Sunata Edition 5 2015 by St Margaret's Anglican Girls School

EDITION FIVE

2015 SUNATA

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St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School 11 Petrie Street Ascot QLD 4007 Australia Telephone: +61 7 3862 0777 Facsimile: +61 7 3862 0701 mail@stmargarets.qld.edu.au www.stmargarets.qld.edu.au St Margaret’s School Council Ltd ABN: 69069684019 CRICOS Code: 00511K A School of the Society of the Sacred Advent

EDITION FIVE

INNOVATION and EVOLUTION

STAFF PROFESSIONAL LEARNING JOURNAL

EDITION FIVE

Sunata

THE STAFF PROFESSIONAL LEARNING JOURNAL

CONTENTS

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Service learning: benefits across the curriculum, for community and student wellbeing 2 Nikki Anderson | Secondary Teacher From school to college: continuing the leadership development journey 6 Dr Kylie Armstrong | Director – St Margaret’s College A growth mindset: working towards developing health literacy 10 Nicky Barrie | Head of Sport Teacher exchange – a learning experience 12 Claire Bloomer | Secondary Teacher Harvesting learning benefits from Maggies’ Garden: more than green thumbs and ripe tomatoes 14 Katie Bryant | Primary Teacher Music advocacy and the benefits music ‘plays’ in a student’s education 16 Deb Cohen | Primary Music Teacher ‘It’s not that I’m so smart, it’s just that I stay with problems longer.’ Albert Einstein 18 Jolie Cowen | Secondary Teacher Recruiting now and beyond 20 Kate Curran | Director of Human Resources Rigour in the 21st century classrooms 22 Ros Curtis | Principal The importance of business and financial literacy 26 Kirsteen Devine | Vocation and Alternative Pathways Coordinator Building self-efficacy in mathematics: a discussion of the benefits of second chance testing to junior secondary students 28 Nanette Dodd | Secondary Teacher Can automaticity and achievement in the mental calculation of number facts be improved through consistent, regular and explicit teaching of cognitive strategies? 30 Angela Drysdale | Head of Primary; Ailsa Crockett | Primary Learning Enhancement Nutrition amongst adolescent athletes 34 Kirsty Findlater | Secondary Teacher The importance of professional mentoring and the development of early career teachers: my graduate experience 36 Sarah Flamsteed | Primary Teacher I’ve got all my sisters with me: the importance of the buddy system in connectedness to boarding and the school 38 Lesa Fowler | Head of Boarding Working memory 40 Therese Garrahy | Secondary Teacher Teaching and social media: reaching today’s teen through social media – implications for contemporary curriculum 42 Naomi Holley | Head of Year Developing collaborative expertise to teach 21st century skills 46 Melinda Kanowski | Secondary Teacher Independent learning 48 Stacey Kelly | Secondary Teacher Changing agendas in leadership 50 Jenny Lishman | Head of Year Five practices for orchestrating productive mathematical discussions 54 Karl Mandla | Secondary Teacher Putting learning into practice: a reflection on the linguistic and cultural value of study tours for language learners 56 Kate Montgomery | Subject Coordinator – French Differentiation within the maths classroom 58 Shirley Patton | Secondary Teacher What can be done about the ‘problem’ of early career teacher attrition? 60 Steve Rowe | Head of Faculty – Languages Neurodevelopmental aspects of the adolescent brain 64 Nikki Townsend | Dean of Students

Nikki Anderson Secondary Teacher

Service learning: benefits across the curriculum, for community and student wellbeing Service learning has been successfully integrated into the culture of St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School, and this is a tribute to its founders, the Sisters of the Society of the Sacred Advent. Without the support of the administrative team and the dedication and time invested by teaching staff, students would struggle to initiate service projects and volunteerism. There are barriers to effective service learning, but the benefits to students and the school community far outweigh these. Future service learning has the potential to be integrated into the curriculum so that scientific, environmental and social knowledge and skills are developed and invested to improve the wellbeing of individuals and groups connected with St Margaret’s. Service learning can take the form of philanthropic gifts, volunteering and social entrepreneurship. These activities build social awareness, social conscience and a practice of giving (Gibbs 2014). Authentic service learning in St Margaret’s faith-based community can be a dynamic expression of God’s love as people follow the example of Jesus, who came to serve and not to be served (Mark 10:45) (Lutheran Education 2015). As demonstrated in continuity of altruistic behaviours from primary school through to the secondary school, habits of empathy and generosity are formed early (Gibbs 2014). Students are effectively armed with lifelong skills of discernment and problem solving (Ramey 2013) and a sense of responsibility, self-efficacy and improved self-esteem (University of Michigan 2015).

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Much can be gained academically as students close the gap between their everyday lives and curriculum. When students are involved in service learning, they perform better in school studies such as reading, history, science, mathematics, geography, home economics, problem solving and critical thinking (Stenger 2013; Ramey 2013). They

learn connections between abstract theories and concrete experiences (Murcia 2010). For instance, sustainability can be examined from a variety of perspectives, such as environmental, scientific, and social viewpoints, and at local and global scales (DeNobile Kleeman & Zarkos 2014). Educational experiences prospectively facilitate activities such as research projects, field work and advocacy, enabling students to undertake thorough investigation, reasoning, and team work and communicating (LoPiccolo 2010). Ultimately, service learning benefits the student (University of Michigan 2015), preparing them for life where they may thrive as creative, confident individuals who are active and informed (Schools in Australia 2015). This is the educational intent of the school and its teachers. The context of service learning must be thoroughly researched, planned and strategic to ensure authentic benefits reach the community and the security of students is ensured (Lutheran Education 2015). Real world learning experiences may include the involvement of the school along with community agencies, parents and counsellors, to ensure that the experiences are intentional and educational without being too confronting (Gibbs 2014; Murcia, Haigh & Norris 2010; Klitz & Ball 2010). Trust relationships are thus formed out of successful endeavours. The school must engender in its students the drive to be active contributors with a sense of responsibility to take action and promote the wellbeing of others. Essential reflective practices also enable students to perceive the effects of their immediate and long term responses to issues.

Cultivating community connections may prove useful in later life for students with respect to prospective scholarship, internship and employment placements, as service learning is highly regarded (Gibbs 2014; LoPiccolo 2010; Stenger 2013). In some universities, service learning is a credit bearing subject (LoPiccolo 2010; University of Michigan 2015; Ramey 2013), where it is intentionally linked to regular curriculum and as such represents a richer option of service learning (Murcia, Haigh & Norris 2010). At St Margaret’s, obvious service learning is taking place where ‘hours of service’ may be accrued in a Community Service Passport, with philanthropic activities such as ‘service to the Sisters’, assembly of birthing kits, Sony Camp, Samaritan’s Purse Christmas Shoebox appeal, Two Can drive, Easter collection and the Archbishop’s Appeal, to name a few. Other fundraising activities lend a hand to reputable charities including Toc H, World Vision, the Cancer Council and St Vincent De Paul.

The challenge for schools is to adapt to the needs of the communities to which they contribute. With the expansion of borders to include global communities, a whole-school, cross-curricular scheme could be generated, assisted by the external providers, Non-Government Organisations (NGOs), relevant professionals, potential employers, parents, teachers and students. The proportion of operations would need to be scaled according to demand on student time (Tenally 2015; Murcia, Haigh & Norris 2010), balance of study load, and security and economic feasibility. There are many useful resources that facilitate establishing the curriculum. Global Education, instructional materials released by World Vision and AusAID (DeNobile, Kleemand & Zarkos 2014), may further inform the implementation of Civics and Citizenship education, as prescribed by the National Curriculum (ACARA 2013). Fortunately, many of the subjects currently on offer at St Margaret’s could be included in a cross-curricular scheme using a project-based methodology (Ramey 2013), including science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) (Tenally 2015), home economics, languages, geography, religious and values education (DeNobile, Kleemand & Zarkos 2014), and the arts.

To achieve quality service learning, a structured constructivist model would facilitate sequenced activities (Murcia, Haigh & Norris, 2010). Reflection and linking academic disciplines should address key aims of service learning, such as enhancing student learning, positive

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The Antipodeans Abroad expeditions are international trips with a clear purpose of service projects (Antipodeans Abroad 2015). Students have the opportunity to learn about the country, its people and work with a team. Potential lies in establishing sister schools in these destinations, which might enable students to make deeper connections as they investigate the differences in education, and assess and generate solutions which may contribute to the provision of basic needs or t classroom facilities (Lutheran Education 2015; Murcia, Haigh & Norris 2010). This could lead to ongoing projects and philanthropic endeavours within the school and improve student leadership, management,

problem solving and resourcefulness.

Nikki Anderson

impacts on attitudes and values and the promotion of active and informed citizenship (DeNobile, Kleemand & Zarkos 2014). As has been evident at St Margaret’s, when students are given the opportunities and responsibilities for decision making that is interesting and important to them, they tend to think more deeply about the issues at hand and use their most complex thinking skills to solve the problem (University of Michigan 2015), thus ‘learn[ing] to do good and seek[ing] justice…for the rights of the poor and the needy’ (Isaiah 1:17; Proverbs 31:9). References ACARA 2015, 7-10 Civics and Citizenship, viewed 21 October 2015, http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/humanities-andsocial-sciences/civics-and-citizenship/curriculum/7-10?layout=1#c dcode=ACHCK052&le=7 Antipodeans Abroad 2015, viewed 21 October 2015, http://www.antipodeans.com.au/About-Us DeNobile, J, Kleeman, G & Zarkos, A 2014, ‘Investigating the impacts of Global Education curriculum on the values and attitudes of secondary students’, Geographical Education, vol. 27, pp. 28-38. Gibbs, S 2014, Teaching Aussie kids philanthropy (and other fun stuff), viewed 12 October 2015, http://www.generositymag.com.au/ teaching-kids-philanthropy-how-to-get-it-right/ FinAid (2015) Scholarships for Volunteering and Community Service, viewed 12 October 2015, http://www.finaid.org/scholarships/ service.phtml

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Kiltz, L & Ball, D 2010, ‘Service-Learning Through Colleges and Universities, Part II’, The Public Manager, Fall 2010.

LoPiccolo, O 2010, Benefits of Embedding Service-Learning Projects into a Construction Design Course, November 19-20, Howard University, viewed 12 October 2015, www.nyu.edu/frn/publications/engaging. students/LoPiccolo.html

Lutheran Education Australia 2015, International service learning trips: Thoughts, reflections and questions, viewed 12 October 2015, www.lutheran.edu.au Lutheran Education Australia 2015, Planning a service learning experience, viewed 12 October 2015, www.lutheran.edu.au Murcia, K, Haigh, Y & Norris, L 2010, ‘Learning from community service: Engaging Australia Tanzania Young Ambassadors with sustainability’, Issues in Educational Research, vol. 20, no. 3. Ramey, L 2013, Engaging Learners in Community Service Learning to Enhance Teacher Preparation Curriculum, viewed 12 October 2015, www.jsedimensions.org/wordpress/content/engaging-learners-incommunity-service Schools in Australia 2015, Schools in Australia, viewed 12 October 2015, www.studyinaustralia.gov.au/global/australian-education/ schools Stenger, M 2013, Students Can Benefit from Participation in Community Service Studies Show, viewed 12 October 2015, www.opencolleges. edu.au/informed/news/students-can-benefit-from-participationin-community-service-studies-show-4147 Tenally, R 2015, Service Learning, viewed 12 October 2015, www. fcps.edu/is/servicelearning The Bible New International Version, viewed 12 October 2015, www.openbible.info University of Michigan 2015, Benefits of Student Participation in Community Service, viewed 12 October, http://sitemaker.umich. edu/356.black/benefits_of_participation_in_service

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Dr Kylie Armstrong Director - St Margaret’s College

From school to college: continuing the leadership development journey Since the early 1990s, the increasing attention on university college student leadership development in higher education has been evolving, as trends have converged to support a renewed focus on developing critical leadership outcomes in students. This movement has gained momentum in recent years, as the emphasis on accountability for learning has increased and the spotlight has been focused on young women and their potential as emerging leaders to influence global economic growth and gender diversity.

to enhance the tertiary journey for the young women through the provision of academic support, leadership learning programs for emerging talent, social responsibility programs, and the development of employability skills.

St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School saw the opportunity to support leadership development of young women as they transition between school and university through leveraging off its boarding infrastructure and its knowledge of educating girls and young women.

Higher education leadership programs have evolved to reflect reciprocal models (Parrent 2013), drawing on business and industry models focused on teams and collaborative practice (Dinh, Lord, Gardner, Meuser, Liden & Hu 2014). The student civic engagement movement (Hartley, Saltmarsh & Clayton 2010; Bureau, Cole, & McCormick 2014) and service learning and volunteerism have influenced the shift to current practice models. The empowerment of social identity groups with their distinct leadership needs (Bordas 2007; Hoppe 1998) and changes in communication modes have greatly shaped the nature of contemporary leadership education programs. The emergence of new leadership associations, conferences, and resources for leadership educators have also led to new trends in leadership models for university college students (Komives, Dugan, Owen, Slack & Wagner 2006; University Colleges of Australia 2015).

In an exciting innovation, St Margaret’s College was opened in 2015 as a residence for young women pursuing tertiary studies. The College, along with its signature Student Success Program, will help create tomorrow’s leaders. The Student Success Program focuses on building leadership capabilities, and creating socially responsible citizens, opportunities for employment and academic support for success. Innovation and Evolution

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St Margaret’s College is a unique 25-bed residential accommodation facility for young women pursuing tertiary studies in Brisbane. Owned and operated by St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School, the college is set in a quiet garden enclave adjacent to the school grounds. It is open to all young women, not just St Margaret’s alumni, although it is seen as an attractive option for former St Margaret’s students. Not only do the students enjoy the beautiful boutique accommodation, they have access to the Student Success Program. This program aims

College Leadership Development: The Context

All these trends over the past 20 years have come together as a societal mandate for higher education colleges and universities to develop socially responsible leaders. These trends have shaped the nature of contemporary leadership education programs. They justify the need for leadership education and provide a loose structure from which to evolve (Dugan & Komives 2007; Fischer, Wielkiewicz, Stelzner, Overland & Meuwissen 2015). However,

little research has been done to integrate theoretical understandings of the unique nature of student leadership development, nor to comprehensively explore how the higher education environment and college experience contributes to that process. Responding to the Challenge

The gap between research and practice and an unclear picture of the leadership development needs of university college students has led to uncertainty regarding the influence of the college environment on leadership development outcomes (Dugan & Komives 2010). The St Margaret’s College Student Success Program framework aims to address these issues and build on contemporary practice models to enhance leadership development and the preparation of civically engaged citizens. The program builds on the work in schools in leadership development, and expands opportunities for 18 to 21-year-old women, who have limited work-based leadership experience. The program targets emerging talent and is available to all women, not just positional leaders. The program will be implemented in the context of the ‘whole experience’ of living ‘in-residence’ and attending university to ensure student learning and development is enriched by a variety of experiences, not just formal instructional contexts (Coates & Edwards 2009; Dugan, Bohle et al. 2011). Student Success Program Framework

The program is woven into the college experience, not simply an insular component of an overall student experience. The Student Success Program framework has four domains: Academic Support; Leadership Learning for Emerging Talent; Social Responsibility; and Employment Development. Each domain is inter-related, and the activities within each are delivered to enhance the learning and development outcomes of each student. These include: • Academic Support

Students are exposed to collaborative learning and relationships beyond the teaching instruction offered in their various courses. Academic support includes guided planning and advice and accessing external academic expertise for students. In specialist course programs, senior university students and academic staff provide academic support via tutorials to first and second year students. The academic support program facilitates peer mentoring across beginning and senior students and enables students to immerse themselves in a variety of academic contexts.

• Leadership Learning for Emerging Talent

The college encourages students to take up the challenge of leadership and discover their potential by expanding their knowledge of themselves, the world, and their role within it. The leadership learning domain looks at personal leadership, (helping the students develop insights to guide their actions now and in the future); professional leadership (knowledge and understandings students may need to lead people and projects in the future); and the skills that might help them implement their personal and professional plans. There will also be a range of student-driven challenges on offer, to enable students to identify and explore their own strengths and areas for improvement. All these

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The Student Success Program supports and enhances aspects of learning and development that are central to a contemporary university education. The program is a supplementary platform to the broader college experience. It is based on evidence emerging that indicates the benefits of leadership development programs – enhanced self-efficacy, civic engagement, character development, academic performance, multicultural awareness, skill development, and personal development of students

(Benson & Saito 2001; Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella & Osteen 2005; Renn 2014).

Dr Kylie Armstrong

experiences will help these young women develop as individuals and gain the skills and confidence to thrive in life after university.

• Social Responsibility

The social responsibility domain encourages students to be involved in group experiences, to build on personal commitments, passions, and extend their personal learning beyond the learning environment. This aspect of the program aims to extend educationally relevant experiences beyond university, and to broaden the depth of engagement in initiatives.

• Employment Development

The college supports students seeking work-related experiences and offers direct employment and professional development opportunities at St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School. College students may choose to take up opportunities in tutoring, boarding supervision, coaching and administrative work. The college also offers professional development opportunities including professional writing skills, interview and CV writing techniques, networking skills and personal presentation. The focus of the employability component is to expose college residents to a range of skills they need to enter the graduate market.

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Building Capacity for Student Success

The core focus for leadership development in the university college setting needs to address the social, intellectual and creative capital of young women in the 21st century. Colleges and universities must build emerging student

leadership capacity and respond promptly and positively to the changing workforce demands which graduates face in today’s global job market. Through carefully articulated educational, experiential and professional objectives, and the provision of relevant activities, the Student Success Program at St Margaret’s College will respond to these changing demands. The program provides an integrated approach to support students as they transition from school to university and beyond, and facilitates opportunities for young women to build their skills, knowledge and confidence as emerging, socially responsible leaders within a contemporary college environment. Providing accommodation and programs for tertiary students through the college is St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School’s unique response to the desire to add value to current school offerings. The college represents a safe place for a supported transition from school to the tertiary environment and provides a welcome alternative to parents, particularly those in rural and regional areas. The school community has responded favourably to the initiative. The community is proud of this unique innovation, and delighted that the school now offers parents a viable and nurturing alternative for their graduating daughters.

Acknowledgement This article has been modified from The Alliance of Girls’ Schools Australasia, In Alliance Magazine, vol. 54, May 2015. References Benson, P & Saito, R 2000, The scientific foundations of youth development. Search Institute, Minneapolis.

Komives, SR, Dugan, JP, Owen, JE, Slack, C & Wagner, W (eds.) 2006, Handbook for student leadership programs. MD: National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs. College Park. Komives, SR, Owen, JE, Longerbeam, S, Mainella, FC & Osteen, L 2005, ‘Developing a leadership identity: A grounded theory’, Journal of College Student Development, vol. 6, pp. 593-611. Parrent, J 2013, Community college student affairs leadership and institutional effectiveness: A multiple-case study. Dissertation, University of Kentucky. 135, 3579759. Renn, KA 2014, Women’s Colleges and Universities in a Global Context. ISBN 978-1-4214-1478-2. John Hopkins University Press, Maryland, USA. University Colleges of Australia 2015, Conference papers and presentations page, viewed 10 September 2015, http:// universitycollegesaustralia.edu.au/conferences/papers/

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Bordas, J 2007, Salsa, soul, and spirit: Leadership for a multi-cultural age, Berrett-Koehler Publishers, San Francisco. Bureau, DA, Cole, JS & McCormick, AC 2014, ‘Frequent Participation in Service Learning: Examining Institutional Differences and Individual Benefits’, New Directions for Institutional Research, vol. 162, pp. 17-27. Dinh, JE, Lord, RG, Gardner, WL, Meuser, JD, Liden, RC & Hu, J 2014, ‘Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: Current theoretical trends and changing perspectives’. The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 25 (1), February, pp. 36-62. Dugan, JP, Bohle, CW, Gebhardt, M, Hofert, M, Wilk, E & Cooney, MA 2011, ‘Influences of leadership program participation on students’ capacities for socially responsible leadership’, Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, vol. 48 no. 1, pp. 65-84. Dugan, J P & Komives, SR 2007, Developing leadership capacity in college students: Findings from a national study. A Report from the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership. National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs. College Park, MD. Dugan, JP & Komives, SR 2010, ‘Influences on college students’ capacity for socially responsible leadership’, Journal of College Student Development, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 525-549. Fischer, DV, Wielkiewicz, RM, Stelzner, SP, Overland, M & Meuwissen, AS 2015, ‘Changes in Leadership Attitudes and Beliefs Associated with the College Experience: A Longitudinal Study’, Journal of Leadership Education’, Winter 2015, pp. 14-22 DOI: 1012806/V14/I1/R2. Hartley, M, Saltmarsh, J & Clayton, P 2010, ‘Is The Civic Engagement Movement Changing Higher Education?’, British Journal of Educational Studies, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 391-406. Hoppe, MH 1998, ‘Cross-cultural issues in leadership development’, in CD McCauley, RS Moxley & E Van Velson (eds.), Handbook of leadership development: Center for creative leadership, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, pp. 336-378.

Nicky Barrie Head of Sport

A growth mindset: working towards developing health literacy In today’s learning environment, student learning is framed around developing problem solving skills, creativity and initiative (Johnson 2015). The Australian Health and Physical Education (HPE) Curriculum aims to provide opportunities for the education of students to adopt lifelong healthy, active living (ACARA 2012). This is no easy task in a time when learning occurs across a multitude of dimensions. The dissemination of health information and the promotion of a healthy lifestyle used to be limited to literature and commercial television. Today, the accessibility of information is at an all-time high, with the advent of increased internet access and the growth of social media. Developing health literacy in students and increasing their capacity to use a growth mindset to critically analyse the latest trends in health is crucial. How do we develop students’ capacity to filter and make sense of everything they read and see; how do we help them understand what it all means for them and their health?

