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I ntr o du ctio n “Our foreseeable futures will not be like our recent pasts. Leading analysts of all the major resource domains water, food, material resources and energy - tell us that our global industrial and financial models, based largely on the assumption of endless growth, are taking human societies to the brink of a series of chronic shortages and insecurities” Jon Goodbun, Jeremy Till & Deljana Iossifova (2012)1 The world is changing. As we begin to move slowly out of the global recession, across the world voices are calling out for humanity not to repeat the mistakes of the past. Concerned that not enough is being down to slow the rate of climate change or stave off a nuclear catastrophe, the Science and Security Board of the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists have moved the Doomsday Clock two minutes closer to midnight2. The latest study on population growth expects a continuous rise to 11bn by 21003. Most of this growth will be in cities, with the proportion of the population living in urban areas expected to rise to 70%4. At a talk given at Manchester School of Architecture recently, architect and former vice-president of the RIBA Richard Saxon made the bold claim that “we are going to build more in the next 25 years than in the history of the world”5. Such rampant future construction is guaranteed to put a strain on the world’s resources, with construction currently responsible for around half of all non-renewable resource consumption6. Creative solutions will be needed to address these problems and mediate between the
increase in consumption due to growth and the environmental necessity of restraint and resource preservation. As the creative agents of the built environment, architects could be seen as ideally positioned to shape the spatial consequences of these changes. However, the current role of the profession paints a very different picture – one far less promising. Architects complain of being underpaid, undervalued and underused. The vast majority of the built environment globally is constructed without the involvement of an architect. In 2012, a survey carried out by YouGuv revealed that the general British public have an unclear view of exactly what the architect does – with 15% of those surveyed unaware that architect’s design buildings, 22% unaware that architects prepare construction drawings and 72% unaware that architects apply for the planning permission7. During the recession there was a 40% drop in the demand for architectural services8. Whilst architects are reporting that work is on the rise again since the end of the recession9, alternative forms of procurement are increasingly used, reducing the influence and responsibility of the architect. Many ‘design and build’ contracts limit the role of the architect “to that of supplying outline drawings”10. In order to understand this fall in influence I will chart the changing role of the architect across history. I will examine the various reasons that may be responsible, including public perception, architectural education, dominant modes of practicing and the relationship the architect has with the wider construction industry, before concluding with the skills that the profession must develop to redefine itself as relevant and valuable in the approaching future.
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Diagram showing the architect’s relationship to other professions - Richard Llewelyn-Davies (1967)
Eric J. Cesal reimagines Llewelyn-Davies’s drawing to show the new state of the profession. The sphere of influence of the architect has decreased radically, with area lost to the project manager, construction manager and contractor (2011) 44
T he E vo lutio n o f the A r chite ct “To understand the complexities of the built environment we need to know something about the decisions that led to building developments, the economic and political context of patronage, the role of developers and the social and cultural context of building use. Studying the past enables us to understand today more clearly. It frees us from being impotent prisoners of the present and enables us to see the possibilities of choice.” Hazel Conway & Rowan Roenisch (2005) 11 In the face of the decreasing influence of architects “the profession seems peculiarly vulnerable to a nostalgic backward glance at a bygone age in which the architect was the undisputed boss”12. However the past is a place to which we cannot return, and the role of the “master-builder” is no longer relevant in the contemporary world. Instead a new definition of the role is needed. An overview of the past reveals that the role ‘architect’ has regularly been re-defined. Archos-Tekton
These two Greek words, archos meaning ‘chief ’ and tekton meaning ‘builder’, provide the origin of the term ‘architect’. The primary role of the ‘builder in chief ’ was the supervision of all construction work, though they would often also provide schedules of measurement and full-size templates for the use of the craftsmen 13.
The Gentleman Architect
During the 16th and 17th century, architecture required no formal training with an architect often working as a mason or carpenter before being taking on as an architect’s apprentice. Architecture became increasingly seen as a gentlemanly pursuit, with architects undertaking grand projects funded by wealthy patrons, or wealthy amateurs themselves. An example of an influential amateur architect is Richard Boyle, the 3rd Earl of Burlington, who introduced the Palladian style to the UK14. The role of the architect began to include cost control and estimation, as well as acting as an intermediary between the patron and builders15. Institution and Royal Approval
In the mid-19th century the Institute of British Architects was founded and swiftly granted royal status, with the aim of “the general advancement of Civil Architecture, and for promoting and facilitating the acquirement of the knowledge of the various arts and sciences connected therewith”16. This was followed shortly after by the foundation of similar institutes in France and America17. The architect began taking on a range of projects from churches, theatres and hotels to schools and hospitals, though estimations at the time still attributed only one in ten buildings as having the involvement of an architect18. Social Engineer
The establishment of the welfare state in Europe in the 20th century recast architects as social pioneers. The modernist movement had confidence that the technological advances of 45
the age endowed humankind with the ability “to manipulate and exploit their environments for the benefit of society”19. They were commissioned by governments to produce bold masterplans and mass housing projects with the hope of improving conditions for all. However their disavowal of the past and their attempt at creating a universal international style received widespread criticism and these “socially motivated urban developments… came to represent poverty, social conflict, crime and depravity”20. The Value of Architecture?
The failure of the modernist project led to a crisis in confidence in the ability of architecture to benefit society. The profession splintered into different groups – from the Deconstructivists, who denied any obligation from architecture to anything other than itself, to the Classicists and Revivists who believed that the solution to architectural irrelevance was a return to the values and principles of the past. Public-funded projects ceased and the free capitalist market that evolved demanded a different kind of architecture. The built environment began to be viewed predominately in economic terms with building judging on their ability to bring a return in investment. This changed the priorities of the clients:
‘paper’ architecture, detached from the constrictions of reality. Other architects were able to justify their existence through the ‘brand’ factor of their architecture. The design of the Guggenheim Museum in 1997 by Frank Gehry transformed the fortunes of Bilbao in Spain – turning it from a declining industrial city to a significant city of culture. Visitor spending in the first three years is estimated to have raised over 100 million Euros in taxes for the regional government22. With this economic transformation, the role of the ‘starchitect’ was born, with big-name architects receiving expensive commissions for one-off ‘landmark’ buildings. The global recession led to the bursting of the housing bubble, with construction grinding to a halt across much of the world. Architects were laid off en-mass and even Frank Gehry was forced to lose half his staff23. Many UK architects survived by expanding their outlook to the countries that avoided the recession such as China or India. Those that remained began to question why architecture was viewed so expendable by the general public. Even as the recession ends and architects return to work, many feel that “they face a world where their usefulness will be even more suspect… no longer free to create and explore in a meaningful way”24.
“If a man cares about his house and wants to live there, he will want the services of an architect… If this man only sees his house as an investment vehicle, however, then he has little use for an architect” Eric J. Cesal (2010)21 Architecture suddenly had to defend itself with regards to how it produced economic value. Disgruntled by this affront on their sensibilities, some architects retreated from the world, consigning themselves to create 46
The Guggenheim Bilbao’s silvery, slippery form drew international attention, attracting visitors and transforming the fates of the small city.
