Cultivating literate learners in the 21st century

Briar Bracey

Primary School Teacher

Teaching children to effectively read, write, spell, listen and speak are considered the principal responsibilities of educators. Without well-developed reading skills, children are unable to effectively participate within the classroom learning environment. Students with poor reading skills are at greater risk of school failure, low self-esteem and motivation to literacy, problems with employment and ultimately personal autonomy (Moats 2010). Therefore, early development of literacy skills is intrinsic to equip learners for the 21st century. Moats (2010) argues that the majority of reading problems can be significantly improved through appropriate instruction. For many decades it has been the focus of research findings and debate for what constitutes the correct instruction (Konza 2010). Coined the ‘Big Six’, education theorist Konza (2010) identifies oral language, phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension as key components within the development of reading. These components are interconnected and the building blocks of a successful literacy program. Educators need to explicitly teach these components to maximise the opportunities for all students to become independent readers and ultimately successful learners. Traditional methods of reading instruction are being re-examined as a new body of knowledge emerges from science-based evidence rather than merely observation. As research developments further advance, educators need to make informed decisions and ‘cherry pick’ the most appropriate methods from the science behind teaching reading and writing to best suit their classroom context.

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Oral language

It is widely known that oral language can be considered the underlying layer for growth in literacy (Konza 2014). A strong correlation exists between oral language and overall reading achievement throughout both primary and secondary schooling (Fernald et al. 2006, cited in Konza 2014). Immersion in rich and complex conversations allows growth in vocabulary and comprehension. Young learners require strong vocabularies to comprehend the vast range of words in texts and ultimately build meaning when reading. Interestingly, Konza (2014) discusses how technology in recent decades has influenced the way people interact with one another, resulting in a reduction in vocabulary. With a society where technology is so prevalent, children exposed to an abundance of early rich oral language experiences are best equipped to become literate learners in the foundation years of schooling and beyond. Thomson’s (2002) analogy of the ‘virtual schoolbag’ allows us to understand that all students come to school with a diverse set of experiences, knowledges and interests. Unfortunately, not everyone comes with adequate language skills from home in the first years of schooling. Instead, learners will possess varying language abilities dependant on their ethnic culture as well as socio-economic environment. Despite their differing language backgrounds, it is imperative that all children are immersed in a ‘stimulating language environment at school’ (Konza 2010, p. 2). Educators are therefore tasked with the difficult job of incorporating high quality oral language experiences as well as ensuring personal language remains valued.

If children do not have adequate oral language skills before the age of five, the risk for future reading problems grows, as they encounter difficulties with general language abilities including vocabulary knowledge and phonological awareness (Kaiser et al. 2010). Hart and Risley’s (1995, cited in Konza 2014) work illustrates the need for all students to interact with ‘better language users’ for vocabulary growth and language structure. Educators can also build on language experiences

CULTIVATING LITERATE LEARNERS

IN THE 21ST CENTURY

through imaginative play that promotes discussion, small group interactions, and storytelling (Mielonen & Patterson 2009). Furthermore, Corbett and Strong (2011) recognise the importance of oral language within the writing process and recognise that the oral learning of stories is an influential tool for assisting students to internalise language. Their program ‘Talk for Writing’ operates through meaningful repetition and oracy of texts to allow children to become accustomed to syntactical patterns and specific vocabulary to assist with independent writing. Enabling all students to hold adequate oral language skills will assist young learners in becoming confident users of literacy in the early years of schooling to equip them for life.