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A noteworthy change in the approach to health promotion through the Australian Curriculum is the use of the strengths-based model, as opposed to the previous riskbased one. The risk-based model, cited in earlier curriculum offerings, focused on the when and how of risky behaviours while exploring motives for these. The strengths-based notion acknowledges students come to the learning area feeling positive about their health (ACARA 2012) as well as recognising that students’ strengths and interests can be fostered and developed to further improve their own health. This strengths-based approach to the HPE curriculum area aligns well with the idea of developing a growth mindset in students. Carol Dweck (2010) refers to the growth mindset as having a willingness to learn.

Health promotion and the development of health literacy in the context of the Australian Curriculum is approached in three stages dimensions; the functional, interactive and critical. Functional literacy is required to read, write and interpret texts. Functional health literacy can be seen as dealing with the basic facts of the learning intention for students. Nutbeam (2008) believes that health literacy is a personal asset. Posing a health-related question to students is an effective way to identify their knowledge of the learning intention. This technique uses the strengths-based approach and helps to foster a growth mindset. For example, the teacher might compile a class list of health ‘buzz words’. Students will then work towards deciphering the meaning of these. The next phase in developing health literacy requires a more advanced knowledge about the words contained in the list. The second stage, the interactive, moves students towards problem solving the concepts. In this stage, they will look deeper into the theories or models to generate and evaluate information to be applied to varying circumstances. For example, during the functional stage students may have defined the ‘buzz word’ ‘super food’, developed an understanding of what a super food is, as well as perhaps identified some examples of what super foods might be. In the interactive stage students will advance their knowledge of super foods. They may identify propaganda associated with the term, and investigate health issues within the community. Using a growth mindset, students may be encouraged to focus on the benefits and potential

of super foods to improve an individual’s health. In this phase they are still working within their knowledge base of competencies and life experiences associated with health. The final stage, the critical, requires students to move beyond their experiential learning and identify assumptions. This allows them to develop and promote health and wellbeing. Knowing and understanding what it means for an individual to be healthy is essential. Critical thinking allows me to recognise that my individual needs may differ from the person next to me because of their environment and genetic disposition. At this stage the students have gained the necessary health literacy; they are now working innovatively to develop new ways of optimising their health potential. Within a growth mindset, students validate the worth of the information, the resources available and how they can be maximised to achieve the strongest outcome.

Dweck, C 2010, ‘Mindsets: Developing Talent through a Growth Mindset’, Olympic Coach, vol. 21, no 1. Johnson, D 2015, Teaching Outside the Lines: Developing Creativity in Every Worker, Corwin Press, USA. Nutbeam, D 2008, ‘The Evolving Concept of Health Literacy’, Social Science and Medicine, vol. 67, no. 12, pp. 2072-2078. Knaji, M & Mitic, W 2009, ‘Promoting Health and Development: Closing the Implementation Gap’, Proceedings of the World Health Organisation 7th Global Health Conference, Kenya.

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Students working in an environment where a growth mindset is fostered have an enhanced opportunity of developing health literacy. Using students’ prior knowledge and understanding as well as adopting a strengths-based approach helps them on the path to deeper learning. Despite the plethora of information available, students will have greater potential to validate information, reflect and make informed decisions about the current state of their health and how to optimise this for their future.

References ACARA 2012, The Shape of the Australian Curriculum: Health and Physical Education, Australia.

Claire Bloomer Secondary Teacher

Teacher exchange – a learning experience During Term 3, I was given the opportunity to take a week away from St Margaret’s to reflect on my teaching practices.

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I visited the non-denominational Christian school of St Catherine’s in Toorak, Melbourne. Like St Margaret’s, St Catherine’s is an all-girls P to 12 school, with a similar student body size, but a smaller boarding population of approximately 50 students. Before leaving Brisbane, I was feeling a little overwhelmed at the prospect of leaving my classes for a whole week; but knowing all classes were covered and in safe hands, it wasn’t long before I fully immersed myself in the teacher exchange experience. St Catherine’s students and teachers pride themselves on their community spirit, co-curricular involvement and high student attainment. I found there were many similarities between St Catherine’s and St Margaret’s. One of the most significant was the dedication of the teachers and students to learning. Throughout the week, I saw many instances of students and teachers meeting during lunch breaks or outside of class time to ‘catch up’ on work that had been missed because of student absences. On my first day, approximately one third of the student body were out on an inter-house snow-sport day. This resulted in many students having to catch up on work in their own time. I was welcomed with open arms into the mathematics and science faculty members’ classrooms and observed many different lessons. With the announcement earlier this year that Queensland schools will be moving to external exams from 2019 (QCAA 2015) I focused on the strategies St Catherine’s teachers use to prepare students for external exams at the end of Year 12. This is where I felt I saw the main difference between the two schools. Students at St Catherine’s submit assessment pieces for grading at least every three weeks for all subjects. This was true for both maths and science from Years 7 to 12. The students receive the assessment pieces back and then are provided with feedback on weaknesses, because in addition to ‘topic tests’, students sit an end of year test.

My hosts explained that the reason for this is firstly to make assessment a ‘normal’ part of the rhythm of school life, thus lessening the level of anxiety felt by students. As well, regular assessment helps to eliminate a ‘test and forget’ type mentality that can exist. I have adopted the practice of one teacher I observed during the week: recording the key content of lessons as a video and saving this in a place absent students can access. I hope this will allow my students not to worry if they are sick or absent from school. During assembly the week of my visit, the St Catherine’s community had a guest speaker on mindfulness – the idea of being aware and awake during every moment of your life and intentionally paying attention to each moment (Monash University 2015). Craig Hassed lectures medical students at Monash University. He gave a short, compelling speech about how mindfulness can be integrated into the everyday life of students (and teachers) and about the benefits of mindfulness. The key benefits of practising mindfulness are improving short term memory and processing speed, decreasing stress and improving interpersonal relationships skills (Monash University 2015). The speaker explained that mindfulness can take many forms, not just the commonly associated practice of meditation. It can be as simple as taking five mindful breaths as you wake up in the morning, during your lunch break or just before you go to sleep at night. Even though my time as part of St Catherine’s community was short, I feel I have benefited immensely from the experience and encourage my colleagues to apply for next year’s teacher exchange opportunity.

References Monash University 2015, Mindfulness at Monash, viewed 8 October 2015, https://monash.edu/counselling/mindfulness.html Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2015, Queensland review of senior assessment and tertiary entrance, viewed 8 October 2015, https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/27090.html

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Courtesy of St Catherinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;e s

Katie Bryant Primary Teacher

Harvesting learning benefits from Maggies’ Garden: more than green thumbs and ripe tomatoes School gardens, while in existence for over a century, are regaining popular appeal in early childhood settings as a means of introducing sustainability. This is largely in response to mounting concern that this generation of children is becoming increasingly disconnected from agriculture, nutrition and from the natural world (Bucklin-Sporer & Pringle 2010). As Hannemann et al (2007) describe, our children can’t be expected to be good future stewards of plants in the natural world if they aren’t aware of their true value. While education in the environment and education about the environment are both done well, Julie Davis (2010) advocates education for the environment as one which still requires focus by teachers. Davis argues that without education for the environment, students fail to understand how human interactions can cause sustainability problems. For a school garden to have authentic learning outcomes for students, it must address education in, about and for the environment and, critically, be a student-led process. With support and education, Bartlett supports the view that very young children are able to contribute ideas, energy and creativity towards the management and solving of issues (2008). Maggies’ Organic Garden

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The Maggies’ Organic Garden, located on Churchill Lawn, was planted in Term 2, 2015, with the support of Barambah Organics. Students nurture the garden and then harvest, cook and eat the produce. They water the garden from the rainwater tank located next to the beds. The worm farm and compost (fuelled by lunchbox scraps and tuckshop waste) provide the soil with nutrients. The deliveries to the school tuckshop and boarding house kitchen have also helped the students understand that grown food is used in these kitchens.

To a person passing by the garden, the learning outcomes and success might be measured by the harvest quality and volume, or the fact that children attain a more hands-on, accurate understanding of where their food comes from. However, to limit the outcomes to these is missing some of the greatest values of the program overall. Broadly, the learning benefits for students are threefold: social connection; sustainability understanding; and student wellbeing.

1. Social connection: communication and collaboration

The garden was a great success in 2015, it engaged the students and created a sense of pride and ownership in the process and the garden’s produce. Support was also received from teaching staff, parents, grandparents, as well as supporters of the school, such as the school’s patron, Mrs Libby Black, who regularly works with the young students in the garden. The students were instrumental in the concept design, planting choices, planting, launch, and first harvest. The students surveyed their peers for their choices in vegetables to plant and this data was collated by the students and graphed before buying seedlings. At the official opening of the garden, the students made wishing stones and wrote wish messages of growth and nourishment. 2. Sustainability understandings: critical thinking and creative solutions As members of the Maggies’ Garden Club, students are exposed to each of the elements of the school’s emerging Sustainability Program. Students from Prep to Year 2 and the Preps’ Year 5 buddies participate in activities on

Friday afternoons in each of the five focus areas: garden maintenance; composting and worm farming; recycling and waste segregation; healthy eating; and harvesting and cooking. There is strong evidence to suggest the best teaching occurs when the emphasis is more on interaction with the child, play and discovery than on imparting knowledge. The activities during Garden Club are all hands-on activities, as children have a natural curiosity requiring direct sensory experience rather than conceptual generalisation (Stoecklin 2000). Bucklin-Sporer and Pringle (2010) suggest that school gardens are outdoor classrooms that introduce a trial and error approach to learning; hands engage the mind to problem solve with tangible results. For example, even a tangled or kinked hose requires problem-solving techniques in a tangible way. 3. Student wellbeing: mindset and healthy bodies

References Bartlett, S 2008, ‘Factfile: Climate change and urban children’, Child Rights Information Network (CRIN), vol. 22, p. 40.

Bucklin-Sporer, A & Pringle, RK 2010, How to grow a school garden: A complete guide for Parents and teachers, Timber Press, London. Davis, J 2010, ‘What is early childhood education for sustainability?’ in JM Davis (ed.), Young children and the environment: Early education for sustainability, Cambridge University Press, New York. Elliott, S 2010, ‘Children in the natural world’, in JM Davies (ed.), Young children and the environment: Early education for sustainability, Cambridge University Press, New York. Hannemann, M, Hulse, P, Johnson, B, Kuland, B & Patterson, T 2007, Gardening with Children: Brooklyn Botanic Garden Guides for a Greener Planet, Ocean Graphics Press, China. Michaelis, A 2010, ‘Learning naturally – gardening with children’, Putting Children First, vol . 35, pp. 18-20.

Stoecklin, V 2000, Developmentally Appropriate Gardening for Young Children, White Hutchinson Leisure & Learning Group, viewed online www.whitehutchinson.com/children/articles/gardening. shtml

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The garden provides students an opportunity to learn away from usual settings. Several research studies have also considered the impact of green leafy spaces on children and support a positive impact on health and wellbeing (Elliott 2010). Not only does the garden instil a sense of place, it also promotes healthy living. When children take part in growing foods, they are more willing to try those foods (Michaelis 2010). Many of the students ate bok choy from Maggies’ Organic Garden that had been cooked by the boarding house kitchen staff during Garden Club. Bucklin-Sporer and Pringle (2010) argue that a working knowledge of good nutrition is most compellingly taught in a school garden. The garden also creates a ‘level playing

field’, irrespective of classroom literary and numeracy skills. Students observed in the garden appear highly engaged, excited and are in an enquiring mode. They ask questions, are interested in each other’s observations and keen to learn and listen. Students feel free to make maths comparisons about size, shape, growth rates and water volume, without the constraints of a classroom setting and tests. Maggies’ Garden is so much more than green thumbs and ripe tomatoes. It has reaped something just as precious as nature’s harvest – Maggies’ Garden has reaped significant educational produce!

Deb Cohen Primary Music Teacher

Music advocacy and the benefits music ‘plays’ in a student’s education I would teach children music, physics, and philosophy; but most importantly music, for the patterns in music and all the arts are the keys to learning. Plato There is a wealth of information published around music advocacy, with compelling evidence, based on research, describing how important music education is to a student’s development. This paper reviews and reflects on relevant literature about this important issue. Research has found that learning music is beneficial: • to a student’s brain development and brain plasticity • to improve personal self-control • to develop perseverance • to learn team work • because it helps develop positive self esteem • because it enhances creativity • because skills learnt in the music classroom enhance

skills used in other areas of education, such as languages and maths.

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One benefit is that early music training helps develop brain areas involved in language and reasoning. Kraus & Chandrasekaran (2010) indicate that: “Neuroscience research has shown that music training leads to changes throughout the auditory system that prime musicians for listening challenges beyond music processing. This effect of music training suggests that, akin to physical exercise and its impact on body fitness, music is a resource that tones the brain for auditory fitness.”

Bangerter and Heath (2004) state that: “There is a widespread view that learning to play a musical instrument in childhood stimulates cognitive development and leads to the enhancement of skills in a variety of extramusical areas,

which is commonly referred to as transfer.” When students learn a musical instrument and play in an ensemble, they are developing necessary team-building skills as well as the ability to maintain self-control. They are also developing perseverance; in that, when the task becomes difficult the student needs to problem solve the difficult sections by slow, calm repetition (practice). Caxton (2013) speaks of this. He says: “The abilities to control attention and stick to a task despite distraction; to control behavioural impulses; and to prioritise long-term goals over short-term attractions are predictors of life successes, as well as achievement in schools.” The challenge for the music teacher is to encourage and support music students to undertake this practice routine. When a student is involved in various music activities, they not only use their voice to sing or their hands to play, they also use their senses such as listening, seeing and feeling, as well as their large and small muscles to produce the sound. A musical performance requires the use of multiple skills, often simultaneously. Neurosci (2009) says: “Children who played and practised a musical instrument showed greater improvements in motor ability (as measured by finger dexterity in both left and right hands) and in auditory melodic and rhythmic discrimination skills.” Gottfried Schlaug (2013) says: “Playing a musical instrument is a multi-sensory and motor experience that creates emotions and motions, and engages pleasure and reward systems in the brain. It has the potential to change brain function and structure when undertaken over a long period of time… Intense musical training generates

new processes within the brain, at different stages of life, and with a range of impacts on creativity, cognition and learning.” In my previous article, ‘Creativity in the Music Classroom’ for Sunata 2012, I stated: “At the end of a creative exercise in the music classroom, where students have taken the initiative, used their imagination and connected with their task, it is pleasing to see the excitement the girls bring to their performance. I have observed this to be a positive learning experience and as their skills develop, so does their confidence, both in performance and in themselves: a wonderful advocacy for music education in primary schools.” I still firmly believe this to be true. The variety of emotions the girls go through, from ‘I can’t do this. I don’t know what to do’, to ‘wow, this sounds great’, is a very rewarding experience for them. I am a strong believer in music advocacy and the benefits music participation brings to the personal development of children. In the music classes at St Margaret’s, students sing songs, play musical instruments, establish beat and rhythmic skills, build good intonation and develop their reading and writing skills. They listen to music, practise conducting, and express themselves through movement. Many of these students learn musical instruments by taking private lessons. It is important that classes are positive, enjoyable, motivating and that good thinking skills are cultivated. Students are encouraged to participate in a broad range of musical activities so they have the maximum opportunity to achieve the wide-ranging benefits indicated.

Music produces a kind of pleasure which human nature cannot do without. Confucius I was twelve when I learned my first three chords on guitar and wrote my first song. My life changed forever... music became the way I told my stories. Taylor Swift, singer, songwriter, and instrumentalist

References Claxton, G 2013, School as an Epistemic Apprenticeship: The Case of Building Learning Power, The British Psychological Society, ISSN: 0263-5895, ISBN: 978-1-85433-721-1

Mischel, W, Shoda, Y & Rodriguez, M 1989, ‘Delay of gratification in children’, Science, vol. 244, pp. 933-938. Moffitt, TE, Arseneault, L, Belskya, D, Dicksonc, N, Hancox, RJ, Harrington, HL, Houtsa, R, Poultonc, R, Roberts, BW, Rossa, S, Searse, MR, Thomson, WM & Caspia, A 2011, ‘A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth and public safety’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, viewed online www.pnas. org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1010076108 Kraus, N & Chandrasekaran, B 2010, ‘Music training for the development of auditory skills’, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol. 11, pp. 599-605, doi: 10.1038/nrn2882. Hyde, KL, Lerch, J, Norton, A, Forgeard, M, Winner, E, Evans, AC & Schlaug, G 2009, ‘Musical Training Shapes Structural Brain Development’, The Journal of Neuroscience, March 11, 2009, pp. 30193025. Bangerter, A & Heath, C 2004, ‘The Mozart Effect: tracking the evolution of a scientific legend’, British Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 43, pp. 605-623. Schlaug, G 2013, ‘Musical Training Shapes Brain Anatomy and Affects Function’, Proceedings of Neuroscience 2013, San Diego, California.

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In this respect, I believe it is also desirable to encourage students to participate in the Extra-curricular Music Program. The strong support at St Margaret’s enables me to strive for and achieve success in raising the participation rate in this program in the primary school, which in turn positively affects music participation and achievement in the secondary school.

Whether a person is a beginner or highly skilled, whether they listen to music or play music, music is for life!

Jolie Cowen Secondary Teacher

‘It’s not that I’m so smart, it’s just that I stay with problems longer.’ Albert Einstein What makes a ‘good’ student of mathematics? It is not uncommon for people to define themselves as being either ‘good at maths’ or ‘hopeless’. The latter is a description that seems to persist throughout their adult lives, even though it may fly in the face of all evidence to the contrary. This perception is highly resistant to change. Underlying this view are the assumptions that ability is fixed, improvement is divorced from effort, and understanding will remain elusive no matter how much time is invested. But we know that success in mathematics cannot be reduced to innate talent, just as winning a gold medal at the Olympics in the 100 metre final is not the natural consequence of being able to run well. If we accept the pigeonholing of ability (and equate it with potential for achievement), then we accept that students are powerless to effect any changes to their achievement and understanding over the course of their school lives; we condemn them to identifying with the same (inaccurate, facile) labels of previous generations. Maths teachers can easily name students who have developed their mathematical ability over time. How have students who ultimately ‘succeed’ in mathematics managed it? What characteristics do these students share?

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I would argue that a ‘good’ student of mathematics is defined more by their behaviours and approach to the subject, than their perceived ability. I would argue that a ‘good’ student of mathematics: 1. Actively engages with mathematics.

Mathematics is a powerful tool used to describe and explain the world around us in a form that is both elegant and efficient. To engage with mathematics requires immersion – doing it, speaking it, writing it and saying it. It requires

deep thinking over long periods of time. How is this achieved? We often discuss mastering ‘the basics’. However, ‘the basics’ change as students progress through year levels, so mathematical fluency, like oil or grease, must be constantly renewed and refreshed to ease the way for deeper learning. In their book Visible Learning and the Science of How We Learn, John Hattie and Gregory Yates state that ‘developing automaticity in cognitive processing represents a major goal for students as they progress through the reading and mathematics curricula in the junior primary years. Without such development, subsequent academic work becomes a matter of constantly using effortful and costly mental strategies’ (Hattie & Yates 2014, p. 61). Successful students of mathematics, therefore, master the basics so the majority of thinking time is spent engaging with concepts at a deeper level. Actively engaging with mathematics also requires students consistently work at developing their mathematical literacy – mastery of the specific terms, language conventions and symbols, which allow for effective communication of their ideas and enable them to correctly interpret mathematical information in its many forms. Hattie and Yates (2014, p. 122) also state that moving data into long term memory ‘entails some form of active responding, in that the mind has to “do something with … stuff before it disappears”’ so when students actively engage with mathematics, having mastered basic concepts, they are retaining what they have learnt.

daily summaries to using post-it notes to draw attention to knowledge gaps are strategies used by successful students to help them achieve their learning goals. Dr Andrew Martin, a psychologist and researcher specialising in educational psychology, recommends students focus on improving their own personal bests (rather than comparing themselves with others) through setting realistic and achievable goals (Martin 2005). Hattie and Yates (2014, p. 122) also emphasise ‘the need to develop efficient learning strategies’ and suggest turning to ‘CRIME – chunking, rehearsal, imagery, mnemonics, elaboration’.

Re-working examples, explaining the development of a formula or general rule, searching for links between or combining different concepts, explaining a method of solution to another person, writing a question using appropriate mathematical language – this is simple but sophisticated and active engagement with mathematics. Cognition occurs at an order rather higher than the replication of skills. 2. Tries, tries and tries again.

It was President Calvin Coolidge who said ‘persistence and determination alone are omnipotent’ (The Quotations Page 2015). Good students of mathematics are those whose ultimate aim is deep understanding rather than the completion of work in the minimum time with minimum effort. They accept that understanding may not be immediate and requires sustained effort. They accept mistakes as the natural consequence of the struggle for understanding. Hattie and Yates (2014, p. 119) state that ‘we underestimate the amount of time and practice it takes to master a new skill. We underestimate how much discipline and determination is needed to develop expertise’. ‘Good’ students of mathematics are willing to persevere with difficult concepts and accept that improvement will take time. They also believe that their actions can and will make a difference. In short, they possess what Professor Carol Dweck (2015) describes as a ‘growth mindset’. Dweck states unequivocally that ‘abilities can be developed’ and that effort and difficulty create new and stronger connections between neurons.

