Stockholm Airport City by alexsutton

AIRPORT 2050 CREATING A BETTER RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE AIRPORT, THE CITY AND THE TRAVELLER

ALEX SUTTON

MArch ARCHITECTURE THESIS BENV GA05 THESIS SUPERVISOR Dr ANNA MAVROGIANNI 1

ABSTRACT Travel demand in the aviation industry is set to double by 2030 and continue increasing beyond that. In order to satisfy demand and the increasing importance of the airport on local economies, capacity in the industry needs to enlarge. Commercial aviation has been around for little over a century but has become mundane and ordinary due to its ubiquity. Airports have suffered under the strain of the increasing demand and have become isolated processing stations. The effects of aviation on the environment, globally with greenhouse emissions relating to climate change and locally with noise and air pollution, necessary security measures and maintaining safety have caused this isolation. Airports need to adapt themselves to become more attractive gateways and capture as much of the air traffic demand as possible, to in turn drive their local economy. This thesis studies the developments that are being made with regards to the local flight context, take-off and landing, aircraft ground movements, security, passenger processing and ground operations. These can inform new architectural opportunities for the airport design, that provide a better relationship between the airport, the city and the traveller. This is explored within Stockholm, one of the fastest growing cities in Europe, where a testing ground is established for developing Airport 2050 as part of a new city district. Design solutions are generated in response to the research to suggest how a new design approach to the airport can be achieved. By creating a fully integrated urban airport, with airport sytems joining city systems as part of the city infrastructure, the feasibility of micro-termini and shorter runways which can slot into the urban context, it is possible that airports can operate within a city, on a more environmentally friendly level.

CONTENTS ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

A NEW URBAN AIRPORT FOR STOCKHOLM 1. LOCAL FLIGHT CONTEXT 2. TAKE OFF & LANDING 3. AIRCRAFT GROUND MOVEMENTS 4. SECURITY & BORDER CONTROL 5. CHECK-IN & BAGGAGE 6. AIRPORT GROUND OPERATIONS & TERMINAL 7. GROUND TRANSPORTATION

27 35 43 51 65 79 91 105

CONCLUSION 115

BIBILIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES 121

INTRODUCTION 7

1.1

AIR TRAVEL DEMAND FORECAST

8 1.2

AIR TRAVEL DEMAND & EXTERNAL SHOCKS

AIR TRAVEL DEMAND The aviation industry has come a very long way since the first powered flight by the Wright Brothers in 1903. The aircraft travelled a distance of 37m. Around 32 million commercial flights operate each year1 accounting for 5.8 trillion revenue passenger kilometres (RPKs)2 flown in 2013. (figure_1.1) Airbus, one of the leading global aircraft manufacturers is forecasting a growth in the industry of 151% by 2033 where 14.6RPKs will be flown3 (figure_1.1) in an industry which has been resilient to external shocks (figure_1.2). This increase in demand is being fuelled by how accessible flight is today, especially for emerging markets, where flight is able to bring new opportunities that weren’t so accessible previously. But with this increasing demand, a huge amount of pressure is being placed on airports to provide space, airlines to expand their aircraft fleets and open up new routes, all while trying to reduce the major impact the aviation industry has on the environment both globally and locally.

AIR TRAVEL & THE ENVIRONMENT The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that the aviation industry accounts for 3.5% of anthropogenic climate change which could increase to between 5-15% by 2050.4 This figure could rise further if other industries who are major contributors to climate change are able to reduce their impact by then. Figure_1.3 illustrates how much more efficient commercial aircraft are today, but these modern improvements are shadowed by increasing demand and the lag in fleet renewal for the most advanced aircraft by airlines. “fuel burned per seat in today’s new aircraft is 70% less than that of early jets. About 40% of the improvement has come from engine efficiency improvements and 30% from airframe efficiency improvements”5

Airbus (2014) Flying on demand 2014-2033 p.2

An RPK is a measure of traffic for an airline calculated by mulitplying the quantity of revenue-paying passengers with the distance flown 2

Ibid., p.63

IPCC (1999) Aviation and the Global Atmosphere: A Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press 4

Penner, J. (1999). Aviation and the global atmosphere : a special report of IPCC Working Groups I and III in collaboration with the Scientific Assessment Panel to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 5

1.3

TRENDS IN TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT FUEL EFFICIENCY. SOURCE: IPCC

Although it is important to understand the impact that the aviation industry has on the environment globally, attention must also be brought to the impact air travel has locally. Today’s airports, particularly ones that have been operating through generations, are constantly shrouded in bad press related to poor air quality from Nitrogen Oxide, Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide, and also noise levels. In the short time that air travel has been available to us, major advances have been made in aircraft technology in relation to noise. The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) recognises that modern jet-liners being developed today are 75% quieter than those manufactured 50 years ago6 yet noise is the “most significant cause of adverse community reaction related to the operation and expansion of airports worldwide.”7 London’s Heathrow Airport is currently the centre of a major debate about the future of the UK’s aviation industry, whereby capacity needs to increase. However, Heathrow is full and in order to release capacity, a new runway is required. A new runway, with today’s situation, brings significantly increased noise and air pollution to the airport and the local environment, which is the main reason that permission to build a new one is taking so long. The last major expansion to the airport was completed in 2008 with Terminal 5, which itself took almost 20 years to realise since its conception in 1982, due to the longest public enquiry in British history at the time.8 Particularly with legacy airports such as Heathrow, public opinion about their operation has a major impact with regards to future planning. Although negative press relating to the quality of the environment of neighbouring communities tends to feature heavily, many local residents do actually support the expansion or life-extension of the airport. Communities dwelling adjacent to the airport have established themselves based on the airport and would not necessarily be there without it. On 19 January 2015, Heathrow Airport published

ICAO (2010). International Civil Aviation Organization. Aviation Outlook - ICAO Environmental Report p.18

Ibid.

Department for Transport (2005), ‘Planning Inspectorate Journal - Heathrow Terminal Five article’ http://web.archive.org/web/20071224055842/http://www.dft.gov.uk/foi/responses/2005/jan/terminalfive/ planninginspectoratejournalh2291?page=2 (accessed April 22 2015) 8

MEMPHIS CITY CENTRE

MEMPHIS AIRPORT

MEMPHIS INDUSTRIAL BUSINESS

1.4

MEMPHIS AIRPORT

a press release stating the results of an independent poll that claims “for the first time more than 50% of residents in Heathrow’s surrounding constituencies support the airport’s expansion plans.”9 This contradiction to the campaign against noise and expansion is an interesting one whereby certain people are choosing to be in the vicinity of the airport, whether it is for their job or for their need for immediate travel.

THE AEROTROPOLIS

John Kasarda, a professor at the University of North Carolina, coined

the term ‘Aerotropolis’ in recognising the increasing importance of the airport to the modern city. With increasing global demand for air travel and immediate global connections, a trend is developing whereby airports are being built no longer to service the city, but more the cities are being built to service the airports. “Cities are always created around whatever the state-of-the-art transportation device is at the time. When the state of the art is shoe leather and donkeys, the result is the hilly paths of Jerusalem. When it’s men on horseback and sailing ships, it’s the ports of Lisbon, Hong Kong, or Boston, and the canals of Venice and Amsterdam. The birth of the railway produced Kansas City, Omaha, and the stockyards of Chicago. And the mass production of the Model T led first to Los Angeles and later to Levittown, Long Island.” 10 It was discovered by University of Memphis researchers in 2008 that Memphis airport was responsible for nearly half of the local economy, worth $28.6billion, sitting at the centre of a business ecosystem of companies that have moved to live in the shadow of the airport.11 The magnetism of the airport is very evident when you look at an aerial plan of the city (figure_1.4) as the airport and the immediate areas are noticeably more built up than the

Heathrow Airport (2015). ‘Heathrow - Press releases - New Poll: Growing local support for Heathrow expansion. ‘ http://mediacentre.heathrowairport.com/Press-releases/New-Poll-Growing-local-support-for-Heathrow-expansion-ab2.aspx (accessed February 18 2015) 9

Lindsay, G. (2011). ‘Aerotropolis : Stories.’ Financial Times. London, February 26 2011

p.62 Lindsay, G., & Kasarda, J. (2011). Aerotropolis: The Way we’ll live next. London: Penguin

AMSTERDAM SOUTH (ZUID)

AMSTERDAM SCHIPHOL AIRPORT

HOOFDDORP 1.5

AMSTERDAM SCHIPHOL AIRPORT

traditional city centre. Where once the airport would facilitate the city, which was the traditional economic driver, the airport has now become the economic driver. Recognising this trend, airports need to build themselves into a position where they provide the best possible relationship with the urban environment to attract new business and capture as much of the global traffic as possible that will in turn act as a major stimulant in the local economy. Amsterdam Schiphol (figure_1.5) and Seoul-Incheon (figure_1.6) are examples of the modern Aerotropolis. Amsterdam Schiphol is situated above a major rail and road hub, that provides fast and direct access to the central business district of Amsterdam Zuid in 8 minutes, the city centre in 15 minutes as well as links through to the rest of Holland and the neighbouring European countries beyond. The attractiveness of Schiphol is very high where the wealth of immediate local and global connections gives Schiphol a significant time advantage for the business traveller. Key European business destinations are on average a 2-hour flight away12; a day trip is extremely feasible, cementing Schiphol’s purpose as a major economic hub. New Songdo is a Seoul district being constructed close to SeoulIncheon airport with the exact intention of heightening Incheon’s place in the airport league tables and establishing Incheon as a global economic hub. “The aerotropolis is tailor-made for today’s world, in which no nation reliably dominates and every nation must fight for its place in the global economy. It is at once a new model of urbanism and the newest weapon in the widening competition for wealth and security.” 13

Flight Times Map (2015), http://www.flighttimesmap.com (accessed April 22 2015)

Lindsay, G. (2011). ‘REVIEW --- Cities of the Sky --- From Dubai to Chongqing to Honduras , the Silk Road of the future is taking shape in urban developments based on airport hubs ; Welcome to the world of the “aerotropolis.”’ Wall Street Journal, Eastern Edition. New York , February 26 2011 13

SEOUL INCHEON AIRPORT

NEW SONGDO

1.6

SEOUL INCHEON & NEW SONGDO

THE AIRPORT ‘PLACE’ Although airports are now recognised as major economic drivers, the airport itself still lacks a sense of place. Traditionally, as soon as a passenger arrives off a flight, the chances are that they will transfer immediately out of the airport to their ultimate destination. Even with airports such as Schiphol, which make the connection beyond the airport straight forward and efficient, there is still an essence of psychological disconnection between the airport and the city. It would be unusual in today’s society to take a trip to the airport, unless you were there for a specific purpose: to fly, to work, to collect or drop off. The Eurostar became the transport jewel of London when international rail operations began in the 1990s. Travelling between London and the continent suddenly became extremely easy. Being able to go direct from a city centre to a city centre made an efficient use of time and effort for the everyday traveller but also made international travel glamorous. Bars, cafés, restaurants, hotels and public spaces surrounding the platforms of the station are to be enjoyed not only by the traveller, but by the resident, repurposing St Pancras not only as a gateway but also a place for Kings Cross (figure_1.7). Passengers arriving off the train from Paris are greeted by the ebb and flow of the people of London eating, drinking, working, relaxing and ambling through the station and the neighbouring areas of Granary Square and Regents canal (figure_1.8). The train station is a place to ‘be’. The same can be said of major city rail stations such as Stockholm Central Station which acts not only as a station, but also a meeting point and landmark for the city.