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T he P e o p le ’ s P er ceptio n o f A r chite ctur e “The great individual (the architect/the philosopher) who becomes detached from the masses and from daily life becomes either an irrelevant joke or an oppressive and domineering figure” David Harvey (2002)25 In June of 1993, a group of acclaimed architects met in Vienna to discuss the state of the profession in a conference ominously titled ‘The End of Architecture’. The architects, including figures such as Lebbius Woods, Zaha Hadid and Steven Holl disputed amongst themselves the causes of the profession’s problems, bemoaning its self-indulgent nature26. They concluded the conference with a round-table discussion, during which Zaha Hadid diagnosed “a great conflict between the interests of the architect, the interests of the public and the interests of politics” and asserted the need to find a place where these coincided, something she believed would not happen without seducing “the public into understanding the role of the architect”27. The round-table ended with the architects optimistic in the creation of a new dialogue between the architect and the general public. However 20 years later it seems that “the long shadow of the gentleman architect still hangs over the profession” with the profession often viewed as “insular” and “arrogant”28.
Unappreciated yet unwavering in self-belief Ayn Rands’ Howard Roark is the archetypal ‘genius architect’
When Michael Gove scrapped the Building Schools for the Future programme, he criticized the money spent on design fees and complained of architects “creaming off cash”, later going on to say:
“We won’t be getting Richard Rogers to design your school, we won’t be getting any ‘Award winning architects’ to design it, because no-one in this room is here to make architects richer.”29 His outburst reveals two particular perceptions of the profession that are problematic - that architecture is a task undertaken by sole individuals and that good design is a luxury product. The ‘Howard Roark’ Problem
The Randian vision of a lone architectural genius enacting their will on the world continues to linger over the profession. Large architectural firms often brand themselves under the name of their principal architect – such as ‘Zaha Hadid architects’ or ‘Renzo Piano Building Workshop’. The architectural media is happy to replicate this trend as it enables them to attach personalities to their stories. Articles are written in style such as: “The US Commission of Fine Arts (CFA) has approved Frank Gehry‘s revised design for the Eisenhower Memorial in Washington DC”30, suggesting that the work was achieved by one man alone. This perception also presides over architectural history, which can often be read as an account of individual triumphs and failures. Each era and style is embodied within its figureheads 49
modernism is Le Corbusier and Mies Van Der Rohe, post-modernism is James Stirling and Robert Venturi and so forth. With the occasional exception, these architectural figureheads present the same image - that of a grey-haired Caucasian male. The lack of role models for minority groups may be partly responsible for the lack of diversity in the profession - only 16% of chartered architects are female31 and only 2% of registered architects are non-white32. Daisy Froud highlights that the “cultural dominance” of these figures “perpetuates a myth that architecture is something ‘done’ by creative individuals, with buildings heroically designed by a single great thinker. Rather than what is nearer the truth, that they haphazardly evolve, through a bunch of decisions and compromises and the influence of multiple voices and hands”33. This often dilutes the professional discourse into little more than a personality competition, rather than opening it up to a debate of ideas and issues. Design as a Luxury Good
During the ‘End of Architecture’ round-table discussions of 1993, the architects gathered complained of the tendency of architects to seek out “exotic projects” – unique projects with large budgets such as art galleries, museums or corporate towers34. Architectural magazines today are still populated with experimental one-off designs. Even portrayals of architecture in the popular media reinforce this idea, with shows like “Grand Designs” showing a series of high-budget ‘grand’ proposals. These large-status projects have a tendency of coming in well over-budget, such as the Olympic Aquatics Centre or the National Assembly of Wales. This is often not the fault of the architect, with the extra costs often due to changes made by the client or political interference. However the media and politicians blame the architect, further 50
cementing the view in the public of an expensive profession removed from reality35. Victory for One is not a Victory for All
The designs of large public buildings often go against the wishes and desires of the people they are for. Typically their designs “follow the dictates of high culture, even though most of the public, which pays for the buildings, does not share these dictates, expressing its feelings in the satirical names that are attached to such buildings”36. There is an assumption in the profession that it does not matter if the general public dislike a building, providing it meets the approval of fellow architects. Such an attitude only serves to alienate the public further from architecture and consequently devalue the profession. Cesal highlights the example of Eisenman’s design for the Wexner Centre in Ohio, which got built despite a lack of popularity with the public and only served to turn state opinion against contemporary architecture37. Towards Greater Relevance
Architects are devalued and under-used due to this perception that they are expensive and unnecessary. But this is a self-fulfilling prophecy. If an individual does not grow up surrounded by architecture that they appreciate, then they will not appreciate the value of architects, leading to the public shrugging off “what is technical, spiritual, and difficult about architecture” and seeing us “as little more than frosting on the cake”38. In 2013 Terry Farrell was commissioned by the Minister for Culture to undertake a review of architecture and the built environment39. The review identified the need for greater levels of public engagement, in order to foster a broader understanding of the benefits of good design and improve the quality of the everyday built environment. Some of the suggestions to achieve this including teaching schoolchildren about architecture, the creation of an architecture and built environment centre in
every town and city and greater design literacy within the planning department. With the government making further budget cuts it is questionable as to where the funding for these initiatives to come from, however the need for greater public engagement within architecture is clear. The RIBA is one institution whose aims include broadening architecture discourse to all areas of society. However like any professional body they “are torn between public service and professional protection, awkwardly crisscrossing the line between public service and private protection�40. Whilst wanting to open the architectural debate up to the wider public, they have the conflicting desire to preserve the idea of an architect as an unquestionable expert. Instead a growing number of practices are taking the lead in this area, building on methods from the participatory design movement of the 60s and 70s to develop a design process that directly involves the people who will be affected by the project. Often these firms will work in conjunction with research groups, or undertake their own research, sometimes even establishing their own clients through the process of research. These include practices such as muf, Assemble Studios and AOC, who are keen to emphasise how the skills of architects and designers can be used to address the social, the political and the economic in conjunction with the spatial.
