I.S.T.A.
Naturalmente divisi Storia e autonomia delle antiche comunità alpine
Maggio 2013
NATURALMENTE DIVISI
Storia e autonomia delle antiche comunità alpine
Soggetto promotore: LOntànoVerde - I.S.T.A. Coordinatore del progetto e impostazione grafica: Luca Giarelli. Segreteria organizzativa, revisione testi e traduzioni: Marta Ghirardelli. Commissione scientifica: Luca Giarelli, Marta Ghirardelli, Loris Bendotti, Fausto Bonomelli, Fabio Faiferri.
I testi contenuti nel presente volume sono stati selezionati via Call for Papers. Il criterio di selezione dei contributi è basato sull’attinenza al tema trattato e all’area geografica analizzata. Non è previsto un esame curricolare degli autori, che pubblicano i contenuti sotto la loro diretta responsibilità. Le modalità di candidatura, i temi e le note di stampa sono indicate nel sito web: www.lontanoverde.it/ista.
L’edizione di questo libro è stata curata da: Luca Giarelli. Immagini: Luca Giarelli (p. 38, 78, 124, 363, 364 - Fig. 3, 365 - Fig. 5), Gabriele Medolago (p. 171, 365 - Fig. 6), Signorelli (p. 233), Alice Bassanesi (p. 364, Fig. 4), Tarcisio Bottani (p. 366, Fig. 7), Angelo Borghi (p. 366, Fig. 8), Diego Zoia (p. 367, Fig. 9), MaiDireLollo (p. 367, Fig. 10). Rielaborazione cartografica di mappe di pubblico dominio e resa grafica ai fini della pubblicazione a cura di Luca Giarelli. Foto di copertina: Fronte: Leone di San Marco (B.Q. Brescia, ms. H.V.5). Retro: Luca Giarelli, Flavio Zappa. Profilo montuoso: Monte Concarena, Valle Camonica. Senza il permesso scritto è vietata la riproduzione del presente lavoro sotto qualsiasi forma. Isbn: 978-88-91111-70-8 Prima edizione italiana, maggio 2013. Seconda ristampa. Il progetto «Naturalmente divisi» è stato possibile grazie a:
Comunità Montana di Valle Camonica www.cmvallecamonica.bs.it
Provincia di Brescia Assessorato alle Attività e Beni culturali, Valorizzazione delle Identità, Culture e Lingue Locali www.provincia.brescia.it
2
Cassa Padana Area Camuna www.cassapadana.it
Indice
Presentazione
pag.
5
Introduzione
»
7
»
17
»
39
»
53
»
71
»
85
»
99
»
111
»
125
»
139
»
153
Luca Giarelli - Marta Ghirardelli
Luigi Blanco
Parte I - Naturalmente divisi 1.
La comunità e le vicinie di Valle Camonica in epoca medievale Luca Giarelli
2.
Tradizione e ius naturae: in difesa dell'autonomia di Valle Camonica nella prima età moderna Simone Signaroli
3.
Confini, identità, statuti tra la Valtrompia e Brescia Giovanni Boccingher
4.
Alla periferia del Leone: la Valle Sabbia in età veneta Giancarlo Marchesi
5.
Tra la Serpe e il Leone: l'autonomia della Riviera bresciana del Garda nel tardo medioevo (secoli XIV e XV) Fabrizio Pagnoni - Enrico Valseriati
6.
La podestaria di Lovere Francesco Nezosi
7.
L'antica comunità di Val di Scalve Alice Bassanesi
8.
La Valle Seriana Superiore nella documentazione prodotta da Bernardino Baldi notaio di Clusone Antonino Piscitello
9.
Il concilio di Honio in Valle Seriana Franco Irranca
10.
La comunità di Val Brembana Oltre la Goggia Gabriele Medolago
3
»
173
»
189
»
205
»
219
»
235
»
251
»
265
I beni indivisi in Trentino: il caso della comunità delle Regole di Spinale e Manez
»
279
Evoluzione e natura giuridica delle Regole Ampezzane
»
291
»
301
»
311
Bibliografia
»
325
Glossario
»
352
Abstracts
»
353
Immagini
»
363
Cartografia
»
370
11.
L’antica comunità di Valle Averara Tarcisio Bottani
12.
Val San Martino: una terra di mezzo Fabio Bonaiti
13.