1.7

ST PANCRAS STATION PUBLIC CONCOURSE

1.8

GRANARY SQUARE & REGENTS CANAL BEHIND ST PANCRAS

SIMPLE

STANDARD LINEAR

PIERS

CURVED LINEAR

SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE

SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE

1.9

TYPICAL EXISTING AIRPORT TERMINAL LAYOUTS

HANGER THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE

1.10

PEOPLE ENJOYING THE SPECTACLE OF NEW YORK JFK AIRPORT IN 1948

THE AIRPORT TYPOLOGY The typology of the airport terminal has changed little since the dawn of the jet-age in the 1950s. Aircraft line-up next to one another, connecting to linear piers and satellite structures forming parts of mega-terminals. (figure_1.9 & 1.11) Aircraft pirouette around square-kilometres of tarmac, navigating from terminal to runway. The airport is a vast landscape, with a clear defined border where only specially designated roads and railway systems penetrate bringing people and goods to the various terminals. The freedom to roam into the airport is not easy. Rarely in large modern airports is it possible to walk up to the terminal or cycle alongside the runway enjoying the magic that once was so associated with flight (figure_1.10). Because of this, airports have become mundane and ordinary due to ubiquity where the spectacle of flight is lost. (figure_1.12) Terminals have become more processing grounds based around efficiency than an exciting experience. But attitudes to the airport are changing. In the cut throat competitive environment that exists in aviation, more money is being spent in recent years to improve customer experience. This investment is all part of the global competition to make a cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s airport more attractive than the other. Improving time efficiency, making procedures less invasive and providing a customer with a more personalised travel experience. 21

1.11

LONDON HEATHROW AIRPORT - TERMINAL 4 - A LINEAR TERMINAL WITH END PIERS

1.12 24

RPORT - WHERE IS THE MAGIC?

STOCKHOLM ARLANDA AI

As an architect, it is important to recognise these attitude shifts regarding the airport. With the aviation industry on a mission to become greener, airports could in the future co-exist within the city environment, as trains do today. Therefore how could an airport that operates in such a context be designed, where a better relationship between the airport, the city and the traveller is created? The aims and objectives of this study are to understand the implications that aviation developments have on the design of the future airport. Design solutions are generated in response to the research, to suggest how a new design approach to the airport can be achieved. The next series of chapters explores this using Stockholm as a testing ground for the creation of the future airport. The mechanics of the airport, from the operational perspectives such as flight contexts, take-off and landing, aircraft ground movements, ground operations and perimiter security through to the passenger process perspectives such as check-in, transport, baggage and passenger security, are all focused on to understand the implications their own developments have on the design of future airports. Can a better relationship between the airport, the city and the traveller be established through architectural opportunity?

A NEW URBAN AIRPORT FOR STOCKHOLM 27

40 KM

100K M

ARLANDA

STOCKHOLM

VASTERAS BROMMA

SKAVSTA

28 2.1

VASTERAS 100KM (90-120MINS)

SKAVSTA 100KM (90-120MINS)

ARLANDA 40KM (20-60MINS)

STOCKHOLM’S AIRPORTS - DISTANCE AND TRAVEL TIMES

BROMMA 7KM (15-20MINS)

STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN Stockholm is currently one of the fastest growing cities in Europe, with an annual population increase of 2% in 201314. Cushman and Wakefield’s European City Monitor ranked Stockholm as the 13th best European city in which to do business.15 In order to maintain or build on this ranking and stay ahead of the competition, it is important that the city must invest in its infrastructure to cater for an increasing population and business environment. Applying a new airport to the city of Stockholm that would form a world class gateway and cement Stockholm as becoming the economic hub of Scandinavia, is a relevant move. This provides opportunity for the architect, where a design challenge is created to produce an airport that is better than the rest for the traveller. Stockholm currently has 4 airports which service the city. Arlanda, Bromma, Skavsta and Vasteras. (figure_2.1) Each has a varying distance from the city centre, with Bromma Airport being the closest. Arlanda is Stockholm’s principal airport with the majority of flights servicing the city arriving and departing from Arlanda. Vasteras and Skavsta are both around 100km away from the city centre but it is Bromma airport’s proximity to the city that poses the most interesting case. Bromma airport, 7km from the city centre, is Stockholm’s first international airport having opened in 1936. Its future is currently under review, as the negative effects of noise and pollution are fuelling environmental campaign groups to have it closed down.16 A counter to this is a business campaign recognising the importance of Bromma for Stockholm.17 Short journey times to and from the airport, and little to no queues make it extremely attractive for businesses to justify commuting to and from the rest of Sweden and other European countries. Many European economic hubs can easily be reached within 2-3 hours, making day trips highly feasible.18 But Bromma and Arlanda both have constrained capacities at peak times19, so closing Bromma would only negatively impact Arlanda’s limited peak capacity further. Air traffic capacity in Stockholm would be significantly reduced should Bromma close, hindering Stockholm’s chances of becoming an economic leader in Northern Europe and beyond. A new aviation solution should be found for Bromma.

Goliath, C., Andreasson, E., & Bowden, E. (2014). City of Stockholm Annual Report. Stockholm. p.6

Ibid., p.10

Ullman, T (2010) ‘Opposition wants to close Bromma Airport’ Stockholm News, August 31 2010

Chassany, A & Milne, R (2014) ‘Business attacks Sweden’s new government’ Financial Times, October 26 2014

Flight Times Map (2015) http://www.flighttimesmap.com (accessed April 22 2015)

Littorin, H (2012) ‘Swedavia: Stockholm Arlanda and Bromma airports and their furture role’ http://slidegur.com/doc/42572/bromma-stockholm-airport (accessed November 16 2014) 19

7KM

MORBY CENTRUM

RINKEBY

SOLNA

SUNDBYBERG

LIDINGO

ROPSTEN

BROMMA AIRPORT

VARTAN FRIHAMNEN NORRMALM OSTERMALM

KUNGSHOLMEN

BROMMA

T-CENTRALEN

GAMLA STAN

CITY CENTRE

SLUSSEN

SODERMALM

HAMMARBY

HAGERSTEN LILJEHOLMEN ARSTA

SKARHOLMEN

GLOBEN

ALVSJO

2.2 30

RELCOATING BROMMA & EXISTING SITE TRANSPORT CONNECTIONS

Stockholm is built within the Stockholm Archipelago, which is made up of over 30,000 islands. The land is fragmented and punctured by large bodies of water. When thinking about where to place an airport, space is always a key requirement and the water is one attribute where space can be found. As part of Stockholm’s future plan, sites of strategic regional expansion opportunity have been identified throughout the city to cater for increasing populations and business demands. One that satisfies both of these is Vartan-Frihamnen. (figure_2.2) The Lilla Vartan strait, adjacent to the Vartan-Frihamnen Port area is one body of water that truly falls against the city of Stockholm jurisdiction. The area currently is filled with heavy industry and cargo yards (figure_2.3), which are set to be relocated to Norvik, south of Stockholm.20 O

Vartan-Frihamnen is a controversial location for an airport as it lies closer to the centre of Stockholm than Bromma, yet offers a greater amount of space and more immediate city connectivity. Relocating the airport to this more central location completely contradicts the environmental campaign that has so impacted the future of the existing airport. With traffic demand set to double by 2030 and an increasing reliance on the industry for economic global success, the industry has to become greener and adapt itself to be able to live in harmony with the environment. This is an ideal testing ground to develop the future airport, one that occupies a new city district as well as one that integrates so deeply into an original city full of history and culture. Opportunities in green-approaches and eco-climbs are just some that could allow an airport to be placed in this location, which will be discussed further in the next chapters. The next series of chapters explores how a new airport could be incorporated into the creation of a new city district for Stockholm, and how the developments in the aviation industry could inform a new way of thinking of the design of the modern urban airport.

Stockholm Stad, ‘Stockholm Royal Seaport Renovation: Port Development.’ http://www.stockholmroyalseaport.com/en/srs/port-development/#.VP3T8EKoWpY (accessed November 25, 2014) 20

2.3

VARTAFRIHAMNEN PORT & LILLA VARTAN STRAIT SITE - LOOKING NORTH

LOCAL FLIGHT CONTEXT 35

LOCAL FLIGHT CONTEXT The site of the Lilla Vartan Strait by Vartan-Frihamnen has the benefit of the surrounding water context. Flights arriving and departing have the ability to follow the waterways as a navigation tool, to avoid overflying built up areas, thus limiting noise. However, due to the proximity of some land build ups, there are areas (marked in red in figure_3.1.1) that some overflying will have to occur, particularly Nacka Ostra and Stocksund. Over the next chapter, aircraft approach and climb developments will be looked at to understand how impact on these areas in particular can be minimised.