3. Develops habits and strategies that work and discards those that don’t.

I would hope that through active engagement, perseverance and the adoption of good habits, the current generation of mathematics students will summarise their school mathematical careers in more optimistic terms ... perhaps ‘I didn’t always understand it straight away, but after I thought about it for a long time and asked lots of questions, it started to make sense. And that felt good’. And what of curiosity, imagination, passion and wonder? We all carry these inside us. They have the potential to transform a ‘good’ student of mathematics into the best mathematician they can be.

References BrainyQuote 2015, Albert Einstein Quotes, viewed 18 October 2015, http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/a/alberteins106192. html BrainyQuote 2015, Confucius Quotes, viewed 18 October 2015, http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/c/confucius.html Dweck, C 2015, The power of believing that you can improve, TED, viewed 18 October 2015, http://www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_ the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve?language=en Hattie, J & Yates, G 2014, Visible Learning and the Science of How We Learn, Routledge, New York. IMDb 2015, The Martian(2015), viewed 23 October 2015, http:// www.imdb.com/title/tt3659388/quotes Martin, A 2005, How to help your child fly through life, Bantam, Sydney. The Quotations Page 2015, Calvin Coolidge Quotes, viewed 20 October 2015, www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Calvin_Coolidge/

Personal experience has shown that over the term of their school lives, ‘good’ mathematics students develop and refine habits that enhance their learning. Anything from writing

We can see that ‘good’ students of mathematics possess qualities other than natural ability and that they put them to better use. They are determined to improve and do not expect massive improvement for small investments in time. They make a deliberate effort to interact with the mathematics they are taught to make meaning for themselves. They use mistakes as a platform for improvement and to identify gaps in their own knowledge. They use the resources at their disposal to develop and deepen their understanding.

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It is true that for some students, mathematics can be intimidating and overwhelming, but success is possible with determined effort. Confucius said, ‘It does not matter how slowly you go as long as you do not stop’ (BrainyQuote 2015). In the recent film The Martian, maths and science take centre stage. The ‘martian’ is Mark Watney, a botanist and astronaut who is abandoned on Mars and who must work to save himself until help arrives. ‘You just begin,’ he says. ‘You do the math. You solve one problem and you solve the next one, and then the next’ (IMDb 2015).

Whatever the strategy, it can be refined and developed to suit the individual, and through conscious reflection, rejected if it does not achieve its objectives. Albert Einstein famously defined insanity as doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results (BrainyQuote 2015). Successful students of mathematics consistently apply learning strategies that work and work for them.

Kate Curran Director of Human Resources

Recruiting now and beyond It has long been said, ‘It’s who you know, not what you know.’ This may be even more relevant in today’s business world as we look at current recruitment trends and the power of social media.

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The recruitment landscape is changing. Job hunting is something individuals are doing many times in their lifetime, as opposed to once, for a lifetime. Recruitment of the future is moving away from point-in-time advertising, where an organisation places a recruitment ad in the paper, prays that the perfect candidate reads the paper, is actively looking for a new role on that day, and that they follow through and put in an application. So what has changed and why? In 2014, the Hay Group released its research, Leadership 2030, and identified six megatrends which will influence the world and in turn the workforce in the coming years. The trends identified were: digitalisation; demographic change; individualism; globalisation; environmental crises; and technology convergence. While it is arguable all of the above megatrends will have an impact on the future of recruitment, there are three worth closer discussion – digitalisation, demographic change and individualism. Digitalisation: Digitalisation is changing the way we work; it is changing the way we connect and communicate. We now have access to social media, mobile phones, the internet, and the Cloud from anywhere in the world. Demographic Change: It is expected many baby boomers will retire from the workforce in the coming years. This will possibly leave a skills shortage, requiring training and development of workers. ‘Millennials’ (aged 18–34 in 2015) are also entering the workforce. Individualism: No longer is money the top motivator for career choices. According to the Hay Group (2014, p. 14), other ‘priorities will come into play, such as fulfilment, meaning, self-development, recognition and work-life balance.’ With the introduction of online job seeking platforms such as SEEK, founded in 1997 (SEEK 2015), traditional recruitment methods started to adjust to another avenue

to attract talent. This trend has grown in recent years, with more online job boards and also with the introduction of social media. We can now sit at a computer in any location and instantly make contact with billions of people around the world. Networking is global with the click of a button. LinkedIn has approximately 380 million members currently (About Us LinkedIn 2015) and Facebook has 1.49 billion members (Statista 2015). Such high membership numbers for these organisations, which have only been operating for less than a decade, are impressive, and also testament to the growth in this area. These social media platforms allow employers to not only advertise a vacancy to active talent, but to reach out to passive talent and build an online brand to attract future employees. A fitting analogy to illustrate the concept of passive talent is the temptation of the dessert menu. You know the feeling; you have just finished a delicious meal at a beautiful restaurant and the waiter asks if you would like to see the dessert menu. You can’t fit another thing in, but when you see your favourite dessert listed, the temptation is too much. Transfer this to an employment situation: an employee is happy; they are engaged in their current role and then they are approached by another employer via LinkedIn or similar with a role that is too tempting not to find out more. The trend of digitalisation gives employers more access to passive talent. It also gives employees the opportunity to better market themselves on social media. Social media opens up a higher level of transparency for both parties. This transparency can have both positive and negative impacts. It allows for a quick means to share news and success in a range of rich formats. On the other hand, it is also a little frightening to note the impact a negative comment can have on an individual employee or an organisation, particularly considering the speed with which it is shared.

So what does the future of recruitment hold? At the 2013 Australasian Talent Conference, ‘Sophie’ was showcased. ‘Sophie’ is a recruitment robot that is being trialled. ‘Humans have a limit on their time, energy and patience, and robots like Sophie can complement these limitations. For example they can do a preliminary interview in an emotionally engaging manner’ (HRmonthly 2013, p. 43). If we are talking innovation, technology and efficiency, Sophie gets a big tick. If our aim is to attract the best talent, sell the organisation’s brand and a culture which values each and every employee, Sophie, I am sorry, but I think the recruiters of the world are safe.

References LinkedIn 2015, About Us, viewed 10 October 2015, https://press. linkedin.com/about-linkedin White, L 2015, The future of recruitment, The Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 19 October 2015, www.smh.com.au/smallbusiness/trends/the-future-of-recruitment-20150226-13qb9h. html#ixzz3nbajcTmZ HRmonthly 2014, ‘Digital Recruitment Enters New Age’, HRmonthly, pp. 23-24.

Hay Group 2014, The new rules of employee engagement, viewed 21 October 2015, http://f.datasrvr.com/fr1/414/25154/Hay_Group_ New_Rules_of_Engagement_Report.pdf Hoffman, R, Casnocha, B & Yeh, C 2014, The Alliance: managing talent in the networked age, Harvard Business Review Press, Boston. LinkedIn 2015, A Brief History of LinkedIn, https://www.pwc.com/gx/ en/managing-tomorrows-people/future-of-work/assets/reshapingthe-workplace.pdf, https://ourstory.linkedin.com PWC 2008, Millennials at Work: Reshaping the workplace, viewed 20 October 2015, https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/managing-tomorrowspeople/future-of-work/assets/reshaping-the-workplace.pdf SEEK 2015, Key Facts, viewed 19 October 2015, www.seek.com.au/ investor/key-facts Statista 2015, Number of monthly active Facebook users worldwide as of 3rd quarter 2015 (in millions), viewed 20 October 2015, http:// www.statista.com/statistics/264810/number-of-monthly-activefacebook-users-worldwide Robert Walters 2013, Understanding the role of Social Media to complement attraction strategies. viewed 19 October 2015, www. robertwalters.com.au/wwwmedialibrary/WWW2/country/ australia/content/whitepapers/robert-walters-social-mediawhitepaper.pdf

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The digitalisation of recruitment is evident when you read statistics like those complied by Kelly Services International Workforce survey in 2014, which reported ‘Australians top a list of 37 countries in their use of internet job trawling, with 54 per cent of people finding their most recent job online and only 9 per cent using newspapers’ (HRmonthly 2014). Demographic changes to our workforce raise the question: how does the introduction of millennials into the workforce and the exiting baby boomers from the workforce change recruitment? Millennials, those born between 1980 and 2000, are currently entering the workforce as the baby boomers exit. The PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC ) paper Millennials at work, reshaping the workforce reports the findings of research commissioned by PwC. Based on online surveying of 4364 graduates in 2011, the report identifies some of the characteristics of millennials including ‘their ambition and desire to keep learning and move quickly upwards through an organisation’. They value very regular feedback and encouragement and they want their work to be valued. One characteristic which impacts the recruitment landscape is their willingness to move on quickly if their expectations are not met (PwC 2011). There is a perception that younger generations are a little impatient with career advancement and development and happy to move jobs more frequently. The reality is our society is seeking more individualism and the employee/ employer relationship has changed. No longer is it a lifetime commitment where loyalty is rewarded with job advancement over the years. In 1962, Earl Willis, General Electric’s manager of employee benefits, wrote ‘maximising employee security is a prime company goal.’ (Hoffman, Casnocha & Yeh n.d., p. 3). At that time, careers were considered permanent; loyalty to an organisation lasted a lifetime with ‘one’s career like riding an escalator, with predictable advancement for those who followed the rules.’ (Hoffman, Casnocha and Yeh, n.d.). Reid Hoffman, cofounder and chairman of LinkedIn, suggests in the book The Alliance, managing talent in the networked age, that the new model of loyalty between employee and employer exists in the form of an alliance where employers ‘need to tell their employees: “Help make our company more valuable and we’ll make you more valuable” ’ and in turn the ‘… employees need to tell their bosses, ‘help me grow and flourish, and I’ll help the company grow and flourish.” ’(Hoffman, Casnocha & Yeh n.d., p. 8,9) This is a sentiment shared in the Robert Walters’ white paper, Understanding the role of Social Media to complement attraction strategies. The paper is based on a survey of 700 jobseekers and 400 hiring managers across Australia and New Zealand in February 2013. The paper identifies that 46 per cent of jobseekers visit an organisation’s LinkedIn profile before applying for a role. The candidate actively researches their next move before applying. They want to know about the organisation’s culture, the brand and their values. They are asking questions like: Will there be the opportunity for career advancement? Will there be mentors? Will I get professional development? Recruitment is no longer a one way process where all the power rests with the employer. Increasingly talented applicants have multiple offers to consider and they are looking for a top employer who will continue to nurture and grow their career. ‘To secure the best professionals an organisation must also aim to impress’ (Walters 2013, p. 8)

Ros Curtis Principal

Rigour in the 21st century classrooms The term ‘rigour’, when it is applied to teaching, appears to belong to an era in education where inkwells, slates or chalkboard summaries were used; and where huge amounts of content (facts and figures) were taught and subsequently memorised by students and recalled in preparation for an examination. It sounds like an old-fashioned term, yet the term ‘rigour’ has its place in the modern classroom. In fact, a rigorous class – one where students are thinking for themselves – should be the goal of every dedicated and current educator. It is interesting to note that the word rigour means rigid, inflexible and unyielding, yet when applied to classrooms and learning experiences, the term relates to encouraging students to think creatively, critically and more flexibly. Blackburn and Williamson (2009, p. 2) define rigorous teaching as ‘creating an environment in which each student is expected to learn at high levels, each student is supported so he or she can learn at high levels, and each student demonstrates learning at high levels’. They go on to say that ‘only when you create a culture of high expectation and provide support so students can truly demonstrate understanding do you have a rigorous classroom’. (2009, p. 2)

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They propose that you can identify a classroom environment with high expectations when: • the students trust and believe the teacher when s/he says ‘I believe you can’ • the teacher does not allow excuses for a lack of effort • there is adequate wait time from the teacher, which conveys the message that ‘I expect you to answer’ • higher-level questioning is an embedded practice, as is the refusal by the teacher to accept a low-level answer to such questions; in these cases the teacher continues to probe and guide the students offering the answer until the high level response is offered (2009, p. 2).

In terms of the safe and supportive environment required for rigorous learning, Williamson and Blackburn (2011, p. 1-2) say it is important to provide the appropriate scaffolding so students can meet the high expectations and access the challenging thinking work. This can be achieved by the normal scaffolding strategies such as guiding questions, chunking information, or providing organisational guides to the steps of a project. Now that students can access any information at any time, it is important that educators focus less on content and more on how students can make meaning out of all the stimuli that come their way. Unfortunately, the status of the teacher in the past has been influenced by how learned they are and how much they know. Teachers have held on to superior knowledge as a badge of honour within their profession, but it is time to let that go. A modern rigorous classroom is not about how much content a teacher imparts and how many facts a student can memorise and recall after taking the class. Rather, it is about how many thinkers the teacher has helped develop and produce. In some modern schools, teachers appear to be working harder than their students; in other words, they are doing all the thinking and their students are passive in their approach to learning. The teachers come to work each day prepared to cover the content of syllabus and curriculum documents. They are preparing resources, learning experiences and the like to capture the interest of students. The scaffolding they offer students sometimes means that the final product is more the result of the teacher’s

hard work and thinking than the student’s hard work and thinking. In fact, they are working too hard on the wrong things, and their students are not working at a high level. A demanding workload and a difficult test is not rigour. Comprehensive coverage of content is not rigour. The challenge in the classroom comes from requiring students to interpret, analyse, evaluate and make connections. It is for this reason that I really like the title (and the contents) of Robyn Jackson’s book (2010) Never work harder than your students and other principles of great teaching; the title of her work may not suggest it, but she is a proponent of rigorous teaching. Robyn Jackson (2015) has published extensively on rigorous teaching and she claims you can tell a rigorous classroom when students are required to: 1. make meaning for themselves (students have to be doing the thinking to make it rigorous) 2. impose structure on information (the act of organising information deepens understanding) 3. take individual skills and put them together to create an entire process (real thinking requires an entire process not disconnected skills) 4. apply what they have learned in new and novel situations. She encourages every teacher to think rigorously about their planning process, if they want rigour from their students. A good lesson plan or unit outline will show where students are making meaning for themselves; imposing structure on information; using skills to create a process; and applying what they have learned to new and novel situations.

Hart, Natale and Starr (2010) indicate that rigorous teaching is engaging teaching, as it is connected to meaningful learning and that highly engaging teachers have clear goals about student learning. Students are engaged in rigorous learning when the following set of student behaviours can be observed: • task persistence • regular attendance and sustained attention • emotionally, one sees excitement, interest in learning and a sense of belonging in a classroom • students show cognitive engagement by embracing academic challenge, positive self-concept and a desire for continuous learning (Rhodes as cited in Hart, Natale & Starr 2010). Other positive indicators include all students responding (not just one); all students discussing the content/activity in small groups (not just two or three); and, all students being required to write a response to what they are learning (not just a teacher asking for a yes or no response to ‘do you understand?’).

In fact, all students are required to demonstrate their understanding in a rigorous classroom. It is for this reason that teacher as the ‘sage on the stage’ – delivering the content and calling on individual ‘hands up’ responses – has limited effect. All students need to be engaged and demonstrating their learning through activities that make each student accountable for demonstrating their understanding.

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There are many strategies for teaching in a way which demands rigour from students. Here’s a simple example: Asking a student to provide a definition for a word is straightforward. The student may know the definition but not truly understand what the word means and how to apply it. Ask the student to then create a riddle about

the word or a ‘play’ on the word; this requires a deep understanding of the word and the student needs to think critically. At the moment in schools we have teachers working harder than the students because they are creating the riddle, often ‘hoping’ that the analysis and interpretation they have demonstrated will be absorbed by the students who have actually been denied the opportunity to think for themselves and perhaps come up with an even better riddle or play on words.

Ros Curtis

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Hart, Natale and Starr have identified seven components of a rigorous teaching and learning framework, which they claim are ‘at the core of improving teacher effectiveness and advance student learning’ (2010). This framework includes: • beliefs that intelligence is not static and all students can learn (i.e., a growth mindset) • high expectations for continually improving and delivering quality teaching and learning • skilled ongoing collaborative planning that is personalized and differentiated to meet student needs • evidence of student learning for every student – that is gathered and analysed throughout the learning process, including student monitoring of progress • critical thinking that demands that students learn to think logically, analyse and compare, and question and evaluate • research-based instructional practices that call for all students to construct meaning by interacting with authentic content, the teacher, and with other students • positive classroom and school culture and environment formed within a professional learning community (2010). This synthesis of the work of those who promote rigorous teaching provides an overview of what makes for an effective classroom. There has never been a more exciting time in teaching, as ‘rigour’ is not about quantity of information delivered but about the quality of student thinking and the high expectations of teachers. Demanding rigour is not an old-fashion concept leftover from a past era; it is the key feature of a modern, dynamic and engaging classroom. Appendix A

Good and effective instruction is at the heart of a rigorous classroom. The following instructional practices are recommended by Hart, Natale & Starr (2010).

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES

Indicator 1: Communicates explicitly and with clarity

• Communicates what students should know and be able to do— goal or objective • Communicates the agenda or specific tasks or steps that will be accomplished • Refers to the learning goal/objective (what students should know and be able to do) • Communicates directions and procedures clearly and anticipates confusions • Provides opportunities for students to set learning goals and monitor their growth.

Indicator 2: Engages students in learning

• Develops students’ background knowledge • Activates student knowledge and thinking • Makes connections and integrates new learning with previous learning • Models and thinks aloud the thinking and learning processes • Provides opportunities for students to use and create graphic organizers to facilitate their learning before, during, and after instruction • Uses instructional materials that appeal to diverse backgrounds and cultures • Provides opportunities for students to apply complex concepts and processes • Provides opportunities for students to reflect upon and summarize their learning • Checks for understanding in a variety of ways and modifies instruction to meet student needs • Provides opportunities for all students to think and discuss their ideas with other students • Integrates a variety of technology tools and applications into instructional design and implementation • Uses a variety of techniques that provide for total student

response to learning.

Indicator 3: Questions, probes, and facilitates discussion • Asks questions that arouse curiosity and interest • Asks questions to ascertain student knowledge and understanding • Asks questions that require creative and critical thinking and analysis • Uses clear, precise language when posing questions to students • Uses wait time to allow students to process their thinking • Provides opportunities for students to elaborate and build upon ideas and contributions of others • Provides opportunities for students to question and challenge the ideas of others • Checks for understanding • Uses prompts and cues to probe student thinking.

Indicator 4: Provides feedback to students • Provides explicit, constructive feedback in response to student learning • Provides feedback that clarifies misconceptions and confusion • Provides feedback that is timely • Provides equitable feedback • Provides opportunities for students to give feedback to one another.

References Blackburn, B and Williamson, R 2009, ‘Characteristics of a rigorous classroom’ TEPSA (Texas Elementary Principals and Supervisors Association) Instructional Leader, vol. 22, no. 6, pp 1-3, viewed 3 October 2015, http://www.tepsa.org. Hart, P, Natale, L and Starr, C 2010, ‘Recognising rigorous and engaging teaching and learning’ Middle Level Leader E-newsletter, March 2010, viewed 3 October 2015, http://www.nassp.org/ Content.aspx?topic=Recognizing_Rigorous_and_Engaging_Tea. Jackson, R 2010. Never work harder than your students and other principles of great teaching. ASCD, Chicago. What rigor looks like in the classroom 2015, DVD, ASCD, United States. Directed by Robyn Jackson Williamson, R and Blackburn, B, 2011, ‘Recognizing rigor in classrooms: Four Tools for School Leaders’ Principal Leadership, vol 11, no 6, pp 1 -3, viewed 3 October 2015 http://www.principals. org/tabid/3788/default.aspx?topic=Recognizing_Rigor_inClassrooms

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Indicator 5: Uses a variety of grouping structures • Uses whole group instruction to introduce and/or model new learning • Meets with small groups of students to address specific learning needs of students • Plans for flexible and responsive student grouping to

maximize student learning • Uses a variety of grouping structures such as reciprocal teaching and cooperative learning.

Kirsteen Devine Vocation and Alternative Pathways Coordinator

The importance of business and financial literacy The importance of business and financial literacy to Australia’s future prosperity is undeniable. To ensure the ongoing growth and prosperity of Australia, our economy must be robust, diverse and innovative. This has been recently emphasised by politicians, business leaders and economists who have indicated that Australia’s relatively strong position will not be maintained without change to education priorities (Shorten 2015). As such, education plays an essential role at secondary and tertiary levels to facilitate Australia’s competiveness on the world stage. Now more than ever, business literacy must be an essential element of all students’ education. Its importance is emphasised in the national curriculum and opportunities abound for cross-curricular application of business concepts and practices. Lee White (2015), CEO of Chartered Accountants Australia, contends that business and financial literacy will ‘help to ensure that Australia’s productivity continues to improve in coming decades’. Accordingly, business leaders, economists and politicians argue that greater weight must be given to the study of accounting, economics and business generally (Chakrabarty 2012). The Business Educators Australasia Inc. (2008) reporting on the future of schooling in Australia noted that business education must be universal and core curriculum. It has a strong real-life evidence base, providing relevant real-world learning experiences and facilitates engagement in an essential area of practical worth and provides career pathways.