L’Escarton della Val Pragelato: un'esperienza amministrativa dell'arco alpino occidentale Bruno Usseglio
14.
La Vicinantia de Lavizaria: note sulla comunità di Lavizzara tra medioevo e dominazione svizzera Flavio Zappa
15.
Statuti di valle, rivolte montane e statuti di villaggio nella Valsesia tardo-medievale Roberto Fantoni
16.
La comunità di Valsassina Federico Oriani
17.
La comunità di Valtellina tra medioevo e Grigioni Diego Zoia
18.
Zeffirino Castellani
19.
Linda Armano 20
La Carnia nel patriarcato di Aquileia: diritti e privilegi di un territorio alpino nel tardo medioevo Miriam Davide
21.
Le comunità alpine al tempo dell’impero romano Anna Guadagnucci
Parte II - Apparati
4
Abstracts 1. The Community and the Vicinie of Valle Camonica in the Medieval Age Valle Camonica is a valley located along the river Oglio, north of Brescia. In 774 it was enfeoffed by Charlemagne to the monastery of Tours and later it was subject, because of the proximity, to the bishops and the Commune of Brescia. In 1164 Frederick I Barbarossa granted Valle Camonica a privilege of autonomy, which was confirmed in 1311 by Henry VII. In the 14th century Valle Camonica was acquired by the Visconti of Milan and in 1428 it was conquered by the Republic of Venice, which remained in its possession until 1797. It is possible to reconstruct the evolution of Valle Camonica Community from the first evidence of its Consoli (consuls), the creation of its own statutes and the institution of councils. On the other side it is possible to understand the persistence, from the Middle Ages to the end of the Early Modern Age, of the small local communities, administered by the vicinie (village congregations of ancient families). 2. Tradition and ius naturae: defending Valle Camonica autonomy in the first period of the Early Modern Age In 1604 Bernardino Ronchi, chancellor of Valle Camonica Community, gave a speech in the Council of the Venetian Republic. The text of his speech survives in a couple of documents, kept nowadays in Breno, at Museo Camuno in Raccolta Putelli. The article presents a modern edition of this text, in which archive documents and some elements of the doctrine about natural rights concur to defend the jurisdictional autonomy of the valley. The text is introduced by a brief historical profile of the Community, considering its connections with Brescia and Venice in the Early Modern Age. 3. Boundary, identity and statutes between Valtrompia and Brescia Valtrompia is located north of Brescia along the river Mella and its historical community was composed of several communes including an autonomous territory (Lumezzane). From the 14th century the oldest statutes of the territory (Bovegno in 1341 and many others) are drawn up, while the first Valley Statute is dated back to 1436. The valley had a moderate administrative autonomy and it was ruled by the General Council, consisting of the representatives of each communes, which elected a Sindico, a chancellor and a vicario generale, as well as other less significant figures. The dispersion of the Historical Archive of the Valley does not allow us to reconstruct in detail the evolution of this institution, whose development in the historical sense is still quite mysterious. This paper aims to define this development path, analyzing both modern and more ancient studies and advancing some research directions that seem particularly worthy of in-depth analysis.
