(Navigant Research, 2017). The first phase of the project, completed in December 2016, showed a high level of consumer satisfaction: 92% of participants were very satisfied with the pilot, and 86% indicated they were likely to recommend it to others. There was a total of 192 demand response (DR) events, with the programme successfully reaching a full grid load reduction of 100 kilowatts (kW) in 94% of the events—in total, over 19,000 kilowatt-hours (kWh) shifted. The pilot was subsequently extended and expanded after receiving a grant from the California Energy Commission (CEC). The programme planned to incorporate at least 250 eligible BMW i3, i8, iPerformance (Series 2, 3, 5, & 7), and X5 plug-in hybrid EV (PHEV) owners, who could receive up to USD 900 for participation through December 2018. The pilot is the first attempt by an automotive original equipment manufacturer (OEM) to act as an aggregator for its own vehicles. The hope is that it will prove a profitable business model for aggregators to organise EVs in grid services and reduce the cost of EV ownership (Navigant Research, 2017). 2.
EVS ARE NOT ONLY A VIABLE ENERGYEFFICIENT AND CLEANER MODE OF TRANSPORTATION, THEY HAVE GREAT POTENTIAL TO PROVIDE FLEXIBLE, AND RAPID RESPONSE STORAGE OPTIONS BASED ON V2G FUNCTIONALITY.
Avista Utilities Pilot Project: Avista Utilities caters to Eastern Washington’s electricity needs in the US. A large amount of electricity comes from hydropower (which diminishes the grid services opportunity), and the local EV population is likely to grow faster than most other US markets, given its proximity to one of the largest EV markets in the US (Seattle, Washington). In 2016, Avista began developing a 2-year VGI pilot, with plans to install over 200 EVSE units in residential, workplace, and public charging sites within its service territory. The purpose of the pilot is to determine how much EV load can be shifted from peak load times to off-peak times without using ToU rates. Under a Real-Time Pricing (RTP) model, electricity prices change hourly and allow consumers to adjust electricity usage accordingly (Navigant Research, 2017). While RTP may offer cost savings to both the utility and the consumer over other DR pricing schemes like ToU rates, rates are more volatile, and individual charging events may be costly. Nevertheless, advances in technologies like smart meters have steadily improved the viability of RTP as a VGI solution for EVs (Navigant Research, 2017).
3.2 V2G Pilot Projects EVs are not only a viable energy-efficient and cleaner mode of transportation, they have great potential to provide flexible, and rapid response storage options based on V2G functionality. V2G technology facilitates bidirectional flow of energy to and from the vehicle through a power converter. EVs can serve as revenue generating agents by acting as energy storage units and providing peak shaving or demand shifting to buildings, as well as the power grid, when the load is high. However, there is scepticism regarding V2G’s economic viability (Navigant Research, 2017). Furthermore, there is apprehension among researchers that more frequent use of the battery will decrease its lifetime, thereby increasing the battery replacement cost. Despite the aforementioned challenges, V2G technology is being explored and tested in mature markets. A number of V2G pilot projects across the world have investigated different aspects of V2G integration, such as technological readiness, economic feasibility, societal benefits, and challenges. The V2G
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