An Introduction to the History of
George T Gray
An Introduction to the History of
George T Gray
Copyright © 2022 by Sunway University Sdn Bhd Published by Sunway University Press An imprint of Sunway University Sdn Bhd No. 5, Jalan Universiti Bandar Sunway 47500 Selangor Darul Ehsan Malaysia press.sunway.edu.my All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, now known or hereafter invented, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN 978-967-5492-24-2
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia
Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Gray, George T. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE, ART & DESIGN / GEORGE T GRAY. ISBN 978-967-5492-24-2 1. Architecture--History. 2. Art--History. 3. Design--History. 4. Art and design. I. Title. 720.9
Edited by Hani Hazman, Sarah Loh Designed by Rachel Goh Typeset by Helen Wong Printed by Vinlin Press Sdn Bhd, Malaysia
Every reasonable effort has been made to trace the copyright holders and obtain their permission to reproduce copyright material. Any errors or omissions are not intentional and we would be happy to correct them if brought to our attention.
If you want the present to be different from the past, study the past. Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)
For Phoebe, Regina and Haley
vii
CONTENTS
About This Book
ix
Part I Prehistoric to Gothic
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Prehistoric Early Civilisations Ancient Egypt Ancient Greece Ancient Rome Early Asia Byzantine Empire Medieval & Romanesque Islamic Era Gothic
2 10 20 28 36 44 54 62 70 78
Part II Renaissance to 19th Century
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Renaissance & Mannerism Baroque & Rococo Neoclassicism & Romanticism Georgian & Regency Victorian Era The Arts & Crafts Movement Art Nouveau
88 98 108 118 128 138 148
Part III 20th Century and Beyond
18 19 20 21
Early 20th Century Art Suprematism & Constructivism De Stijl Bauhaus
162 178 186 194
viii
22 Art Deco 23 The International Style (Pre-War): The Modern Movement 24 The War Years 25 Abstract Expressionism 26 The International Style (Post-War): Mid-Century Modern & Brutalism 27 Pop Art, Minimalism & Op Art 28 Postmodernism 29 Late Modern Architecture 30 Contemporary Art
202 210 220 232 238 246 258 268 282
Afterword
290
Further Reading
293
Acknowledgements
296
Picture Credits
297
Index
303
ix
ABOUT THIS BOOK
This book provides readers of all ages with an introduction to the history of architecture, art and design. It covers major works of architecture, sculptures, paintings, graphic design and, where appropriate, furniture and other product designs for each period in art and design history. The book is in three parts, starting with the earliest periods of art and design since prehistoric times. The second part covers the periods from the Renaissance through to the 19th century, and the third looks at 20thcentury art and design until the early 21st century. Each chapter represents one period of study and contains relevant background information of the period. Notable works of art, key people of each period and timelines are also provided for easy reference, with illustrations accompanying the text. Notable Works are listed chronologically and have been typically divided into the following categories: t "SDIJUFDUVSF #VJMEJOHT BOE TUSVDUVSFT XJUI UIF completion dates indicated t "SU 1BJOUJOHT ESBXJOHT TDVMQUVSFT BOE JOTUBMMBUJPOT t %FTJHO *OUFSJPST HSBQIJDT GVSOJUVSF HMBTT BOE other products
The Key People listed for each period include the most renowned practitioners of their respective fields, as well as some key historical figures who helped shape the era and influenced the future. This is particularly relevant during the periods of antiquity when the artists and builders were mostly unknown.The lists of Notable Works and Key People are not exhaustive, but aim to provide a convenient summary for each period of study. Serving as an introduction to the subject, readers are encouraged to use this book as a starting point to commence their own research into the various subjects illustrated in the book. The book is not a comprehensive guide as it intends to provide readers with a general overview of the evolution of art and design through the ages. Further reading suggestions are listed at the back of the book. It is hoped that this book will help kindle the spark of appreciation for the world’s glorious art and design heritage.