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E du catin g an A r chite ct ‘My own education prepared me for a fraction of the challenges that I face as an owner of a practice. A more rounded, more streetwise, more savvy, service industry-led education would have been better than the esoteric, niche, quasi-monkish, introspective and frankly very expensive time I spent in la-la land.’ Morrow Loraine (2013)41 Many students and graduates have admitted to entering architectural study with a “social agenda”42. However, the traditional modes and methods that students are taught and proceed to use in practice only serve to remove reality from the process, further compounding the insular nature of the profession. Architects Alone
Entry to architectural courses typically requires high exam results in traditional subjects such as the high arts and sciences, potentially excluding creative and talented individuals who lack a natural exam-passing ability. Once admitted, architectural students are removed from the rest of the university, and have little contact with other students, even those in related disciplines such as civil engineering or planning. This leads to a perceived “deep segregation between architecture departments and other related departments during higher education”43. Architectural schools that operate from the top of towers, removed from everyday life and able to look down on the rest of the city, has become a cliché - including examples such as
Manchester School of Architecture’s Chatham Tower and the Arts Tower at the University of Sheffield. The teaching students receive has changed little in over fifty years44, with students encouraged to focus on form-making exercises, typically alone, devoid of any understanding of how a building gets procured or built. Students are inducted into the complex and codified language of architecture, justifying their proposals in terms of ‘concept’ and ‘programme’, using explanations that mean little to those outside the profession45. The student’s work is often marked by their own tutors, encouraging them to accept the views and beliefs unquestioningly, or risk receiving poor grades. Furthermore, quite unique for vocational courses, these tutors are not required to be qualified architects and may not themselves have any experience in the architectural production. This often results in “projects with astounding graphic flair, but with a tenuous grip on reality, and often little sign of a critical position”46. Proposals are allowed to be unrealistic or ineffective, providing the student is able to present the arguments convincingly. These are critiqued by a panel of architects, in contrast the reality of practice where presentations are made to individuals with a deep level of knowledge in the programme for which the building is commissioned47. Privileging the Form
This removal of reality can be traced back to the modernist belief “that the world could be controlled and rationally ordered if we could only picture and represent it rightly”48. This belief led to an abstraction of design, 53
with architects reducing the messy reality of the world into crisp monochromatic spatial diagrams, devoid of a clear sense of material, atmosphere or use, often populated by generic users49. These drawings have been replaced more recently with glossy architectural renders, but students are still primarily judged on architectural imagery. This often reduces the discussion to little more than how the designs looks, denying the reality of architecture as a spatio-temporal practice. There seems to be the underlying assumption that the formal design of a space will have a direct causal relationship over its users. This is highly questionable, as whilst a design may contain messages it has no means by which to enforce them50. As Till quipped - “a brick has no morals”51. He argues that “the key ethical responsibility of the architect lies not in the refinement of the object as static visual product, but as contributor to the creation of empowering spatial, and hence social, relationships in the name of others”52.
regular work placements54. There is also an increasing number of schools encouraging students to consult with other figures involved in the production of the built environment, such as politicians and the public. Examples of this at Manchester School of Architecture include the postgraduate design ateliers ‘MSA_Projects’ and ‘Complexity, Planning of Urbanism’ and undergraduate atelier ‘MSA_ Praxis’. Whilst progress is being made, many schools still restrict themselves to traditional methods of architectural production.
Time Means Money
With the increase in tuition fees, questions are being raised about the value for money of architectural education. The outdated structure no longer bears relevance to the reality of the profession. There is widespread call for greater integration between academia and industry and greater flexibility over the time and route to completion. The teaching of students need to address the social and economic reality rather than retreating into fantasy, with Terry Farrell suggesting that students are taught business and finance within schools53. The act of grounding design in reality should not be seen to limit creativity, instead the introduction of greater restraints should encourage the evolution of creative yet practical propositions. Some progress is beginning to be made with educational changes, with courses starting to integrate more with practice, such as the Part II at Cambridge, where students undertake 54
Pooh Town by Nick Elias won a RIBA Silver-medal in 2014. The design of the Bartlett student is inspired by A.A. Milne’s Winnie the Pooh and “proposes ‘happy’ architectures where residents can live, work and play together in a sustainable economic network.”
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P r o ces s n ot P r o du ct : T he R e al it y o f A r chite ctur e “Architecture is largely irrelevant to the great mass of world population because architects have chosen to be” Bruce Mau (2011)55 At a TED conference in December 2014, Marc Kushner, co-founder of online architectural catalogue ‘Architizer’, stepped onto the stage and announced a new revolution for architecture – Instagram56. Through the use social media, architectural images and visualisations are now able to be shared across the world instantly. Whilst such a possibility opens up architecture to the wider discourse, it runs the risk of compounding the idea that architecture can be judged accurately through an image. The continuing dominance that architecture is the design of a static object, rather than a complicated and contingent process, creates a “fake separation between creation and execution”57. The dominance of form designing within education results in graduates emerging into a world for which they are wholly unprepared. A world where typically only 5% of an architect’s time is spent on designing58 with architecture often reduced to “floor-plate cladding” as “the bulk of contemporary building is predetermined by what valuers and developers think the market demands or is prepared to accept”59.
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In response, architects retreat away from the process of execution, allowing various roles to be seeded to other professions, such as project managers and specialists. Other architects abandon the real world entirely, content in producing ‘paper’ architecture, designs of space that cannot or will never be built. The RIBA-commissioned ‘The Future for Architects?’ report revealed that the majority of the profession do not actually consider themselves to be members of the construction industry60. This suggests an enduring aloofness and insularity, as if the messy process of construction is somehow beneath the wellpolished shoes of the architect. The change to the RIBA plan of work in 2013 acknowledges the need for a shift in perception - with the process transformed from a linear progression to an ongoing cyclical process. This mental shift opens the possibility of architects being engaged throughout the process, across different stages, including the pre-design and post-construction of buildings. This requires a much deeper collaboration with the other parties involved. It also necessitates more value to be placed on the use of an architect’s skills in these stages. Often when firms do engage in these stages, they are classified as ‘pre-project’, meaning that architects are not paid for their work, lured in by the promise of securing a commission61.
Creative Briefing
“The creative brief is about negotiating a new set of social relations, it is about juxtapositions of actions and activities, it is about the possibility to think outside the norm, in order to project new spatial, and hence social, conditions” Jeremy Till (2009)62 The service of architects participating in briefmaking is rarely marketed. Till highlights that the creation of the brief is often seen as a purely rational act, rather than a creative one. He highlights that when briefs are written by the client, assisted by the surveyor and project managers, they often “reduce architecture to abstract quantity, and are swiftly translated into deadening room data sheets”63. He argues that the architect should be active participants in the creation of the brief, acting as a translator for the client. Complete Through Use
“How buildings perform when they are finally put to use after the architect has taken his or her pictures of the untainted object is for most no longer of interest” Nishat Awan, Tatjana Schneider, Jeremy Till (2011)64 As emphasised by Awan, Schneider and Till: “A building only becomes complete through its use”65. Undertaking of a post-occupancy evaluation provides large scope for architects to gain valuable insight into the successes and failures of their design proposals, particular if there is pre-occupancy evaluation to compare the results to. It also serves to provide greater credibility to the architect in future interactions with clients. However, many firms still do not include it as a standard part of their service,
potentially because it is often seen as “time consuming, expensive, and difficult to defend to a client”66. Some progress has been to highlight the importance of considering success only through use, with awards such as the Aga Khan Award for Architecture taken into account the use of a building, only accepting nominations that have been in use for at least a year and including on-site review and post-occupancy evaluation67. The smart cities movement may provide the answer to evaluation, with the potential that in the future the components of the building will be embedded with sensors and data-processing units, providing continuous feedback as to the performance of the spaces. Lifecycle of Construction
When architecture is judged singularly at the moment of completion, the dialogue often falls into conversations about style and aesthetics. This entails the risk of the buildings becoming an object of fashion, victim to fluctuations in style and thus value. This desire for constant ‘newness’ is seductive, but with the large amounts of energy involved in the construction of buildings architects have an environmental responsibility to make them as durable as possible. Viewing a building across the span of time also increases the environmental responsibility of the designer, with concepts such as ‘lifetime costs’ reorganizing the industry into longrange thinking. Energy cost during use becomes a key consideration, one that is key to the client who will be keen to minimise running costs. Often technology is viewed as the solution to these issues, but this fails to acknowledge the impact that market value plays on the built environment. Just as a laptop drops significantly in value as the technology evolves, a building embedded with all the ‘latest’ technology soon becomes outdated, causing a rapid loss of value and necessitating the upgrade of the 57
building. Passive design could be considered to represent a more durable method of design, with less risk that the building will devalue. Such a shift also greater recognises the value of an architect’s skills, bestowing them with the influence otherwise given away to the specialists needed for advanced technological systems68.