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The next phase of the national curriculum will see business as an integral part of student education up to Year 10. From 2013, the business framework was available for use in Queensland with implementation by 2016 (ACARA 2014). However, the proposed business program is not without its detractors. Australia’s leading bodies for accountancy – the Institute of Chartered Accountants and CPA Australia

(2012) – argue that ‘the business and economics curriculum area needs to be relevant, energised and have real world applicability, and be periodically reviewed; the business and economics curriculum area should commence in the early years, be compulsory throughout all compulsory years of schooling, and be extended into the senior secondary years; and cross-curriculum priorities should be given emphasis and shape all curriculum areas’. Despite disagreement on the certain elements to be taught, levels of compulsory application and holistic emphasis under the national curriculum commonalities exist when discussing the importance of business education generally and opportunities for cross-curricular implementation. A criticism of the national curriculum is the overcrowding of curriculum content. Applying business concepts and practices efficiently and effectively across the curriculum will reduce crowding the curriculum, while providing essential business and life skills to our students. For example: • Business – accounting, economics, business management, business studies/commerce, enterprise • English – report writing, communication and presentations • Humanities- cross cultural economic analysis (contemporary and historically) • Mathematics – data analysis, mortgages, financial mathematics • Science – innovations leading to commercial application • Technology – e-commerce, InDesign, Photoshop

• Art – marketing, advertising, graphic design • Pathway planning, life skills and diploma courses Ellis (2012) argues that in an ideal learning environment ‘a student’s cumulative learning across all subject and school years would connect up to form a holistic picture of financial education over the course of their schooling’. By adopting this approach, opportunities for analysis, critical and higher order thinking with a business theme would be created across the curriculum and throughout the years of schooling. e.g. the creation of an App in IT allows a class to focus on the economic forces impacting on the potential commercial success of the product as they assess its financial viability; thus requiring higher order thinking at many stages of the process. A number of opportunities suggested are currently undertaken at St Margaret’s. However, further opportunities for improving our students’ business and financial literacy across and throughout the curriculum are vast. With the national curriculum upon us, the importance of business education for Australia and our students is undeniable. Despite some concerns regarding core elements of the curriculum, business and financial literacy will be given an elevated status in the years ahead to develop critical and high order thinkers. Just as every Australian plays a part in our economy, so must every teacher and class have a role in educating our students in business and finance. This will ensure they are well prepared for their future and to secure Australia’s financial stability, growth and prosperity.

ASIC 2012, National Financial Literacy Strategy, viewed 2 October 2015, http://www.financialliteracy.gov.au/media/546585/ report-403_national-financial-literacy-strategy-2014-17.pdf

Chartered Accountants and New Zealand 2012, Focusing on business in the national school curriculum, viewed 7 October 2015, http://www.charteredaccountants.com.au/News-Media/Mediacentre/2012/Focusing-on-business-in-the-national-schoolcurriculum.aspx Chartered Accountants Australia and New Zealand 2015, Advocating for business literacy in school curriculum, viewed 3 October 2015, http://www.charteredaccountants.com.au/The-Institute/Who-weare-and-what-we-do/News-and-updates/News/Advocating-forbusiness-financial-literacy-in-school-curriculum CPA Australia and Institute of Chartered Accountants Australia 2012, viewed 15 October 2015, https://www.cpaaustralia.com.au/~/media/corporate/allfiles/ document/professional-resources/education/submission-to-theaustralian-curriculum-review.pdf?la=en Ellis, F 2012, Curriculum Integration is the Start, not the End of the Journey, Commonwealth Bank Foundation, viewed 2 October 2015, https://www.commbank.com.au/content/dam/commbank/assets/ about/who-we-are/in-the-community/Financial-Education-PaperInsights-World.pdf Lusardi, A 2012, ‘Financial Literacy’ is a Fundamental Life Skill in the 21st Century, Commonwealth Bank Foundation, viewed 2 October 2015, https://www.commbank.com.au/content/dam/commbank/ assets/about/who-we-are/in-the-community/Financial-EducationPaper-Insights-World.pdf

Business Educators Australasia Inc. 2008, Business education in Australia’s curriculum, viewed 4 October 2015, http://www.bea. asn.au/cms/files/cms_files/BEA_statement_national_curriculum_

Chakrabarty, KC 2012, Financial Education in Schools, OECD, viewed 13 October 2015, http://www.oecd.org/daf/fin/financial-education/ FinEdSchool_web.pdf

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References ACARA 2014, Australian Curriculum Implementation Timelines August 2014, viewed 22 October 2015, http://www.acara.edu.au/verve/_resources/State_and_ Territory_F-10_Australian_Curriculum_Implementation_ Timelines_August_2014.pdf

FINAL2.pdf

Nanette Dodd Secondary Teacher

Building self-efficacy in mathematics: a discussion of the benefits of second chance testing to junior secondary students Mathematics assessment – historically undertaken at the end of a topic or a term to highlight strengths and weaknesses in student learning, resulting in a grade used to communicate achievement – is notorious for producing winners and losers. By the time students reach secondary school, most are able to define themselves according to this grade. Some students succeed early on, becoming confident test takers who build on their success to learn more; others fail frequently and have fallen further and further behind.

At its core, assessment for learning is about empowering students to know ways to improve their learning, which opens pathways to success for most. Assessment for learning also illustrates, and therefore reinforces, growth mindset messages about learning mathematics.

Self-efficacy is commonly defined as the belief in one’s capabilities to achieve a goal or an outcome. Students with a strong sense of efficacy are more likely to challenge themselves with difficult tasks and be intrinsically motivated. Those with poor self-efficacy have low motivation, associated with disappointing academic performances, which becomes part of a self-fulfilling cycle. In this way, the assessment experience can provide powerful emotional reinforcement for success or failure, optimism or panic, persistence or avoidance, enthusiasm or defeatism.

Second chance testing – the provision of a re-sit test after a period of reflection and revision – responds to research on how the brain works: rather than learning from our mistakes, we learn from correcting our mistakes. This gives all students an opportunity to demonstrate mastery, recognising that it may take some students longer than others to reach this point.

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To enable all students to experience the productive emotional dynamics of success, in 2015 all junior secondary girls at St Margaret’s moved to an assessment for learning regime in mathematics. Assessment for learning can be thought of as having three parts: [1] clear communication of the learning intentions to students; [2] facilitating students’ awareness of where they are on their journey towards these goals; [3] assisting students to close the gap between where they are now and where they need to be.

Re-sitting a test extends the teaching period and allows for the appropriate amount of practice it takes students to be proficient at a task. This is assessing for learning, not assessing to document deficiencies. The consequence for not learning the material before the first test is to learn the material for the second test. The process of reflection is also positive. When a student who has an overall grade of C on the first test analyses her mistakes, the initial feeling of disappointment becomes one of hope. Many of the mistakes are careless errors. She can fix them. Of the many aspects of the term’s work, she discovers that much was well known. More importantly, she knows exactly what she needs to remediate. To prepare for the second chance

test, students are required to map out a plan for revision. How will they study differently this time around? Will they take advantage of maths tutorials to make sure they really understand the work? And after the second test, what have they learnt about themselves as a learner? This knowledge will help them keep up the following term, so the re-sit process shouldn’t be as tough the next time. The move to assessment for learning allows teachers to give students an amazing gift – the gift of their knowledge and insights about ways to improve. (Boaler 2015) As a teacher, I love it that my students go back and make the effort to learn the work, given a second chance. I can see the work ethic improving as a path forward is illuminated. Testing is no longer seen as ‘the writing on the wall’ and there is a sense of hope and elation when the second chance reveals improved results.

References Boaler, J 2015, Aligning Assessment to Brain Science, viewed 1 October 2015, https://www.youcubed.org/think-it-up/aligning-assessmentbrain-science/

Assessment for learning has the potential to help all students succeed in meeting required standards. Moreover, it creates a vastly different cycle of self-efficacy, tapping

Another student’s reflection sums up the power of second chance testing: This year it has all started clicking. I’m excited about the new units to come.

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Students in Years 7 and 8 mathematics classes were asked for their opinions on re-sit tests. Many of the comments were similar to this one: I think that it is amazing that we get a second chance to get our best grade because I can first understand my level and see what to work on and then really learn that material to do better on the second test.

into the confidence, motivation and learning potential that resides in every student. By using assessment to empower students to improve, we can help our students develop positive attitudes towards mathematics and themselves.

Angela Drysdale Head of Primary School

Ailsa Crockett Primary Learning Enhancement

Can automaticity and achievement in the mental calculation of number facts be improved through consistent, regular and explicit teaching of cognitive strategies? Traditionally, the teaching of mental calculations in mathematics has focused on instruction and practice to develop accuracy. However, there is a growing body of research showing that accuracy should not be the sole measure of mastery. A measure of fluency should also be an integral part of mastery. According to Poncy (2009), fluency is responding both accurately and quickly. As a new skill is learnt, increased fluency in that skill leads to the skill becoming automatic. Automaticity is the fact that the skill can be performed with minimal awareness (Hartnedy, Mozzoni & Fahoum 2005; Howell & Larson-Howell 1990; in Poncy 2009) and usually with a timeframe of three seconds (Van de walle & Lovin 2006). Automaticity of maths facts, as information-processing theory suggests, is fundamental to success in many areas of higher mathematics (Siemon et al. 2012). Woodward (2006) states that without the ability to retrieve facts directly or automatically, students are likely to experience high cognitive load as they perform a range of complex tasks.

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There is a perceived discrepancy between the proficiency strands, as outlined in the Australian Curriculum, of understanding, fluency, problem solving and reasoning, evidenced in the students’ NAPLAN data, and the teachers’ observations on the students’ automaticity and achievement on mental calculation of number facts in the classroom. The teachers noticed that students were unable to recall number facts automatically when required. However, when given time, which the NAPLAN test affords, students could work out the facts. Deeper analysis of NAPLAN data showed

that while each year our cohort performed significantly above the state and national mean, our results had not improved significantly overall. The teachers were aware of the role of automaticity of decoding skills for fluency and comprehension in reading development and wondered if automaticity of mental calculations would have the same impact on numeracy development. St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School is committed to providing excellent learning opportunities for all students. The ultimate goal of effective learning is the development of a student’s capacity to transfer her understandings to new and unfamiliar situations. Concepts and skills explored and developed in classrooms should be able to be applied in a diverse range of educational and broader and life contexts. The school has articulated a framework for effective teaching and learning which fosters this process by addressing three elements: the classroom/school environment, the pedagogy within it; and a taxonomy of learning which directs students towards building their capacity for transfer. All education is guided by the Melbourne Declaration, which highlights Australia’s commitment to providing quality and equitable education to ensure ‘the nation’s ongoing economic prosperity and social cohesion’ (p. 4). In its preamble the declaration highlights the importance of numeracy as the ‘cornerstone’ of schooling for young Australians (p. 5). In particular, proficiency in mathematics

is a strong predictor of positive outcomes for young adults, influencing their ability to participate in post-secondary education and their expected future earnings (OECD 2014).

Perhaps this change to approach is the outcome of the results in the 2011 Trends in International Mathematics

In the learning process, according to Hattie (2003), it is teachers who make a difference. In the classroom it is the teacher who creates an intellectually stimulating climate, models learning and problem-solving activities, asks provocative questions, and provides support to students through coaching and guidance, while fostering the student’s responsibility for their own learning (Verschaffel, & De Corte 1996). Hattie (2013) identified 60 factors

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Mathematics underpins many sophisticated information and communication technologies. In today’s society, individuals are required to make sense of vast amounts of quantitative and spatial information presented in increasingly sophisticated multimedia formats. They also need to make decisions on the basis of their understanding and be able to justify their decisions when required. According to Becker and Selter (1996, p. 521), the ‘ultimate objective of student learning at all levels is the acquisition of a mathematical disposition’. This view is consistent with Bishop’s (1991) view of mathematics as ‘a way of knowing’ rather than ‘a way of doing’. The values represented in this view are reflected in the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics (ACARA 2015) in the form of the proficiencies, specifically conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, problem solving (or strategic competence) and adaptive reasoning. Mathematics needs to be experienced; strategies need to be scaffolded; everything needs to be discussed. This aligns with 21st century learning research, which highlights the development of mental computation skills as a goal of all mathematics programs.

and Science Study (TIMSS) which rates Australia’s status on the world education stage (Martin et al. 2012). Australia has participated in the four year cycle of TIMSS since 1995 and during this time there has been no improvement except for a small one in Year 4 mathematics. However, the results of 2011 testing found that Year 4 students were significantly outperformed in 17 countries in mathematics. This result is also justification for pedagogical change to enhance student improvement and achievement in mathematics. Most people’s calculation needs for day-to-day activities can be met by having well developed mental computational processes. And although technology has replaced paper and pencil as a major tool for complex computations, it is still necessary for students to develop effective mental strategies to judge the reasonableness of the answers generated by technology (Souza, cited in Siemon et al. 2011). ‘Nothing empowers students more with confidence, and a level of independence in mathematics, than a command of the number facts’ (p. 7).

Angela Drysdale and Ailsa Crockett

influencing student achievement; 57 of these are within the control of schools and teachers. Those within the control of teachers are the taught curriculum, classroom practices, and pedagogical decisions and practices. These aspects often have a profound impact on the degree to which students become confident learners of mathematics; learners who recognise that maths is not just a collection of facts to remember.

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Students need to learn that mental calculations are a way of thinking, reasoning and communicating mathematically. Research shows that when opportunities for deeper learning are integrated into lessons students begin to see mathematics in a new, more useful and more accurate way (Miller & Hudson 2007). Given this influence, it is imperative that teachers are supported through professional development to develop their mathematical understanding and teaching skills, especially given that most early childhood and primary school teachers are generalists with little specialist expertise in mathematics education (Heirdsfield et al. 2008). There is a body of evidence supporting the need for this professional development to be continuous and ongoing, and aimed at improving â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;teacher content knowledge of mental computation along with pedagogy specifically focussed on the importance of this aspect of mathsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Heirdsfield & Lamb 2005, p. 425). This aspect of maths is vital as it underpins the development of number sense, place value, and the use of the operations. This fundamental way of thinking needs to be pursued to give students the foundational mathematical understanding necessary to confidently proceed to higher mathematics.

Teachers need to incorporate mastery of basic math facts, including the ability to recall the facts quickly and with little effort. Haring & Eaton (1978) refer to this as fluency, while Hasslebring, Goin & Bransford (1987) refer to this as automaticity. Developing automaticity with basic mathematical facts is critical. Cognitive processing theories indicate that we have a limited cognitive capacity making it difficult to consciously attend to multiple tasks simultaneously, unless some of these tasks require little time, cognitive effort, working memory, and/or conscious attention (Pellegrino & Goldman 1987). Therefore enhancing automaticity of basic math facts may free up cognitive resources, such as attention and working memory that can be applied to learning more complex tasks (Dehaene, S & Cohen, L 1997). Promoting automaticity with basic math facts may enhance acquisition of more complex skills when basic fact accuracy is a component step of the more complex skill (Poncy, Skinner & Jaspers 2007).

Acknowledgements This article reports on the findings from a ‘Teachers as Researchers Project’ (2015) funded by an Independent Schools Queensland (ISQ) school grant, provided by Student First Support Fund (an Australian Government initiative).

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References Becker, JP & Selter, C 1996, Elementary school practices. International handbook of mathematics education, Springer, Netherlands Blind, K 2012, ‘The influence of regulations on innovation: A quantitative assessment for OECD countries’, Research Policy, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 391-400. Bishop, AJ 1991, Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. Crawford, DB 2003, ‘The third stage of learning math facts: Developing automaticity’, unpublished manuscript, viewed 27 February 2015, https://www.rocketmath.com/uploads/Math_ Facts_Research.pdf Dehaene, S & Cohen, L 1997, ‘Cerebral pathways for calculation: double dissociation between rote verbal and quantitative knowledge of arithmetic’, Cortex, vol. 33, pp. 219-250. Ministerial Council on Education, Training and Youth Affairs 2008, Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians, viewed on 25 February 2015, http://www.curriculum.edu.au/ verve/_resources/National_Declaration_on_the_Educational_ Goals_for_Young_Australians.pdf Finnane, M 2005, ‘Automatised errors: A hazard for students with mathematical learning difficulties’, In Chick, HL & Vincent, JL (eds.), Proceedings of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education vol. 1, p. 239. Melbourne: PME. Finnane, MK 2007, ‘The role of fluency in mathematical development: Factors associated with early learning difficulties in mathematics’, PhD Thesis, University of Queensland. Haring, NG, & Eaton, MD 1978, In Poncy, BC, Skinner, CH & Jaspers, KE 2007, ‘Evaluating and comparing interventions designed to enhance math fact accuracy and fluency: Cover, copy, and compare versus taped problems’, Journal of Behavioural Education, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 27-37 Hasselbring, TS, Goin, LI & Bransford, JD 1987, ‘Developing automaticity’, Teaching Exceptional Children, vol. 19, no. 3. pp, 30-32. Hattie, J 1999, ‘Influences on student learning’, John Hattie Inaugural Lecture: Professor of Education University of Auckland August 2, 1999, viewed online http://xn--www-rp0a. teacherstoolbox.co.uk/downloads/managers/Influencesonstudent. pdf Hattie, J, Biggs, J & Purdie, N 1996, ‘Effects of learning skills interventions on student learning: A meta-analysis’, Review of Educational Research, vol. 66, no. 2, pp. 99-136. Hattie, J 2002, ‘What are the attributes of excellent teachers?’ In Teachers make a difference: What is the research evidence? pp. 3-26, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, Wellington. Hattie, J 2013, Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement, Routledge, New York. Heirdsfield, A 2005, ‘One teacher’s role in promoting understanding in mental computation’, Proceedings of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education vol. 1, p. 113, Melbourne: PME. Heirdsfield, AM & Lamb, JT 2005, ‘Mental Computation: The Benefits of Informed Teacher Instruction’, In P Clarkson, A Downtown, D Gronn, M Horne, A McDonough, R Pierce, & A Roche (eds.), Proceedings MERGA 28 - 2005 Building connections: Theory, research and practice 2, pp. 419-426, Melbourne. Heirdsfield, AM & Lamb, JT 2006, ‘Teacher actions: Enhancing the learning of mental computation in year 2’. In Novotná, J, Moraová, H, Krátká, M & Stehlíková, N (eds.), Proceedings of the 30th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Vol. 3, pp. 281-288. Prague: PME. Heirdsfield, AM & Lamb, JT 2007, ‘Year 2 inaccurate but flexible

mental computers: teacher actions supporting growth’. In Australian Association for Research in Education, 26 November - 30 November 2006, Adelaide, Australia. Heirdsfield, AM & Lamb, JT & Spry, G 2009, ‘Professional learning: implementing new mathematics content’, 1-14. In PL Jeffery (ed.), AARE 2008 International Education Research Conference : Changing Climates : Education for Sustainable Futures, 30 November - 4 December 2008, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane. Heirdsfield, AM, Lamb, JT & Spry, G 2010, ‘Leading learning within a PLC: Implementing new mathematics content’, The Montana Mathematics Enthusiast, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 93-112. Martin, MO, Mullis, IV, Foy, P & Stanco, GM 2012. TIMSS 2011 International Results in Science. International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, The Netherlands. Miller, SP & Hudson, PJ 2007, Using Evidence Based Practices to Build Mathematics Competence Related to Conceptual, Procedural, and Declarative Knowledge. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 47-57. OECD 2014, PISA 2012 Results in Focus: What 15-year-olds know and what they can do with what they know, viewed 27 February 2015, http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview. pdf Pellegrino, JW & Goldman, SR 1987, ‘Information processing and elementary mathematics. Journal of Learning Disabilities’, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 23-32. Poncy, BC, Skinner, CH & Jaspers, KE 2007, ‘Evaluating and comparing interventions designed to enhance math fact accuracy and fluency: Cover, copy, and compare versus taped problems’, Journal of Behavioural Education, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 27-37. Poncy, BC, Fontenelle IV, SF & Skinner, CH 2013, ‘Using detect, practice, and repair (DPR) to differentiate and individualize math fact instruction in a class-wide setting’, Journal of Behavioural Education, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 211-228. Poncy, B. et al. 2009. Developing math automaticity using a classwide fluency building procedure for middle school students: A preliminary study. Psychology in the Schools, vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 526-538. Rathgeb-Schierer, E & Green, M 2013, Flexibility in mental calculation in elementary students from different math classes. CERME. Viewed 27 February 2015, http://cerme8.metu.edu.tr/wgpapers/WG2/ WG2_Rathgeb_Schnierer.pdf Riel, M 2010, Understanding Action Research, Center for Collaborative Action Research. Pepperdine University, viewed 7 October 2015, http://cadres.pepperdine.edu/ccar/define.html Siemon, D, Beswick, K, Brady, K, Clark, J, Faragher, R & Warren, E 2011, Teaching mathematics: Foundations to middle years, Oxford University Press, South Melbourne, Victoria. Van de Walle, JA & Lovin, LH 2006, Teaching student-centered mathematics: Grades K-3, Pearson, Boston, MA. Verschaffel, L, & De Corte, E 1996, ‘Number and arithmetic’. In AJ Bishop, K Clements, C Keitel, J Kilpatrick & C Laborde (eds.), International Handbook of Mathematics Education, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. Woodward, J 2006, ‘Developing automaticity in multiplication facts: Integrating strategy instruction with timed practice drills’, Learning Disability Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 269-289.

Kirsty Findlater Secondary Teacher

Nutrition amongst adolescent athletes When considering the overall performance and wellbeing of young athletes, it’s important to consider nutrition – a balanced, healthy and energyproducing diet. Physical activity is highly recommended for children due to the sociological, physiological and psychological benefits (Bass & Inge 2010). There are, however, possible negative effects on development, nutrient and energy intake, particularly when an individual is undertaking intense training (Bass & Inge 2010). When considering the nutritional needs of an adolescent athlete, it is necessary to account for growth and development. This is in addition to the energy expenditure from basal metabolic rate, thermic effect of food, spontaneous physical activity, physical activity and thermogenesis (University of Queensland 2015). Due to this, adolescents will have different nutritional needs (University of Queensland 2015). To ensure normal growth patterns, adequate energy through dietary intake must be provided (University of Queensland 2015). If these energy requirements are not met, health issues such as delayed puberty, poor skeletal growth and maturation, menstrual irregularities and bone weakness are likely to be experienced (Australian Institute of Sport 2010; University of Queensland 2015). For this reason, we can recommend a number of energy and nutrient intake levels, including protein, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals, fat and fluids.