George T Gray
PART I
PREHISTORIC TO GOTHIC
Prehistoric
1
1
PREHISTORIC
Background The prehistoric era is the earliest period from which there are surviving examples of art and design. These early examples include cave paintings, sculpture, tools, jewellery, pottery, domestic architecture and megaliths. Known as the Stone Age, this era was a time before metal tools, agriculture or the domestication of animals. It was a time when humans made their tools from stones or bones. The prehistoric era can be divided into three main periods: Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) at 2.5 million years ago, Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) at 15,000 years ago and Neolithic (New Stone Age) at around 11,000 years ago. During the Palaeolithic to Mesolithic periods, humans lived by hunting and gathering using sharp stones. People were nomadic and lived in caves or created temporary shelters from perishable materials such as tree branches, leaves and animal bones. Walls of the temporary tent-like shelters would be constructed using composite building materials such as wood or reeds padded with clay. It is from the Palaeolithic period that the earliest forms of art had survived. Recent findings by Dr Dirk Hoffmann and Professor Alistair Pike in 2018 suggest that the origins of art may be credited to the now-extinct Neanderthals. Three cave locations in Spain have been discovered with depictions of animals, hands, dots and grid patterns on the walls. Preliminary analysis indicates that these depictions may date back as much as 65,000 years ago. If proven to be
accurate, the analysis would establish that art was not exclusively a pursuit of the homo sapiens (i.e. modern humans). The two early art forms of the Palaeolithic period were stationary art and portable art. Examples of stationary art are cave paintings, while portable art comprises small and compact items such as figurines or simple clay bowls. Hunting was a common theme in prehistoric art—it represented natural abundance and may have also served as protection against the dangers of the wilderness. Animals depicted in hunting scenes may have been created to induce a type of sympathetic magic to enhance the good fortunes of the hunt (this magical practice is still used in some societies today). Richly coloured portable figurines that depict humans gaining control over the natural elements, including animals, were also probably used for such rituals and would have been carried around during the hunt. Fertility was another common theme as it represented prosperity and expansion of the tribe. Figurines of pregnant women, that have been given the name of Venuses (1.01), are another common portable art form. Common elements in cave paintings include human handprints (1.02), line patterns known as tectiforms and dotted art. Stone Age art uses a mixture of two-dimensional perspectives, including profile and frontal views, or sometimes a composite perspective. By blending perspectives, subjects in the paintings became
Prehistoric
1.01 Venus of Willendorf (ca. 28,000–25,000 BC)
3
more recognisable and allowed running animals to be realistically depicted. Paint was applied using hands or animal hair brushes and hollowed bones were used like blowpipes to spray paint the wall surface. The most common colours used were red and black, which were made by mixing various minerals, portions of animal bone and charcoal with water, animal fat, and even blood. This unusual amalgamation of materials may indicate that the production of the paintings was spiritual in nature and possibly served as aids in protection rituals, celebrations and religious rites. By examining the hand-painted art, it has been noted that men and women of all ages produced cave art. As the ice age receded in Europe, the main areas of habitation were found in the warmer southern areas such as present-day Spain, France, Germany, Turkey and around the Mediterranean. These locations are where the best examples of Palaeolithic artefacts can be found, such as the
1.02 Oldest Palaeolithic hand painting in the Cave of El Castillo, Spain (ca. 39,000 BC)
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An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design
cave paintings in Lascaux (1.03, 1.04) and Pech Merle in France as well as in Altamira (1.05) and Monte Castillo (refer to 1.02) in Spain. Archaeologists have discovered more than 200 caves with similar paintings throughout Europe. Some of the earliest forms of sculpture have been discovered in Germany, such as the Venus of Willendorf (refer to 1.01) and mammoth ivory carvings from Hohlenstein-Stadel (1.06). Much of the subject matter of these early cave paintings and sculpture seems mysterious in origin. The likely religion of the time would have been Shamanism, which involves spirit worship and healing. A common school of thought is that many of the images painted on the cave walls may have been conceived during altered states of consciousness or ritualistic trance states when the shaman entered the spirit world. These types of altered states of consciousness may explain the otherworldly nature of the commonly found half-human, half-animal depictions—known as therianthropes—in both painting and sculpture (1.06), which are also often combined with entopic patterns. The ‘wounded man’ imagery
in cave paintings, often depicted as a human figure shot through with spears or arrows, is thought to be representational of the physical and psychological torture that the shaman may have to endure in his passage to and from the spirit world. The ice age ended during the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods, leading to warmer temperatures and a migration of people further north. Human culture slowly transformed from hunting and gathering to farming and herding and to eventual domestication. The advent of agriculture at around 10,000 BC and an increase in crop cultivation gave humans some time away from subsistence activities. This spare time allowed for the development of religion in society and a greater pursuit of art and philosophy. During the Neolithic period, artists began to paint on other types of surfaces including clay pottery, sculpture and even the new plastered buildings that they had made. The development of agriculture changed the architecture of the time from temporary shelters and caves to more permanent village dwellings of timber and thatch. Small villages were first created
1.03 Buffalo cave painting in Lascaux, France (ca. 20,000–15,000 BC)
1.04 Deer and horse cave painting in Lascaux, France (ca. 20,000–15,000 BC)
Prehistoric
5
1.05 Bison cave painting in Altamira, Spain (ca. 21,000–11,000 BC)
1.06 Löwenmensch (Lion-man of Hohlenstein-Stadel) (ca. 38,000–33,000 BC)
using circular structures while rectangular huts were used later. In large communal dwellings, wooden posts and lintels were used to support the ridge pole and rafters while thatch was used for the roof structure. Walls were made of various materials such as clay, wattle and daub, tree bark, and thatch. Wattle and daub are good insulating materials for walls; wattle is created by weaving flexible branches together into a lattice panel while daub is a slurry of clay, animal dung and straw that is used to plaster the wattle structure. Eventually, stone was used in the construction of simple houses. An excellent example of this is the Neolithic village of Skara Brae in Orkney, Scotland, that was occupied around 3180 to 2500 BC. The simple structures in Skara Brae formed a village of seven small dwellings located beside the sea. The perishable roof structures made of timber and thatch have long disappeared but many of the stonework interior fittings remain. Storage cabinets, bed enclosures and fire hearths remain in place until today (1.07). To make the beds comfortable, straw was likely used as a mattress and animal hide or sheepskin as covers.