to abandon the title ‘architect’ as they find it constricting, holding them back “in terms of the type of work that they were able to do”72. This is as a self-reinforcing attitude, for if these individuals abandon the title then it prevents the extension of the definition of what it is to be an ‘architect’.
Beyond Buildings
“Architecture might be come to be understood as more than just a technical or aesthetic object. A fanzine, a blog, maps and technical support are as much architecture as a building is architecture. What differentiates them is that they produce and disseminate spatial knowledge in a manner that is consciously open to others” Nishat Awan, Tatjana Schneider & Jeremy Till (2011)69 The focus on the processes of spatial production rather than the products allows for a broader perception of what constitutes as architecture. This follows on from the teachings of Cedric Price, who believed “that a building is not necessarily the best solution to a spatial problem”70. With diminishing resources and increasing environmental problems, a proposition that doesn’t involve further construction can be seen as far more ecologically responsible. Furthermore, the lack of material costs and construction restrictions broaden the availability of these solutions and reduces cost. An example of this attitude is the firm 00:/ who were approached with a brief to construct an extension to Notre Dame Girls’ School in order to solve the problem of the congested circulation of the corridors. They instead proposed changing the times of the bells in the school, causing the schoolgirls to leave their classes at slightly different times, solving the congestion problem71. However, these individuals are often electing 58
The Arboretum project by muf art/architecture is intended to transform Barking Town Square. Multiple groups were involved in the detail design, including theatre students, apprentice bricklayers and the elderly from the local afrocarribean community.
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T he B igg er P ictur e “Regulations, costs, rates of return, clients’ preferences, all have to be considered to the point where it often seems that the developers, the financiers, the accountants, the builders, and the state apparatus have more to say about the final shape of things than the architect… But there is, nevertheless, always a moment when the free play of the imagination - the will to create - must enter” David Harvey (2000)73 It is one thing for architects to understand that their work is subject to other forces, but it is another for architects to understand those forces themselves. For architects to effectively use their skills to tackle the changes and problems brought by the approaching future, they must see themselves as part of a bigger picture. There are four key skills that architects must develop: understanding, communication, collaboration and relevance. Understanding
Architects must understand that the way in which they view the built environment is just one of many different ways that it can be viewed. They need to step outside the profession and respect, value and ultimately understand these other perceptions. Everyone is influenced by the design of the built environment and everyone has an opinion on it, whether they are aware of it or not. There is a common misconception amongst many architects that the only thing that the client cares about is cost, and that this is the only place that finance and architecture meet. In reality the main concern of the client is value. If the public begin to perceive 60
architecture as adding value, then they will value the contributions of architects74. Architects must understand that it is knowledge and a set of skills that they are providing, not a design. Clients value their reliability and the working relationship during the entire process of production75. A ‘masterfully-designed’ building that comes in massively over-budget and completed by an architect who has been difficult and uncooperative will not be considered a success by the client. The lingering memory of the recession has left clients in the construction industry increasingly risk-adverse. Architects must be aware of this and win over the trust of the public by paying attention to the riskiness of their designs. This should not discourage creativity or innovation, but instead encourage architects to develop convincing and relevant propositions, rather than stylistic forms. Communication
Key to reclaiming the architect as a valuable figure is increasing the regard of the architect in wider society. This cannot be achieved without disseminating architectural understanding and opening the discourse to all. The impact of decisions made about the design of the built environment should be made clear. This will require some relinquishment of the expert status, with architects abandoning some of the more specialised language used to reinforce the projection of an ‘architect-genius’. Conversations about architecture and design must move from discussions about style and figures to ones about idea and implications76. Collaboration
The removal of the ‘architect genius’ figure allows for the development of a collaborationbased approach to the production of the built environment. Less centred on egos and
grand ideas and more on a productive and worthwhile process. There will always be a level of competition within architecture for as long as architects operate in a free capitalist market. However, the level to which architects are currently willing to devalue their work poses a significant problem to the profession and devalues architectural services as a whole. The Helsinki Guggenheim Museum competition demonstrates this problem, with over 1715 firms submitting entries. Not only do these submissions come to an estimated total of $23 million in free architectural labour, when put together “they create the impression that architecture is a fun-house of frivolous forms”77. Meaningful architecture is created through building relationships with all those involved in the proposal. Having developed an understanding of all the different factors at play within a space, the architect can impart their knowledge and skills, so that the benefits of good design can reach all. In 1968, Lords Esher and Llewellyn Davies proposed that architects were ideally placed to act in a supervisory position across construction, and if this did not happen then the quality of the built environment would suffer78. It could be argued that much of the poor quality built environment that has been inflicted on society today is a result of this. Relevance
By cultivating an understanding of the forces at work, improving communication and increasing collaboration, architecture will finally be able to work toward regaining its relevance. But to continue to do so architects must engage directly with the realities and difficulties of the real world. In response to the need to assert their relevance certain firms have been encouraged to specialise in a particular type of architectural production. There is clearly an argument for this, with clients keen to seek out firms that are proven to have experience in a certain type of
project. However, Ezio Manzini highlights that whenever a species starts super-specialisation it becomes vulnerable to fluctuations in the world, and often becomes extinct79. Instead success comes from developing and marketing a versatile network of skills and abilities that are applicable to various scenarios. It is tempting to believe that technological advances will reintroduce the significance of the architect. It is certainly important that architects stay up-to-date with the latest technology in order to maintain their relevance, and often these do bring advantages. Building Information Modelling (BIM), for example, allows for greater communication and cost control during the construction process, as well as a more thorough error-identification system. However, Eddie Blake highlights that “technological progress does not have a direct relationship with societal progress, and it’s societal change which most deeply impacts architectural form”80. The main way that architecture will regain its relevance is by tearing its inward gaze outward. Instead of bemoaning a lack of influence and repeatedly attempting to redefine the role of the architect in a myriad of different ways and styles, architects must turn to the world around them. Blink away the glare of a reality that they’ve hidden from and find places in which they fit and their skills come to use. It may result in architecture that is less photogenic, and there may be less architectural stars to be interviewed in magazines. But it will open a wide discourse amongst all about how we design and create our world and the role that everyone plays in it.