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The intake of protein for adolescent athletes needs to be considered to avoid issues such as a delay in muscle recovery. When it comes to dietary requirements, we need to treat adolescent athletes differently to adults taking into consideration the growth and development these athletes are experiencing (Bass & Inge 2010).

Research indicates that growth spurts for girls are likely to occur at the age of eleven (Malina 1994). At this time, the intake of protein needs to be higher than that of adults

(Bass & Inge 2010). If an athlete enjoys a diet where their energy requirements are being met, then they are likely to be consuming enough protein to sustain their training program (Bass & Inge 2010; University of Queensland 2015). The majority of children and adolescents meet or exceed the recommendation of 1.2 to 2g per kilogram of body mass per day (Lemon 1998; Australian Bureau of Statistics 2014). Young athletes at risk of not meeting this protein recommendation include vegetarians, fussy eaters or athletes who are consuming a high carbohydrate diet (University of Queensland 2015). Although many young athletes do not participate in sports long enough to deplete the storage of glycogen within the muscle, the intake of carbohydrates still needs to be considered (University of Queensland 2015). These individuals need to ensure that the consumption of carbohydrates reflects their daily energy demands to replace the muscle glycogen stores used (Australian Institute of Sport 2013; University of Queensland 2015). Intense and repetitive training sessions place a large demand upon the body’s energy reserves (University of Queensland 2015). If carbohydrate stores between training sessions aren’t replenished, it is likely that the adolescent athlete will experience a drop in performance (Burke & Deakin 2010). There are a number of vitamins and minerals that need to be included in an adolescent athlete’s diet to ensure growth and development. These include iron, calcium and zinc (University of Queensland 2015). Females undergoing puberty and in particular, those menstruating, are likely to experience iron deficiencies with up to 50 per cent of adolescents having low iron stores (University of Queensland 2015). High intensity training could also

her body. If an athlete is not comfortable with the shape of her developing body, this may influence her to change her dietary habits (University of Queensland 2015). Amongst adolescent females aged between 13 to 16 years, up to 50 per cent did not meet the energy intake requirements (Bass & Inge 2010). As well, one in five children tend to skip breakfast (O’Dea & Mugridge 2003) If young athletes skip breakfast, they are less likely to achieve the optimum energy balance of intake and expenditure (University of Queensland 2015). A failure to consume the adequate amount of food can result in fatigue and poor performance (Australian Institute of Sport 2013).

contribute to further iron loss (Australian Institute of Sport 2013; Andrew 2010; University of Queensland 2015). These adolescents may need iron supplements. Zinc supplementation should also be considered in the diet of young athletes. If there is a significant deficiency, then the onset of maturation will be delayed (University of Queensland 2015). As children and adolescents grow and develop, they need high calcium intake. This is partly due to the increase in bone length and mass that the skeleton undergoes (University of Queensland 2015). According to Bass & Inge (2010), approximately 89 per cent of girls aged between 12 and 16 years do not meet the daily intake requirements for calcium. Of particular concern is that during a period of growth, particularly in 10 to 12 year-olds, there is a high risk of bone fractures (University of Queensland 2015). To avoid this problem, it is essential to ensure the intake of calcium is adequate. In young athletes, fat is the fuel source used for energy expenditure. Therefore, they need to consume enough fat to meet these energy demands (University of Queensland 2015). Most athletes will consume adequate fat within their normal diet. Fluid intake ensures that body temperature is regulated. Because adolescent athletes are still developing, the process of thermoregulation is not as efficient as in adults (University of Queensland 2015). Children and adolescents are more likely to experience hyper and hypothermia; their body relies on peripheral blood distribution rather than sweating (University of Queensland 2015). Guidelines for fluid intake recommend adolescents drink 300 – 400mL of fluids within 45 minutes prior to exercising, then 150 – 200mL every 20 minutes and a liberal intake of fluids at the conclusion of exercise. If a young athlete fails to follow these guidelines, they may experience heat stress while training and competing in hot, humid environments (University of Queensland 2015).

References Andrew, K 2010, ‘Practice Tips’, In L Burke & V Deakin (eds.), Clinical Sports Nutrition, McGraw-Hill, Sydney.

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2014, Australian Health Survey: Nutrition First Results - Foods and Nutrients, 2011-12, viewed 30 August 2015, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/43 64.0.55.007main+features12011-12 Australian Institute of Sport 2013, Coping with High Energy Demands, Australian Sports Commission, viewed 30 August 2015, http:// www.ausport.gov.au/ais/nutrition/factsheets/case_histories_in_ sports_nutrition/coping_with_high_energy_demands Australian Institute of Sport 2010, Swimming, Australian Sports Commission, viewed 30 August 2015, http://www.ausport.gov.au/ ais/nutrition/factsheets/sports/swimming Bass, S & Inge, K 2010, ‘Nutrition for special populations: children and young athletes’, In Clinical Sports Nutrition, McGraw-Hill, Sydney. Burke, L & Deakin, V 2010, Clinical sports nutrition, McGraw-Hill, Sydney Lemon, P 1999, ‘Effects of exercise on dietary protein requirements’, International Journal of Sports Nutrition, vol. 8, pp. 426-447. O’Dea, J & Mugridge, A 2012, ‘Nutritional quality of breakfast and physical activity independently predict the literacy and numeracy scores of children after adjusting for socioeconomic status’, Health Education Research, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 975-985. Malina, R 1994, ‘Physical growth and biological maturation of young athletes’, Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, vol. 22, pp. 389433. University of Queensland 2015, NUTR7009 Nutrition for Special Populations, seminar 6, online lecture and PowerPoint slides, viewed 30 August 2015, www.elearning.uq.edu.au

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Children and adolescents are highly influenced by their peers about their food habits (University of Queensland 2015). Body image can become a big focus for many young athletes (Andrew 2010). Many young people are selfconscious about their bodies; for example a young female athlete may be embarrassed about the high muscularity of

In conclusion, we need to take into consideration the total energy expenditure of an adolescent athlete to determine whether there is an imbalance of energy. A negative balance of energy will lead to the athlete experiencing a drop in performance and fatigue (Australian Institute of Sport 2013). Parents and athletes would benefit from education about nutritional strategies to ensure that adolescent health and wellbeing can be maintained (Andrew 2010).

Sarah Flamsteed Primary Teacher

The importance of professional mentoring and the development of early career teachers: my graduate experience Beginning teachers face a difficult road ahead when entering their profession. The high attrition rates of early career teachers (ECTs) in Australian schools indicate that we must question the efficacy and sustainability of our current teacher education programs (Hudson 2012). It is necessary for such programs to better understand the experiences of ECTs to address the problems of low retention rates within the profession and to develop a strong and sustainable pool of teachers to lead the education system in the near future (Johnson et al. 2010; Hudson 2012). At St Margaretâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Anglican Girls School in 2014, a group of dedicated teachers designed a mentoring program for early career teachers to be implemented in 2015. The following article addresses key understandings underpinning the need for effective teacher induction programs; it also reflects on my personal experience as a graduate within St Margaretâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 2015 program. This program gave me a wonderful and rare opportunity to begin my teaching career with a level of professional support that is so necessary within the profession, yet currently not being offered across the board. The importance of supporting ECTs

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Teaching is a fast-paced career in which professional expectations are increasing in both pressure and complexity. Support networks and appropriate induction programs are failing to transition new teachers from university settings into full time teaching practice (Hudson 2012; Korthagen, Loughran & Russell 2006). The alarmingly high attrition rates of ECTs point to serious concerns about the sustainability and effectiveness of teacher education

programs. There is a need to restructure existing induction processes to support the transition of new teachers into professional teaching roles. Given the current social, economic and political context surrounding the teaching profession, there is little dispute that these are difficult times to be a teacher (Johnson et al. 2010). Teachers face expectations to remain at the forefront of their professional practice, respond to the changing nature of students and families, and teach in alignment with constantly changing curriculum documents and policy changes. They are also expected to keep up with new and different information and communication technology (Pearce & Morrison 2011; Johnson et al. 2012). These aspects are just some of many highlighting the increasing scope and complexity of the teaching profession (Johnson et al. 2010). As students graduate from university they face the same challenges as more experienced teachers within a changing work environment. The key difference for new career teachers is that they face these challenges without adequate field experience, while simultaneously having to adapt to the pressures of a new working environment and lifestyle (Hudson 2012). It has been evidenced that beginning teachers need extensive support when entering their career and are learning significantly during their first year in a school. It is not possible for them to be offered a full range of experiences indicative of what is required of a teacher within a true school environment while studying at university, although they enter the profession with an

optimal performance within their role (Johnson et al. 2012). As the first years of teaching are particularly challenging, relationships become vital in developing resilience in beginning teachers, a factor that is integral for adaptation within new and challenging environments (Le Cornu 2013; Pearce & Morrison 2011). Resilience is defined as ‘the process of, capacity for, or outcome of successful adaptation despite challenging or threatening circumstances’ (Masten, Best & Garmezy 1990, p. 245). Having a mentor who has been willing, emotionally supportive and selfless in the important and multifaceted role of guiding a graduate teacher has directly helped me to develop resilience within the teaching profession this year. For this positive and supportive relationship, I am truly thankful.

unparalleled level of energy and enthusiasm to succeed (Hudson 2012). It is here, at this juxtaposition of ambition and inexperience that the system needs to support and protect these young professionals if we are to harness the potential strength that ECTs have to offer our education system (Hudson 2012; Abbott-Chapman 2005).

Mentoring Early Career Teacher Project (MECT) – my experience

Reflecting on my experience as a graduate teacher in 2015, I could not have asked for a more supportive professional environment in which to commence my career and further my own development as an educator. An accumulation of Australian and international research on the experience of ECTs reveals recurring trends in the challenges faced by teachers as they enter their career which can be directly connected to low retention rates within the profession (Johnson et al. 2012). Below, I reflect on two significant areas where I have benefited as a result of being a part the mentoring program at St Margaret’s this year.

The second area I wish to reflect on is the emotional and psychological benefits of the mentee experience. Research shows that positive staff relationships and emotional support for ECTs is vital in supporting their health and wellbeing, as well as encouraging continued enthusiasm and

References Abbott-Chapman, J 2005. ‘Let’s keep our beginning teachers!’ Principal Matters, Summer, pp. 2-4. Hudson, P 2012, Beginning teachers’ achievements and challenges: Implications for induction and mentoring. Proceedings of the Australian Teacher Educators Association (ATEA) Conference, Glenelg, South Australia, Queensland University of Technology, pp. 2-7. Johnson, B, Down, B, Le Cornu, R, Peters, J, Sullivan, A, Pearce, J & Hunter, J 2010, Conditions that support early career teacher resilience. Proceedings of the Australian Teacher Educators Association (ATEA) Conference, Townsville, Queensland, Australian Teacher Educators Association (ATEA) Conference, pp. 1-9. Korthagen, F, Loughran, J & Russell, T 2006, ‘Developing fundamental principles for teacher education programs and practices’, Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 22, no. 8, pp. 10201041. Le Cornu, R 2013, ‘Building Early Career Teacher Resilience: The Role of Relationships’, Australian Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 38, no. 4. Long, J, McKenzie-Robblee, S, Schaefer, L, Steeves, P, Wnuk, S, Pinnegar, E & Clandinin, D 2012, ‘Literature Review on Induction and Mentoring Related to Early Career Teacher Attrition and Retention’, Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 7-26. Masten, A, Best, K & Garmezy, N 1990, ‘Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity’, Development and Psychopathology, vol. 2, no. 4 Pearce, J & Morrison, C 2011, ‘Teacher Identity and Early Career Resilience: Exploring the Links’, Australian Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 36, no. 1.

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The first area is the significant professional support I have received from my mentor teacher throughout the year. My mentor introduced me to the key business of teaching and has guided my practice to successfully deliver the curriculum in an innovative, appropriate and effective manner. Research shows that pre-service education does not at all equip teachers with adequate knowledge, or the skills and dispositions to meet the expectations of classroom teaching (Johnson et al. 2012). ECTs are faced with a significant dissonance between their idealistic expectations (developed during a theory-based tertiary education) and the daily realities of classroom teaching (Abbott-Chapman 2005). My mentor has offered me guidance through the structure of curriculum documents and their application in planning, assessment reporting formalities, as well as pedagogical approaches in a very real setting. This support has allowed me to implement curriculum and deliver content with confidence.

I conclude by reiterating just how influential and positive my involvement in this program has been. I have felt supported and enriched within this school in 2015 and I know that I can attribute a lot of my confidence to the assistance and guidance I have received from my mentor teacher. Being able to strike a balance between supporting an ECT while still allowing them to feel valued and begin to develop a strong professional identity can be challenging. I can definitely say that I have felt both supported and encouraged to take risks and to excel in the best possible way. I hope to continue within such a beneficial program in the future and feel comforted by the joy and professional satisfaction I have found this year working in a career that is stimulating, challenging and which promotes my own desire for lifelong learning.

Lesa Fowler Head of Boarding

I’ve got all my sisters with me: the importance of the buddy system in connectedness to boarding and the school The buddy system can offer vital support during pivotal moments in a young girl’s life. It draws on a resource that is available in every school and, if planned in detail, can be very successful for both the older student and their buddy. The concept of a structured buddy program in boarding and schools has been referred to by some as a ‘sleeping giant’ (Parsons 2008). The idea of a buddy system has been in schools for a number of years. However, to ensure the program is a success, it needs to be a structured process which involves: interviewing potential students who have a genuine desire to help younger students; training that gives students the right techniques to ensure the relationship develops in a positive way; support staff to monitor the progress; an outline of commitments and events in which each student must participate; and open communication between all parties involved.

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There are many benefits of a successful buddy program. Buddy programs can promote mental health wellbeing, allowing student concerns and worries to be addressed in an empathetic and non-judgmental way: buddies feel safer in the boarding environment and at school. Having a ‘big sister’ the younger student can rely on promotes a sense of connectedness to the boarding house and the school. “Young people can be effective mentors and support other young people in key stages of their development. They can act as role models, raising aspirations and achievements and exerting a powerful influence on young people” (Herrera et al. 2008). Both the buddy and their ‘big sister’ gain from this experience; a good buddy system promotes relationships that develops personal growth for both parties. The ‘big sister’ must rise to the challenge of

becoming a positive role model. She must accept ownership and run activities herself, take on a leadership role, show empathy and understanding, and importantly, learn important communication skills. The buddy will feel a deeper sense of connectedness to the boarding house and school. They feel safer, their academic achievements can be positively affected, and their social skills and attitude to boarding and school life may be improved. The buddy system or mentoring program (in the USA and UK) has been particularly successful in offering support at critical times such as transition. One teacher’s comments from a pilot study in the UK describe the effectiveness of a buddy system particularly for Year 7s. This program has had a profound impact in our school. Our students’ self-esteem has been enhanced by their active involvement in a scheme that promotes independent learning and citizenship skills … Feedback from projects indicates a high degree of satisfaction with peer mentoring programs and the beneficial effect they can have on pupils involved directly and on the whole school environment. Peer mentoring adds an extra level to the pastoral support offered by the school; it helps to convey the message that this is a school that cares about its pupils (Parson 2008). Younger students enjoy drawing on the experience of older students and often look up to them as a source of wisdom. They often relate to their ‘big sister’ in a trusting way. At this young age it is vital the relationship develops in a positive way and that the ‘big sister’ maintains a caring relationship with their buddy.

Ongoing training and support is necessary to help the ‘big sisters’; then when problems arise they know there is someone to go to for help. The training empowers the girls to understand what is required from a buddy, how to give positive praise, and different activities they may wish to share with their buddy to enhance their relationship. Giving the ‘big sisters’ an understanding of the developmental needs of different age groups also helps them understand some of the demands which may be put on them by their buddies. They also need to learn when it is necessary to say no. Training also covers friendship issues and their impacts on different girls and how to deal with these issues. The training should be ongoing and ‘big sisters’ must have access to staff for debriefing and advice. This training will ensure the success of the program.

The implementation of a successful big sister program needs to be done with care and concern for both parties involved. Those overseeing the program need to ensure that the ‘big sisters’ are enthusiastic, committed and reliable. The reliability of a ‘big sister’ to be there when she says she will is key to building trust in the relationship (MBF 2004).

Connectedness is the key to the successful transition to boarding and school. The Big Sister Program will be a fundamental element in the successful transition of new girls to boarding and its success relies on the implementation and ongoing training and monitoring of the ‘big sisters’.

References Garringer, M & MacRae, P 2008. Building Effective Peer Mentoring Programs in Schools: An Introductory Guide, The Mentoring Resource Centre, Folsom, California. Herrera, C, Kauh, TJ, Cooney, SM, Grossman, JB & Mcmaken, J 2008. High School Students as Mentors: Findings from the Big Brothers Big Sisters School-Based Mentoring Impact Study, Public / Private Ventures, Philadelphia. MBF n.d., MBF National Peer Mentoring Pilot: Dissemination Manual, Mentoring and Befriending Foundation, Manchester. Nelson, A 2003, ‘Peer Mentoring: A Citizenship Entitlement at Tanfield School’, Pastoral Care in Education, vol. 21, pp. 34-41. Parsons, C, Maras, P, Knowles, C, Bradshaw, V, Hollingworth, K & Monteiro, H 2008, Formalised Peer Mentoring: Pilot Evaluation, Canterbury Christ Church University, United Kingdom. Philip, DK & Spratt, J 2007, A Synthesis of Published Research on Mentoring and Befriending: for The Mentoring and Befriending Foundation, Mentoring and Befriending Foundation, Manchester. Powell, MA 1997, ‘Peer Tutoring and Mentoring Services for Disadvantaged Secondary School Students’, California Research Bureau, vol 4, no. 2, pp. 1-10.

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A structured selection process, focused on relevant skills and qualities, is essential to the success of the program. In boarding at St Margaret’s, the 2016 Year 11 students have been selected as the ‘big sisters’. Each interested student must attend an interview to identify that they are enthusiastic, committed and reliable. They must also agree to a set of expectations, which include: 1. a two year commitment 2. weekly contact with their buddy 3. communication with their buddy in term 4 and over the christmas holidays 4. meet and help their buddy on orientation day if possible 5. fortnightly activity with their buddy for one hour 6. write an article with their buddy for the boarding newsletter 7. set goals to achieve with their buddy 8. build their buddy’s self esteem 9. help their buddy with their homework if required 10. be an active listener 11. be available on the day they return to boarding in term 1 to help their buddy to settle in 12. sit with their buddy at dinner on the same table 13. attend the buddy breakfast 14. meet and greet their buddy’s parents and introduce themselves and reassure them they will be there to help their daughter 15. send an email to their buddy’s parents in the first week of term to let them know what they have been doing to help them 16. be available on the mornings of the first two weeks of school to help their buddy – one of the greatest stresses is not knowing where to go 17. help their buddy in the afternoon or evenings to organise themselves for the next day.

Underpinning all aspects of the ‘big sister’ program are the 5 Cs: competence – encouraging actions in a positive way; confidence – establishing overall positive self-worth, self-efficacy and identity; connection – establishing positive bonds with others, the boarding house, peers, family and the community; character – respect for societal and school values and standards of correct behaviour (St Margaret’s Way); and caring and compassion – a sense of sympathy and empathy for others.

Therese Garrahy Secondary Teacher

Working memory Educational ideas based in neuroscience are an increasing area of interest and study as educators look for a means of understanding students and how they learn. Memory is one of the keys to learning, and educators are becoming more and more interested in what we used to call short term memory – now known as ‘working memory’. The working memory (WM) is used for a very short period of time (perhaps a few seconds) but strongly influences our ability to do a significant number of things – not only our general understanding and knowledge retention (and overall academic success), but also our means of negotiating any spatial area (virtual or real). Many computer games use and develop the visual spatial area, and these games could be used to develop this area in students who have difficulties with spatial tasks.

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WM is important within the classroom as it is the part of the brain where instructions are held. If students have difficulty in following instructions, are considered to have a short attention span or are easily distracted, it may be because of their poor working memory. Other factors causing limited WM could be distractions (other children, computers, noise etc), trying to hold too much information, or engaging in a demanding task. The latter two of these will need the support of long term memory. If the task is particularly difficult, then ‘chunking’ may occur. Chunking is the grouping together of pieces of information. In previous years it had been suggested that the brain could hold seven pieces of information before chunking came in to play. New research has shown that the number of pieces is now three to five. These chunks help in the way the WM operates in young adults (Halford, Cowen & Andrews 2007, cited in Cowen 2012).

An important aspect of WM, which relates to the chunking of information, is the ‘central component’ (Halford, Cowen & Andrews 2007, cited in Cowen 2012). In fact the central component drives the whole of WM, according to McLeod (2012), and allocates material to a visual-spatial sketch pad and a phonological loop (spoken and written words). The central component decides what is important to the individual and causes the individual to pay attention and ignores other things it considers to be unimportant. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the students understand why some material is particularly important. This helps them pay more attention to it and the processes needed for interpretation. Nelson Cowen in his Working Memory Capacity Limits (2012) indicates that WM is involved in the retaining of ideas (early and late sentence structure), problem solving and planning. He cites his earlier paper (2005) indicating that the capacity varies among people and can change over a life span. This is indicated in a study by Gathecole and Alloway (2008) who found that WM in adults can be more than double that of a four year old. There is also a finding that children who are seven to eight years old can vary in WM from that of a four year old to an 11 year old, and that students who are slower at their work will also have a slower growth of WM than others of the same physical age. This will have significant impacts in the way classroom material is managed, especially in the early years. The growth of WM is important for child development within and outside school.