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An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design
1.07 Skara Brae in Orkney, Scotland (3180–2500 BC)
The quarrying and use of stone for domestic architecture was evident in other types of structures built around this time such as temples, monuments, towers and tombs. The megalith of Stonehenge (1.08) was built around 3000 to 2000 BC using the post and lintel construction method on an enormous scale. The exact purpose of this massive structure remains unclear, but the layout of the stones is related to planetary movements and the passage of time and seasons as first noted by William Stukeley in 1720. While the original ritual use of this structure is ambiguous (whether it was used as a meeting or celebration site or as an astronomical calendar), it has been used by the Druids since the 17th century for solstice celebrations. There has been much speculation and research into how this ancient structure was actually built, with some exotic theories ranging from sonic levitation
to otherworldly assistance. The more generally accepted theory is that the construction involved the digging of pits to allow the posts to be dropped in and hoisted vertically. Thereafter, huge compacted earth ramps would be formed reaching to the top of the posts to allow the horizontal lintel stones to be pulled—on timber rollers—into position on the top. It is known that 42 of the smaller stones, known as ‘bluestones’, were quarried from the Preseli Hills in Pembrokeshire in West Wales, some 290 kilometres away. These stones would have been transported on timber sleds or rollers by rope teams. It is an interesting point to note that the ‘bluestones’ have an intrinsic acoustic quality that allows them to ‘ring’ when struck. The full significance of this acoustic application in the structure is still under investigation.
Prehistoric
7
1.08 Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England (3000–2000 BC)
A place of worship that predates Stonehenge by 6,000 years is Göbekli Tepi, an archaeological site in the Anatolian region of Turkey. This site was first discovered by a goat herder who came across large carved stones protruding from the land. The site was further excavated by a German archaeological team in the mid-1990s to reveal what is believed to be only the first part of a huge stone structure dating from 10,000 to 8,000 BC. It is also believed that to sustain the workers who built this monument over an extended period of construction, the farming of wheat for bread was undertaken. This theory can help to identify roughly when the advent of agriculture occurred in the area. Like Stonehenge’s mystery, it is not fully understood why this huge structure was made and what it was used for. Theories range from it being a sacred burial site to the world’s first temple, but there is yet a conclusive answer
to the question of what religion was practised or what deities were worshipped. The site is being carefully excavated and restored by both Turkish and international teams of archaeologists and it is hoped that the site may soon be granted ‘World Heritage’ status by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). Judging by the amount of time and energy invested in the production of prehistoric art, it was obviously of great importance and significance to the people who created it. The settlement of farmers and the growth of villages, early religions and places of worship during the Neolithic period led to the development and progress of the first civilisations. These early civilisations paved the way for architecture, art and design to flourish and reach startlingly new heights of sophistication.
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An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design
Notable Works Architecture t t t t t t t
Göbekli Tepi, Turkey (ca. 10,000–8,000 BC) Çatalhöyük, Turkey (ca. 7400–5200 BC) Knap of Howar, Scotland (ca. 3700–2800 BC) Ġgantija Temples, Malta (ca. 3600 BC) Ħaġar Qim, Malta (ca. 3600–3200 BC) Newgrange, Ireland (ca. 3200 BC) (1.09) Skara Brae, Scotland (3180–2500 BC) (refer to 1.07) t Stonehenge, England (3000–2000 BC) (refer to 1.08) Art t Cave of El Castillo, Spain (ca. 39,000 BC) (refer to 1.02) t Lubang Jeriji Saléh, Indonesia (ca. 38,000– 33,400 BC)
t Löwenmensch (Lion-man of HohlensteinStadel) (ca. 38,000–33,000 BC) (refer to 1.06) t Fumane Cave, Italy (35,000 BC) t Chauvet Cave, France (ca. 31,000–28,000 BC) t Venus of Willendorf (ca. 28,000–25,000 BC) (refer to 1.01) t Pech Merle, France (ca. 25,000 BC) t Cave of Altamira, Spain (ca. 21,000–11,000 BC) (refer to 1.05) t Lascaux, France (ca. 20,000–15,000 BC) (refer to 1.03, 1.04) t Tassili n’Ajjer, Algerian Sahara (ca. 10,000– 7,000 BC) t Ain Ghazal, Jordan (ca. 7200–6500 BC) Key People Unknown
Timeline
Chauvet Cave, France ca. 31,000–28,000 BC Lion-man of the Hohlenstein-Stadel ca. 38,000–33,000 BC
Pech Merle, France ca. 25,000 BC
Venus of Willendorf ca. 28,000–25,000 BC
30,000 BC PALAEOLITHIC 32,000–12,000 BC
Lascaux, France ca. 20,000–15,000 BC
20,000 BC
Prehistoric
1.09 Burial mound in Newgrange, Ireland (ca. 3200 BC)
Göbekli Tepi, Turkey ca. 10,000–8,000 BC
Skara Brae, Scotland 3180–2500 BC