353
Abstracts
4. At the edge of the Lion: Val Sabbia in Venetian Age Val Sabbia is located north of Brescia along the river Chiese and its community was composed of about a dozen communes. In 1463 Val Sabbia obtained from Venice the privilege of Terra Separata (Separated Land) from Brescia territory, while its first Statute is dated back to 1573. The valley was administered by a sindaco, assisted by a chancellor and two councillors , all of them elected by a General Council that assembled at the “House of the Valley” in Nozza. 5. Between the Serpent and the Lion: the autonomy of the Lake Garda Brescian Riviera in the late Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries) The aim of this paper is to revisit the social and institutional features of the Salò Riviera in the Late Middle-Ages, according to the recent historiographical debate on Italian rural communities. Specifically, the connection between Brescia’s episcopal see and the Riviera during the Viscontean domination is highlighted, so as to emphasize centrifugal and centripetal forces acting inside the federation. In the Venetian period, the Riviera’s jurisdictional autonomy resulted from the political network among Brescia, Venice and local players. 6. The Podestaria of Lovere The Podestaria of Lovere extended its jurisdiction on the northwestern shore of Lake Iseo. Its origin dates back to a period between 1384 and 1404 in which the Visconti of Milan and the troops of Pandolfo Malatesta clashed for possession of the territory. From the Statutes of Lovere, dated back to 1605, it can be deducted that the Podestà had its seat in the building next to the Civic Tower. He was appointed by the Rettori of Bergamo and he swore loyalty to the community in the hands of the Chancellor. The Podestà’s authority extended on both civil and criminal matters. 7. The ancient community of Val di Scalve Valle of Scalve extends today along the Dezzo river and from the 12th century to 17th century it included few villages, some of which located in the upper part of Valle Seriana, precisely Valbondione, which is connected with Valle di Scalve by the Manina pass. Valle di Scalve was therefore ruled by its own laws: the first ones were drawn up in 1372, under the government of the Visconti of Milan, the second ones in 1578 under the Signoria of Venice. The historical Archives of the community of Valle di Scalve has been lost over the years, also because it was damaged by fire in 1450. The Community was managed by the Podestà (nominated by the Council of Bergamo), who lived in Vilminore and ruled with mero et mixto imperio. The Council of Credenza elected all the other offices of Valle di Scalve: Cancelliere, Difensore, Contraditore, Tesoriere, Estimatore, Servitori, Calcatori delle Strade and the Sindaci of the Community. However the Podestà of Valle of Scalve had a particular power that the institutions of the neighbouring valleys didn’t have: he could judge both civil or criminal suits and his judgment was unappealable.
354
Abstracts
8. Valle Seriana Superiore in a documentary research produced by Bernardino Baldi, notary in Clusone The name of Bernardino Baldi (5 August 1612- 14 February 1684) appears in the historiography related to Bergamo and Clusone for several reasons. He worked as notary for the commune of Clusone, as an official representative of his home town (Clusone) and of the administrative district named Valle Seriana Superiore. Therefore he took an active part in the political life of his town and its district, so that by virtue of his legal and administrative deep knowledge he was Chancellor of the Council of the Valley and defender of the Valle Seriana Superiore (an administrative role which was equivalent to that of the nunzio cittadino in front of the courts of the Republic of Venice). In addition to his professional and political life, Bernardino Baldi dedicated himself to the research and to the continuous collection of past events and personalities related to Clusone and its district and of the chronicle of events of his time. His research goes beyond the biographical details and it puts more attention to the work of legal and administrative documentation for the defense of Valle Seriana Superiore in the controversy against the city of Bergamo. Bernardino Baldi through this documentation activity went far beyond the simple exercise of a public office. His work was a kind of mission in which he lobbied hard: he was formed by the separatist culture and at the same time he was an active leader of the defense of Valle Seriana Superiore from the influence of the city of Bergamo. 9. The Honio council in Valle Seriana The Honio council represents one of the most ancient administrative institutions in the history of Bergamo. While many documents of the 14th-15th-16th centuries mentioned the Council and while its existence is actually documented since the year 1210, histographers trace back its origin before the year 1000. Originally the Council included seven communes: Vertova, Semonte, Colzate, Fiorano, Gazzaniga and Rova in Valle Seriana and Oneta in Val del Riso. Vertova was the administrative centre and it played the leading role in the confederation: as a matter of fact it was in charge of the management of woods, meadows, pastures and common goods. The Honio council, also known as the Comune Maggiore di Honio, differed from the other confederate communes as regards the territories under its authority, the administrative organs and statutes. The meetings of its deliberative organs took place Ad Leguenis, a locality in Semonte, Vertova. The evidence of the Council activities can be found in the legal acts written by the notary Pietro Lorenzoni who practiced in Vertova and took part to its administrative institutional organs. This ancient institution nominally worked for over six centuries and officially ended its activity in 1833, when the common goods had been divided and redistributed to the communes. The Honio confederation is one of the few examples (but not the only one) of a federative organization in the Early Middle Ages in the territory of Bergamo.