36 3.1.1

USING WATERWAYS AS FLIGHT ROUTES

STOCKSUND

STOCKHOLM

NACKA OSTRA

TRA

DIT

ION A CLI L STE PPE MB D

CRU

ISIN

LTI

TUD

LUL

TRA APP DITIO N RO AC AL ST H E PAT & HO PPED LDI TER NG N

LAN

ECO

CRU

ISIN

-CL

IMB

LTI

TUD

LUL

EA 4. CO

NT DES INUOU S (GR CENT APP EEN) RO AC H

3.1.2

09.55 PRIOR TO TAKE-OFF, THE PILOTS & AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL AGREE ON THE LANDING TIME, WHICH TODAY IS ESTIMATED AT 11.03

10.05 THE FLIGHT DEPARTS AND THE AIRCRAFT’S SYSTEMS OPTIMISE THE FLIGHT ACCORDING TO THE LANDING TIME

LAN

10.30 THE AIRCRAFT AND AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEMS MAINTAIN CONTINUOUS CONTACT AND THE LANDING TIME REMAINS ESTIMATED AT 11.03 10.50 USING THE NEW TECHNOLOGY, THE AIRCRAFT GLIDES DOWN WITH THE ENGINES IDLE 11.03 THE AIRCRAFT LANDS ONLY TWO SECONDS LATER THAN ESTIMATED, AND THE GREEN APROACH HAS RESULTED IN REDUCED EMISSIONS & 40% REDUCTION IN NOISE LEVELS

FOR A NORMAL FLIGHT TODAY, THE LANDING TIME IS GIVEN SHORTLY BEFORE THE ACTUAL LANDING. DURING APPROACH, THE AIRCRAFT DESCENDS IN STAGES WITH THE ENGINES IN FULL USE AND SOMETIMES THE AIRCRAFT ALSO HAS TO CIRCLE THE AIRPORT

GREEN APPROACH INFOGRAPHIC. EXAMPLE FLIGHT BETWEEN LULEA AND STOCKHOLM ARLANDA - SOURCE: SWEDAVIA

AIRCRAFT APPROACH Typically, aircraft approach the airport airspace and circle in holding patterns until their landing slot becomes available. This requires a large amount of fuel burn, to maintain the aircraft at speed whilst in hold, thus generating noise over neighbourhoods. But initiatives such as ‘continuous descent or green approach’ and ‘eco-climb’ are some that aim at minimising the fuel burn and noise created by aircraft during the take off and landing phases. Scandinavian Airlines Systems (SAS) has already begun trialling continuous decent systems in it’s aircraft on approach to Stockholm Arlanda. “a green approach means that the pilot does not begin the flight until the flight path and landing clearance are given. Using the shortest possible flight path and without holding in the air, an even descent begins in sufficient time from the cruising altitude to the runway. Experience so far shows an average fuel saving of around 150 kg per landing with a Boeing 737-600, equivalent to a reduction in CO2 emissions of just over 450kg.” 21 (figure_3.1.2) This initiative has been rolled out across other airports, with the National Aerospace Laboratory of the Netherlands (NLR) trialling aircraft on a continuous descent approach (CDA), at Groningen Airport Eelde. Here it was found that aircraft on approach in such a manner would reduce noise levels by 40% and a saving in fuel of 7%.22 Amsterdam Schiphol has adopted the CDA initiative for its evening arrival aircraft.23

SAS, SAS’ environment focus: At the forefront of the airline industry. p.1

NLR. (2012). ‘Groningen Airport Continuous Descent Approach.’ http://wp.nlr.nl/en/2012/02/17/groningen-airport-eelde-first-gliding-flight/ (accessed March 31, 2015) 22

Ibid

STOCKSUND

AIRPORT CITY

NACKA OSTRA

3.1.3

ECO-CLIMB FLIGHT PATH & NOISE RELATIONSHIP

ECO-CLIMB

TRADITIONAL STEPPED CLIMB

runway STOCKSUND

3.1.4

ECO-CLIMB FLIGHT PATH & NOISE RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM IN ELEVATION

NACKA OSTRA

AIRCRAFT CLIMB Aircraft, like on approach, also fly in incremental stages during the climb phase after take-off. Continuous Climb Operations (CCO) is an initiative that could also help with noise and carbon emissions during the climb out of the airport. ICAO have acknowledged the following advantages it can bring: “more fuel efficient operations, cost savings and environmental benefits through reduced fuel burn and potentially aircraft noise mitigation through thrust and height optimisation and potential authorisation of operations where noise limitations would otherwise result in operations being curtailed or restricted”24 Airbus’ Smarter Skies initiative call this an ‘eco-climb’, recognising that if aircraft start to use renewable fuels, the process would become very eco-efficient. 25 Figure_3.1.3 & 3.1.4 show the implications of such initiatives on the local context to the site. An eco-climb would mean that the altitude of aircraft, by the time they reached Nacka Ostra or Stocksund, would be higher than with a traditional, stepped climb, reducing the amount of noise affecting these areas. The issue with these approach and climb systems however is that the aircraft can still be heard and pollute in todays context. But as aircraft become greener, this is a major step in reducing the impact of airports on the local and wider communities. As these measures are beginning to be implemented today, by 2050 the technology could be so advanced that urban airports could be highly feasible and less damaging to local context.

ICAO. (2012). Continuous Climb Operations (CCO) Manual. Part A-1-3

Airbus. (2015.). ‘Eco-climb | Airbus, a leading aircraft manufacturer.’ http://www.airbus.com/innovation/future-by-airbus/smarter-skies/aircraft-take-off-in-continuous-eco-climb/ (Accessed January 29 2015) 25

TAKE OFF & LANDING 43

3 O GL IDESL OPE

DISPLACED THRESHOLD

THRESHOLD RUNWAY DESIGNATION NUMBER

500FT TOUCH DOWN ZONE

FIXED DISTANCE MARKS

1500FT TOUCH DOWN ZONE

2000FT TOUCH DOWN ZONE

EXIT TAXI-WAY

2000FT TOUCH DOWN ZONE

EXIT TAXI-WAY

1500FT TOUCH DOWN ZONE

EXIT TAXI-WAY FIXED DISTANCE MARKS

500FT TOUCH DOWN ZONE

RUNWAY DESIGNATION NUMBER THRESHOLD

DISPLACED THRESHOLD EXIT TAXI-WAY

3.2.1

TYPICAL LANDING COMPONENTS OF A RUNWAY TODAY

V0 - LINE-UP FOR TAKE OFF

GROUND ROLL

HOLDING POINT DE-ICE ZONE

TAXI-WAY TO RUNWAY

VLOF - LIFT-OFF SPEED

V2 - MINIMUM TAKE OFF SAFETY SPEED

3.2.2

CLIMB

VR - ROTATION SPEED

MANOEUVRE

V1 - TAKE OFF DECISION SPEED

TYPICAL TAKE-OFF COMPONENTS OF A RUNWAY TODAY

3.2.3

TYPICAL TAKE-OFF TODAY WITH LANDING GEAR - LAN AIRBUS A320

3.2.4

ASSISTED TAKE-OFF CARRAIGE BY AIRBUS. AIRCRAFT WITH NO LANDING GEAR

TAKE OFF AND LANDING TODAY After approach and climb we come to the runway itself. Runways have a principal form of a paved strip of varying lengths to facilitate the take-off roll or the braking distance required by aircraft (figure_3.2.1 & 3.2.2). Aircraft use thrust generated by their engines to carry them to lift-off speed (figure_3.2.3) or to gently touch down on landing, where the reverse thrust of the engines, along with wheel braking, and wing spoiler deployment is used to slow the aircraft. But these processes generate a lot of noise as well as emissions, but most of all can be the most safety critical phases of flight. The amount of land required for a runway is significant not only in length, but also in clearance either side. This can be specifically problematic when trying to construct a new runway at an already constrained airport.

ASSISTED TAKE OFF & LANDING By 2050 we could see major advances in the construct of the runway and the way aircraft interact with it, through interventions such as ‘assisted take-off’. Airbus filed a patent for a carriage and track system in 199126, part of an assisted take-off system for the take off and landing process. (figure_3.2.4 & 3.2.5) It is recognised that aircraft landing gear provides dead weight in the aircraft, as it is not required in flight. The carriage system would completely remove the need for a landing gear facility making aircraft lighter and more efficient, yet also optimising the landing and take off performance. “The invention relates to a device in the form of a ground-based landing gear assembly for launching and landing of aircraft, in particular evidence of large-scale flight. For airplanes with a relatively large take-off and landing weight, the problem is that a correspondingly long runway is required which can not be provided in the urban areas. With the increasing global growth rate there is a need for new airports with further runways yet. The object of the invention is to provide a device for launching and landing of aircraft, which ensures a relatively small area for runways with maximum safety.” 27

Mueller, H. J., & Grosse-Plankermann, N. W. (1992). Earthbound landing gear for aircraft take=off and landing - has carriage on rails with hydraulic capture-release elements, speed matching controllers. German Patent DE4102271 A1. Available from Google Patents. https://www.google.co.uk/patents/DE4102271A1?cl=en 26

Ibid.

RUNWAY CARRIAGE LOCKS ONTO THE AIRCRAFT TO MAXIMISE LANDING PRECISION. THE CARRIAGE ALIGNS TO CAPTURE THE AIRCRAFT

RUNWAY CARRIAGE ASSISTS WITH BRAKING REMOVING THE NEED FOR REVERSE ENGINE THRUST, REDUCING NOISE IN THE BRAKING STAGE

KIN

ETI

48 3.2.5

NER

CAP

RUNWAY CARRAIGE ON LANDING

TUR

The size of the area used by runways could thus be reduced by up to 28 a third , making way for capacity increases or even micro airports to emerge near urban centres.The runways at Arlanda are up to 3301m29, meaning in this case, the length of the runways can be reduced down to 2200m, without compromise. Aircraft Carrier Ships operate with similar launch and capture systems due to the extremely small landing and take-off area, limited by the size of the ship itself. It is this technology, in principle that is being carried over for proposed operations with commercial flights. With flying itself becoming ever more autonomous, the landing position of an aircraft in the future can be calculated and guaranteed with high precision.30 The implications of such a system, other than reduced runway lengths, would be a reduction in noise and emmissions as the energy source required for take-off would come from ground installations at the airport, as opposed to the aircraft engines: “Aircraft could be manoeuvred onto a track system and accelerated using either electro-magnetic motors built into the track or an inductive circuit within the aircraft itself.” 31 The landing phase would also be of benefit as aircraft kinetic energy can be captured and used to power other airport operations elsewhere. 32 But to take advantage of such a track and carriage system as part of the runway infrastructure, all commercial airports across the world would need to operate with such a facility, due to the fact that aircraft will no longer have landing gear.