In a study on WM discussed in Teaching Science (Price et al. June 2015), the difference between younger (ages 12 -13) and older (ages 15-16) students’ working memories was examined with the aid of Steinberg’s 1966 test and EEG recordings. It clearly indicated that there was a difference between the two groups in the prefrontal lobe structures. These structures are associated with the efficient transfer of material. In the older students these were more developed and enabled students to derive meaning more quickly and remember more directions. So even a physical age difference of one or two years can have a significant effect on a student’s ability to process meaning and solve problems.

References Cowen, N 2012, Working Memory Capacity Limits, viewed 15 October 2015, http://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/ cd/19_1_inpress/Cowan_final.pdf?q=the-recall

Gathercole, S & Packlam Alloway, T 2008, Working Memory and Learning: A Practical Guide for Teachers, SAGE Publications, Los Angeles. Hattie, J 2015, Proceedings of the Australian College of Educators conference, Brisbane. McLeod, S 2012, Working Memory, Simply Psychology, viewed 14 October 2015, http://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20 memory.html Price, A, Oliver, M & McGrane, J 2015, “What’s Working Memory got to do with it?: A case study on teenagers’, Teaching Science, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 26-32.

Why is WM important in the classroom? For students who are easily distracted, have low attention span and show poor academic progress, we may be able to improve

Developing WM is important for all students as it allows greater processing and understanding before material goes into long term memory for storage and retrieval when needed.

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At the 2015 ACE conference, held in Brisbane, John Hattie indicated that from analysing various research efforts, WM is very important to students’ learning. He maintained that WM is not where the learning occurs, and is not associated with transfer of learning. Students need to have some knowledge of the topic, which the WM can then use to decide what is important and what is not important. He indicated there needs to have been some memorisation for the context to be understood; this allows more space for the WM to perform at its optimum. The comparison to other areas giving a correlated value of greater than 0.4 indicates that WM has some meaning and value in the process of individuals’ learning.

their learning if we understand WM and the way it works. Keeping distractions to a minimum, giving specific directions slowly (including listing them on the blackboard), and even practising memory games can improve this area – helping long term memory and flowing on to academic progress. For younger students any memory game that develops either the spatial or the phonological area may help. Older students could be encouraged to use diagrams to create linkages and to compose ‘raps’ to help retain and move knowledge into the long term memory area.

Naomi Holley Head of Year

Teaching and social media: reaching today’s teen through social media – implications for contemporary curriculum The evolution of collaborative learning and the building of learning communities through Social Media Networks (SMNs) are rapidly changing the face of education.

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Reaching today’s youth through social media provides new and exciting possibilities for educators and can be both a professionally challenging and rewarding experience (Burnett & Merchant 2011). However, the appropriate utilisation of SMNs and the need to teach students how to effectively critique popular culture texts, coupled with the media’s infiltration of the curriculum, has significant implications for educators and students in the 21st century. In recent times, students have stated that the curriculum is disconnected from their lives, that teachers do not find ways to get them involved in their own learning, and they have little say in what they are required to do (Bridgeland, Dilulio & Morrison 2006 in Hall 2012, p. 297). Often, curriculum is developed by those who are largely disconnected from today’s adolescents, who curtail the curriculum around the ‘here and now’, rather than ‘down the track’ where our students will be working. This disconnect is highlighted within the current Federal Government’s plans to re-introduce Latin, a language whose ‘actual living speakers… disproportionately inhabit the Vatican and a few corners of academic life’ (Van Badham 2014). It is time for those responsible for both curriculum policy and its delivery to begin to take into account the skill-set of those they are teaching. Among today’s students, that means exploiting current trends in social media for educational gain. This essay will argue that the emergence of Social Media Networks in education opens new doors within curriculum and pedagogical design.

The emergence of collaboration within education, via the use of technology, has been gradual. While social interaction through chat rooms and the like has been part of normal practice among adolescents for a number of years, it is only recently that educators have begun to explore how SMNs could be used to enhance educational practice (NMC 2013). Schools and universities are now not only offering social interaction as a means of enhancing the learning process via discussion boards; they are actively encouraging it. IT software developers specialising in education are now responding, developing Learning Management Systems (LMSs) that either incorporate, or are built around, SharePoint technology. This appropriation of new digital technologies into educational practice identifies a significant strategy for both borrowing and stimulating social participation with the aim of enhancing student learning outcomes (Uricchio 2004, in Crook 2012, p. 64). Crook, in his article, The ‘digital native’ in context: tensions associated with importing Web 2.0 practices into the school setting (2012), has identified four areas of human communication that could be reconfigured to enhance teaching and learning (inquiry, collaboration, publication and literacies). Crook contends that the features that drive each of the four areas represent more than simply a new direction in teaching and learning; they are opportunities. The first area defined by Crook – inquiry – refers to the ‘new structures for organising data: new sources to refer to, multiple forms of authority, and new tools to interrogate

are required (O’Sullivan 2012). Critical media literacy (CML) teaches students to understand the political and social meanings within media texts and to consider and appreciate how such texts attempt to position readers, and to question the ideas being presented (Morrell 2002, in Hall 2012). It is necessary to engage students in CML to understand the biases often found in popular culture texts and identify the injustices within (Hall 2012). CML also assists students with identifying and deconstructing messages across both popular culture and academics texts. Students may not only decipher both genres of text, but can also make connections regarding where and how the two intersect. This again enables students to analyse and interpret what is being presented at a deeper level (Hall 2012). The third area defined by Crook – collaboration – refers to ‘the concept of joint activity… that can exist within structures of large scale network participation’ (p. 64). More than ever, people in the workforce are working in teams to achieve targets and goals from different parts of their work. Students need to work along the same lines, attacking tasks in teams and using whatever technology is at their disposal. Schools and universities have long recognised the importance of collaboration within the classroom. Group work continues to be a pedagogical tool used by educators to enable students to better achieve their targets. It also enables students to engage in conversation and interact with their peers to achieve positive learning outcomes. This serves the adolescent attraction to being in relationships. They need to connect and remain connected to other people (Douch 2012). It is for this reason that social media continues to have such an overwhelming impact. It is also for this reason that educators are starting to see the benefits of social media within the classroom (NMC 2013). The fourth and final area defined by Crook – publication – refers to ‘Web 2.0 structures [that] can support users

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this rich space of information’ (p. 64). SMNs bring a fresh perspective to each. They provide a new framework for how data is organised and sourced. No longer does information need to be sourced through the more conventional ‘search engines’. Students connected to SMNs are being drawn to areas of inquiry through links on their Twitter feeds or posts on Facebook. Students can follow people or organisations on Twitter that share common learning interests. For today’s adolescent, common learning interests often lead to popular culture texts, a genre encompassing film, television, music, and video games, as well as fiction and nonfiction books (Botzakis 2011; in Hall 2011). It is through these mediums that teachers are now equipped to cross the divide between learning for academic gain and learning for pleasure. The challenge for educators exploiting popular culture is to drive learning beyond the superficial level, the point at which its texts are often absorbed (Hall 2011). Instead, teachers must seek ways to encourage students to look beyond the easily digestible nature of common pop culture mediums, and challenge students to analyse such mediums at a deeper level. The second area defined by Crook – literacies – refers to ‘widely accessible digital media [that] offer new modes of representation and offer tools that invite developing fluency in the related modes of self-expression’ (p. 64). SMNs allow students to reach an authentic audience through their writing. The use of Twitter, Facebook, Google+ and online blogging allow students to communicate clearly and succinctly to a wide community, while teaching them to cut through the clutter of the real world using critical media literacy skills. As a result of this quickly developed, easily consumed information, concepts of what it means to be literate in the 21st century are constantly evolving. Consequently, to live and learn in a global context, multifaceted skills

Naomi Holley

in creating original material for dissemination, providing both tools and an audience’ (p. 64). SMNs have provided the opportunity to increase one’s ability to persuade and influence, reaching a global audience. We are no longer just consumers of media, but content creators, distributors, as well as opinion makers, journalists and editors (Goodman 2014). Evidence presented regarding My Big Campus (MBC) and Twitter supports these assertions. This generation of students is the first cohort to consume content using a media form to which they can just as readily contribute (Douch 2014). Therefore, it is imperative that we prepare our students for an online world that will control the flow of information to its people. This essay argues that the emergence of Social Media Networks in education is opening new and exciting doors within pedagogy and curriculum design. The challenge for schools is to harness the power of SMNs as a tool to improve student learning outcomes. With students citing feelings of disconnection from current curriculum, and SMNs providing the medium through which the majority of today’s adolescents are reaching for a connection, it makes sense that SMNs form part of effective pedagogical practice.

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References Badham, V 2014, ‘Classic language lessons: the Coalition’s latest nostalgic fantasy’, The Guardian, viewed 15 July 2015, http://www. theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jun/23/classical-languagelessons-the-coalitions-latest-nostalgic-fantasy

Burnett, C & Merchant, G 2011, ‘Is there a space for critical literacy in the context of social media?’ English Teaching: Practice and Critique, vol. 10, no. 1. pp. 41-57.

Crook, C 2012, ‘The ‘digital native’ in context: Tensions associated with importing Web 2.0 practices into the school setting’, Oxford Review of Education, vol. 38, no.1, pp. 63-80. Douch, A 2012, ‘Body-Surfing the Rip Current: Social Media in Learning’, Douchy’s Blog: On ICT and Education, blog entry, 7 December 2012, viewed 10 October 2015, http://andrewdouch. wordpress.com/2012/12/07/body-surfing-the-rip-current-socialmedia-in-learning/ Douch, A 2014, ‘New media. New behaviour. New teaching paradigm’, Douchy’s Blog: On ICT and Education, blog entry, 7 February 2014, viewed 6 October 2015, http://andrewdouch. wordpress.com/2014/02/07/kids-choose-youtube-over-tv/ Goodman, S 2014, ‘Social Media Literacy: The Five Key Concepts’, Edutopia: blog entry, 10 June 2014, viewed 10 October 2014, http:// www.edutopia.org/blog/social-media-five-key-concepts-staceygoodman Hall, L 2011, ‘How popular culture texts inform and shape students’ discussions of social studies texts’, Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 296-305. O’Sullivan, KA 2012, ‘Books and blogs: Promoting reading achievement in digital contexts’. In J Manuel & S Brindley (eds.), Teenagers and reading: Literary heritages, cultural contexts and contemporary reading practices, Wakefield Press/AATE, South Australia. Johnson, L, Adams Becker, S, Cummins, M, Estrada V, Freeman, A, & Ludgate, H 2013, NMC Horizon Report: 2013 K-12 Edition, The New Media Consortium, Austin, Texas

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Melinda Kanowski Secondary Teacher

Developing collaborative expertise to teach 21st century skills We live in a time of unparalleled complexity. Information is instantaneously accessible and the world that children live in today differs substantially to that in which their parents grew up. Multiple facets of human life have undergone, and continue to undergo, dramatic transformations. Population has increased exponentially, globalisation has rewritten economies, the environment has been overrun by humans and fundamentalism is causing rifts both within countries and between countries. Technology connects people on the one hand while social and economic disparity creates polarities (Harish 2015). Parents and teachers both have an important role to play in assisting children to navigate the increasingly complex world we live in. How can we do this? Many might argue that, since their inception, computers have enabled us to plot our course through the complex issues that have confronted us up until this point and that they will continue to do so. However, despite computers and assisted technology being able to navigate some complex issues, machines alone cannot navigate many of today’s complex problems. There is no denying that technology is an important part of our modern way of life and, because of this, schools are consistently focusing on embedding the use of technology into the classroom.

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Although future technological advancements may change the landscape of education, Robyn Collins, Principal Consultant at Independent Schools Queensland, says that they are unlikely to eradicate the need for human teachers. Collins believes that the human touch is indispensable for most jobs, but none more so than for teaching. ‘Subjects that are not as objective, that aren’t simply based on knowledge, require complex thought and discussion. Expressing empathy, making people feel good, taking care of others, being artistic and creative for the

sake of creativity, expressing emotions and vulnerability in a relatable way and making people laugh are all human qualities that require interaction and discussion’ (Collins 2015). A holistic education doesn’t only involve intellectual learning pursuits but includes the spiritual, moral, social, emotional, aesthetic and physical aspects of being human as well. Resilience, intuition, coping strategies and interpersonal skills are being acknowledged as increasingly important life skills. A recent Harvard University study found that employers require far more than the skills developed in school exams. The study suggested that students need, more than ever, to develop the skills of creativity, empathy, grit, resilience and honesty; skills that cannot be replicated by computers. Therefore, teachers need to focus on looking for opportunities to teach skills such as citizenship, ethics, how to contribute positively to a community, how to relate to people and how to manage change and stress (BBC News 2015). As technology has enabled the world to become more connected, a greater number of people have become aware of the plight of others. We have seen an increase in the number of movements supporting empathy, compassion and humility and people have demanded these characteristics in their leaders as well. In the same vein, if educators are to improve their practice, and their emotional and social intelligence, collaboration and effective analytical and decision-making skills are important skills required by teachers and educational leaders.

John Hattie (2015) says, ‘… the greatest influence on student progression in learning is having highly expert, inspired and passionate teachers and school leaders working together to maximise the effect of their teaching on all students in their care.’ In describing the complexity of the demands of teaching he explains that ‘… to be able to make speedy and direct decisions on a moment-by-moment basis, to be able to know ‘where to next’ for 20 to 40 students almost simultaneously, to know how to reliably diagnose and implement multiple teaching interventions and how to evaluate impact of teaching on learning requires high levels of expertise.’ Hattie asks the question about how to increase the expertise of all teachers. At the heart of his research and reflection on this issue is the notion of collaborative expertise and the importance of various forms of collaboration. Of course, collaboration is a key requirement for many professions, but John Hattie argues that it’s extremely important for teachers. Collaborative expertise involves horizontal collaboration (from teacher to teacher and school to school) and vertical collaboration (from teacher to school leader to policy-maker).

References BBC News 2015, ‘Soft skills boost public school dominance, says former head’, BBC News, 2 October 2015, viewed 3 October 2015, http://www.bbchindi.com/news/education-34417189

Collins, R 2015, ‘Skills for the 21st century: teaching higher order thinking, Curriculum and Leadership Journal, vol. 12, no. 14, p. 1. Harish, J 2015, Leadership for a new paradigm in human development, Cadmus, viewed 5 October, 2015, http://cadmusjournal.org/ node/472 Hattie, J 2015, What works best in education: The Politics of Collaborative Expertise, Pearson, London.

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Opportunities for such collaboration have been implemented at St Margaret’s this year. The Peer to Peer Professional Learning network, a new initiative implemented by the educational leadership team at St Margaret’s, provides each teacher with the opportunity to work with two teaching teams throughout the year to observe other teachers’ lessons, discuss specific pedagogical initiatives, learn from others’ ideas and discuss ways to improve practice. Also, the presentation by teachers of workshops related to their practice and/or research is an excellent innovation. Collaboration is a key component of both of these initiatives. I particularly benefited from being with a group that looked at the ‘growth mindset’ and how to incorporate this concept into our lessons.

One of the things that could be considered in the future is how this type of collaboration could also help teachers develop their ability to teach students the human values and skills that they need, alongside their academic studies.

Stacey Kelly Secondary Teacher

Independent Learning Approaches to education that encourage students to be actively involved in the learning process and become life-long learners are the hallmark of contemporary, relevant education for an increasingly complex world. A wide range of these practices fall under the pedagogy of independent learning. This process encourages the development of autonomous learners who possess the necessary skills to take responsibility for their own academic learning. The process emerges as students develop the ability to play a significant part in choosing their own direction, discover their own learning resources, formulate their own problems, decide their own course of action and reflect on the outcome (Hughes, cited in Healey 2014).

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Gibbs argues that “students need, or can cope with, much less support from teachers than they often receive, and that independence is beneficial to students” (cited in Healey 2014). However, students do not become independent learners without assistance. They require a degree of space and freedom to develop the necessary skills, but this does not mean that guidance is absent in the process. Rather, teachers must construct a safe learning environment that provides training and support throughout the experience. Students must also be motivated and proactive. Without these factors they are unlikely to take control. If they are not guided throughout the transition, the process may be counterproductive, with students losing confidence in their abilities, potentially raising anxiety, leading to poor learning outcomes.

Teachers may find it challenging to maintain the balance between structure and freedom in the classroom, often being overly cautious of handing over control. When promoting independent learning skills, teachers need to move away from their traditional role of imparting

knowledge and become facilitators of learning. The dependent learner is a passive recipient of knowledge, while the independent learner actively directs and regulates their own learning (Meyer 2010). Consequently, teachers “need to hone the difficult skill of teaching learners how to learn – this is a lot harder than teaching facts and figures – but it is also infinitely more valuable to learners” (Creative Education 2014). Despite the push towards promoting greater learner autonomy, few practical models and comprehensive frameworks exist, so it is not always clear how individual teachers can implement the underlying principles (Reinders 2010). However, it is widely recognised that teachers should “provide an environment where there are opportunities and experiences which encourage motivation, curiosity, self-confidence, self-reliance, and a positive selfconcept” (Alderton 2009). Also, practices that gradually engage students to become more autonomous through modelling behaviours and scaffolding are advantageous. Some examples of strategies teachers can use to facilitate independent learning include: • outlining the purpose and benefits of learning experiences • collaborating with students to set shared learning goals • involving students in lesson planning to enhance motivation • providing students with choices so they can reflect their own interests and preferences • encouraging group work and peer teaching

• conducting scaffolded activities where students can recognise strategies and maintain tasks without constantly seeking reassurance • discussing options so students know what process to follow if they experience difficulty • modelling good questioning skills; for example, limiting the number of questions that can be answered or using only ‘yes’ or ‘no’ responses during set activities • allowing students to work at their own pace while making decisions about what to study and when • integrating self-access or online materials into the classroom • encouraging students to reflect on their decisions and judgements • encouraging self and peer editing • enabling student monitoring of work/student assessment of attainment of goals • providing feedback on student progress. (Alderton 2009; Creative Education 2014; DeNeen 2013)

Creative Education 2014, ‘Independent Learning: What role does the teacher have to play?’ web log post, n.d., viewed 23 September 2015, http://www.creativeeducation.co.uk/blog/independentlearning/ DeNeen, J 2013, ‘10 Reasons Why Educators Should Encourage Independent Learning’, InformedED, viewed 23 September 2015, http://www.opencolleges.edu.au/informed/news/teachers-orfacilitators-10-reasons-why-educators-should-step-out-of-theway-and-encourage-independent-learning/ Healey, M 2014, Developing Independent and Autonomous Learning viewed 23 September 2015, http://federation.edu.au/__data/ assets/pdf_file/0003/202791/Mick_Healey_Independent_ Learning_Workshop_Handout_Doc.pdf Meyer, WR 2010, ‘Independent learning: a literature review and a new project’, Proceedings of the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Warwick, Leeds, viewed viewed 23 September 2015, http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/ documents/193305.pdf Reinders, H 2010, ‘Towards a Classroom Pedagogy for Learner Autonomy: A Framework of Independent language Learning Skills’, Australian Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 35, no 5, viewed 23 September 2015, http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1454&context=ajte

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As students grow to be autonomous learners, they become more empowered to participate meaningfully in school activities. Furthermore they develop skills for life beyond the classroom, such as increased organisational capacity, enhanced problem-solving abilities, resourcefulness and the ability to self-critique more effectively.

References Alderton, I 2009, Independent Learning – What is it and How Does it Develop? SERUpdate: Promoting Independent Learning, vol. 19 no. 3, pp. 3-5, viewed 23 September 2015, http://web.seru.sa.edu. au/pdfs/SERUpdate%20September%202009.pdf

Jenny Lishman Head of Year

Changing Agendas in Leadership During the last century, leadership and management models were spawned by changing social, political and economic conditions. Some have been fleeting autocratic experiments, others have been more enduring, but all have been studied and interpreted in terms of their efficacy in organisational structure. There is a difference between leadership and management that is subtle but significant. Then the most senior woman in the Australian Air Force, Air Vice Marshall Julie Hamer addressed a function I attended at the Brisbane Lyceum Club. Her theme was that the difference is that between ‘the head and the heart’; that management without leadership leaves workers uninspired and unempowered. A similarly dysfunctional model of course would be leadership without management. Bass (1990) uses Burns’ terms ‘transactional and transformational leadership’ in a similar context, but we are cautioned against accepting these notions as the entire picture. The study of management theory emerged in the United States in the early twentieth century as a means of exploring and explaining changing organisational and management constructs. Ideally, the results of these studies would arm businesses with a financial edge. The evolution of these systems, explained by Limerick, Cunnington and Crowther (2002) as four ‘blueprints’ will be used as the scaffolding for this essay. Each of the four blueprints will be examined, with specific reference to the practical elements of leadership and how the role of leader was perceived.