Ice age ends 10,000 BC Agriculture develops 9000 BC
Newgrange, Ireland ca. 3200 BC
10,000 BC
Stonehenge, England 3000–2000 BC
AD 0
MESOLITHIC 12,000–8000 BC NEOLITHIC 8000–3000 BC BRONZE AGE 3000–1200 BC
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2
EARLY CIVILISATIONS
Background As humans began to settle into community life, small villages slowly grew into towns. Many of these towns became the start of today’s thriving cities. For practical reasons such as agriculture, trade and utility, the early civilisations tended to grow around fertile river valleys. The earliest river civilisations grew in the Fertile Crescent that ran from the Nile Delta in Egypt up through Syria to Mesopotamia. A name that means ‘between two rivers’, Mesopotamia was located in present-day Iraq between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Other river civilisations
2.01 Mohenjo-Daro stupa in present-day Pakistan (ca. 2500 BC)
that flourished during this era can be found at the Yellow River, China in 2205 BC and at the Indus River, India/Pakistan, where the ancient cities of Mohenjo-Daro (2.01) and Harappa grew around 2500 BC. Mohenjo-Daro was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation, also known as the Harappan civilisation. It was the most advanced city of its time, with remarkably sophisticated civil engineering and urban planning. The city’s buildings were rectangular, laid out in a grid pattern and were constructed of sun-baked mud brick and wood. Infrastructure
Early Civilisations
included heated water systems, public baths, wells, assembly halls and markets. The civilisation developed the Harappan or Indus script (2.02) and produced many artefacts, sculptures, jewellery and ceramics that have been discovered by archaeologists at the site (2.03, 2.04). Mesopotamia is considered to be ‘the cradle of civilisation’. There were great artisans and architects and their civilisation was one of the longest lasting. The Mesopotamian civilisation lasted for more than 3,000 years (4000–539 BC), beginning with the Sumerian civilisation in 4000 BC, followed by the Akkadian in 2330 BC and the Amorite around 2000 BC until 1500 BC, after which the civilisation went into decline following the fall of Babylon in 539 BC. The area was subdivided geographically into Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylon. Trade and social order flourished in the areas around the Fertile Crescent of the Tigris and Euphrates and the earliest form of writing called cuneiform was also developed here.
2.03 Priest King sculpture of Mohenjo-Daro (ca. 2200–1900 BC)
2.02 Pashupati Seal, Harappan script and Shiva carving discovered at Mohenjo-Daro (ca. 3500–1900 BC)
2.04 Dancing Girl bronze sculpture of Mohenjo-Daro (ca. 2300–1750 BC)
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An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design
Cuneiform writing was created by impressing carved sticks of various shapes into clay tablets (2.05), which were used to keep an inventory of grain and livestock. The Egyptians would later adapt this to their own system of hieroglyphics on papyrus. A mathematical system based on multiples of 60 was also developed, which still has its influence on today’s measurement of time and degrees. The Mesopotamians could also be credited with the invention and development of the wheel, codified laws, irrigation, metalwork and tools, trade, transportation, and large-scale agriculture. Such inventions led the region to prosperity and have had a lasting effect on modern development.
2.05 Cuneiform writing tablet (ca. 2400 BC)
Mesopotamian art was created primarily for worship, the government or personal use. It included everyday items like pottery and weapons and also the status symbols of jewellery. Common characteristics of Mesopotamian art are the repetition of simple patterns and characters with natural and religious symbolism. Popular materials used to create art were clay, precious metals, precious stones and shells. One fundamental intention of Mesopotamian art was to honour the gods and goddesses who ruled over the different aspects of nature and important life events like love, war and fertility. One of the best-known and surviving examples of Mesopotamian architecture, art and design is
Early Civilisations
the Ishtar Gate (2.06), which was built around 575 BC during the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar II. Built on the north side of the city of Babylon, it was the eighth gate leading into the city in a grand processional way. The doors and roof of the gate were made of cedar and the masonry was faced with distinctive blue glazed clay bricks, meant to resemble the precious stone lapis lazuli. The bricks were cemented using naturally occurring bitumen and pitch. The designs and artwork on the yellow or golden glazed bricks depicted Babylonian deities, aurochs (an extinct type of cattle), lions (2.07) and dragons. Ishtar was the goddess of love, fertility and war and by honouring and invoking her, Babylonians hoped for blessings and protection in return. The gate was excavated between 1902 and 1914 and, from the materials excavated, a reconstruction was made in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin where it is still exhibited.