The LFV Group (2012) “ESSA – Stockholm/Arlanda” (PDF). AIP Sverige/Sweden. Norrköping: 23 August 2012. (Accessed 22 April 2015) 29

Airbus. (2015.). ‘Ground operations | Airbus, a leading aircraft manufacturer’ http://www.airbus.com/innovation/future-by-airbus/smarter-skies/low-emission-ground-operations/ (Accessed January 29 2015) 30

Airbus. (2015). ‘Free-glide approaches and landings | Airbus, a leading aircraft manufacturer.’ http://www.airbus.com/innovation/future-by-airbus/smarter-skies/low-noise-free-glide-approaches-and-landings/ (Accessed January 29 2015) 32

AIRCRAFT GROUND MOVEMENTS 51

3.3.1

AIRCRAFT TAXIING WITH ENGINE POWER ON A TYPICAL PAVED TAXIWAY TODAY

3.3.2

NOISE, EMMISSION & SAFETY IMPLICATIONS OF ENGINE POWERED TAXIING TODAY

JET AIR SUCTION

JET AIR BLAST NOISE POLLUTION

3.3.3

BBC TOP GEAR TEST SHOWING A CAR BEING BLOWN AWAY BY THE JET BLAST OF A 747 ENGINE

TAXIING Taxiing is the process through which the aircraft transfers from parking stand to runway. Aircraft manoeuvre around a network of paved taxiways under their own power. (figure_3.3.1 & 3.3.2) As airports become larger and busier, the taxiing process has only become worse from an environmental point of view. More aircraft travel long distances from terminal to runway and queue for their take off slot with their engines running, which pollute unnecessarily and create significant noise. Taxiing can contribute up to 6% of an airlines fleet fuel consumption, with the global fleet of short haul aircraft burning as much as 5 million tonnes of fuel per year, equating to 13million tonnes of CO2 through taxiing alone.33 Honeywell and Safran, both major leaders in the aerospace technology sector, have formed a joint venture called EGTS with an objective to make taxiing greener. (figure_3.3.4 & 3.3.5) The system completely removes the need for aircraft engines to be used outside of the runway, so aircraft taxi using the EGTS system driving electric motors fitted to the landing gear of the aircraft.

EGTS International (2014) An assessment of the merits of an electric taxi solution and an introduction to the EGTS system p.2

RUNWAY

TERMINAL

EXISTING AIRPORT - NOISE & POLLUTION AIRCRAFT USING ENGINES TO TAXI

RUNWAY

TERMINAL

PROPOSED AIRPORT - NOISE & POLLUTION AIRCRAFT USING EGTS SYSTEM TO TAXI 1. AIRCRAFT DEPARTS GATE ON EGTS SYSTEM

6. AIRCRAFT ARRIVES AT GATE

5. AIRCRAFT TAXIS TO GATE ON EGTS SYSTEM

GATE

2. AIRCRAFT TAXIS TO RUNWAY ON EGTS SYSTEM

3. AIRCRAFT ENGINES START

4. AIRCRAFT LANDS & SWITCHES OFF ENGINES RUNWAY

GREEN TAXIING - EGTS

50%+ REDUCTION IN FUEL BURN ON GROUND 100KG/HR GROUND FUEL BURN WITH EGTS

50-75% REDUCTION IN GROUND EMMISSIONS NOX CO HC CO2

600KG/HR GROUND FUEL BURN WITH BOTH ENGINES

3.3.4

INFOGRAPHIC OF THE OPERATION OF THE EGTS SYSTEM

QUIETER + SAFER GROUND OPERATIONS

3.3.5

AIRBUS A320 FITTED WITH AND TAXIING USING THE EGTS SYSTEM. THE ENGINES ARE NOT IN USE

But what does this kind of technological development mean for the airport? An aircraft using EGTS during taxiing will almost completely remove the ambient noise pollution caused by taxiing. CO2 ground emissions can be reduced by up to 75% with this system.34 A lack of running engines means that cool down has taken place on the journey from the runway to the parking stand, and with no additional risk of jet blast ground crews can immediately approach the aircraft once it arrives on stand, speeding up the turnaround process. (figure_3.3.3 demonstrates the power of jet blast) With a safer and greener operation, we can begin to rethink the way aircraft operate in relation to the built context.

EGTS International (2015) â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Operational Benefitsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; http://www.greentaxiing.com/benefits.html (Accessed March 11 2015)

C AIR

IAG

R AR

IIN

X TA

I AX

56 3.3.6

TAXXIING CARRIAGE SYSTEM

3.3.7

NO JET BLAST, NOISE OR POLLUTION CAUSED BY AIRCRAFT WHILE TAXIING

Airbus are looking beyond EGTS with a future solution using thed carriage system discussed in the previous chapter. “Technology could optimise an aircraft’s landing position with enough accuracy for an autonomous renewably powered taxiing carriage to be ready so that aircraft could be transported away from runways quicker, which would optimise terminal space, and remove runway and gate limitations.” 35 An autonomous taxiing carriage (figure_3.3.6) would enhance time and space efficiency as the aircraft would be carried along track systems controlled by central computers, similar to how modern metro systems operate today. Safety would be improved (figure_3.3.7) with no risk of aircraft veering off taxiways or colliding with other aircraft, thus allowing the reduction in the size of the taxiways.

AIRPORT LAND USE CAN BE LIMITED TO THE NECESSARY INFRASTRUCTURE

USABLE LAND FOR DEVELOPMENT

3.3.8

SEPARATING OUT THE TAXIWAYS & RUNWAY FROM THE VOID LAND

3.3.9

USING THE LAND BETWEEN TAXIWAYS & OTHER AIRPORT FUNCTIONS

With strictly controlled taxiing, take-off and landing operations using this system, the landscape of the airport can be re-evaluated. Traditionally the space in between taxi-ways and the runways tends to be unused void space. (figure_3.3.8) Today this space acts as run-off zones in emergencies, but with flight becoming increasingly precise, risks of these types of incidents could be minimised. Figure_3.3.9 shows how this void space could be used by other functions in the city. The quiet, less-polluting and safely controlled ground movements would allow for urban programs to co-exist within the airport landscape, making a more efficient use of the land. Figure_3.3.10 & 3.3.11 overleaf shows how the new airport landscape could look as a result.

60 3.3.10

AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE CO-EXISTING WITHIN A CITY ENVIRONMENT

3.3.11

TAXI TRACK SYSTEM

SECURITY & BORDER CONTROL 65

3.4.1

TYPICAL AIRPORT PERIMETER FENCE TODAY

3.4.3

LAYERED INFRASTRUCTURE AT AMSTERDAM SCHIPHOL AIRPORT PROVIDING THROUGHWAYS FOR CARS, BOATS, PEDESTRIANS AND AIRCRAFT AS WELL AS MAINTAINING SECURITY

3.4.4

LUFTHANSA A380 CROSSING OVER A MOTORWAY AT FRANKFURT AIRPORT

3.4.2

GIBRALTAR AIRPORT ACCESS ROAD & RUNWAY DUAL FUNCTION

AIRPORT SECURITY Security is one of the major challenges that the aviation industry faces today. The aviation industry is one of the safest and transport systems in the world. The biggest threat faced, is that the aeroplanes become controlled by the wrong pair of hands. When discussing airport security, there are two main aspects. One is protecting the airport boundary, preventing any unauthorised access onto the airfield and the other is passenger security, preventing any unauthorised people or devices onto aircraft.

AIRPORT BOUNDARY SECURITY As aviation demand increases, so does the size of airports. Airfields become mass expanses of land, many square kilometres in size. The airport perimeter becomes incredibly large with many kilometres that need to be protected. But as airports grow larger, sometimes they have to co-align with public rights of way and develop secure strategies that prevent any unauthorised access onto the airfield. Typically, an airport border is a barbed wire fence (figure_3.4.1), creating a physical barrier between landside and airside. This fence is patrolled by security staff and closely monitored via CCTV. But it is this physical barrier that prevents intruders from entering the airport. Figure_3.4.3 and 3.4.4 show two different cases where the airport border has to co-exist with a public right of way. 3.4.3 shows a taxi-way at Amsterdam Schiphol where planes have to cross a canal, a cycle-way and a public road. 3.4.4 shows a taxi-way at Frankfurt Airport where a Lufthansa A380 has to cross a motorway. In both these cases, layered airport and public infrastructure creates the physical barrier, where an intruder would have to scale a bridge or fence to gain access to the airfield. The perimeter is highly surveillanced so any breach can be dealt with immediately. But aircraft are more destructive when they are used as weapons in the air, sadly seen with the events of 9/11 and the Germanwings disaster in 2015, which is why the main issue is preventing unauthorised people or devices from getting onto and departing with the aircraft.

LAY

T POR

AIR TERMINAL SECURITY CHECK

AUTHORISED PRT ACCESS

AUTHORISED PEDESTRIAN ACCESS

3.4.5

TERMINAL SECURITY CHECK

PRT

M STE

LAY

AUTHORISED PRT ACCESS

Y CIT

LAY

AUTHORISED PEDESTRIAN ACCESS

LAYERED SEPARATION OF THE CITY AND AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURES CREATING A PHYSICAL BARRIER BETWEEN THE TWO

AIRPORT BOUNDARY SECURITY IN AN URBAN CONTEXT It is not uncommon for airports to co-exist with their urban contexts on a more direct level. Gibraltar airport is one these cases, where the runway and the principal access road to the UK territory have to occupy the same space. (figure_3.4.2). When there are no inbound or departing flights, the road operates across the runway. But when an aircraft is about to land or take-off, the road traffic comes to a halt, and the runway is cleared for the use of the aircraft. Once the aircraft has arrived or departed, the runway becomes the road again. The case with Gibraltar airport further suggests that the airport boundary is not the biggest player in the security issue and that an airport could integrate itself and operate safely and securely within an urban context, as long as the correct security procedures are in place. But the procedural element is not the role of the designer. What can be learned as a designer, is that it is necessary to create a physical separation between the airside and landside elements. When dealing with airport border security whilst designing an urban integrated airport for Stockholm, a layered solution could be adopted (figure_3.4.5). Here the airside elements of the airport are raised above the landside elements of the city, creating a highly surveillanced physical barrier. Micro-termini then provide the connection nodes between landside and airside. It is within these that the physical human security procedures occur, ensuring that only authorised people and devices are loaded onto the aircraft.

AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE PERSONAL RAPID TRANSIT (PRT) SYSTEM LAYER

MICRO-TERMINAL ISLAND.