Phonological awareness and phonics

Phonological awareness refers to the ability to focus on the sounds of a word, rather than its meaning. The emphasis lies in its intonation and awareness of rhythm and rhyme. It is of paramount importance that children gain this awareness before preschool to equip them with a skill set that breaks down words necessary for the development of reading. The production of rhyme needs to be modelled by initially clapping then rhyming games, so an early recognition leads to understanding English words with their unique patterns of sounds (Konza 2011). Difficulties arise for the child who has not experienced a knowledge of rhyme and rhythmic elements due to being unable to relate these sounds to the alphabet to decode words. Children who have not had this door of learning opened due to hearing impairment or those whose first language is not English will be disadvantaged when it comes to reading. The next building block that early readers need to be taught is the ability to be a code breaker, learning the relationship between sounds and letters (phonics) in an alphabetic writing system. The shift from whether phonics should or should not be taught, has, over the last fifty years, moved to what form and how often it should be taught (Konza 2014). Many researchers argue that the teaching of phonics should operate through prescriptive frameworks that include systematic explicit instruction that concentrates on synthetic phonics. These are taught through isolated sound-letter relationships, where words are made by blending sounds. Students must synthesise these sounds to create words, read the whole word and break it down, and use cueing systems to contextualise the word as well as the comparison of patterns from known words (Ellery 2009). Fifteen to twenty minutes of daily explicit phonics instruction is regarded as optimal, complemented by ample periods of reading and writing to consolidate. The challenge lies in differentiating synthetic phonics instruction for classroom learners, as all students have varying levels of understanding the alphabetic principle (Gunning 2017). Conversely, the analytic phonics approach involves incidental teaching of letter-sound relationships. This approach dismisses synthetic phonics programs, believing that they can cause disengagement due to their prescribed texts being controlled with limited meaning (Rushton, Ewing & Diamond 2018). An analytical approach is focused on learning whole words in context through an exposure to words in meaningful literature, rather than having children blend and segment. Many would agree that literature needs to be authentic and meaningful for readers to engage. However, a substantial amount of research points to a decoding as a strong predictor of reading success (Buckingham 2018). Empirical evidence from scientific methods also supports synthetic instruction effective for monolingual Englishspeaking students and for EAL students (Petscher et al. 2020). Problems arise in students’ overuse of context and picture cues in preference for decoding strategies that analyse blends and vowel patterns in words (Gunning 2017). By teaching phonics through a systematic, synthetic approach, children can ‘unlock’ SUNATA 7

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the alphabet code and can independently read at a faster rate, exploring a variety of authentic and engaging texts in both shared and independent contexts.

Vocabulary

Students need multiple opportunities to develop a rich vocabulary through listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Research shows that reading vocabulary is pivotal in influencing both the comprehension and fluency of a reader, not only as a young reader but into adulthood (Beck et al. 2013). Consequently, vocabulary instruction needs to be an integral component of the literacy block. If sophisticated vocabulary is not taught, then the expectation of students understanding and applying it, clearly, cannot be met. Rather than occurring incidentally, Ellery (2009) argues that incorporating explicit vocabulary instruction offers students valuable opportunities to manipulate and learn new words. Beck et al. (2013) echo these sentiments, stating that vocabulary knowledge enables students to fully interact and comprehend texts. Difficulties can be presented for children who lack vocabulary knowledge, with the vocabulary in books becoming increasingly more complex throughout the years of schooling (Beck et al. 2013). Disengagement with reading and academics may occur if students are not able to effectively engage with texts due to poor word knowledge. Himmele and Himmele (2009) advocate for ‘drenching’ children in words, stressing the importance of a language-rich classroom. Vocabulary instruction needs to provide students with repeated exposure to taught words, with both definitional and contextual information being presented to students. Teachers can engage students with an assortment of activities that foster familiarity of the taught word and also encourage depth of word knowledge (McKeown & Becks 2011). McKeown and Beck’s (2011) methodology illustrates the three tiers of vocabulary instruction, recognising that different words have different value or use. Tier 2 words, which are uncommon in conversation but appear in written language, are most suited for instructional teaching of vocabulary to acquire familiarity and build a functioning verbal repertoire. This can then transfer to a student’s ability to become an effective communicator.