“The masses have to become once more the client of architecture” Zaha Hadid (1993)81
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N otes 1. Jon Goodbun, Jeremy Till, and Deljana Iossifova, eds., “Introduction - Themes of Scarcity,” in Scarcity: Architecture in an Age of Depleting Resources Architectural Design, 1st edition (London: John Wiley & Sons, 2012) p.8.
the Architect,” Dezeen, July 19, 2012, http:// www.dezeen.com/2012/07/19/the-britishpublic-dont-understand-the-role-of-thearchitect/.
2. The doomsday clock was created in 1947 as a symbol of how close the human race is to catastrophe. The closest it has even been to midnight is two minutes, this was in 1953, following the US and USSR testing thermonuclear devices. The furthest it has been was in 1991, with the dissolution of the USSR. Michael Casey, “Doomsday Clock Moves Two Minutes Closer to Midnight,” CBS News, January 22, 2015, http://www.cbsnews. com/news/doomsday-clock-moves-twominutes-closer-to-midnight/.
9. James Taylor-Foster, “RIBA Future Trends Survey Indicates Consistent Growth,” ArchDaily, January 23, 2015, http://www. archdaily.com/590805/riba-future-trendssurvey-indicates-consistent-growth/.
3. Damian Carrington, “World Population to Hit 11bn in 2100 – with 70% Chance of Continuous Rise,” The Guardian, September 18, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/ environment/2014/sep/18/world-populationnew-study-11bn-2100. 4. Claire Jamieson, The Future For Architects?, Building Futures (RIBA, July 4, 2011) p. 1. 5. Richard Saxon, “Architects: Disrupters of the Future?” (presentation given at Manchester School of Architecture, January 20, 2015). 6. Willmott Dixon, The Impacts of Construction and the Built Environment (Willmott Dixon, September 21, 2010), http:// www.willmottdixongroup.co.uk/assets/b/r/ briefing-note-33-impacts-of-construction-2. pdf. 7. The survey was commissioned by online architectural community inbuilding.org and carried out by YouGov. Amy Frearson, “The British Public Don’t Understand the Role of 62
8. Jamieson, The Future For Architects? p.33.
10. Hazel Conway and Rowan Roenisch, Understanding Architecture: An Introduction to Architecture and Architectural History, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 13. 11. Ibid p. 1. 12. Jamieson, The Future For Architects? p. 5. 13. Examples include Kallikrates active c.450 BCE, and Iktinos - who constructed the Parthenon between 448 BCE and 437 BCE. Eleanor Gawne and Michael Snodin, Exploring Architecture Buildings Meanings and Making, 1st edition (V&A Publishing, 2004) p. 138. 14. Lord Burlington became enraptured with Ancient Rome after undertaking the Grand Tour. He studied and collected the drawings of 16th century Italian architect Andrea Pallidio. His keenness for the replication of this style was “the sense of self-identification that he and his fellow English aristocrats felt with the senators of Ancient Rome”. Giles Worsley, “Master Builder: Lord Burlington,” April 4, 2003, sec. Finance, http://www.telegraph. co.uk/finance/property/3312277/Masterbuilder-Lord-Burlington.html. 15. Conway and Roenisch, Understanding Architecture. p.13.
16. RIBA, “The Charter” (RIBA, 1837). 17. The Societe centrale des architectes francais was founded in 1843 and the American Institute of Architects in 1857. Gawne and Snodin, Exploring Architecture Buildings Meanings and Making. p. 140 18. The full quote is as follows: “By the middle of the [19th] century the scope of architectural practice had become extremely wide and included churches for a variety of denominations, commercial buildings of all kinds, stations and other railway work, clubs, hotels, places of amusement like music halls and theatres, numerous types of civic building, hospitals, workhouses, schools, premises for various learned and social bodies, as well as a considerable amount of work for the government and the universities. Under these conditions it is surprising to find a writer in the last decade of the century complaining that architects were employed for only one of every ten buildings erected - and this was a maximum estimate”. Frank Jenkins, Architect and Patron: A Survey of Professional Relations and Practice in England from the Sixteenth Century to the Present Day (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), p. 191, 19. Kevin Walsh, The Representation of the Past: Museums and Heritage in the PostModern World, The Heritage (London: Routledge, 1992) p. 7 20. Rory Hyde, Future Practice: Conversations from the Edge of Architecture (Routledge, 2012) p.18. 21. Cesal highlights that it was the economic policies of the eighties that provided the ideological backdrop for investment culture, but it was not until the nineties that the built environment began to be seen as an “investment vehicle”. Eric J. Cesal, Down Detour Road (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2010) p. 70. 22. “The Bilbao Effect,” The Economist, December 21, 2013, http://www.economist. com/news/special-report/21591708-if-you-
build-it-will-they-come-bilbao-effect. The continuing trend of cities investing in large expensive cultural centres has led to more recent studies that have begun to question whether or not the ‘Bilbao Effect’ brings widespread benefit to communities. Whilst poverty in the area around the new building does tend to decrease and property values increase more in-depth research finds that poorer residents also suffer displacement in those areas. Furthemore there is suggestion that supply has begun to outstrip demand, particularly in America: “Why Cities Should be More Skeptical of New Cultural Centers”, Kristen Capps, June 24, 2014, http://www. citylab.com/politics/2014/06/why-citiesshould-be-more-skeptical-of-new-culturalcenters-and-expansions/373258/ 23. Dan Glaister, “Architect Frank Gehry’s Projects Hit Hard by Economic Downturn,” The Guardian, March 3, 2009, http://www. theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/mar/03/ frank-gehry-economy-architecture. 24. Cesal, Down Detour Road p. 25. 25. David Harvey, Spaces of Hope (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002), p.253. 26. The full list of attendees were: Coop Himmelblau, Zaha Hadid, Steven Holl, Thom Mayne, Eric Owen Moss, Carme Pinos and Lebbeus Woods. Each architect contributed a statement about the state of the profession, before engaging in a roundtable discussion. Peter Noever, ed., The End of Architecture?: Documents and Manifestos (Munich: Prestel Verlag, 1993). 27. Ibid p.104. 28. Jamieson, The Future For Architects? p.6. 29. Will Hurst, “Michael Gove in New Attack on ‘Award-Winning Architects,’” Building Design, March 2, 2011, http://www.bdonline. co.uk/news/michael-gove-in-new-attack-onaward-winning-architects/5012674.article. 30. Rory Stott, “Gehry’s Eisenhower Memorial 63