CITY ISLANDS

AUTHORISED PRT ACCESS

KEY

CITY PEDESTRIAN LAYER AUTHORISED CITY PEDESTRIAN ACCESS

WATER BODY ACTING AS ADDITIONAL PHYSICAL BARRIER

3.4.6 70

A TYPICAL SECURITY SCREENING CHECKPOINT TODAY DENVER INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

PASSENGER SECURITY TODAY In a report by leading aviation technology company Amadeus, aimed at studying how the airport ecosystem may be reinvented, it was found that 72% of passengers â&#x20AC;&#x153;cited inefficient streamlining of the core passenger journey from check-in to boarding, despite this being an area in which airlines and airports are investing significant resources.â&#x20AC;? 36 Security plays a major part in this, as whatever type of traveller you are, you have to endure this obligatory step. Figure_3.4.6 shows a typical security hall at Denver International Airport. Here, rows of x-ray scanners scan baggage, not before the hassle of unpacking and distributing out of laptops, liquids no more than 100ml, shoes, belts, coats etc. Then once through the metal detector, passengers not cleared are rechecked by a manual full body frisk. Finally, passengers can then repack all their belongings back into the original cases and re-dress themselves before proceeding onto the departure lounge. This process, shown in figure_3.4.11 is very invasive to the passenger, generating a lot of stress and hassle. But as air travel becomes busier more pressure is placed on security, making the process ever more unpleasant.

Amadeus (2012) Reinventing the Airport Ecosystem p.20

3.4.7

IATA SECURITY CHECKPOINT OF THE FUTURE - SECURITY TUNNELS

3.4.8

ENHANCED LANE

3.4.10

IATA SECURITY CHECKPOINT OF THE FUTURE IN USE

3.4.9

KNOWN TRAVELLER LANE

SECURITY CHECKPOINT OF THE FUTURE IATA have begun developing the airport security checkpoint of the future, as seen in figure_3.4.7 & 3.4.10. ‘We spend $7.4 billion a year to keep aviation secure. But our passengers only see hassle. Passengers should be able to get from curb to boarding gate with dignity. That means without stopping, stripping or unpacking, and certainly not groping. That is the mission for the Checkpoint of the Future. We must make coordinated investments for civilized flying’ 37 The system, described in figure_3.4.12, sorts pre-identified passengers into 3 categories, known (figure_3.4.9), normal and enhanced (figure_3.4.8), based on advance information about the traveller povided by the government. Scanners are built into tunneled walkways which provide all the screening required, so all the passenger has to do is walk through with their luggage. There are no invasive procedures, unless the passenger fails the screening when a manual check would be needed. The implication this has on the airport terminal is that less space is required by a security checkpoint, passengers are processed almost immediately. This, combined with the digital nature of baggage and check-in, will streamline the airport process, reducing the amount of hassle and time spent by the passenger at the airport, potentially reducing the overal size of the main terminal buildings. ‘We have the ability to move to the biometric scanning and three-lane concept right now. And while some of the technology still needs to be developed, even by just re-purposing what we have today, we could see major changes in two or three years time.’ 38

IATA. (2011). ‘IATA Reveals Checkpoint of the Future.’ http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/pages/2011-06-07-01.aspx (accessed April 1 2015) 37

Ibid

ENTER

BIOMETRIC IDENTITY CHECKPOINT

LIQUID PREP

QUEUE

METAL SCAN

LOAD BAGS

XRAY SCAN

RISK

COLLECT BAGS

RISK BAG

MANUAL CHECK

EXIT

3.4.11

TYPICAL SECURITY CHECKPOINT TODAY FLOW DIAGRAM

ENTER

BIOMETRIC IDENTITY CHECKPOINT

METAL SCAN

LIQUID SCAN

MANUAL CHECK

IRIS SCAN

SHOE SCAN

XRAY SCAN

EXPLOSIVE

METAL SCAN

LIQUID SCAN

PRE IDENTIFIED RISK TRAVELLER

XRAY SCAN

PRE-IDENTIFIEDNORMAL TRAVELLER

PRE-IDENTIDFIED KNOWN TRAVELLER

IRIS SCAN

XRAY SCAN

EXPLOSIVE

METAL SCAN

FULL BODY SCAN

LIQUID SCAN

IF MAIN CHECKS FAILED

EXIT

3.4.12

IATA SECURITY CHECKPOINT OF THE FUTURE FLOW DIAGRAM

3.4.13

TRADITIONAL STAFFED PASSPORT CONTROL DESKS - ISTANBUL ATATURK AIRPORT

3.4.14

DIGITAL PASSPORT E-GATES - HELSINKI VANTAA AIRPORT

BORDER CONTROL

In the context of Stockholm, Sweden is part of the Schengen agreement

whereby any form of border control at Schengen countries respective common borders is completely abolished.39 This is a major advantage for Stockholm, in that arriving passengers from other Schengen countries can simply proceed straight off the plane into the city without having to endure passport control queues. Where the border facility is required for passengers travelling from non-Schengen countries, traditional staffed desk counters are provided (figure_3.4.13), which can cause capacity issues during peak periods. But digital passports are becoming increasingly common where e-gates (figure_3.4.14) similar to metro systems are provided to speed up the processing of eligible passengers arriving. The ultimately allows for passengers to go from plane to city in a matter of minutes. But the nature of the design of the border control facility is not universal due to ever changing international relations and immigration policies, and the destinations that the airport serves. This could pose as a barrier to a completely streamlined approach of this facility.

Schengen Visa Information (2014) http://www.schengenvisainfo.com/schengen-visa-countries-list/ (accessed April 22 2015) 39

CHECK-IN & BAGGAGE 79

3.5.1

TRADITIONAL AIRPORT SUPPLIED PAPER BOARDING PASS

3.5.2

TRADITIONAL CHECK-IN COUNTER

3.5.4

LONDON HEATHROW TERMINAL 5 CHECK-IN HALL

3.5.3

TYPICAL SELF-SERVICE CHECK-IN KIOSKS

Seq. No. 010 e-ticket - no coupon

MR ALEXANDER SUTTON you're ready to fly Flight

BA1407

From

MANCHESTER Terminal 3

Date

07 April Operating Airline

British Airways

Seat

Gate closes

Departure time

Booking reference

Frequent flyer

HEATHROW (LONDON) Terminal 5 19:15

Class

UK Domestic

2QXSBU

19:25

BA/ BLUE 13758047

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------BAG DROP

SECURITY

BOARDING

Gate closes

19:15

Checked baggage to: Bag Drop Desks 56-60 Closes: 30 minutes before departure Location - Bag Drop Desks 56 - 60

Hand baggage only

3.5.5

CHOOSE YOUR OWN SEAT AT ONLINE CHECK-IN

3.5.7

MOBILE CHECK-IN & BOARDING PASS

3.5.6

Allow enough time to get through departures (security) so you arrive at your gate on time

If you arrive late at the gate, your bags might be taken off the plane and you may not be allowed to board.

Please go straight to departures (security).

PRINT YOUR OWN BOARDING PASS AT -----------------------------------------------------------------------------ONLINE CHECK-IN

3.5.8

Hand baggage allowance Please see ba.com

Standard checked baggage allowance 1 (No bag to exceed 23kg/51lbs)

WEARABLE BOARDING PASS

CHECK - IN Airport check-in has evolved quite considerably over recent years, stemmed from technological development and the internet. Traditionally, passengers arrive at the airport and proceed to check-in desk counters (figure_3.5.2), which have a baggage conveyor attached. An agent would process the passengerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s details and present a boarding pass (figure_3.5.1) and tag the bags. The internet created new opportunities with online check-in, so passengers could print a boarding pass and select seats from home or work. (figure_3.5.5 & 3.5.6). Should a passenger be unable to do this, then self-service kiosks (figure_3.5.3) were installed at airports removing the need to queue at one of the staffed counters. These two developments allowed passengers to process their own check-in at leisure, reducing the strain placed on the airport and a personal experience. But more recently, through smart device technology such as wearable watches and iPhones, check-in and boarding passes have become entirely digital. Printing a boarding pass is no longer required as it is displayed by a scannable barcode on screen (figure_3.5.7 & 3.5.8), and with more people owning a smart device, paper boarding passes and check-in provision at airports is becoming even less necessary. So much so, that budget carriers such as Ryanair, charge passengers a penalty if they fail to check-in online and produce a self-printed boarding pass at the airport.40 The benefits of such developments mean that passengers, particularly those with just hand luggage, can arrive at the airport and proceed straight to security without having to endure any queues of the check-in stage, streamlining the airport process and enhancing time efficiency.

Ryanair. (2015). â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Table of Optional Fees.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; http://www.ryanair.com/en/terms-and-conditions/tableofoptionalfees/ (accessed April 4, 2015) 40

3.5.9

3.5.10

AGENT OPERATED BAG DROP DESK - TERMINAL 5 HEATHROW AIRPORT

AGENT OPERATED BAG DROP

3.5.11

SELF - SERVICE BAG DROP KIOSKS - AMSTERDAM SCHIPHOL AIRPORT

BAGGAGE Even though the check-in process is becoming entirely digital, checkin halls at airports tend to remain so vast. Figure_3.5.4 shows the vast checkin hall at Terminal 5 London Heathrow, which runs the entire length of the terminal building. The hall is lined with many counters (figure_3.5.9) which are labelled as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Fast Bag Dropâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. It is baggage which is currently keeping check-in halls in the same spatial format they have been for many years. At present, the only method of checking in a bag for a flight is at the airport, dropping it off prior to proceeding through to the departures lounge. In recent years we are beginning to see developments in the processing of baggage at airports. Baggage too is becoming digital. Once a bag passes beyond the bag drop counter, it enters a labyrinth of conveyors and carts which automatically sorts the bag and security screens it, for the relevant flight, identified by barcodes on the luggage label attached. This shift to autonomous baggage processing is recognised in the installation of self bag drop kiosks at airports, such as in figure_3.5.11, eliminating the need for a staffed bag drop desk counter. The kiosks require less space, allowing for more kiosks to fit within the same area. The issue is however, they still remain at the airport even if they may be more time efficient for the passenger. Figure_3.5.13 shows personal digital baggage tags that are being introduced that allow the passenger to upload their flight information to their personal baggage tag in advance, so all that is required at the airport is to literally drop the bag.

3.5.12 84

CITY WIDE BAGGAGE SYSTEM. SOURCE: SKYSCANNER

INTEGRATING A BAGGAGE SYSTEM INTO THE CITY As passengers can prepare themselves with check-in, boarding passes and tagging outside the airport completely, the need for vast check-in halls in terminal complexes can be completely removed. Airport systems can be constructed within the city infrastructure of new districts and even retrofitted into existing urban environments. This new technology allows complete personalisation of the check-in and baggage process where passengers will be able to drop pre-prepared bags at convenient locations throughout the city such as hotels, street corners and stations. ‘Many leading industry insiders see this as a scenario that is entirely possible. By 2025, automated self-service technologies, operated by smartphone, will let a traveller drop his bag at McDonald’s, or check-in as he buys a coffee at Starbucks.’ 41 (figure_3.5.12) Figure_3.5.13 illustrates how a city wide baggage system with local bag drop facilities would operate within Stockholm. Figure_3.5.14 illustrates the baggage system network as part of the new airport district. Bags can be dropped off at local kiosks, or even recalled eliminating the need for the traveller to endure the burden of having to carry luggage across the city. The baggage would be security screened automatically as part of the system, rejecting any bags posed as a risk.