2.06 The Ishtar Gate of Babylon (575 BC)
2.07 Glazed tile work on the Ishtar Gate (575 BC)
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An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design
The religion of Mesopotamia was polytheistic, which means the people worshipped many gods. Huge temples called ziggurats were constructed for the worship of these gods. Ziggurats were the central places of worship in Mesopotamia and took the form of a stepped pyramid with stairs leading up to an altar where worshippers could elevate themselves closer to the heavens. The most well-known examples of these architectural works are the Ziggurat of Dur-Kurigalzu and the Ziggurat of Ur (2.08), created around 2050 BC and the remains of which can still be seen in present-day Iraq. The Ziggurat of Ur is a Sumerian ziggurat built during the early Bronze Age near Nasiriyah. The structure fell into ruins by 6th century BC but was restored by Babylonian King Nabonidus. The ziggurat was part of a temple complex that served as an administration centre for the city and a shrine to the moon god Nanna, the patron deity of Ur. It was constructed using three layers of mud bricks and faced with baked mud bricks
2.08 Ziggurat of Ur in present-day Iraq (ca. 2050 BC)
2.09 The Blau Monuments (ca. 3100–2700 BC), the oldest artefacts known to combine words and pictures
Early Civilisations
which were set with bitumen. The remains of the ziggurat were excavated from 1922 to 1934 by Sir Leonard Woolley on behalf of the University of Pennsylvania and the British Museum. The British Museum is home to some of the finest and best-preserved examples of Mesopotamian art. The collection includes The Blau Monuments (ca. 3100 BC), which are the oldest artefacts known to combine words and pictures (2.09). The age of the stones is in dispute but is estimated to be from 3100 BC to 2700 BC. The text on the stones has so far been undeciphered but the imagery on the stones is thought to depict the preparation and gifting of food, priest kings and craftsmen. Stone carving was prevalent as an art form in Mesopotamia. It was not simply a means of expression or for decorative purposes and usually had a more significant, religious or practical purpose. A good example of this are the Lamassu carvings (2.10). Done on a massive scale, these carvings depict hybrids that have a human head, the body of a bull or a lion and bird wings and are sometimes portrayed to represent a female deity. These large-scale sandstone or alabaster sculptures were protective deities, spiritual guardian figures placed on either side of entranceways to represent the ruler’s power. They also had an architectural function by serving as a structural support to the weight of the arch above them. The Mesopotamians attempted to glorify everything by means of artistic representation, whether it was in King Hammurabi’s code that depicts Hammurabi’s relationship with the divine, murals that depict the subject’s greatness or the complex gemstone and metal jewellery that people wore. Like the Egyptians, the Mesopotamians believed their rulers had a direct link to their gods and this is reflected in much of their artwork. The importance that Mesopotamians gave to art is exemplified by its use on the Code of Hammurabi, which was a set of rules and guidelines decreed by Hammurabi
15
2.10 Lamassu sculpture from Dur-Sharrukin during the reign of Sargon II (ca. 721–705 BC)
for his people to follow and presented in artistic form. The laws that define a system of retributive justice were engraved on stone tablets crowned by a relief sculpture depicting Hammurabi in discussion with a divine representation. The intention of this artwork was to show that the code was devised in direct consultation with the divine. This not only put Hammurabi on an equal status with the gods, but also ensured that his people would be more likely to follow the illustrated god-given rules. On the other side of the world, the Mesoamerican civilisations also began to flourish as early as 7000 BC. These civilisations include the Mayans of Guatemala, whose civilisation spanned two millennia, the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru. They left behind impressive pyramids that are similar in design to the Egyptian ones, which were built 2,000 years earlier. The construction of these temple-pyramids started with some of the earliest in La Venta, which was at the centre of
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An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design
Olmec culture (ca. 800–400 BC), and consisted of simple mounds of earth and clay. Later pyramids were faced with stone and provided a ritual platform on top of a stepped base to which only privileged members of the community were allowed access. The most notable examples of these can be found at various places in Mexico including the Pyramid of the Sun (2.11) and Pyramid of the Moon in the ancient city of Teotihuacan, the Pyramid of the Magician in Uxmal (2.12) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (2.13) in the Mayan city of Palenque. Pyramids were the largest buildings created by the Olmecs, Mayans, Aztecs and Incas and served as temples to house their deities and as royal tombs to bury their kings. In many of the great city-states, temple-pyramids were an important part of public life and were the site of holy rituals, including human sacrifice. Shrines where sacrifices were made to the gods were at the highest platform of the pyramid, while burial chambers were hidden deep inside. During the Classic period (AD 100–900), Mayan architecture flourished and led to the introduction of the corbelled arch which consisted of stepped courses of stonework above an opening, creating a ‘false’ arch or stepped vault, without the use of a keystone. A common feature of many Mesoamerican towns were the ballcourts, or tlachtli, which were raised platforms enclosed on three sides, specifically constructed for the use of ball games as symbolic journeys between the world of the living and the underworld. These ballcourts often formed the architectural centre of ancient Mesoamerican cities. Various types of building materials were utilised in the construction of early domestic settlements around the world, with the choice of materials depending on what was locally available. These materials included clay bricks,
2.11 The Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan, Mexico (ca. AD 200)
2.12 The Pyramid of the Magician in Uxmal, Mexico (AD 560)
Early Civilisations
timbers or stones that were cut to form post and lintel construction, a system that endured since the Stone Age. Thatch from straw or palm fronds would form the roof, while clay, wicker and rattan would be used to create walls. Simple pattern decorations may have been added using natural plant dyes and pigments or wood carving, examples of which have not survived the passage of time. The early civilisations left an artistic legacy of stepped pyramids, murals and monumental sculptures, many of which would go on to influence later civilisations. The Egyptians, for example, would adopt many of the design elements from ancient Mesopotamia, such as the stepped pyramids, writing and the use of the wheel which changed the civilisation of the future.