Clears Final Design Hurdle,” ArchDaily, October 17, 2014, http://www.archdaily. com/558426/gehry-s-eisenhower-memorialclears-final-design-hurdle/. 31. RIBA, “Equality and Diversity - within RIBA Member Networks,” Education, (2014), http://www.architecture.com/ RIBA/Campaigns%20and%20issues/Policy/ EqualityAndDiversity/DiversityResearch. aspx. 32. Helen Barnes et al., Architecture and Race: A Study of Minority Ethnic Students in the Profession (CABE, 2004). 33. Eddie Blake, “The Future of Architecture | VICE | United Kingdom,” VICE, January 25, 2013, http://www.vice.com/en_uk/read/thefuture-of-architecture. 34. Noever, The End of Architecture? p.110. 35. Jonathan Glancey, “Don’t Blame Zaha Hadid for the Soaring Costs of the Olympics,” The Guardian, June 16, 2008, http://www. theguardian.com/artanddesign/artblog/2008/ jul/16/aquaticcentre. 36. Herbert J. Gans, “Towards a Human Architecture,” in Professionals and Urban Form, ed. Judith Blau, Mark E. La Gory, and John S. Pipkin (Albany: New York Press, 1983) p.308. Examples of these nicknames in London include ‘The Gherkin’ for 30 St. Marys Axe and ‘The Cheese-grater’ for 122 Leadenhall St. More recently architectural buildings will preempt and adopt this nicknames as a branding exercise, such as London Bridge Tower which adopted the name ‘The Shard’ after English Heritage described it as a shard of glass through the heart of historic London 37. Cesal references a report by Jack Nasar which shows that Eisenman’s entry was not the most favoured by the public, but it was the most highly favoured by the jury of architectural experts. He concedes that while it is natural to listen to an expert’s opinion regarding architecture, it presupposes a powerless for the public. The public’s only 64
route of objection is to avoid the completed building, thus suggesting to the decisionmakers that contemporary architecture is not worth the investment. The Wexner Center has received large amounts of criticism, the building is difficult and expensive to maintain and the most avoided building on campus. Cesal suggests that this could invoke “a new wave of architectural conservatism at Ohio State” Cesal, Down Detour Road. p.38-41 38. Ibid. p.31 39. Terry Farrell, The Farrell Review (Farrells, 2014), http://www.farrellreview.co.uk. 40. Nishat Awan, Tatjana Schneider, and Jeremy Till, Spatial Agency: Other Ways of Doing Architecture (Routledge, 2011). p.43. Till has previously criticised the RIBA in his book highlighting that the name Royal Institute of British Architects (as opposed to British Architecture) reveals the primary priority of the profession. He highlights that professional preservation requires primary attention to be paid to the client, however this does not include a wider ethical position that would ensure architecture benefitted wider society. Architecture Depends (MIT Press, 2009) p.153-68 41. Quoted in Merlin Fulcher, “Profession Divided Over RIBA’s Shake-Up of Architectural Education,” Architect’s Journal, 2013, http:// www.architectsjournal. co.uk/news/dailynews/profession-divided-over-ribas-shakeup-ofarchitectural- education/8656606.article. 42. The full quote is as follows: There was agreement amongst many of the recent graduates and students that we spoke to that they had chosen to go into the built environment professions with a social agenda. Both the engineering students and the architects agreed that the architecture profession brought a ‘social science’ aspect to the building process that engineers often lacked. Jamieson, The Future For Architects?. p.16 43. Ibid. p.17
44. The current educational model for architecture emerged from a RIBA conference on architecture in 1958. Sam Jacob, “Sam Jacob Opinion Column on Architectural Education Crisis,” Dezeen, April 18, 2013, http://www. dezeen.com/2013/04/18/sam-jacob-opinionarchitectural-education-crisis/. 45. “The teachers deliver architectural knowledge that remains in a defined and safe realm, and so the students, kept within known boundaries, emerge - after having been confined for a good few years - as absolute and non-negotiable experts in a certain formation of architecture” Awan, Schneider, and Till, Spatial Agency. p.63. 46. Oliver Wainwright, “Pressure Builds for Change in Britain’s Schools of Architecture,” The Guardian, June 27, 2013, http://www. theguardian.com/artanddesign/2013/jun/27/ pressure-builds-change-schools-architecture. 47. Cesal, Down Detour Road. p.158-9 48. David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Oxford England ; Cambridge, Mass., USA: Wiley-Blackwell, 1991) p.29. 49. Emmons and Mihalache highlight how the figures presented in metric handbooks demonstrate generic standardized figures of human form, normalizing attitudes to design and excluding those who do not fit with the normal boundaries. Paul Emmons and Andreea Mihalache, “Architectural Handbooks and the User Experience,” in Use Matters: An Alternative History of Architecture, ed. Kenny Cupers (Oxon: Routledge, 2013) p.35-51. 50. This is a rewriting of the quote “Architecture may well possess moral messages; it simply has no power to enforce them” in: Alain de Botton, The Architecture of Happiness, New Ed edition (London: Penguin, 2007). p.20 De Botton explores at length the complicated relationship architecture has with social and mental processes, demonstrating that architecture can cause certain emotions to
occur, but within guarantee as life is subject to a multitude of other social and environmental factors. 51. Jeremy Till, Architecture Depends (MIT Press, 2009). p.177 52. Ibid. p.178 53. Farrell, The Farrell Review. 54. University of Cambridge, “Masters Degree in Architecture and Urban Design (ARB/ RIBA Pt2) — Department of Architecture,” (2014), http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/courses/ architecturecourses/mphilbhome. 55. Bruce Mau, “You Can Do Better” Architect Magazine, March 1, 2011, http://www. architectmagazine.com/architects/you-cando-better-how-to-become-a-better-architect. aspx. 56. Instagram is an online social network for photo and video sharing. Hailey Reissman, “The Future of Architecture Will Be Instagrammed: Marc Kushner at TED2014,” TED Blog, March 18, 2014, http://blog.ted. com/2014/03/18/the-future-of-architecturewill-be-instagrammed-marc-kushner-atted2014/. 57. Bruce Upbin, “Joshua Prince-Ramus On The Myth Of Architectural Genius,” Forbes, June 14, 2010, http://www.forbes. com/2010/06/12/architecture-eco-buildingstechnology-future-design-joshua-ramus. html. 58. Jay Merrick, “The Death of Architecture,” The Independent, April 4, 2011, http://www.independent.co.uk/artsentertainment/architecture/the-death-ofarchitecture-2261212.html. 59. Hank Dittmar, “Style Wars Are Irrelevant When Architecture Is Reduced to FloorPlate Cladding,” Building Design, January 14, 2015, http://www.bdonline.co.uk/comment/ opinion/style-wars-are-irrelevant-whenarchitecture-is-reduced-to-floor-plate65
cladding/5073182.article.