Wolfson, R., & Soffera, M. (2014). The Future of Travel 2024: Travel Journeys. p.7

FLIGHT & DESTINATION INFORMATION WIRELESSLY DOWNLOADED AND UPDATED FROM A SMART DEVICE TO PERSONAL BAGGAGE TAG

AUTOMATED BAGGAGE SYSTEM COMMUNICATES WITH BAG AND DELIVERS IT TO CORRECT FLIGHT OR LCOATION ARRIVAL BAGGAGE CAN ALSO BE DELIVERED BEYOND THE AIRCRAFT & AIRPORT TO A CONVENIENT LOCAL KIOSK IN THE CITY

3.5.13

SELF SERVICE BAGGAGE KIOSKS CAN BE DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT THE CITY TO CONVENIENT LOCATIONS SUCH AS STATIONS, STREET CORNERS AND HOTELS, CONNECTING TO A CITY WIDE AUTOMATED BAGGAGE SYSTEM

INFOGRAPHIC EXPLAINING PERSONAL BAGGAGE TAG OPERATION WITH SELF SERVICE BAGGAGE SYSTEM

3.5.14

AUTHOR’S IMPRESSION OF A BAG DROP FACILITY WITHIN THE CENTRE OF STOCKHOLM

RECALL BAG / COLLECT BAG FROM LOCAL CITY KIOSK DROP OFF BAG AT SELF SERVICE CITY KIOSK BAGGAGE SECURITY SCANNED IN KIOSK PRIOR TO RELEASE

3.5.15

EARLY BAGS STORED IN AUTOMATED BAG STORAGE FACILITY

BAG TRANSFERS AT HIGH SPEED THROUGH AUTOMATED UNDERGROUND BAGGAGE SYSTEM

BAGGAGE DELIVERED DIRECTLY TO/FROM AIRCRAFT GATE

UNDERGROUND CITY BAGGAGE SYSTEM TUNNELS

INFOGRAPHIC EXPLAINING THE OPERATION OF A CITY INTERGATED BAGGAGE SYSTEM

3.5.16

PERSONAL DIGITAL CHECK-IN AT AIRPORT CITY STOCKHOLM

AIRPORT GROUND OPERATIONS & TERMINAL 91

3.6.1

TYPICAL AIRCRAFT PARKING STAND CONFIGURATION - LONDON HEATHROW TERMINAL 5

AIRFIELD GROUND OPERATIONS Achieving high efficiency in the processes that prepare the aircraft for flight such as boarding, luggage loading, refueling etc, is a key driver that has developed the standard format of the aircraft parking stand at the modern airport terminal. As the demand for air travel has increased, so has the desire to keep planes flying. Aircraft do not earn money for airlines while on the ground so the turnaround process of an aircraft has to be as efficient as possible to keep aircraft flying. Figure_3.6.4 illustrates how a typical turnaround process operates for a modern small to medium sized jetliner, such as a Boeing 737, where turnaround times are on average 45-55 minutes, from arrival to departure.42 The aircraft parking stand infrastructure (figure_3.6.1 & 3.6.2) has been designed to cater for an efficient process. At modern airports, passengers board aircraft through the left side of the aircraft via a jet bridge. The leaves all the servicing elements such as luggage and catering etc. to come from the right side so that the two key elements of passengers and services do not block each others paths. Figure_3.6.3 illustrates an aerial view of a typical aircraft parking stand. One problem with the existing turnaround process of an aircraft is the amount of ground operation vehicles it requires for the turnaround. Figure_3.6.3 illustrates this, with an array of luggage carts, engineers vehicles, tugs, catering trucks etc. all surrounding the aircraft. Not only does this risk collisions with the aircraft causing damage and delays, but also a significant amount of energy consumption that adds to the local pollution already present at airports. Baggage, catering and services all need to be ferried to and from the parking stand constantly to satisfy the vast quantity of flights throughout the day. Aircraft park up traditionally facing the airport terminal, so need a tug

Bradley, A (2010) The independant airport planning manual Cambridge, Woodhead Publishing p.130

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

FUEL PIPELINE ACCESS

THE AIRCRAFT

TERMINAL BUILDING

11.

THE JETWAY

GROUND POWER UNIT

12. LUGGAGE CONVEYOR LIFT

GATE NUMBER

APRON

13. AIRCRAFT TUG

GROUND ACCESS STAIRS

LUGGAGE CARTS

14. MAINTENANCE / GROUND HANDLING VEHICLES

FIXED JETWAY

10. LUGGAGE CONTAINER LIFT

3.6.2

TYPICAL AIRCRAFT PARKING STAND TODAY - AMSTERDAM SCHIPHOL AIRPORT

3.6.3

AERIAL VIEW OF TYPICAL AIRCRAFT PARKING STAND TODAY - AMSTERDAM SCHIPHOL AIRPORT

0”

ARRIVAL

45”

15”

30”

LUGGAGE & CARGO UNLOADED TO TERMINAL

POWER

AIRCRAFT ARRIVES

AIRCRAFT PARKS ENGINES OFF

JETWAY ATTACHES LUGGAGE LIFT ARRIVES PASSENGERS DISEMBARK

0”

PREPARATION

45”

15”

30”

WASTE REMOVED CLEANING

AIRCRAFT REFUELLED

AIRCRAFT CATERED

AIRCRAFT MAINTAINED PILOT WALKAROUND

0”

DEPARTURE

45”

15”

30”

LUGGAGE & CARGO LOADED

3.6.4

PASSENGERS BOARD

JETWAY DETACHES TUG PUSHES AIRCRAFT BACK

TYPICAL AIRCRAFT TURNAROUND PROCESS FOR A SMALL-MEDIUM SIZED JET

ENGINES START AIRCRAFT DEPARTS FOR RUNWAY

to push them back off stand on departure as this is something aircraft cannot typically do under their own power. Airbus have identified this as a problem in terms of the environment have suggested in their ‘Smarter Skies’ initiative that electrically driven autonomous vehicles should become part of the future of airport ground operations, powered by captured energy from other parts of future airport operations43, such as assisted landing discussed previously.

The technological developments and forecasts that have been

discussed so far relating to aircraft ground movements, check-in, security and baggage can help inform how the aircraft parking stand can be designed in the future. Providing built-in infrastructures into the design of the parking stand and adjacent terminal, and thus the city, caters for the more autonomous nature of all the airport services and processes. Baggage, fuel, water, catering and maintenance can be brought directly to the parking stand via a network of designated systems. Using the principle of passengers boarding from the left and services from the right, the layout of the parking stand infrastructure can be informed. Servicing towers, as seen in figure_3.6.5 & 3.6.6 can be built to the right of the parking stand, housing all the services required to turnaround an aircraft. These can connect to the various wider networks through the city, such as the city baggage system, which can be fully optimised to ensure that all the services are provided directly to the parking stand at the appropriate time, enhancing the efficiency of the turnaround process. As part of a new airport city district, these elements can become standard components of city systems, like sewers and water mains are today.

3.6.5

PERSPECTIVE OF A SERVICES TOWER

L ND

IN RK

AU CO PR TON NNE OV C O IDI MO TION NG US OP VE TO E H LE T SE IMISE ICLE CTR RV N I ICE D DE ETW C LIV S O ER RK YO F

GG BR AGE O C AIR UGH ONT CR T D AIN AF IRE E T P CT RS AR LY & S KIN TO ERV G S /FR ICE TA OM S ND

SE RV / IC AU MAIN ES ( C TO T NO ENA ATE M N RI DIR OUS CE) NG / P EC C V TL EHI ROV LEA Y T CL I N E N DED ING O ST V AN ETW IA OR D K

ND OU RK R G O US TW MO E NE O L N TO HIC AU VE

M TE YS ING S T E AG OR ONE Z GG N & S A B IO T EC NN

L ES

U CO TOM NT AT AIN ICA ER LLY ISE D SOR

DIR BAG ST ECT GAG AN LY ED D T ST AN O/F ELIV AT D R E IO LO OM RED N V CA T IA L D HE A AT H BA CIT RO IRC IGH GG Y W P O RA S AG F F PE I E S DE A F/C T PA ED YS R U O TE TOM LLEC KIN M AT TIO G ED N

3.6.6

DIAGRAM OF THE OPERATION OF A SERVICES TOWER

TAXI TRACK

SERVICES TOWER

PARKING STAND

PASSENGER MICRO-TERMINAL

2. BAGGAGE & CARGO CATERING, CLEANING, MAINTENANCE PASSENGERS 4. AIRCRAFT

2. 3.

3.6.7

100

OVERVIEW OF A PROPOSED CITY MICRO-TERMINAL WITH INTEGRATED GROUND SERVICES

THE MICRO-TERMINAL With the increasingly digital nature of airport passenger processing, and the streamlined future of passenger security, the terminal can be repurposed into a micro-terminal. (figure_3.6.7 & 3.6.8) The micro terminal just needs to act as a facilitator to flight, controlling the exchange of passengers between the city and the aircraft. To cater for better urban integration, the microterminal can slot into the urban construct better unlike the mega-structure terminals of today. The city becomes the traditional airport terminal, where passengers can enjoy the city life with fellow travellers and city dwellers whilst waiting for departure, only proceeding to the micro-terminal when boarding is ready. This seamlessness gives the new Stockholm airport a competitive advantage, due to the excellent relationship that can be established between the city and traveller. Developments in taxiing can also inform a new relationship between the aircraft and the terminal. With an autonomous carriage system, no tug is required allowing aircraft to depart when ready, minimising delay risk. As part of this taxi system, aircraft can be brought in from one side of the parking stand, and depart from the other, creating a drive through setup. This prevents arriving aircraft from having to wait for departing aircraft to reverse out of the parking stand first, as they can just follow on in behind the departing one. Figure_3.6.7 represents this flow setup with the micro-terminal forming an island connection node between the aircraft layer and the city below.