2.13 The Temple of the Inscriptions in Palenque, Mexico (ca. AD 683)
Notable Works Architecture t Caral settlement, Peru (2600–2000 BC) t The city of Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan (ca. 2500 BC) (refer to 2.01) t The Ziggurat of Ur, Iraq (ca. 2050 BC) (refer to 2.08) t Dur-Sharrukin, Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad, Iraq (717–706 BC) t The Ishtar Gate, Iraq (575 BC) (refer to 2.06, 2.07) t The city of Persepolis, Iran (550–330 BC) t The Pyramid of the Sun, Mexico (ca. AD 200) (refer to 2.11) t The Pyramid of the Magician, Mexico (AD 560) (refer to 2.12)
t The Temple of the Inscriptions, Mexico (ca. AD 683) (refer to 2.13) Art t Dancing Girl bronze sculpture of MohenjoDaro (ca. 2300–1750 BC) (refer to 2.04) t Priest King sculpture of Mohenjo-Daro (ca. 2200–1900 BC) (refer to 2.03) t Olmec heads (1500–400 BC) (2.14) t The Tree of Life carved tablet in Nimrud, Assyria (ca. 883–859 BC) (2.15) t Lamassu sculpture from Dur-Sharrukin (ca. 721–705 BC) (refer to 2.10)
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An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design
2.14 An Olmec head called Monument 1 in Tabasco, Mexico (ca. 850–700 BC)
2.15 The Tree of Life carved tablet in Nimrud, Assyria (ca. 883–859 BC)
Timeline Cuneiform writing develops 2400 BC
Mohenjo-Daro & Harappan The Blau Monuments urbanisation ca. 3000–2600 BC 3100 BC
Religious practices emerge ca. 5000 BC
First city-states develop ca. 5000–3500 BC
Farming settlements emerge ca. 4000 BC
5000 BC
Harappan/Indus script develops ca. 3500–1900 BC
4000 BC
Dancing Girl ca. 2300– 1750 BC
Corn is first cultivated ca. 2700 BC
3000 BC
INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION CA. 5000–1500 BC
SUMERIAN CIVILISATION 4000–1900 BC AKKADIAN CIVILISATION CA. 2300–2100 BC ARCHAIC PERIOD 7000–2000 BC
Early Civilisations
Design
Key People
t Harappan script, Indus Valley (3500–1900 BC) (refer to 2.02) t Mayan calendar, Mesoamerica (3114 BC) t The Blau Monuments, Mesopotamia (ca. 3100–2700 BC) (refer to 2.09) t Cuneiform writing, Mesopotamia (ca. 2400 BC) (refer to 2.05) t Code of Hammurabi, Mesopotamia (ca. 1754 BC) t Dresden Codex, Mesoamerica (ca. 1200–1250)
t Sargon the Great of Akkad (reign from ca. 2334–2284 BC) t Abraham (ca. 1996–1821 BC) t Hammurabi (ca. 1810–1750 BC) t Sargon II (ca. 762–705 BC) t Nebuchadnezzar II (ca. 634–562 BC) t Nabonidus (reign from 556–539 BC)
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Code of Hammurabi 1754 BC
Sargon forms empire 2300 BC Ziggurat of Ur 2050 BC
Ishtar Gate 575 BC
Kassites conquer Babylonia 1530 BC
Pyramids at Teotihuacan ca. AD 200
Teotihuacan dominates Mesoamerica ca. AD 300–550
Olmec heads ca. 1500–1000 BC
2000 BC
Pyramids at Uxmal ca. AD 600
Persia conquers Indus Valley 530 BC
Aryans migrate 1500 BC
1000 BC
The Temple of the Inscriptions ca. AD 683
AD 0
Indus Valley
VEDIC PERIOD CA. 1500–500 BC
ASSYRIAN CIVILISATION CA. 2500–609 BC
Mesopotamia Mesoamerica
BABYLONIAN CIVILISATION 1859–539 BC MAYAN CIVILISATION 1800 BC–AD 250 OLMEC CIVILISATION CA. 1200–400 BC ZAPOTEC CIVILISATION 700 BC–AD 900
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ANCIENT EGYPT
Background One of the oldest river civilisations that grew around the Nile was ancient Egypt. The Nile Delta formed part of the Fertile Crescent that also included Mesopotamia. Due to stability and growth in the region, the ancient Egyptian civilisation spanned a period from around 3000 BC to 30 BC. The Egyptian civilisation can be divided into three periods: Early or Old Egypt, Middle Egypt and Late Egypt. The stability of the era was due to the weather, seasons, and flood cycles of the Nile, and this was reflected by the growth of the civilisation and in its art, architecture and religion. Correspondingly, the early Egyptians viewed this stable reality as fundamentally eternal and unchanging.