74. Cesal, Down Detour Road. p.83-89
60. Jamieson, The Future For Architects? p.13.
75. Ibid.
61. John Worthington, “The Changing Context of Professional Practice,” in Changing Architectural Education: Toward a New Professionalism, ed. David Nicol and Simon Pilling (New York: Spon Press, 2000) p.33.
76. Till, Architecture Depends. p.160
62. Till, Architecture Depends. p.169 63. Ibid. 64. Awan, Schneider, and Till, Spatial Agency. p.78 65. Ibid. 66. Elizabeth Evitts Dickinson, “Why Your Firm Should Embrace the Post-Occupancy Review,” Architect Magazine, September 9, 2014, http://www.architectmagazine. com/sustainability/why-your-firm-shouldembrace-the-post-occupancy-review_o.aspx. 67. The Aga Khan Development Network, “Aga Kahn Award for Architecture: Background Information,” The Aga Khan Development Network, 2015, http://www.akdn.org/ architecture/information.asp. 68. Cesal, Down Detour Road. p.205-6 69. Awan, Schneider, and Till, Spatial Agency. p.65 70. Quoted in Till, Architecture Depends. p.166 71. This example is from: Jeremy Till and Tatjana Schneider, “Invisible Agency,” in Scarcity: Architecture in an Age of Depleting Resources Architectural Design, ed. Jon Goodbun, Deljana Iossifova, and Jeremy Till, 1 edition (London: John Wiley & Sons, 2012). p.40 72. Jamieson, The Future for Architects? p.10 73. Harvey, Spaces of Hope. p.204
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77. Kriston Capps, “15 Designs That Should Make You Worry about the Next Guggenheim Museum,” CityLab, November 6, 2014, http:// www.citylab.com/design/2014/11/15-designsthat-should-make-you-worry-about-thenext-guggenheim-museum/382429/. In a further article on the Citylab website Capps reports calculations that even if the jury deliberated for five minutes on each proposal, they would spend eighteen working days going over them, or 142 hours: “Here Are The Top 6 Designs for the Guggenheim Helsinki and They’re All A Bad Idea December 2, 2014 http://www.citylab.com/design/2014/12/hereare-the-top-6-designs-for-the-guggenheimhelsinki-and-theyre-all-a-bad-idea/383312/ 78. Lord Esher and Lord Lleywelyn-Davies, “The Architect in 1988,” RIBA Journal 75 (October 1968). quoted in Cesal, Down Detour Road. p.32 79. Ezio Manzini, “ERROR-FRIENDLINESS: How to Deal with the Future Scarcest Resource: The Environmental, Social, Economic Security. That Is, How to Design Resilient Socio-Technical Systems,” in Scarcity: Architecture in an Age of Depleting Resources Architectural Design, ed. Jon Goodbun, Deljana Iossifova, and Jeremy Till, 1 edition (London: John Wiley & Sons, 2012) p58-61. 80. Blake, “The Future of Architecture | VICE | United Kingdom.” 81. Quoted in: Architecture?.
Noever,
The
End
of
I m ag e R ef er en ces Page 41 Sao Paolo, Brazil - http://s.mlkshk-cdn.com/ r/62YF
Page 52 Chatham Tower, Manchester - http://www. mmu.ac.uk/images/news/artschool/art9.jpg
Page 42 Doomsday Clock - http://silenced.co/wpcontent/uploads/2012/01/doomsday.jpg
Page 55 Pooh Town: Nick Elias of the Bartlett School of Architecture. Winner of RIBA Silver Medal, 2014 - http://www.archdaily. com/574616/2014-riba-president-s-medalswinners-announced/547f7b28e58ece8a0e000 06a_2014-riba-president-s-medals-winnersannounced_1-jpg/
Page 44 Diagrams showing architect’s relaton to other professions 1967 by Richard LlewelynDavies & 2010 by Eric J. Cesal - Eric J. Cesal, Down Detour Road (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2010) p. 35-6 Page 47 Guggenheim Bilbao by Frank Gehry - https:// artoffestivals.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/ img_7076.jpg
Page 59 Barking Square arboretum project by muf art/architecture - http://www.bristol. gov.uk/sites/default/files/images/council_ and_democracy/council_news/Barking%20 Square%20arboretum.jpg
Page 48 Mads Mikkelson as Howard Roark - http://i. imgur.com/4qykxNw.jpg
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B ib l io g r ap h y Books Awan, Nishat, Tatjana Schneider, and Jeremy Till. Spatial Agency: Other Ways of Doing Architecture. Routledge, 2011. Botton, Alain de. The Architecture of Happiness. New Ed edition. London: Penguin, 2007. Cesal, Eric J. Down Detour Road. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2010. Conway, Hazel, and Rowan Roenisch. Understanding Architecture: An Introduction to Architecture and Architectural History. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2005. Emmons, Paul, and Andreea Mihalache. “Architectural Handbooks and the User Experience.” In Use Matters: An Alternative History of Architecture, edited by Kenny Cupers. Oxon: Routledge, 2013. Gans, Herbert J. “Towards a Human Architecture.” In Professionals and Urban Form, edited by Judith Blau, Mark E. La Gory, and John S. Pipkin. Albany: New York Press, 1983. Gawne, Eleanor, and Michael Snodin. Exploring Architecture Buildings Meanings and Making. 1st edition. V&A Publishing, 2004. Harvey, David. Spaces of Hope. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002. http:// capitadiscovery.co.uk/mmu/items/1554877. ———. The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. Oxford England ; Cambridge, Mass., USA: Wiley-Blackwell, 1991. Hyde, Rory. Future Practice: Conversations 68
from the Edge of Architecture. Routledge, 2012. Jenkins, Frank. Architect and Patron: A Survey of Professional Relations and Practice in England from the Sixteenth Century to the Present Day. London: Oxford University Press, 1961. Noever, Peter, ed. The End of Architecture?: Documents and Manifestos. Munich: Prestel Verlag, 1993. Till, Jeremy. Architecture Depends. MIT Press, 2009. Walsh, Kevin. The Representation of the Past: Museums and Heritage in the Post-Modern World. The Heritage. London: Routledge, 1992. Worthington, John. “The Changing Context of Professional Practice.” In Changing Architectural Education: Toward a New Professionalism, edited by David Nicol and Simon Pilling. New York: Spon Press, 2000.