Fluency

Surprisingly, fluency has not always been viewed as an intrinsic component of effective reading. In previous times, educators were more interested in children successfully decoding words, with little focus on automaticity. Unsurprisingly, research now shows that fluency and comprehension exhibit a co-dependent relationship, with roughly 90 per cent of comprehension problems being linked to fluency (Rasinski, Homan & Biggs 2009). Fluency exists when a reader effectively combines accuracy, appropriate phrasing and intonation (Ellery 2009). Children who do not possess an effective reading rate, and read slowly, devote a large portion of their cognitive attention to decoding. For readers with poor fluency, repeated readings prove to be an essential practice for growth. However, Konza (2010) stresses the importance of finding suitable material that engages and motivates all readers. For these experiences to be as valuable as possible, educators need to adopt the role of a coach and model fluent reading, provide support while reading, and evaluate overall progress (Rasinski, Homan & Biggs 2009). Further problems may arise if struggling readers are left to practise their fluency independently, without the assistance of a model reader. Initiatives such as Sustained Silent Reading or Drop Everything and Read may nurture a love of reading and provide enjoyment to many but do little to support the growth of fluency. Instead, the implementation of pedagogies that bring success by instilling confidence in young readers are known to remove fears, encourage enjoyment and increase fluency. A successful strategy such as Readers’ Theatre involves students to ‘practise, refine and perform texts’ (Young & Rasinki 2009, p. 12) for a live audience performance and celebration, proving effective for readers who are both striving and thriving.

Comprehension

Comprehension involves readers actively engaging with a text at a deeper level and using an acquired set of skills, rather than simply identifying and reading the words on the page (Konza 2010). Readers are asked to respond or transform the presented information in the written text to show understanding. Gough and Tunmer’s (1986, cited in Farrell et al. 2019) Simple View of Reading scientific theory explains that effective reading comprehension can only occur when decoding and language comprehension have been mastered. In addition, Perfetti and Stafura (2014) stress that reading comprehension cannot be achieved without satisfactory levels of word-reading knowledge, highlighting orthographic, linguistic and general knowledge as fundamental sources. Such knowledge then

needs to be processed, ensuring the reader makes meaning, generates inferences, and monitors comprehension. Cognitive processes including working memory may dictate how effectively information is retained and interpreted. Although comprehension can be considered the ‘pinnacle of the Big Six pyramid’ (Konza 2010, p. 6), students need to be taught comprehension strategies from preschool, rather than waiting until intermediate grades. This simultaneous, rather than sequential, method provides a form of feedback within the foundation skills of reading (Duke, Ward & Pearson 2021). Consequently, educators need to implement explicit and strategic comprehension instruction for students to fully develop their reading skills and read independently. The National Reading Panel (2000, cited in Castles, Rastle & Nation 2018) supports the explicit teaching of reading comprehension strategies, where children are given the opportunity to excite active engagement with reading material and think about their own thought processes during reading. Explicit pedagogies such as reciprocal teaching promote this engagement, as readers take on roles of the clarifier, summariser, predictor and questioner. An educator’s goal is to ensure their students utilise these reading roles as part of their unconscious reading process, ‘becoming active, independent readers who bring meaning to reading’ (Ellery 2009, p. 171).

Conclusion

There is no denying that teaching reading is complex and challenging, requiring considerable expertise and continual research. Although parents play a part in influencing how well and how soon students’ literacy skills develop, informed classroom practice underpins reading success for learners. All educators need to be abreast of the latest scientific evidence in order to instruct all children through the best methods of reading and writing. Systematic and explicit instruction of each element of the Big Six is essential if educators are to maximise their students’ potential of becoming strategic readers and learners in schooling years and beyond.

References

Beck, IL, McKeown, MG & Kucan, L 2013, Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction (2nd ed.), Guilford Publications, US. Buckingham, J 2018, ‘Phonics: A contested space, Australian College of Educators and the Centre for Independent Studies Debate, Phonics in context is not enough: Synthetic phonics & learning to read’, Professional Educator, October 2018, Special Edition, viewed 2 April 2022, https://www.austcolled.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/ Prof-Ed-Special-Edition-Oct-2018-1.pdf Castles, A, Rastle, K & Nation, K 2018, ‘Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition from Novice to Expert’, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, vol. 19, pp. 5-51.