3.01 A mural painting from Luxor (ca. 1543–1292 BC)
Similar to the Mesopotamians, the ancient Egyptians were polytheistic. Their worship of many gods and goddesses was recorded beautifully in stone carvings and illustrations (3.01), some of which were found within the ancient tombs of Luxor, Egypt. In ancient Egyptian society, the pharaoh was at the top of the social order and was believed to have an almost godlike status to the people. Egyptian art had a strong influence on Western art and relied greatly on symbolism, similar to that found later in the Renaissance and beyond. In paintings, important people such as pharaohs were always painted larger while the less important peons were always smaller. The use of colour was also significant of status and hierarchy, as figures painted in red were denoted as outside workers while figures in yellow or ochre represented those who remained mostly indoors. Magnificent pyramids (3.02) were constructed as burial chambers for mummified pharaohs to facilitate their safe passage to the afterlife and it was in this setting that the most elaborate artwork was found. The ordinary citizens would not have had a chance to appreciate this artwork as it was hidden from view and was intended as sacred tomb decoration to honour the deceased pharaohs and other important people. All possessions that would be required in the afterlife would be buried along with the deceased, including items like jewellery, artefacts and furniture. Simple carved wooden furniture was used, examples of which
Ancient Egypt
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3.02 The Great Pyramids of Giza (ca. 2520 BC)
can be seen in surviving artworks and furniture from within the pyramids (3.03). Wooden and rattan furniture was able to survive within the pyramids as the air inside was exceedingly dry which preserved them. This was also the case with the sycamore sarcophagi in which the pharaohs were buried and which were discovered in 20th– century excavations such as those led by the famous Egyptologist Howard Carter in the 1920s. The castes of ancient Egyptians included (in descending order) royalty, priests and nobles; followed by artisans, traders, shopkeepers and scribes; farmers and herders; and finally, unskilled workers. This society was credited for many great creations, inventions and discoveries, including the creation of papyrus (paper made from reeds) on which some of the impressive illustrations and early Egyptian writing—hieroglyphs—were made (3.04). Hieroglyphs were carved in the stone interiors of pyramids and temples and it is from the translation of these texts that archaeologists learnt much about the ancient Egyptian society, religion, beliefs and practices.