Reports Barnes, Helen, Jane Parry, Melahat SahinDikmen, and Dorothe Bonjour. Architecture and Race: A Study of Minority Ethnic Students in the Profession. CABE, 2004. Farrell, Terry. The Farrell Review. Farrells, 2014. http://www.farrellreview.co.uk. Jamieson, Claire. The Future For Architects?. Building Futures. RIBA, July 4, 2011. RIBA. “Equality and Diversity - within RIBA Member Networks.” Education, 2014. http:// www.architecture.com/RIBA/Campaigns%20 and%20issues/Policy/EqualityAndDiversity/
DiversityResearch.aspx. Willmott Dixon. The Impacts of Construction and the Built Environment. Willmott Dixon, September 21, 2010. http:// www.willmottdixongroup.co.uk/assets/b/r/ briefing-note-33-impacts-of-construction-2. pdf.
Journals Esher, Lord, and Lord Lleywelyn-Davies. “The Architect in 1988.” RIBA Journal 75 (October 1968). Goodbun, Jon, Jeremy Till, and Deljana Iossifova, eds. “Introduction - Themes of Scarcity.” In Scarcity: Architecture in an Age of Depleting Resources Architectural Design, 1 edition. London: John Wiley & Sons, 2012. Manzini, Ezio. “ERROR-FRIENDLINESS: How to Deal with the Future Scarcest Resource: The Environmental, Social, Economic Security. That Is, How to Design Resilient Socio-Technical Systems.” In Scarcity: Architecture in an Age of Depleting Resources Architectural Design, edited by Jon Goodbun, Deljana Iossifova, and Jeremy Till, 1 edition. London: John Wiley & Sons, 2012. Till, Jeremy, and Tatjana Schneider. “Invisible Agency.” In Scarcity: Architecture in an Age of Depleting Resources Architectural Design, edited by Jon Goodbun, Deljana Iossifova, and Jeremy Till, 1 edition. London: John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
Online Blake, Eddie. “The Future of Architecture | VICE | United Kingdom.” VICE, January 25, 2013. http://www.vice.com/en_uk/read/thefuture-of-architecture. Capps, Kriston. “15 Designs That Should Make You Worry About the
Next Guggenheim Museum.” CityLab, November 6, 2014. http://www.citylab. com/design/2014/11/15-designs-thatshould-make-you-worry-about-the-nextguggenheim-museum/382429/. Carrington, Damian. “World Population to Hit 11bn in 2100 – with 70% Chance of Continuous Rise.” The Guardian, September 18, 2014. http://www.theguardian.com/ environment/2014/sep/18/world-populationnew-study-11bn-2100. Casey, Michael. “Doomsday Clock Moves Two Minutes Closer to Midnight.” CBS News, January 22, 2015. http://www.cbsnews.com/ news/doomsday-clock-moves-two-minutescloser-to-midnight/. Dickinson, Elizabeth Evitts. “Why Your Firm Should Embrace the Post-Occupancy Review.” Architect Magazine, September 9, 2014. http://www.architectmagazine. com/sustainability/why-your-firm-shouldembrace-the-post-occupancy-review_o.aspx. Dittmar, Hank. “Style Wars Are Irrelevant When Architecture Is Reduced to FloorPlate Cladding.” Building Design, January 14, 2015. http://www.bdonline.co.uk/comment/ opinion/style-wars-are-irrelevant-whenarchitecture-is-reduced-to-floor-platecladding/5073182.article. Frearson, Amy. “The British Public Don’t Understand the Role of the Architect.” Dezeen, July 19, 2012. http://www.dezeen. com/2012/07/19/the-british-public-dontunderstand-the-role-of-the-architect/. Fulcher, Merlin. “Profession Divided Over RIBA’s Shake-Up of Architectural Education.” Architect’s Journal, 2013. http://www. architectsjournal. co.uk/news/daily-news/ profession-divided-over-ribas-shake-upofarchitectural- education/8656606.article. Glaister, Dan. “Architect Frank Gehry’s Projects Hit Hard by Economic Downturn.” The Guardian, March 3, 2009. http://www. theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/mar/03/ 69
frank-gehry-economy-architecture. Glancey, Jonathan. “Don’t Blame Zaha Hadid for the Soaring Costs of the Olympics.” The Guardian, June 16, 2008. http://www. theguardian.com/artanddesign/artblog/2008/ jul/16/aquaticcentre. Hurst, Will. “Michael Gove in New Attack on ‘Award-Winning Architects.’” Building Design, March 2, 2011. http://www.bdonline. co.uk/news/michael-gove-in-new-attack-onaward-winning-architects/5012674.article. Jacob, Sam. “Sam Jacob Opinion Column on Architectural Education Crisis.” Dezeen, April 18, 2013. http://www.dezeen. com/2013/04/18/sam-jacob-opinionarchitectural-education-crisis/. Mau, Bruce. “You Can Do Better.” Architect Magazine, March 1, 2011. http://www. architectmagazine.com/architects/you-cando-better-how-to-become-a-better-architect. aspx. Merrick, Jay. “The Death of Architecture.” The Independent, April 4, 2011. http://www.independent.co.uk/artsentertainment/architecture/the-death-ofarchitecture-2261212.html. Reissman, Hailey. “The Future of Architecture Will Be Instagrammed: Marc Kushner at TED2014.” TED Blog, March 18, 2014. http:// blog.ted.com/2014/03/18/the-future-ofarchitecture-will-be-instagrammed-marckushner-at-ted2014/.
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The Aga Khan Development Network. “Aga Kahn Award For Architecture: Background Information.” The Aga Khan Development Network, 2015. http://www.akdn.org/ architecture/information.asp. “The Bilbao Effect.” The Economist, December 21, 2013. http://www.economist. com/news/special-report/21591708-if-youbuild-it-will-they-come-bilbao-effect. University of Cambridge. “Masters Degree in Architecture and Urban Design (ARB/RIBA Pt2) — Department of Architecture.” Page, 2014. http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/courses/ architecturecourses/mphilbhome. Upbin, Bruce. “Joshua Prince-Ramus On The Myth Of Architectural Genius.” Forbes, June 14, 2010. http://www.forbes.com/2010/06/12/ architecture-eco-buildings-technologyfuture-design-joshua-ramus.html. Wainwright, Oliver. “Pressure Builds for Change in Britain’s Schools of Architecture.” The Guardian, June 27, 2013. http://www. theguardian.com/artanddesign/2013/jun/27/ pressure-builds-change-schools-architecture. Worsley, Giles. “Master Builder: Lord Burlington,” April 4, 2003, sec. Finance. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/ property/3312277/Master-builder-LordBurlington.html.
Presentations
Stott, Rory. “Gehry’s Eisenhower Memorial Clears Final Design Hurdle.” ArchDaily, October 17, 2014. http://www.archdaily. com/558426/gehry-s-eisenhower-memorialclears-final-design-hurdle/.
Saxon, Richard. “Architects: Disrupters of the Future?” at Manchester School of Architecture, January 20, 2015.
Taylor-Foster, James. “RIBA Future Trends Survey Indicates Consistent Growth.” ArchDaily, January 23, 2015. http://www. archdaily.com/590805/riba-future-trendssurvey-indicates-consistent-growth/.
Other RIBA. “The Charter.” RIBA, 1837.
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