing in German), in Val d’Isarco, is crossed by the Nikolausumzug, the traditional procession in which the figure of St. Nicholas of Myra is celebrated. Together with the figure of the saint stand out the Tuifl , men dressed as demons who already in the early afternoon burst into the town frightening and amusing the locals and the tourists. The tradition of the parade of St. Nicholas is especially widespread in the Alpine arc of German area and, even with slight variations, it usually takes place in the evening of the 5th of December when the saint, at the head of the procession, distributes candies and sweets to children accompanied by his helpers, whose appearance and function can vary depending on local traditions. Among them Krampus figures, monstrous beings that remind the devil, stand out. 226
Abstracts
The origins of this traditional event are lost in the dim and the distant past, but they could be dated back to a mixture of pagan and Catholic influences. Despite nowadays the feast has become a real tourist attraction, the main purpose is always to try to keep what is the authentic spirit of tradition and its ancient roots.
17. The Carnivals of Prad am Stilfserjoch and Stilfs in Vinschgau
In Provincia Autonoma of Bolzano, there are two adjacent communities, Prad am Stilfserjoch and Stilfs in Vinschgau, that still have carnival rituals closely related to the theme of fertility and investing predominantly young males as agents of rites and both communities as spectators. The rituals that take place during the week of Carnival are three, two are acted by the community of Prad and one (on alternate years) from that of Stilfs. In Prad on Mardi Gras the event of masked Zusslnrennen («Running of Zussln») is staged. On Sunday, still in Prad, the Dance of the Masks, that takes place in the stube of the oldest hotel of the different fractions of the country is staged. In Stilfs on the Saturday before Lent relives the ceremony of Pflugziehen («to pull plow») in which two different groups of characters collide along the same street. The Bauer and Bauerin (a pair of farmers) pull an old plow through the streets of the country and they are supported by several helpers of farm, while their work is hampered by characters who embody the negative. All these three events are made in the carnival rituals and are characterized by elements which concern the sphere of the sacred practice and do not require the active involvement of women, who are only spectators, but around their fertility and around the fertility of the earth rotates all the ritual.
18. The Schemenlaufen in Imst
The Schemenlaufen in Imst takes place every three to five years. The main characters are: the Scheller, with their impressive head-dress and heavy cowbells, and their opposite, the Roller, a graceful character wearing a belt with approximately 50 small bells. They perform an elegant dance, called Gangle, protected by the Sackner, characters who hit spectators with cloth bags filled with maize leaves, by the Spritzer and the Kübelemaje, who carry a bucket full of powder. The grotesque Laggescheller and the Laggeroller mock the main masks with elegant manners, while the Hexen (witches) dance at the sound of their orchestra, the Hexenmusik, constituted by the boys of the town. The procession also includes the Vogelhändler, the old bird-sellers of Imst, and the Kaminer, chimney-sweeps. The Bären (bears) cross the town chased by the yells of their leaders, the Bärentreiber. The members of the Labara, a group of minstrels, reveal the mischief of prominent citizens to the spectators. The procession is followed by sumptuous Fasnachtswagen (floats). A mass is celebrated early in the morning and then, during the Figatter, a folly of a citizen is performed in a humorous sketch. At half past nine a.m. begin the Aufzug, the procession of masked participators coming from the lower part of the town to the upper part. The Umzug, the main procession back down, starts at noon, when the parish church-bells toll. At six p.m. the church-bells mark the end of the event and participants take off their masks.
227
Abstracts
19. The Chauche-vieille in French literature and oral narrations
The Chauche-vieille, name that is translated as the hag who rides, is a feminine figure of the French alpine region (Rhône-Alpes, Savoie). Appearing during the Twelve Days of Christmas, she is described as a female boogeyman that throws naughty children in her bag, or as an obscure form (a pixie, an animal, a hairy monster, a genius loci but mostly an old woman), which sits on the chest of its victims, punishing them for being lazy or not obedient to rural rules - for instance, not working during holiday or after midnight. Being linked to many supernatural beings such as the nightmare (incubus), the Chichefache, the Reicheran or the ladies of the night and of the sacral period of the twelve days (Satia, dame Abonde, Perchta, Holda, Befana etc.), she is an alpine alternative of the old woman of the lent (Vieille du Carême), participating in carnivals and manifesting a double, dualistic character linked to prosperity and death and the relative agrarian customs. Our paper is going to examine through a comparative method this enigmatic figure and its evolution since its first appearance in the medieval folklore document named «Les évangiles des quenouilles» to the 20th century ethnological collection of folk beliefs realised by Charles Joisten.
228