101

3.6.8 102

VISUAL OF A MICRO TERMINAL

103

104

GROUND TRANSPORTATION 105

3.7.1

106

ULTra PRT SYSTEM - LONDON HEATHROW TERMINAL 5

LOCAL TRANSPORT NETWORK Autonomous vehicle systems are not unknown at airports today. Figure_3.7.1 shows the ULTra PRT system in place at Heathrow Terminal 5. PRT means Personal Rapid Transit, which is an environmentally friendly electrically powered network of driverless cars, designed to take passengers directly to their required destination. The setup at Heathrow, provides a service between the business car parks and the main terminal building, removing the need for a shuttle bus service. At Heathrow, where a typical bus of 50 people capacity every 5 minutes, would provide a capacity of 600 people an hour; the PRT system can provide a 4 person vehicle every 3 seconds, where a ridership of 4800 people per hour on the small network can be achieved.44 This capacity can be increased the larger the system becomes, as more vehicles and stations can be provided. The on demand system works well with time-efficient programs such as airports. Vehicles are readily provided, where passengers can choose their desired destination, and the vehicle automatically driving you there. There is minimal waiting times, as there is no need to wait for a bus, or endure the multitude of stops on a metro system. Travel can be immediate, which is essential to a city integrated airport, where passengers can use the system to take them straight to the aircraft gate, from the cafe that may have been relaxing in prior to their flight for example, reducing delays. Arriving passengers can be taken straight to the office or hotel direct from the aircraft gate, taking the stress and strain out of the typical airport arrival experience today. Aligning the system with the integrated baggage system, means that a PRT station could also act as a baggage drop off or collection facility. The system too can also act as a PRT system for the city, extending the purpose of the system beyond the airport. Figure_3.7.3 shows the airport city PRT network, and Figure_3.7.4 shows its extension to key destinations in Stockholm. This would allow for a seamless transition between the existing transport infrastructures allowing city dwellers and travellers to extend their journey beyond Stockholm. These key destinations act as gateways to the airport city (figure_3.7.5) where passengers arriving by cars, taxis or buses can either continue by foot or cycle, or use the PRT system, removing the car traffic traditionally associated with airports and establishing a green approach to the airport city transit network. Smart communications through apps such as Citymapper, would provide the passenger with immediate travel options throughout the city, helping create an efficient and seamless process.

National Geographic, Big, Bigger, Biggest: Airport http://natgeotv.com/in/big-bigger-biggest/videos/heathrow-terminal-5 (accessed 22 April 2015) 44

107

LIDINGO

ROPSTEN GATEWAY

LILLA VARTAN STRAIT

GARDET GATEWAY

LILLA VARTAN NORTH

LIDINGO GATEWAY

LILLA VARTAN SOUTH

LADUGARDSGARDET GATEWAY

OSTERMALM ROPSTEN GATEWAY

LADUGARDSGARDET

LILLA VARTAN NORTH & SOUTH

RED LINE T-BANA CAR PARKING BUS STATION PRT TERMINUS

BLUE LINE T-BANA EXTENSION PRT TERMINUS BUS STATION TAXI RANK

LOCAL BOAT SERVICES ACCESS

GARDET GATEWAY

LIDINGO GATEWAY

REGIONAL RAIL TERMINUS RED LINE T-BANA TAXI RANK BUS STATION PRT TERMINUS

BLUE LINE T-BANA EXTENSION TAXI RANK BUS STATION CAR PARKING PRT TERMINUS

3.7.2

108

GATEWAYS TO THE AIRPORT CITY DISTRICT

1 : 20 000

LILLA VARTAN STRAIT

LIDINGO

OSTERMALM TO CITY CENTER: T-CENTRALEN GAMLA STAN SLUSSEN

3.7.3

PRT SYSTEM NETWROK WITH CONNECTIONS THROUGH TO THE CITY

109

ROPSTEN

GARDET

NORRMALM LADUGARDSGARDET

OSTERMALM T-CENTRALEN

GAMLA STAN SLUSSEN

LILJEHOLMEN

SODERMALM

GULMARSPLAN 110

LIDINGO

AIRPORT CITY

LIDINGO

KEY

RED LINE T-BANA

PRINCIPLE STATION

GREEN LINE T-BANA

PRT NETWORK

BLUE LINE T-BANA BLUE LINE T-BANA (PROPOSED EXTENSION) REGIONAL RAILWAY

111 3.7.4

LOCAL CITY TRANSPORT CONNECTIONS

112

3.7.5

GATEWAY TO THE AIRPORT CITY DISTRICT IN CENTRAL STOCKHOLM

113

114

CONCLUSION 115

CITY

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TYPICAL AIRPORT BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS AND LAYOUTS

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE

SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE

HANGER

THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE

HANGER

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TYPICAL AIRPORT DIAGRAM BUILDING ILLUSTRATING ARRANGEMENTS TYPICAL AND AIRPORT LAYOUTS BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS AND LAYOUTS AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

AIRPORT

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

SIMPLE

PIERS SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE

SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE LINEAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE HANGER HANGER

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

HANGER RAENIL DRADNATS

CITY

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

STANDARD LINEAR

SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE

RAENIL DRADNATS REGNAH

RAENIL DEVRUC

REGNAH OS G ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETA ES SRUOCNOC RAENIL EEDTIISLNLIESTEA

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

EO GC NA ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS ESRUOCRN RH AENIL ETILLETAS

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EH ET DISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EEHD TISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

SREIP

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

REGNAH

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT SIMPLE

ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS SREIP

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

AH ESRUOCNOC RALRUECGRNIC ETILLETA ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

SREIP ESRUOCNOE CSRRA ICCERTAILELNEIT ULOUCCNRO LAESTILLETAS

SREIP

STANDARD LINEAR

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

REGNAH

ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS SIMPLE

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

SIMPLE

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

EISLR CSNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ET LU EO TA

REGNAH

SREIP

RAENIL DEVRUC

REGNAH SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

RAENIL DEVRUC

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

CURVED LINEAR

RAENIL DEVRUC SREIP

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

STANDARD LINEAR

ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

PIERS

CURVED LINEAR

ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

SREIP

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLS IUTB UO TR YO AP LRDIA NA LASC TIN PE YM T EGGNNITAARRRTASU GL NLID IM LIA UR BGTA RIO DPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

ETILLETAS

RAENIL DRADNATS

REGNAH ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS RAENIL DRADNATS ESRUROEC GN NO AC H RAENIL ETILLETAS ELPMIS ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLEETDAISSNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT RAENIL DEVRUC RAENIL DEVRUSCREIP SREIP

PMIS REGNEALH PA ME ISNIL ETILLETAS ESRUOCNOE CLR

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

RN AO EN LA DLRUACDRN AT RAENIL DRADNATS ESRUOC CIR IC ES TILLETAS ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

ELPMIS

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

RAENIL DEVRUC

RAENIL DRADNATS

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

SREIP

RAENIL DRADNATS REGNAH ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT SREIP RAENIL DEVSRRUECIP RAENIL DEVRUC

REGNAH RAENIL R DERGANDA NHE ALTP SMIS

RAENIL DRADNATS

RAENIL DEVRUC EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

SREIP

RAENIL DEVRUC SREIP

RAENIL DRADNATS

ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS RU OTCAR ESRUOCNOC RAEE NSIL EO TIC LN LE SALUCRIC ETILLETAS SREIP RAENIL DEVRUC

ELPMIS

ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

ELPMIS

ELPMIS RAENIL DRADNATS SREIP

RAENIL DEVRUC ELPMIS

RAENIL DRADNATS ELPMIS

ELPMIS ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

ELPMIS

SREIP

ELPMIS

RAENIL DRADNATS

RAENIL DEVRUC

SREIP

ELPMIS

ELPMIS RAENIL DRADNATS ELPMIS

ELPMIS

SREIP RAENIL DEVRUC SREIP

RAENIL DRADNATS

RAENIL DEVRUC

ELPMIS

PIERS STANDARD LINEAR

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

CURVED LINEAR

STANDARD LINEAR

ELPMIS

RAENIL DRADNATS

ELPMIS

SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE

RAENIL DRADNATESLPMIS

CITY

RAENIL DEVRUC

HANGER

STANDARD LINEAR

RAENIL DRADNATS

PIERS ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

CURVED LINEAR

SIMPLE

SREIP

ELPMIS

RAENIL DRADNATS SREIP

SIMPLE

SREIP

REGNAH EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMITEYSLR NU OOEC HN TOC RALUCRIC ETILLET SA RU S OCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

CURVED LINEAR

ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

RAENIL DEVRUC

STANDARD LINEAR

RAENIL DRADNATS

CURVED LINEAR

RAENIL DEVRUC

RAENIL DEVRUC SREIP

REGNAH

SIMPLE

ELPMIS

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

RAENIL DEVRUC

SREIP

PIERS

CITY

REGNAH ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETA ES SRUOCNOC RAENIL ETEID LILSE TI A SOG ENALINEAR N SE LP A EMIT YLNO EHTSTANDARD LINEAR STANDARD SIMPLE RAENIL DRADNATS

HANGER

SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE

ELPMIS

SREIP

PIERSSTANDARD LINEAR

ELPMIS

SREIP

CURVED LINEAR

SIMPLE

ELPMIS

SIMPLE

AIRPORT

RAENIL DRADNATS

THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE

ELTHE PMISONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE LINEARHANGER CONCOURSE SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE CIRCULAR CON SREIP

RAENIL DRADNATS

RAENIL DRADNE ALTP SMIS

RAENIL DEVRUC

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

REGNAH

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

RAENIL DEVRUC

CURVED LINEAR

AIRPORT

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

RAENIL DEVRUC

ELPMIS

ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

CURVED LINEAR

RAENIL DRADNATS

SREIP

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

SIMPLE

ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TYPICAL AIRPORT BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS AND LAYOUTS

SREIP

AIRPORT

SREIP

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNOED EH ISTNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

ELPMIS

PIERS

STANDARD LINEAR ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

SREIP

RAENIL DRADNATSELPMIS

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

AN URBAN INTERGRATED AIRPORT CAN GROW ORGANICALLY WITH THE CITY SATISFYING DEMAND

116

ATS

RAENIL DEVRUC

SREIP

ELPMIS

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLS IUTB UO TR YO AP LRDIA NA LASC TIN PE YM T EGGNNITAARRRTASU GL NLID IM LIA UR BGTA RIO DPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