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Our understanding of the notions of leadership and management are inextricably linked with our own knowledge and experience of organisational, social and economic contexts. In the final section of the essay the bewildering zeitgeist will be explored, revealing some of the challenges for leadership in the new millennium. Such an understanding will be pivotal to our handling of the

future, because the organisational game we are playing is fundamentally different from everything we have known. We are crying ‘foul’, persisting with the same old rules and wondering why they’re not working. The First Blueprint

In the 18th century, the structure of an organisation and the role of the manager was determined more by social class and wealth than by leadership skill. The classical models were formed by the unprecedented social upheaval of the industrial revolution and all the concomitant social and economic change. The leadership model was an overt hierarchical structure with authority empowered from the top down. The status quo was protected by habits of compliance and routine and enabled control, efficiency and optimal productivity. McGregor (1960) described the relationship in terms of his Theory X concept; that is that people do not instinctively want to work and that if unsupervised, they will avoid it altogether. Theory X is based on the premise that workers will choose to be directed and avoid responsibility to gain security of tenure. In terms of being a vehicle for a dynamic and motivated workforce however, the classical theory of this First Blueprint could not survive, for ‘at the heart of it all is a trenchant attack on the impersonal, dehumanising autocracy of such a system, and on its manipulative assumption of congruence of interest between management and the worker’ (Limerick et al. 2002, p. 31). It could not survive because workers – most particularly women – did not have a voice. The male leader was awarded ‘power over’ others and often displayed archetypal characteristics which gave rise to the ‘Trait Theory’ and the ‘Great Man Theory’ which held that the essential

of prolonged economic and social stability in developed countries. During the recession of the late 1950s, the imperative for cost effectiveness demanded that the needs of the individuals be balanced with the needs of the organisation. Limerick et al. (2002) insist that the transition from ‘human relations’ to a ‘human resource’ focus remains within the domain of the Second Blueprint, and that the span of this, the longest blueprint, preserves the specific humanist priority into the 1970s. The Third Blueprint

The emergence of Japan and other newly industrialised countries into the international marketplace in the 60s and 70s created a level of competition which left America and its higher wage levels unable to compete. This, combined with what Yankelovich called America’s ‘preoccupation with self ’ (cited in Limerick et al. 2002) and the confronting philosophical challenges of the Vietnam War, explains the transition to the evolved priorities of management theory called the Third Blueprint by Limerick et al (2002).

qualities of leadership were inherited personality traits rather than skills that could be learned. Organisations managed by such leaders were competitive, isolated and ‘decoupled’ (a discontinuity between policy and practice). The beliefs persist that great leaders will share certain qualities though contemporary research fails to agree on the precise list (Lussier & Achua 2012). We are inclined to interpret change as a linear, sequential and logical progression (Popkewitz in Limerick et al. 2002), but it is important to note that the blueprints are not discrete, chronological units; in fact vestiges of the power pyramid of the First Blueprint are apparent in organisations today. The transition from one blueprint to the next in Limerick et al’s (2002) paradigm is predicated on a significant force of change. The Second Blueprint arose because of the Depression during the 1930s, which reproduced the conditions of the social instability that gave rise to the First Blueprint. The Second Blueprint

The Fourth Blueprint

With any paradigm shift comes uncertainty and fear, anger and resistance. In organisations confronting the inadequacies of the Third Blueprint and the challenges of transition to the fourth, there is a level of bewilderment that amplifies unrest in a workplace. The Fourth Blueprint represents a world redefined – it is a post corporate world where structures are less defined. The philosophies of neo-humanism challenge the team focus and celebrate individual autonomy. Disorganised capitalism sees the reduction of economic activity to smaller, more flexible units with collaborative networks. ‘Loose coupling’ is when corporate elements are responsive, but retain separateness and identity. In a globalised world, ‘loose coupling’ allows for ‘local isomorphism’ and international efficiencies. Companies can maintain regional characteristics and can learn from each other. The Fourth Blueprint sees moves from loose coupling within organisations to loose coupling between organisations. It may not be overstating the point to nominate, as a primary symptom of the contemporary malaise known as

Organisational structures drew on the energy of teams and groups, and hierarchical power assumed a flatter, more democratic guise. It was thought that individuals needed to feel valued, with their needs acknowledged. It was the model that endured throughout the 50s and 60s, a period

‘Transactional’ leaders in the consolidation model of the Third Blueprint were practical leaders using reward and coercive power in their organisational management. They needed to reinvent and respond to the new world in which they lived. Burns (as cited in Limerick et al. 2002) said they had to ‘adjust ... adapt ... bargain… compete and manoeuvre’ (p. 176). This reactionary nature of organisations of the Third Blueprint did not enable them to create their own contexts in a way demanded by the rapidity of change towards the end of the 20th century. Changing mindsets responded more innovatively to the leadership challenges of the new millennium, leading the blueprint paradigm into another dimension.

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The changed social agenda of the 1930s created a focus on the dynamic of the group and the social needs of workers. It recognised that human relations have a direct bearing on the efficiency and productivity of a workplace. The autocratic authority of the First Blueprint leader was no longer seen as the most useful way of managing people. The ‘man’ that Bennis calls the ‘tough-minded manager’ (cited in Rogers 1988) now needed to learn communication and interpersonal skills. This can be seen as a product of its time as it coincided with the emergence of the science of psychology and has remained a fundamental (though not defining) element of subsequent blueprints.

The 70s and the 80s was an era of corporate managerialism in which leaders built strong corporate systems that looked outwards and responded to their communities. Businesses were seen as complex systems comprised of interlocking parts that required constant evaluation. The spirit and unity of the team were paramount. In turn, a worker’s loyalty and commitment was rewarded with incentives and security.

Jenny Lishman

Post-Modernism, the tendency to look upwards and hold those we see there as accountable for the whole gamut of ills in our lives – unemployment, uncertainty, stress, divorce, taxes. We all hold this vague notion of what a ‘leader’ is, but few measure up. We look to our leaders today to explain the world – not just its new jargon and structures, but also its changed value systems. It is precisely the inherent paradox of the postmodern world that reveals that we have over-organised and overrationalised our organisations. According to Peters and Waterman (1991), much of the blame is attributed to the regime of learning in our MBA programs which sacrifices the serendipity for the rational. Armed with a hard-won MBA, the leader moves into a world that is crying out for leaders with qualities that in many ways cannot be learned. Loden (cited in Rogers 1988) says they are attributes such as intuition and instinct. Employees will look for ethical and moral leadership, and even spiritual leadership.

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It is in this context that the ‘transformational’ leader is able to exploit the best of the past blueprints and combine them with personal traits that together communicate a sense of vision, which earns the respect and confidence of their employees. Zaleznick (cited in Peters & Waterman 1991) suggests that the best leaders can stir emotion.

Rogers (1988) suggests that the leader of this emerging paradigm shares many characteristics common to the female ethos. These characteristics especially relate to the nature of a heterarchical system where networked relationships and collaboration are the norm. The gender debate has generated enormous amounts of literature

within which little consensus appears to be reached, although it is clear that ‘women conceptualise leadership differently’ (Limerick & Anderson 1999 p. 402). The leader of the Fourth Blueprint responds to Walkley’s challenge to reconceptualise leadership (1998) and is not threatened by non-traditional models such as democratic leadership, collaborative leadership, shared leadership, authentic leadership, lattice leadership and engendered leadership. The leader of the Fourth Blueprint understands that it is not a case of discovering a solution and establishing a new organisation, but of constantly responding and reinventing a response to discontinuous change, indeed of proactively creating their own marketplace. Challenges for the Future

Not only will the concept of ‘leadership’ remain relevant in our future organisations, the challenge to participate in the kinds of diverse leadership roles already outlined will extend to increasing numbers of employees, so possibly the challenges of the future will include not only the inculcation of appropriate skills, but also the ability to lead the leaders themselves. An immediate concern involves identifying and shedding the conditioning of the past. The urgency of this need bears a direct relationship to the age of the leader in that their career may span all four of Limerick et al’s (2002) blueprints and the socialisation and value systems that go with them. Objectivity may be achieved by internalising the tenets of the Fourth Blueprint. Assuming the mantle of collaborative

individualism, which asserts the individual is the basic building block of the organisation (Limerick et al, 2002), will not be an easy mind shift for a mid-career teacher who has seen their career as being in the service of the institution and its pupils.

Lussier, R. & Achua, C. (2012). Leadership: Theory, application, & skill development. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning

Leaders of the future will need to think differently about human capital (Baker 2000). In doing so, educators must remain mindful of the alarming statistics of teacher attrition, particularly in their first couple of years (Hope 1999). Further, we are obliged to be active in our identification and recruitment of potential leaders, and establish a comprehensive system to train them. Caldwell (2003) cites the National College for School Leaders in England for its best-practice; it offers professional development for up to 250,000 British teachers in extensive programs that rely on networking and peer review.

Rogers, J. (1988, Fall). New paradigm leadership: Integrating the female ethos. Initiatives, 51, 1-8.

McGregor, D. (1960). The Human Side of Enterprise. Peters, J.P., Waterman, R.H. (1982). In search of excellence; Lessons from America’s best-run companies. Sydney: Harper and Row

Sergiovanni, T.J., (1992, Jan). International Journal of Educational Reform, 2(1), 19-26. Walkley, D.M. (19998). Supervision: A personal perspective on current practice. Leading and Managing, 4(3), 172-180.

The education sector is only now becoming more sensitive to the demands of our marketplace. This has necessitated an enormous change in mindset for educators, particularly those in the independent sector. Leaders need to be able to articulate the individual priorities of their contexts to their school communities. ‘Impression Management’, described by Ball (1994), is only a small part of the complex market forces within which a school has to operate. ‘Discourses of financial planning and economic rationalism operate in an antagonistic relation to the discourses of teaching/ learning and pupil welfare’ (Ball 1994, p. 71). The search for the most successful model of leadership may be seen as a quest for harmony and balance. Ball (1994) explores the postmodern writing of Foucault, whose premise is that contemporary management can be seen as ‘a polyvalent discourse (which simultaneously) liberates and enslaves, empowers and subjects’ (Ball 1994, p. 75). This symmetry reflects the age-old binary of ‘yin and yang’, and of Yung’s animus and anima. Perhaps this binary may also be perceived in Sergiovanni’s concept of the ‘servant leader’ (1993, p. 19). The concept of leadership has been understood and reinvented in many ways, with periods of high levels of social and economic change forcing each re-contextualisation. The changes in leadership theory and practice certainly support the astute observation by Katz and Kahn (1996, p. 301) that leadership is indeed a ‘slippery notion’. References Baker, T. (2000, June). Not just a job. Management Today, 20-22 Ball, S.J. (1994) Education Policy, power relations and teachers’ work. In Educational Reform: A critical and post-structural approach. Philadelphia: Open University Press Caldwell, B.J. (2003, July) Mission impossible? A strategic view of efforts to lead the transformation of schools. Paper presented at the 6th Biennial Conference of the International Confederation of Principals, Edinburgh. Hope, W.C. (1999). Principal’s orientation and induction activities as factors in teacher retention. The Clearing House, 73(1), 54-56. Katz and Kahn (1996) The social psychology of organisations. New York: Wiley.

Limerick, D., Cunnington, B. & Crowther, F. (2002) Managing the new organisation: collaboration and sustainability in the postcorporate world. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.

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Limerick, B., & Anderson, C. (1999) Female Administrators and school-based management: New models in an era of change? Educational Management & Administration, 27(4), 401-414.

Karl Mandla Secondary Teacher

Five practices for orchestrating productive mathematical discussions Ensuring that students have the opportunity to reason mathematically is one of the most difficult challenges facing teachers. A key component of successful mathematics teaching is creating a classroom where discourse is encouraged. This leads to better understanding.

the answers the students are likely to produce and carefully consider which responses are most useful in addressing the mathematics to be learned.

In this article I will discuss five classroom practices to orchestrate mathematically productive discussions that are embedded in student thinking. The implementation of these practices will assist teachers to help students achieve their learning objectives by using student work as a launching pad for discussion. The practices will help bring important mathematical ideas out in the open, expose student conceptual misunderstandings and develop and deepen student understanding.

Monitoring

The five practices for orchestrating productive mathematical discussions are:

Monitoring is the process of paying attention to the thinking of students during the lesson as they work on the task individually or in groups. This involves not only listening to what students say and observing what they do, but also noting the approaches and strategies they use. The teacher can then select suitable student strategies to advance the mathematical discussion which takes place later in the lesson. Monitoring also involves asking questions while students work on the task. This helps them make progress. The teacher may direct questions to those students who are following an unproductive or inaccurate path to enable them to get back on track.

• anticipating the likely student responses to challenging mathematical tasks • monitoring the students’ actual responses to the given task • selecting particular students to present their mathematical work during the class discussion • sequencing students’ responses into a particular order • connecting students’ responses to key mathematical concepts.

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Anticipating

Anticipating student responses involves considering how students might mathematically interpret a challenging mathematical problem. By predicting the array of strategies students will use – both correct and incorrect methods – the teacher can then consider the best way to respond to

Selecting

“After monitoring the available student strategies in the class, the teacher can select particular students to share their work with the rest of the class to get specific mathematics out in the open for examination, thus giving the teacher more control over the discussion” (Lampert 2001). The selection of the particular students and their solutions is guided by the goal of the lesson and how each response will contribute towards that goal. The teacher selects certain students to present who have useful ideas to share with the class or which will provide a platform for discussion. As Lampert (2001), summarises, “If I watch and listen during small group independent work, I am then able

to use my observations to decide what and who to make focal” during the whole-class discussion. Selecting is a critical component of the lesson because it gives the teacher control over what the class will discuss, ensuring that the main mathematical concepts of the lesson get discussed. Sequencing

After selecting particular students to present, the teacher then decides on the order of the student presentations. By consciously sequencing the students’ presentations, the teacher can maximise the chances of achieving their mathematical goals for the class discussion. The teacher may choose to begin with a strategy that is more concrete, progressing to increasingly abstract strategies. This approach – concrete to abstract – serves to validate the less sophisticated methods. If there is a common misconception among students, the teacher may choose to clear this misunderstanding first and then look at more successful methods to solve the given problem. Connecting

Connecting is the most challenging of the five practices because it requires the teacher to design questions that will make the mathematics transparent and understandable. These questions focus on making links between mathematical ideas and representations.

The five practices build on each other and work together to support the orchestration of a productive discussion. The information gained from engaging in one practice positions the teacher to engage in the next practice. While these five practices help teachers manage productive classroom discussion, they cannot stand alone. Teachers also need to set appropriate learning goals for students and select mathematically rich tasks which provide students with opportunities to think and reason.

References Ball, DL 1993, ‘With an Eye on the Mathematical Horizon: Dilemmas of Teaching Elementary School Mathematics, The Elementary School Journal, vol. 93, no. 4, pp. 373-397.

Lampert, M 2001, Teaching Problems and the Problems of Teaching, Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut. Bibliography Smith, MS & Stein, MK 2011, 5 Practices for Orchestrating Productive Mathematical Discussions, The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, VA.

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Connecting involves the teacher helping students draw connections between their solutions and other students’ solutions, along with the key mathematical concepts in the lesson. The teacher can assist students to make judgements of the consequence of using different approaches and the likely accuracy and efficiency of each approach. Rather than mathematical discussions comprising separate presentations of different methods to solve a problem, the goal here is to have student presentations building on one another.

Ball (1993) argues, “I must consider the mathematics in relation to the children and the children in relation to the mathematics.” This suggests the teachers need to know both the mathematical concepts to be learned and what students know about mathematics to create a bridge between the two worlds.

Kate Montgomery Subject Coordinator – French

Putting learning into practice: a reflection on the linguistic and cultural value of study tours for language learners The recent St Margaret’s and Anglican Church Grammar School combined French study tour gave students the opportunity to experience French family life and education at our sister school in Aix-en-Provence, Lycée Sacré Coeur.

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The point of studying a language at school is not just to get good grades on your end of semester report; it is about the life waiting for you beyond the classroom. Well-developed language skills are the key to allow you to experience another culture at a deeper level and to make meaningful connections with others. While a little over two weeks may not seem long enough for students to develop any truly significant linguistic improvement, it certainly gives them the opportunity to see the culture they have studied within the confines of the classroom come to life; to experience for themselves the cuisine, traditions and lifestyle that they have read and heard about. It gives them a chance to put their linguistic skills into practice in a real-life setting. It’s not about high grades. It’s about understanding a news report on television, feeling confident to respond comprehensively to a question posed by a classmate, or share details about their own family with their host sister, who can’t wait to meet them during her own study tour to Australia the following year. Years of offering study tours to French speaking countries have seen a definite pattern emerge in student behaviour regarding the homestay experience. Students always dread this aspect of the trip the most before leaving – the idea of spending ten days with an unknown family can seem daunting – yet ultimately this is the aspect of the trip which they always love the most. They form close connections

with their new ‘family’ members and are excited by all of the cultural knowledge they gain through living the lifestyle, rather than just reading about it. This recent study tour proved to be no exception. Students’ linguistic skills improve more than might be anticipated in such a short space of time, due to the immersion experience. Cubillos et al. (2008) examined the impact of short-term study abroad programs on second language learners’ listening comprehension skills. The study compared students who had the benefit of a five week study abroad program in a Spanish-speaking country, with those who had not. It was concluded that the former group had significantly higher comprehension gains and achieved higher levels of confidence and self-perceived ability than the latter group. Cubillos attributes this new found confidence and subsequent willingness to speak the language, regardless of errors made, as key to students making genuine progress in their linguistic skills. It was a great delight for me to witness our learners’ confidence grow on a daily basis. When we first arrived, I would have to remind them to respond to my French questions in French, rather than English, as occurs in the classroom. After only a few days, students would approach me and automatically begin conversing in French, talking excitedly about places they had visited and what they had eaten for dinner the previous night. Along with my own observations, I also surveyed students

with family and friends and the opportunity for much needed down-time during the term break, there are clearly significant benefits for both staff and students. For teachers, participating in language study tours provides us with excellent professional development, to refresh our own linguistic and cultural knowledge. For our learners, I would need go no further than this quote from another Year 10 student: “I have returned from this experience with a completely altered attitude towards my language studies here at St Margaret’s. Along with the immersion we experienced came the realisation that learning French is such a valuable life skill and has refocused me towards giving my full effort to my studies. I endeavour to improve my French so that when I one day return, I can engage in even more depth with the culture and lifestyle.”

Reference Cubillos, JH, Chieffo, L, Fan, C 2008. ‘The Impact of Short-Term Study Abroad Programs on L2 Listening Comprehension Skills.’ Foreign Language Annals, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 157-185.

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in regards to their perspective of the benefits of the study tour. I was impressed with the level of self-awareness demonstrated in their reflections. I received comments such as this from a Year 10 student: “I have no doubt… there has been improvement in my language skills, mostly in my listening skills. It is a totally different scenario to listening to a teacher in a classroom or a track on a CD. Native speakers tend to speak more rapidly and I found myself really straining to follow the dialogue on my first few days. However, as time progressed, I found myself picking up more and more words and being able to contextualise the words I didn’t know in a sentence. My speaking skills have also improved, aided by the newfound confidence I gained in France. Before the homestay experience, everything I said was premeditated and I wasn’t able to spontaneously form sentences without a fair deal of time to think. But being in an immersion situation, you learn very quickly that this is not an option and that you have to just attempt it rather than give no response.” While tours like this take teachers away from time spent

Shirley Patton Secondary Teacher

Differentiation within the maths classroom Teaching a class of students with a range of abilities is challenging. If the lesson is pitched to the middle level of ability, the more able students may become bored from the lack of challenge, while the weaker students may become confused and disengaged. Differentiation is a process of diversifying the content, learning activities and teacher style to take into consideration the learning needs of all individual students, irrespective of their many differences. As each student is at a different point on the learning curve within the classroom, we need to acknowledge this in our planning. Each lesson needs clear learning objectives and outcomes to ensure students are aware of what is to be achieved throughout the lesson. (Dixie 2011) Planning for differentiation The lesson structure

On planning our lessons, Gererd Dixie (2011) suggests a strategy of ‘should /must/ could’. Since students learn at different rates, we should pose three questions when preparing lessons. • What the students should know? - should learn • What students should be able to understand? - must learn • What students are able to do? - could learn

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In considering this, teachers need to present a variety of questions that are suitable for all students within the classroom. After teaching a topic for a few sessions, the lesson can be started with quick revision and consolidation questions. This strategy engages students in the learning process. As the questions are differentiated, we can work together as a class on the more difficult questions before moving to the major focus of the lesson.

It is possible to test students’ pre-existing knowledge

and skills on a new topic that is to be learnt. The teacher can then adjust both content and learning activities to match students’ readiness. For the more able students, it is useful to use existing textbooks, supplementary texts and worksheets to extend their knowledge, as well as existing software and the internet to match their current level of understanding. This results in students being more interested and engaged in the learning process. Follow up should include the teacher writing a post-test of the learning objectives and assessment items to measure these objectives. It is also important to develop structures that allow students to obtain help from others when the teacher is busy or when immediate help is unavailable. Differentiation by task

Differentiation by task on a given topic provides multiple entry points for students, depending on their prior knowledge and confidence. As an example, investigating the area of a circle could have the following entry points: • substituting either the radius or diameter into the appropriate formula • working backwards to find the diameter or radius • finding the area of an annulus • finding the width of an annulus given the appropriate information • other open-ended investigations appropriate to the topic. When thinking about differentiating the task, teachers need to think about providing levels of entry and scaffolding for

less able students or students approaching a new topic or concept. The lower levels of scaffolding are used to support students build their confidence and skill proficiency. The type of scaffolding can be built upon questioning strategies, whole group or small group discussions and by making connections with prior learning and relevance. With the higher order level of questions students are encouraged to develop strategies and explore possibilities without fear of failure. Classroom organisation

On occasions seating plans can be used to differentiate. Some students have a positive influence on others; placing students with certain strengths beside others who may need to develop certain skills can be helpful. Revision sheets require students to indicate how confident they are with the topic. From this, teachers may either conduct a whole class discussion or pair up confident students with those who are less confident. Assessment for learning

Differentiation in the classroom is about adapting our teaching to ensure we meet the needs for the diverse range of students within the walls of our classrooms through careful planning, so each student has the opportunity to reach their full potential through our differentiated instruction.