3.03 Meru (the Overseer of Sealers), an Egyptian treasurer sitting on a wooden chair with a cushioned back and carved lion’s feet (ca. 2000 BC)
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An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design
3.04 Papyrus detail of the weighing of the heart ceremony depicted in the Book of the Dead (ca. 1550 BC)
The translation of the hieroglyphs was only possible after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone (3.05) in 1799 by Napoleon Bonaparte’s troops while rebuilding a fort near the town of el-Rashid (Rosetta). The stone has three types of writing carved on it: Egyptian, Greek and Demotic. It was through the understanding of Greek and Demotic writing that the Egyptian hieroglyphs could be deciphered. Apart from their writing, the ancient Egyptians were also credited for the development of mathematics, geometry, science and medicine, and the creation of the calendar to mark the passage of time and seasons which predated the Mayan calendar by some 2,000 years. Similar to other cultures of the period, ancient Egyptian art featured humans, animals and hybrid forms that were stylised but proportionally correct. The use of hybrid forms representing deities can be traced as far back as the Stone Age with the Shamanic representations of the heavenly realms and the underworld. The figures in ancient Egyptian art were flat and two-dimensional, rendered without depth nor three-dimensional form in a style that would persist until the Italian 3.05 The Rosetta Stone (ca. 196 BC)
Ancient Egypt
Renaissance. Horizontal register lines were used to order the subjects and to separate the scenes, and the absence of these lines depicted chaos such as in scenes of hunting or battle. Some depth was created in the art by overlapping figures, one behind the other. The Amarna period, during Akhenaten’s reign, marked a high point in ancient Egyptian art as there was increased attention to detail and the adoption of a more stylised form in paintings, low relief sculpture and threedimensional sculpture. The architecture of ancient Egypt was heavy and rugged and gave a sense of timeless stability (3.06), a reflection of the world view of this civilisation. Decoration was achieved through the inclusion of stone carving (3.07), sculpture (3.08) and the use of natural pigments on ceilings and column capitals. These column capitals, which served as decorative heads of columns, tend to be
3.06 Temple of Horus at Edfu (237–57 BC)
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florid (e.g. lotus formed) and were of a style that was further developed—and much refined—by the later Greeks and Romans. The columns were often arranged in long rows known as colonnades, which also became a staple feature in the Classical periods of architecture. The stone obelisk was created by the Egyptians as a tribute to the sun god Ra which symbolised the sun’s rays. This is best exemplified by the Obelisk of Hatshepsut, which was carved from one solid piece of Aswan granite. This type of monumental architecture also proved popular with the Romans and today, obelisks can be found in most capital cities of the Western world such as the Washington Monument in the United States. The impact of ancient Egyptian culture on architecture, art and design has been profound as it has shaped the arts of ancient Greece and Rome and subsequently the arts of the 20th century.
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An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design
3.07 Stone column carving at Karnak Temple Complex, Luxor (2055–100 BC)
3.08 Stone statuary at Karnak Temple Complex, Luxor (2055–100 BC)
Ancient Egypt
Notable Works Architecture t The Great Sphinx, Giza (ca. 2530 BC) (3.09) t The Great Pyramids, Giza (ca. 2520 BC) (refer to 3.02) t Karnak Temple Complex, Luxor (2055–100 BC) (refer to 3.07, 3.08) t Obelisk of Hatshepsut, Temple of Amon at Karnak, Luxor (1457 BC)
3.09 The Great Sphinx in Giza (ca. 2530 BC)
t Temple of Luxor, Luxor (1386 BC) t Colossi of Memnon, Theban Necropolis (1350 BC) t Temples at Abu Simbel (ca. 1264–1244 BC) t Temple of Horus, Edfu (237–57 BC) (refer to 3.06)
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An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design
Art
Key People
t Bust of Nefertiti (1349–1336 BC) (3.10) t Tomb and funerary mask of Tutankhamun (ca. 1323 BC) (3.11) t Tomb of Ramesses III (1186–1184 BC)
t t t t t t t t t t
Design t Book of the Dead (ca. 1550 BC) (refer to 3.04) t The Rosetta Stone (ca. 196 BC) (refer to 3.05)
Narmer (ca. 3180–3120 BC) Imhotep (ca. 2667–2648 BC) Khufu (Cheops) (2609–2584 BC) Nefertiti (1370–1330 BC) Akhenaten (1353–1336 BC) Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC) Rameses II (1304–1214 BC) Ramesses III (1217–1156 BC) Ptolemy I Soter (367–283 BC) Cleopatra (69–30 BC)
Timeline Temple of Luxor 1386 BC Obelisk of Hatshepsut 1457 BC
First pyramid by Djoser 2600 BC Hieroglyphic writing 3100 BC
Papyrus is developed 2700 BC
Narmer is first pharaoh 2950 BC
The Great Sphinx ca. 2530 BC
Karnak Temple Complex 2055–100 BC
The Great Pyramids ca. 2520 BC
Pharaohs buried at Valley of Kings 1500 BC Book of the Dead ca. 1550 BC
2000 BC
3000 BC OLD KINGDOM 2575–2150 BC MIDDLE KINGDOM 1975–1640 BC
NEW KINGDOM 1520–1075 BC
Ancient Egypt
3.11 The funerary mask of Tutankhamun (ca. 1323 BC), discovered in the Valley of the Kings by British archaeologist Howard Carter in 1922
3.10 Bust of Nefertiti at the Egyptian Museum of Berlin (1349–1336 BC)
Conquest by Alexander the Great 332 BC
Colossi of Memnon 1350 BC Bust of Nefertiti 1349–1336 BC
Assyrian conquest 670 BC
Tutankhamun dies 1323 BC Temples at Abu Simbel ca. 1264–1244 BC
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Persian conquest 525 BC
Ptolemy I Soter is pharaoh 305 BC Temple of Horus 237–57 BC The Rosetta Stone ca. 196 BC
Tomb of Ramesses III 1186–1184 BC
1000 BC
LATE PERIOD 715–332 BC GREEK & ROMAN RULE 333 BC–AD 646
Death of Cleopatra 30 BC AD 0