355
Abstracts
10. The community of Val Brembana Oltre la Goggia Val Brembana extends along the river Brembo, north of Bergamo. During the rule of the Visconti there was only one community of the Valley, but as from the mid-fourteenth century it was divided into distinct communities. The community of Val Brembana Oltre la Goggia was located to the north of the rock face known as Goggia. There are statutes of the Community dating back to 1430, which were confirmed in 1588. There was a Council of the Valley which elected a Sindaco generale and a Canevaro (also known as Tesoriere or Questore). From 1428 Val Brembana Oltre la Goggia had a Vicario, who came from Venice and resided six months in Piazza and six months in Valnegra. 11. The ancient community of Valle Averara Valle Averara is situated on a side of Val Brembana, in the north-west part of the Province of Bergamo, on the border with Valtellina. It was cited from the 11th century and it has always maintained a special autonomy, already acquired during the communal age and then confirmed during the centuries of Venetian and Visconti’s dominations. The first draft of the Valle Averara statute goes back to 1313 and it reproduced and improved an earlier document. Another statute, completely renovated and extended, was approved in 1358. In 1365 the Duke Bernabò Visconti signed with Valle Averara Community the pacta vallium, a series of agreements that exempted from the duties on consumer goods. In 1388 the new Duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti granted the right to nominate the civil vicario, choosing him among the people of the valley. After becoming part of the Venetian Domination, in 1431, the Doge Francesco Foscari confirmed the Valley privileges already granted by the Visconti and all the conditions of the fair and moderated government. Valle Averara had its own unity also in the religious field, as all the churches in the area referred to the one of Santa Brigida, which moved apart, during the 14th century, from the parish of Primaluna in Valsassina. Between the 15th and the 16th centuries the valley was the cradle of a special group of artists: twenty painters from the Bascehnis Family, who worked for a long time in Trentino, where they frescoed fifty churches with lovely works of art that can still be admired. The ordinance of Valle Averara independence remained in force till the fall of the Republic of Venice. 12. Val San Martino: a central land The name Val San Martino refers to the part of the Lombardy region between the eastern bank of the middle course of the Adda river and Val Imagna. As already noted by the historian Ignazio Cantù (1810-1877), it is not literally a valley but rather “a coast” facing south, overlooking the Lake of Garlate and its emissary (the Adda river), which has as watershed the mountain ridge from the Mount Resegone (1875 m) to the Mount Albenza. The Val San Martino, so named only since the Middle Ages (1249), is located at the western end of Bergamo territory, between the provinces of Bergamo and Lecco; it now encompasses nine municipalities with a total area of 60 square kilometers and about 33.000
356
Abstracts
inhabitants. Between the medieval and the early modern period Val San Martino was a bridgehead between Venice and Milan. Nowadays it represents the connection between the provinces of Lecco and Bergamo and it is the synthesis and the meeting point of the two territories. It is here, between the outposts of the Bergamo Prealps and the valley of the Adda river, along the streets that connect the eastern and western Lombardy, that the peculiarities of each territory met over the centuries, giving rise to a mixture of cultures that has produced unexpected and original results. The history of Val San Martino is characterized by borders and adjustments, wars and pestilences, customs and smuggling, migrations and passages; amongst them, the almost 350 uninterrupted years of the Venetian dominion, which were preceded by the significant Visconti period, stand out. 13. The Escarton of Val Pragelato: an experience in the administration of the western alpine arch Val Chisone (once known as Val Pragelato) is located in the Cottian Alps (Turin). Over the centuries, it has gone through many religious, political, military and administrative issues. In 1343-44 the dauphin Humbert II signed a charter that granted some exemptions to several alpine communities in the Briançon area, Queyras, Vallis Cluzonis and Val Dora Superiore. On payment of an annual fee, the local councils were allowed to elect their own representatives, manage and develop their territories and resources, determine and collect the taxes and obligations, which were owed to the dauphin. In 1349 the dauphin Humbert II sold the alpine communities and the Dauphiné to the king of France. The new lord maintained and confirmed all the previously granted privileges. These self-government units, called Escartons, managed to survive over a period of several centuries, despite the religious tensions against the local population who had become heterodox. After the siege of Turin was broken in 1706, Victor Amadeus II of Savoy conquered the nearby Val Dora and the Val Pragelato. In 1713 the Treaty of Utrecht was signed: it officially ratified the territorial acquisition of the upper valleys by Piedmont. The Val Pragelato maintained nevertheless the old privileges and the local prerogatives appeared to be intact. However, they became increasingly restricted, due to a progressive economic decline. This long experience, which lasted for centuries, came to an end in the late 18th century. 14. The Vicinantia de Lavizaria: notes on the community of Lavizzara between the Middle Ages and Swiss annexation Valle Lavizzara is the northernmost part of Valmaggia, in Canton Ticino, Switzerland. In 2004 its inhabitants agreed with popular vote to merge the six municipalities that formed the valley, thus restoring the political and administrative structure of late medieval times. Since ancient times, Lavizzara, as part of Valmaggia, belonged to the parish of Locarno-Ascona, whose course of events it shared for many centuries. However, the vastness of the territory, with its rich pastures and forests, allowed it a high degree of