References Dixie, G 2011, Differentiation: Setting Learning Objectives and Outcomes, New Teachers, viewed 4 February 2015, http:// newteachers.tes.co.uk/content/differentiation-setting-learningobjectives-and-outcomes Hall, B 2009, Differentiated Instruction, Research into Practice Mathematics, viewed 22 September 2015, http://assets. pearsonglobalschools.com/asset_mgr/current/20109/ Differentiated_Instruction.pdf zLearning Point Associates 2008, Methods of Differentiation in the Classroom, s.l.: s.n. NIPT 2012, National Induction Programme for Teachers, viewed 8 September 2015, http://www.teacherinduction.ie/en/ differentiation-p

Petty, G 2012, Geoff Petty: Differentiation, viewed 8 September 2015, http://geoffpetty.com/training-materials/differentiation/ TES Magazine, 2013, Using Differentiation in Mixed-Ability Classes, viewed 4 February 2015, http://newteachers.tes.co.uk/content/ using-differentiation-mixed-ability-classes Tomlinson, CA & Sousa DA 2011, Differentiation and the Brain: A Quick Look at Shared Principles, Carol Tomlinson, viewed 8 April 2015, http://caroltomlinson.com/Presentations/CATSousa_ Indianaplois_HO.pdf Tomlinson, CA & Imbeau, MB n.d., Leading and Managing a Differentiated Classroom, s.l.: s.n.

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Within the mathematics department, assessment items are structured so the first two-thirds of the paper are designed to bring success from effort and an understanding in both knowledge and problem solving at the lower end of the spectrum. Progression to the more challenging questions follows. Students have the opportunity to consolidate and improve in the areas where they were not successful initially, with a similar paper to follow a week later. While improvements for some may be small, their confidence improves and their anxiety decreases. The mathematics department sets high standards, but provides numerous levels of support so that all students have success within the classroom. We use a variety of teaching approaches to modify content in response to the interest and readiness of our group of students in order for them to reach their full potential.

Conclusion

Steve Rowe Head of Faculty – Languages

What can be done about the ‘problem’ of early career teacher attrition? Research has identified a number of important issues which have an impact on Early Career Teachers (ECTs) attrition. The good news is that most can be ameliorated by leaders within schools.

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Research has identified a number of important issues which have an impact on Early Career Teachers (ECTs) attrition. The good news is that most can be ameliorated by leaders within schools. Effective induction programs, mentoring relationships and on-going support of ECT at schools have been identified as key elements of beginning teacher retention. These initiatives help them become effective practitioners, able to deliver powerful learning experiences which facilitate high levels of student achievement (Clandinin et al. 2009; Darling-Hammond 2003; Ewing & Smith 2003; Flores & Day 2006; Jones & Pauley 2003; Heller 2004; Smith & Ingersoll 2004; Vanderslice 2010). Between a third and a half of ECTs leave the teaching profession within five years of commencing their careers. Current rates of teacher attrition are problematic as the number of teachers leaving the profession exceeds those entering it in some areas (Clandinin, Downey & Huber 2009; Darling-Hammond 2003; Jones & Pauley 2003; Heller 2004; Long et al. 2012; Smith & Ingersoll 2004; Vanderslice 2010). It is clear that proficient teachers are essential for improving the learning outcomes of students (Darling-Hammond 2003; Hattie 2009). However, since it is recognised that becoming proficient takes between three and seven years, many ECTs leave the profession before reaching the level at which they are most likely to do the most good for their students (Oliver, McConney & Maor 2009; Vanderslice 2010). Therefore, the effective training, nurturing and retention of ECTs is of great importance for the stability of the teaching profession and the effective learning of students (Gilles, Wilson & Elias 2010).

ECTs are an important resource in schools, however many attempts to retain them in the profession appear to operate from a deficit model, suggesting the attrition of ECTs from schools is a problem which can be fixed because ECTs are in some way deficient. This position disempowers ECTs and casts doubt on their potential contribution to both learning environments and school communities (Johnson et al. 2010; Tickle 2000). This approach to ECTs’ retention is at odds with effective models of professional development because it disregards the many attributes ECTs possess which can further educational aims (Tickle 2000). It is evident that ECTs do have a lot to learn about becoming proficient practitioners, however it is also clear that ECTs would benefit from greater levels of support from the education communities they enter, particularly during their first five years of teaching in order to become teachers of most benefit to their students (Barrera, Braley & Slate 2010; Hudson, Beutel & Hudson 2009; Wong 2004). Teacher attrition and retention

Teacher attrition is viewed as an impediment to student academic achievement and, as a result, the need to arrest ECT attrition has been identified as a priority in many education systems (Burger, Webber & Klinck 2007; Johnson et al. 2010; Oliver et al. 2009). It is recognised that a certain level of attrition is to be expected in a profession, and, in terms of organisational renewal, perhaps even desirable. However, it is also widely agreed that when attrition reaches high levels it is symptomatic of potentially serious issues within a profession (Watlington et al. 2004). Of course, some individuals may not, ultimately, be suited to teaching, and these individuals should be assisted in their

transition out of education. However, the key issue is the early loss of teachers who might well have developed into effective practitioners had they not exited the profession prematurely. In recent years, a number of education systems and jurisdictions have begun to seek solutions to the issue of teacher retention. Often the voice of the ECT is unheard, which is of particular concern in educational settings given the widely held view that learner feedback is crucial to the learning process (Hattie 2009; Oliver et al. 2009). Many programs implemented for ECTs are irregularly and erratically designed and administered and the support needed, particularly time, is rarely resourced sufficiently. Therefore, the underlying principle for retaining teachers is a school climate that is supportive of all teachers, especially ECTs. The focus should be on developing positive professional relationships (Vanderslice 2010). School leadership

Induction

The role of induction in retaining and developing effective teachers in schools and enabling greater retention of beginning teachers is extensively recognised (Hellsten et al. 2009; Hudson, Beutel & Hudson 2009; Smith & Ingersoll 2004; Long et al. 2012; Tickle 2000; Wong 2004). Induction is understood to be critical in developing ECT ‘… attitudes, views and practices …’ (Flores 2006, p. 37). Wood & Waarich-Fishman (2006) state simply, ‘… induction works …’ (p. 71). Wong (2004) argues that, ideally, induction is ‘… a comprehensive, coherent, and sustained professional development process…’ (p. 42). Britton (2003) asserts that induction should be a part of a teacher’s career, rather than a set of structures, or activities intended to rectify the absence of a particular skill, or other perceived shortcomings of a beginning teacher. ECTs are more likely to remain in teaching if they undergo

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The role of school leadership is regularly cited as being of critical importance to the retention of ECTs beyond the beginning years (Cha & Cohen-Vogel 2011; Oliver et al. 2009; Vanderslice 2010). School leaders set the tone, climate and culture of schools; by providing ECTs with the means to become excellent classroom practitioners, leaders not only encourage beginning teachers to remain in the profession, they also facilitate the provision of teaching and learning experiences which enable students to achieve well at school (Vanderslice 2010). School leadership refers to all members of the school community who lead, either formally or informally, who may have an influence on the professional development, support and retention of ECTs (Gilles, Wilson & Elias 2010).

School leaders can assist all teachers, but in particular ECTs, to develop their skills and progress successfully from novice to accomplished teacher. Leaders can provide opportunities for ECTs to engage in professional dialogue, observe expert teachers in action, and be a part of curriculum decision-making. All these factors contribute to greater job satisfaction, which is an excellent indicator for teacher retention. Leaders who develop positive and supportive relationships with ECTs contribute greatly to the ECT’s job satisfaction; this development and strengthening of relationships between members of a learning community most likely provides the conditions which support the professional and personal growth of ECTs (Smith & Ingersoll 2004).

Steve Rowe

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an induction process. However there is evidence to suggest that the quality and effectiveness of induction programs varies enormously (Cha & Cohen-Vogel 2011; Smith & Ingersoll 2004). Beginning teachers who do not participate in a quality induction program are more likely to experience high levels of stress and burnout, which may lead to early career attrition (Johnson et al. 2010). However, many ECTs’ experiences of induction are poor, inconsistent or non-existent. Educational researchers assert that induction programs need to be comprehensive, well organised and well administered in order to support the needs of ECTs and improve their retention rates (Flores & Day 2006; Fulton, Yoon & Lee 2005; Smith & Ingersoll 2004). Induction programs must be responsive to the individual needs of ECTs if they are to be effective in improving retention rates. A degree of personalisation of programs is important (Hudson, Beutel & Hudson 2009). The purpose of induction is not to develop the most effective program to create the least painful transition to the profession for ECT. Rather, Carr, Herman, & Harris (2005) suggest that it is about ‘…’the relationships built around shared purposes and mutual goals …’ among the professionals involved in the implementation of the programs (p. 2). There is a growing consensus that recognises mentoring as an important part of an ongoing induction process, or continuum, and that induction and mentoring are not synonymous (Fulton et al. 2005; Long et al. 2012; Wong 2004). Mentoring

Darling-Hammond (2003) identified that the implementation of effective mentoring, as a part of an

ongoing induction process, can play a significant role in improving the retention rates of ECTs by providing them with the means to adequately gauge their professional needs in an effort to become more effective teachers. Mentoring programs need the support of all leaders in a school in order to be effective. They should provide the beginning teacher with extra planning time, access to networks of other beginning teachers, and quality communication time with mentors and school leaders (Roberson & Roberson 2008). A well-structured and ongoing mentoring relationship engenders positive feelings in ECTs. Effective mentoring may contribute to the development of resiliency and self-efficacy and help assist beginning teachers through a challenging period (Carr, Herman & Harris 2005). Mentoring can have a significant impact on the professional practice of ECTs; therefore mentors need to be great teachers themselves and enthusiastic about their mentoring role. Mentors need specific training to enable them to achieve the goals of the induction programs within which mentoring takes place (Carr, Herman & Harris 2005; Flores & Day 2006; Fulton et al. 2005; Smith & Ingersoll 2004). The fit between mentors and ECTs is an important consideration for the relationship to be successful, however it is recognised that mentoring experiences allow all ECTs at least some opportunities to learn (Bozeman & Feeney 2007; Hellsten et al. 2009). Conclusion

A range of issues have been identified which have the potential to impact negatively on ECTs. These issues may hinder their development as teachers and increase the

likelihood of their early departure from teaching (Bozeman & Feeney 2007; Hudson, Beutel & Hudson 2009). The main areas of concern are a heavy workload, the need to undertake roles for which they lack adequate preparation or training, insufficient support in the transition from pre-service teacher to beginning teacher, uncertainty about school policies and procedures, poor school organisation, inadequate access to educational resources and equipment, and a perception of having little control over curriculum delivery. (Clandinin et al. 2009; Darling-Hammond 2003; Ewing & Smith 2003; Jones & Pauley 2003; Heller 2004; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004; Vanderslice, 2010). Furthermore, many ECTs express dismay at the level of isolation they feel in classrooms, where they are often left to their own devices without recourse to more experienced members of the school community (Flores & Day 2006). School leaders who address these issues by providing specifically targeted support to individual ECTs during the early years of their careers should increase the likelihood of ECTs remaining in teaching. More importantly, ECTs who remain in the teaching profession will have greater opportunities to develop the skills needed to be effective practitioners. They will become confident teachers who are well equipped to provide their students with the positive learning experiences which engender academic success (Darling-Hammond 2003; Ewing & Smith 2003; Smith & Ingersoll 2004; Vanderslice 2010).

collaboration’, Teacher education quarterly, pp. 91-108. Hattie, J 2009, Visible learning: a synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement, Routledge, New York. Heller, DA 2004, Teachers wanted: attracting and retaining good teachers, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, Va. Hellsten, LA, Prytula, M, Ebanks, A & Lai, H, 2009, ‘Teacher Induction: Exploring Beginning Teacher Mentorship’, Canadian Journal of Education, vol. 32, no. 4, p. 703. Hudson, S, Beutel, D & Hudson, P 2009, ‘Teacher Induction in Australia: A Sample of What’s Really Happening’, Research in Comparative and International Education, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 53-62. Johnson, B, Down, B, Le Cornu, R, Peters, J, Sullivan, A, Pearce, J & Hunter, J 2014, ‘Promoting early career teacher resilience: A framework for understanding and acting’, Teachers and Teaching, pp. 1-17. Jones, MS & Pauley, WF 2003, ‘Mentoring beginning public school teachers’, Adult Learning, vol. 14, no. 1. Long, JS, McKenzie-Robblee, S, Schaefer, L, Steeves, P, Wnuk, S, Pinnegar, E & Clandinin, DJ 2012, ‘Literature Review on Induction and Mentoring Related to Early Career Teacher Attrition and Retention’, Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 7-26. Oliver, M, McConney, A & Maor, D 2009, ‘Listening to the Learners: Mentee’s Perspectives of a Mentoring Program for FirstYear Science Teachers’, Teaching Science, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 6-11. Roberson, S & Roberson, R 2009, ‘The Role and Practice of the Principal in Developing Novice First-Year Teachers’, The Clearing House, vol. 82, no. 3, pp. 113-118.

References Barrera, A, Braley, RT & Slate, JR 2010, ‘Beginning teacher success: an investigation into the feedback from mentors of formal mentoring programs’, Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 61-74.

Smith, TM & Ingersoll, RM 2004, ‘What Are the Effects of Induction and Mentoring on Beginning Teacher Turnover?’, American Educational Research Journal, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 681-714.

Bozeman, B & Feeney, MK 2007, ‘Toward a Useful Theory of Mentoring: A Conceptual Analysis and Critique’, Administration & Society, vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 719-739.

Vanderslice, R 2010, ‘ABC’s of keeping the best: Attrition, burnout, and climate’, Childhood Education, vol. 86, pp. 298-304.

Britton, ED 2003, Comprehensive teacher induction, Dordrect: Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. Burger, JM, Webber, CF & Klinck, P (eds) 2007, Intelligent Leadership: Constructs for Thinking Education Leaders, vol. 6, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Carr, JF, Herman, N, & Harris, DE 2005, Creating Dynamic Schools Through Mentoring, Coaching, and Collaboration, Alexandria: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development.

Tickle, L 2000, Teacher induction: the way ahead, Open University Press, Buckingham.

Watlington, EJ, Shockley, R, Earley, DL, Huie, KK, Morris, JD & Lieberman, M, 2004, ‘Variables associated with teacher retention: A multi-year study’, The Teacher Educator, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 56-66. Wong, HK 2004, ‘Induction Programs That Keep New Teachers Teaching and Improving’, NASSP Bulletin, vol. 88, no. 638, pp. 41-58. Wood, AL & Waarich-Fishman, N 2006, ‘Two induction models in one urban district: Transitioning to teaching credentialing’, Research on teacher induction: Teacher education yearbook XIV, pp. 67-87.

Cha, SH, & Cohen-Vogel, L 2011, ‘Why they quit: a focused look at teachers who leave for other occupations’, School Effectiveness and School Improvement, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 371-392. Clandinin, DJ, Downey, CA & Huber, J 2009, ‘Attending to changing landscapes: Shaping the interwoven identities of teachers and teacher educators’, Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 141-154. Darling-Hammond, L 2003, ‘Keeping Good Teachers: Why It Matters, What Leaders Can Do’, Educational Leadership, vol. 60, no. 8, pp. 6-13. Fulton, K, Yoon, I & Lee, C, 2005, ‘Induction into Learning Communities’, National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future.

Flores, M & Day, C 2006, ‘Contexts which shape and reshape new teacher identities: A multi-perspective study’, Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 22, pp. 219-232.

Gilles, C, Wilson, J & Elias, M 2010, ‘Sustaining teachers’ growth and renewal through action research, induction programs, and

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Ewing, RA & Smith, DL 2003, ‘Retaining quality beginning teachers in the profession’, English Teaching: Practice and Critique, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 15-32.

Nikki Townsend Dean of Students

Neurodevelopmental aspects of the adolescent brain Your teenage daughter has achieved excellent grades, was a prefect, taught literacy and numeracy to refugees, and has been accepted into university for the following year. However, on the weekend she is caught driving under the influence! How can she be so clever, reliable and accomplished – and foolish at the same time? Professor of Neurology Dr Frances Jensen (2015) describes the development of the teen brain, stating, ‘… it’s a paradoxical time for development. These are people with very sharp brains, but they’re not quite sure what to do with them’. Human behaviour is predicated on numerous variables. Arguably, age is the most important variable, as much age-related behaviour appears independent of culture and environment. This observation highlights the developmental aspects of the human brain as defined by neuroanatomy, neurophysiology and neurochemistry – in other words the changes of the structure (anatomy) and function (physiology and chemistry) of the human brain as it ages.

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When mature, the human brain contains 100 billion neurones (brain cells). These neurones have an estimated quadrillion interconnections (synapses). Ironically, despite this remarkable ‘brain power’ both numbers are difficult for us to imagine or comprehend. Brain structures change with age and provide some answers to why we behave the way we do when teenagers or, for that matter, when we are over fifty.

The human brain uses networks of neurons which have projecting fibres (axons) that allow contact with other neurones within the network. The synapses are the relay points between the neurones of a network. The signal from one neurone to another across the synapse depends on the

controlled release of a specific chemical (neurotransmitter) for that synapse which produces either an excitation or inhibition of the axon of the neurone receiving the signal. There are numerous neurotransmitters currently recognised. These networks underlie brain processes as diverse as the constriction of the pupil of the eye to artistic imagination. Curiously, the brain at age two years has 50 per cent more synapses than at age 30. There are a couple of factors which enhance the efficiency of these networks. Firstly it appears that synapses existing within networks which are being used regularly are retained. The efficiency of a network also depends on the insulation of the transmitting fibres – the axons. Signals from the neurones are transmitted along axons to a synapse and subsequently from the synapse along an outgoing axon to another nerve. Axons transmit much faster when insulated by a specialised protein, myelin. Much of the insulation of nerves occurs during childhood and especially adolescence, but the process of insulation is not completed until the early twenties. Typically the posterior aspects of the brain are myelinated first with frontal areas last. The frontal areas of the brain are responsible for controlling impulses, planning ahead and judgement. So in the adolescent brain, still laying down myelin, these areas are not yet fully operational; this is at a time when the neuronal networks responsible for emotional response demonstrate a heightened response to external triggers when compared

to children or adults. Hence, ‘this leaves teens easily influenced by their environment and more prone to impulsive behaviour, even without the impact of soupedup hormones and any genetic or family predispositions’ (Ruder 2008).

If teenagers themselves are aware of the implications as their adolescent brain makes the transition to maturity, it may help in managing conflicts that arise from time to time. Knowing about the physiology of their maturing brain may also help them with their learning.

The capacity to learn during adolescence is at a level never exceeded later in life; for example the ability to learn music and languages. This state of the brain being ‘ready to learn’ in the presence of judgement not yet fully developed may carry the risk of the development of addictive behaviours – including around drug and alcohol use.

By talking about adolescent brain development with teenagers, we can help the young people in our care learn to cope with the challenges, as well as discover and make the most of their talents.

For example, in adolescents, exposure to chemicals that alter brain function may produce responses of ‘desire’ even in the face of significant adverse effects of the chemical. Excessive alcohol intake during adolescence is associated with later alcohol addiction. Studies also show chemical use blocks cell signalling in the brain and in fact gives the user a self-induced learning disability. Jensen (2015) interestingly states, ‘What you do on the weekend is still with you during that test on Thursday.’ The action of alcohol on brain tissue is complex. At least four of the most common neurotransmitters are altered by alcohol intake. The overall effect is a depressant of brain function –for example, reduction of inhibition of behaviour, impairment of co-ordination and memory. This may accentuate the limitations of frontal lobe connections evident during adolescence. The effects may be longer lasting than in adults.

Jensen, FE & Nutt, AE 2015, The teenage brain – a neurologist’s survival guide to raising adolescents and young adults, Harper Collins, Boston USA. Bibliography Blakemore, S-J & Choudhury, S 2006, ‘Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. 47, pp. 296–312. Carskadon, MA, Acebo, C, Jenni, OG 2004, ‘Regulation of adolescent sleep: implications for behaviour’, Ann N Y Acad Sci. vol. 1021, pp. 276-91. Gomes da Silva, S, Arida, RM 2015, ‘Physical activity and brain development’, Expert Rev Neurother, vol. 9, pp. 1-11. P. Hagmanna, P, Spornsc, O, Madand, N, Cammounb, L, Pienaare, R, Wedeenf, VJ, Meulia, R, Thiranb, J-P & Grante, PE 2010, ‘White matter maturation reshapes structural connectivity in the late developing human brain’, PNAS, vol. 107, no.44, pp. 19067-19072.

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Teens are also notoriously sleep deprived. Their sleep patterns often change to being awake later into the night. Inadequate sleep increases impulsive behaviours, irritability and depression. Sleep deprivation also impairs learning at the stages of acquisition, consolidation and retrieval. Maintaining healthy sleep patterns improves academic results. Evidence shows regular exercise also has benefits similar to healthy sleep patterns.

References Ruder, DB 2008, ‘The Teen Brain’, Harvard Magazine, SeptemberOctober.

Notes

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INNOVATION and EVOLUTION

STAFF PROFESSIONAL LEARNING JOURNAL