Corbett P & Strong, J 2011, Talk for writing across the curriculum, Open University Press, Maidenhead, UK. Duke, NK, Ward, AE & Pearson, DP 2021, ‘The Science of Reading Comprehension Instruction’, The Reading Teacher, vol. 74, no. 6, pp. 663-672. Ellery, V 2009, Creating Strategic Readers: Techniques for Developing Competency in Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, Fluency, Vocabulary, and Comprehension (2nd ed.), The International Reading Association, Newark, Delaware. Farrell, L, Hunter, M, Davidson, M & Osenga, T 2019, The Simple View of Reading, Reading Rockets, viewed 15 April 2022, https://www. readingrockets.org/article/simple-view-reading Gunning, TG 2017, Assessing and correcting reading and writing difficulties, (6th ed.), Pearson Education, US. Himmele, P & Himmele, W 2009, The Language-rich Classroom: A research-based framework for English language learners, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, USA. Kaiser, AP, Roberts, MY & McLeod, RH 2010, ‘Young Children with Language Impairments: Challenges in Transition to Reading’, in SB Neuman & DK Dickinson (eds), Handbook of Early Literacy Research, pp. 153-171, Guilford Publications, US. Konza, D 2010, Understanding the Reading Process, Department of Education and Children’s Services, Government of South Australia, viewed 13 April 2022, https://www.ecu.edu.au/__data/assets/ pdf_file/0009/663696/SA-DECS_-Understanding-the-ReadingProcess.pdf Konza, D 2011, Research into practice: Phonological awareness, Series 1, Paper 1.2, Department of Education and Children’s Services, Government of South Australia, viewed 16 April 2022, http:// www.evokelearning.ca/wp-content/uploads/SA-DECS-PhonAwareness-doc.pdf Konza, D 2014, ‘Teaching reading: Why the “Fab Five” should be the “Big Six’”, Australian Journal of Teaching Education, vol. 39, no. 12, pp. 153-169. McKeown, MG & Becks, IL 2011, ‘Making Vocabulary Interventions Engaging and Effective’, in RE O’Connor & PF Vadasy (eds), Handbook of Reading Interventions, pp. 138-168, Guilford Publications, New York. Mielonen, AM & Patterson, W 2009, ‘Developing Literacy through Play’, Journal of Inquiry & Action in Education, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 15-46. Moats, LC 2010, Speech to Print (2nd ed.), Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co, Baltimore, Maryland. Perfetti, C & Stafura, J 2014, ‘Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension’, Scientific Studies of Reading, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 22-37. Petscher, Y, Cabell, SQ, Catts, HW, Compton, DL, Foorman, BR, Hart, SA, Lonigan, CJ, Phillips, BM, Schatschneider, C, Steacy, LM, Terry, NP & Wagner, RK 2020, ‘How the Science of Reading Informs 21st Century Education’, Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 267-282. Rasinski, T, Homan, S & Biggs, M 2009, ‘Teaching Reading Fluency to Struggling Readers: Method, Materials, and Evidence’, Reading & Writing Quarterly, vol. 25. no. 2-3, pp. 192-204. Rushton, K, Ewing, R & Diamond M 2018, ‘Why real stories matter when learning to read, Australian College of Educators and the Centre for Independent Studies Debate Phonics in context is not enough: Synthetic phonics & learning to read’, Professional Educator, Australian College of Educators, viewed 1 April 2022, https://www.austcolled. com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Prof-Ed-Special-EditionOct-2018-1.pdf Thomson, P 2002, Schooling the Rustbelt Kids: Making the difference in changing times, Allen and Unwin, Crows Nest, New South Wales. Young, C & Rasinski, T 2009, ‘Implementing Readers Theatre as an Approach to Classroom Fluency Instruction’, The Reading Teacher, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 4-13. SUNATA 9