357
Abstracts
self-sufficiency. The distance from the civil and ecclesiastical administrative centers, its partial geographic isolation and the heavy snowfall in winter had contributed to develop the discontentment in the local population towards the distant ruling areas (Valmaggia and Locarno). In 1430, the tensions manifested as a partial juridical and administrative separation from the rest of Valmaggia. Regulated by its own statutes, Lavizzara first gained the recognition by the ducal vicari and then by the Swiss Confederacy. Even though Lavizzara was not a bailiwick, despite being part of Valmaggia, the Landvögte (or rotating commissioners) in Cevio went monthly to Lavizzara for administrative and judicial matters. This essay is the result of an extensive research on medieval documents kept in local and regional archives. The research focuses on Lavizzara’s self-rule, its democratic system in public affairs and its relations with the highest authority. 15. Valley statutes, mountain uprisings and village statutes in Late Medieval Valsesia The process of colonization in the Valsesian mountains took place in a rather long period of time through a progressive increase in elevation of the settlements and through the transformation of the low mountain pastures into permanent stations. In 1217, in the Vercelli oath of citizenship the Valsesians people were generically defined as homines vallis Sicidae, but in the same years their communities already began a process of institutional organization that gave birth to the Communes and the Universitas of Valsesia. The Council of the Universitas of Valsesia was ruled, as in other parts of the State of Milan, by the representatives of the urban bourgeoisie, while the peasants of the upper valley were excluded. In 1518 the mountain inhabitants party, gathered round Giacomo Preti from Boccioleto, took up arms against the Council of the upper valley. After the uprising, at the beginning of the 16th century, most part of the peasant opposition committed itself for gaining the right of representation within the local councils. Memories on the mountain rebellion have been handed down by a 17th century historiography interested in military events. This kind of evidence, along with the lack of documentation, does not clarify what was the political plan of the mountain party. We do not know how the forms of representation in the Council changed immediately after the mountain rebellion in 1518. The first available information on the Council’s composition shows,in the middle of 17th century, the presence of some representatives of the upper valley settled jointly with the “notables” of Varallo. In the central decades of the 16th century the “Village Statutes” were also established in the Valsesia. Their regulations, that met the local demand, were mostly dedicated to manage the public properties, to run the rural activities and to maintain the countryside. 16. The community of Valsassina Valsassina extends from south to north among Grigne, Orobie and Lombard Prealps mountains. After Lecco Committee dissolution, Valsassina was fee of the Milan
358
Abstracts
archbishops. In the 14th century they granted it to Visconti family and this family bound the history of the valley to the one of Milan. The valley was rich in iron mines and factories, it was the main transit way between Milan and the rest of Europe, and it extended its jurisdiction over the villages facing Como Lake and Brembo river basin. Since the 13th century it is documented that a Comunità generale (General Community) was ruled by its own statutes that regulated both criminal and civil law. In 1388 the statutes were reformed and they remained in force until Napoleonic age. The administration was entrusted to the Council that represented all the villages; it used to meet in the Pretorio palace in Introbio and it elected two Sindaci. The autonomy of the valley was threatened in 1647 when the Count Giulio Monti was imposed as a feudal lord, but he failed in his attempt and the valley reasserted its independence. In 1755 and in 1757 the administration was reformed after the land registry setting realized under the Empress Maria Theresa. 17. The community of Valtellina between Middle Ages and Grisons Valtellina extends along the Adda River from Lake Como to the Stelvio Pass. In the 14th century it was conquered by the Duchy of Milan, while in 1512 became part of the Grisons (State of the Three Leagues), to which remained subdued until 1797. In the upper part of the valley there was the Contado of Bormio, an area with institutional, economic and judicial autonomy, then the Terziere di Sopra (from Sondalo to Bianzone), the Castellanza of Teglio (with a Sindaco appointed by the Archbishop of Milan), the Terziere di Mezzo (from Chiuro to Berbenno / Fusine) and the Terziere di Sotto, subdivided into the jurisdictions of Morbegno (Bergamo side) and Traona (Rhaetian side). The most important official was called Governor (or Captain) of Valtellina. He lived in Sondrio and he was appointed by the governmental authority. 18. Common goods in Trentino : the case of the Regole of Spinale and Manez community The Regole of Spinale and Manez is the more important collective ownership, consisting of lands and real estates, of the Giudicarie in Trentino Alto Adige region. It has an extension of about 4.600 hectares, which for the greater part (Brenta Dolomites) have been included since 2009 on the UNESCO’s World Heritage List. The community of the Regole of Spinale and Manez consists of Regolieri, that is the descendants of the original families and the immigrants after 30 years of residence in the present-day municipalities of Ragoli, Preore and Montagne. The first document mentioning the Regole dates back to 22 August 1249. The first statute known is that of the Regola of Manez (1377), while that one of the Regola of Spinale is dated back to 1410. The Community currently consists of two administrative bodies: the Administrative Committee and the General Assembly, both chaired by a President. The Regole of Spinale and Manez are currently managed according to the Provincial Law n. 12 (October 28, 1960) and to the Statute approved in autumn 1964 and subsequent amendments.
359
Abstracts
19. Evolution and juridical nature of the Regole Ampezzane The topic of this text is the analysis of the ancient system of collective ownerships in Val d’Ampezzo , which is now located in the province of Belluno. This system was called Regole Ampezzane and it consisted on twelve Regole, two of them located in high mountain, nine were lower and down river there was the Regola of Cortina which disappeared as a consequence of the birth of the municipality. Since 12th century, Regole ruled the whole social system in the valley, above all, the way people exploited the mountain, deeply characterizing the identity of this community. For being part of the Regola people must have had the double feature of belonging to the community: both the dwelling place (territorial feature) and the family connection were needed to create their rights and duties status. In charge of each Regola there were laudatori, ruling the community, and regulieri, people representing fuochi (the households) and who actively took part in the Community decisions. In a family it was the head of the household who was in charge of representing the line of descent of his family. The Laudo is the set of rules and customs regulating the management system of the institution, the social status of the Reguliere, the head of the households’ rights and in particular those related to gather firewood, that is wood for domestic heating, and the money they needed to provide for family needs or to do some maintenance to their houses. 20. Carnia in the Patriarchate of Aquileia: rights and privileges of an alpine territory in the Late Middle Ages The carnic valleys became of primary importance during the Middle Ages when the patriarchs decided to promote the foundation of towns in the carnic territory, completely lacking in urban settlements. In order to facilitate the trade with the German territories, in the mid-thirteenth century the patriarchs fostered the foundation of Tolmezzo through the granting of the marketing. The town was recognized as the capital of Carnia in the late 14th century, when the patriarch Giovanni di Moravia approved the drafting of the Statutes for the carnic gastaldia giving numerous privileges to the alpine communities. Among the areas of competence granted to Tolmezzo, such as the tax collection and the military service, several provisions for consolidating the city status were included, while a part of the charges and of the extraordinary taxes were a burden on the network of the carnic villages. At the same time, the Community obtained the right to vote at the sessions of the Friuli Parliament. During the 14th century there was a division between the status of citizens and that of peasants. It is clearly defined since the end of the century unlike other areas of the region where such separation was realized only in the 15th century or early 16th century. 21. Alpine communities in Roman Imperial Age During the Imperial Age, Alps were something different from Italy because of their position and geographical separation. But this was an important main strength for them: for this reason the alpine populations could have important and official recognitions of 360
Abstracts
their autonomy. So Alpes Cottiae became a Roman province, but it had an independent administration; Val Camonica got the Roman citizenship and autonomy from the city of Brixia; Glemona, that had the control of important routes in oriental Alps, became an independent city; the community of Catubrini, who lived not far from Glemona, had the same self-government. All these communities had important goals for the strategic position across the Alps, especially in II e III centuries A.D., when Barbarians arrived. The separation was very important for Alps, because it meant autonomy: when in Late Antiquity Christian missionaries went in Val di Non, they were killed by the local population, who didn’t like interference from the plain.
361