SIMPLE

SREIP

RAENIL DEVRUC

PIERS

ESRUOCNOC R LUC COEC TIR LA LE EA SR OR CIN ET NA ILS ETILLETAS

RAENIL DEVRUC

RAENIL DEVRUSCREIP

CITY

ELPMIS ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

REGNAEHLPMIS

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

PIERS

ELPMIS

PIERS

ELPMIS ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

ELPMIS

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

SREIP

ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

REGNAH

CURVED LINEAR

RAENIL DRADNATSSREIP

CITY

ELPMIS STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MSA TR UG OA YIA DL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

SREIP

REGNAH

ELPMIS

RAENIL DRADNATS

RAENIL DRR AE DG NN AA TH S

AIRPORT

STANDARD LINEAR

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TYPICAL AIRPORT DIAGRAM BUILDING ILLUSTRATING ARRANGEMENTS TYPICAL AND AIRPORT LAYOUTS BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS AND LAYOUTS

STANDARD LINEAR

SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE

RAENIL DEVRUC EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

RAENIL DEVRUC

RAENIL DRADNATSELPMIS REGNAH

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

ELPMIS

ESRUOCNOE CSRRA ICCERTAILELNEIT ULOUCCNRO LAESTILLETAS

RAENIL DEVRUC

RAENIL DRADNATS ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

SREIP

PIERS

HANGER

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNOED EH ISTNI SEOG ENALP A EMITEY SL RN UO OE CH NTOC RALUCRIC ETILLET SA RU S OCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

RAENIL DRADNATS

RAENIL DEVRUC

SIMPLE

ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETA ES SRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS SIMPLE

SREIP

RAENIL DEVRUC

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

RAENIL DEVRUC SREIP

RAENIL R DERGANDA NHATS

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

REGNAH RAENIL DRADNATS PA ME ISNIL ETILLEEDTIS ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS ESRUOCNOE CLR ANSI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

SREIP

SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE

RAENIL DRADNATS

STANDARD LINEAR

THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE

SREIP

ELPMIS

ELPMIS RAENIL DRADNATS

LPMIS EO GC NEA AH EISLR CSNOC RALRUECGRNIC ETILLETAS ESRUOCRN RH AENIL ET LU EO TA

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUBSTTRUOOPYRAIA LL DA NC AIPSYTTNG EM NE ITGANRA TR SR UA LLG IM NIA DR LG IUABIDTROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

RAENIL DRADNATS

CURVED LINEAR SIMPLE

CITY

ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLET SA RU S OCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

RAENIL DEVRUC

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EH ET DISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

ELPMIS

RAENIL DEVRUC

SREIP

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

SREIP

ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS

RAENIL DEVRUC

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARSGTA UIO DYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS SREIP RAENIL DEVRUC

RAENIL DEVRUC

SIMPLE

4.2 REGNAH

PIERS

ELPMIS RAENIL DEVRUC

RAENIL DRADNATS

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

PIERS

HANGER

CURVED LINEAR

SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE

ELPMIS ELPMIS RAENIL DRADN ATS SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TYPICAL AIRPORT BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS AND LAYOUTS

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

REGNAH

RAENIL DEVRUC

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

CRIC ETILLETAS

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

SREIP

REGNAH

AIRPORT

RAENIL DRADNATS

HANGER

PIERS

ELPMIS

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

CURVED LINEAR

RAENIL DRADNATS

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

CURVED LINEAR

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

PIERS

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

RAENIL DRADNATS

RAENIL DEVRUC

RAENIL DRADNATS

PIERS

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUBSTTRUOOPYRAIA LL DA NC AIPSYTTNG EM NE ITGANRA TR SR UA LLG IM NIA DR LG IUABIDTROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

HANGER

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TYPICAL AIRPORT DIAGRAM BUILDING ILLUSTRATING ARRANGEMENTS TYPICAL AND AIRPORT LAYOUTS BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS AND LAYOUTS AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

SATELLITE CIRCULAR CON

THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE

ELPMIS ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETA ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETE ASSRUOCN EO SR ILSLETAS ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETASESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS REGNAH CUROACLN UO CC RIR CAEETNILILLEETTA EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT RAENIL DEVRUC RAENIL DEVRUC SREIP SREIP

RAENIL DEVRUC

CURVED LINEAR

HANGER

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TYPICAL AIRPORT BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS AND LAYOUTS

THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE

REGNAH

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

REGNAH

EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EEHD TISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EH ET DISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

RN AO EN LA DLRUACDRN AT ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETA ESRUOC CIR IC ES TILLETAS RAENIL DEVRUC RAENIL DEVSRRUECIP

SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE

RAENIL DRADNATS

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

CITY

ELPMIS ELPMIS TS RAENIL DRADNATS RAEANPLANE IL DRAGOES DNATINSIDE STHE ONLY 4.1 RAENIL DRADNAAIRPORTS TODAY ISOLATED AND CONSTRAINED BY THE URBAN RESTRICTING FUTURE GROWTH SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE CONTEXT CIRCULAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE THE ONLY TIME TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE LINEAR CONCOURSE

SEIGOLOPYT GNIDLIUB TROPRIA

REGNAH ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT ESRUROEC GN NO AC H RAENIL ETILLETAS ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS EDISNI SEOG ENALP A EMIT YLNO EHT

STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUB TROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID STUOYAL DNA STNEMEGNARRA GNIDLIUBSTTRUOOPYRAIA LL DA NC AIPSYTTNG EM NE ITGANRA TR SR UA LLG IM NIA DR LG IUABIDTROPRIA LACIPYT GNITARTSULLI MARGAID

ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS DEVRUC

RAENIL DEVRUC

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TYPICAL AIRPORT BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS AND LAYOUTS

THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE

SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE

RAENIL DRR AE DG NN AA TEH SLPMIS

RAENIL DRADNATS ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETAS

SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE

RAENIL DRADNATS

RAENIL DEVRUC

ESRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETE ASSRUOCNOC RALUCRIC ETILLETA EO SR ILSLETASESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS ESRUOCNOC RAENIL ETILLETAS ESRUOCN CUROACLN UO CC RIR CAEETNILILLEETTA RAENIL DEVRUC SREIP

HANGER

SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE

RADNATS

SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE SATELLITE LINEAR CONCOURSE

THE ONLY TIME A PLANE GOES INSIDE

AIRPORT BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

SATELLITE CIRCULAR CONCOURSE

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TYPICAL AIRPORT BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS AND LAYOUTS

RAENIL DEVRUC

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TYPICAL AIRPORT BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS AND LAYOUTS

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TYPICAL AIRPORT DIAGRAM BUILDING ILLUSTRATING ARRANGEMENTS TYPICAL AND AIRPORT LAYOUTS BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS AND LAYOUTS

CURVED LINEAR

STANDARD LINEAR

CONCLUSION This thesis, using Stockholm as a testing ground, has shown that there are architectural opportunities to be found in new developments in aviation, and as these developments become realised in the future, we as designers must act on them and start thinking about the airport of the future. The increasing economic importance of the airport, creates a magnetic pull of businesses whom are choosing to be near it. As the surrounding context becomes more built up to satisfy this trend, a restriction is placed on any possibility of expansion. (figure_4.1) The city will be able to continue growing organically around it, but the airport cannot itself. Any growth required will therefore require demolition under the business-as-usal expansion scenario, rather than the more integrated approach discussed in this thesis. By creating a fully integrated urban airport, with airport sytems joining city systems as part of the city infrastrcutre, the feasibility of micro-termini and shorter runways which can slot into the urban context, it is possible that airports can grow organically with the city as necessary. (figure_4.2) A new urban relationship can be created, where in the future it could be normal to live and work within the airport environment. Passengers will benefit from a more streamlined airport experience, allowing more time to be spent doing personal things, due to the increasing digital nature of the airport process. As aircraft are directly accessible through micro-terminal nodes, boarding can be done at leisure as opposed to having to be at the airport hours in advance of the flight. Any delays or flight updates are communicated through smart technologies, directly to the passenger, providing a personal, stressfree travel experience. A constant flux of residents and travellers will create unique communities. Arriving directly into the city removes the isolation experienced at airports today, creating a new sense of place at the airport. People can go to the airport not just to travel, but also to be a part of the city. With aircraft becoming more efficient, quieter, and less polluting, habitating within the airport will become entirely possible. By 2050 the aviation industry will be so large requiring us as designers to urgently explore how to create the modern airport, thus preventing the risk of airports becoming even more isolated, mega-structures of process seen today. We must design an airport that creates an excellent relationship between the city, the passenger and flight.

117

4.2

118

AERIAL VIEW OF AIRPORT CITY DISTRICT STOCKHOLM

119

120

BIBLIOGRAPHY 121

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126

IMAGE REFERENCES 127

IMAGE REFERENCES 1.1

Airbus (2014) Flying on demand 2014-2033 p.63

1.2

Ibid., p.59

1.3

IPCC https://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/aviation/133.htm [accessed 28/01/2015]

1.4

Author’s own

1.5

Ibid

1.6

Ibid

1.7

The Guardian, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/03/french-people-london-

john-lewis-criticism [accessed 17/04/2015] 1.8

Evening Standard, http://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/big-names-jump-on-board-

the-kings-cross-foodie-revolution-9490841.html [accessed 20/04/2015] 1.9

Author’s own graphic

1.10

Wired New York, http://wirednewyork.com/forum/showthread.php?t=16750 [accessed

20/04/2015] 1.11

Back Heathrow, http://www.backheathrow.org/case_for_heathrow_airport [accessed

16/04/2015] 1.12

Wikimedia,

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stockholm_Arlanda_Airport_

Banner_18_June_2010.jpg [accessed 23/04/2015]

2.1

Author’s own

2.2

Ibid

2.3

Ibid

3.1.1

Ibid

3.1.2

Ibid

3.1.3

Ibid

3.1.4

Ibid

3.2.1

Ibid

3.2.2

Ibid

3.2.3

Modern

Airliners,

http://www.modernairliners.com/Airbus_A320_files/Airbus-a320-

LAN.jpg [accessed 05/04/2015] 3.2.4

Airbus, http://www.airbus.com/innovation/future-by-airbus/smarter-skies/aircraft-take-

off-in-continuous-eco-climb/ [accessed 29/01/2015] 3.2.5

Author’s own

3.3.1

Still from film: Mexico City International Airport from Above, https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=PMWeVvjXytE [accessed 02/01/2015] 3.3.2

Ibid

3.3.3

Still from film: Car vs Boeing 747 Engine Top Gear BBC, https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=ZJ9uWsvR1l0 [accessed 17/04/2015] 3.3.4

Author’s own graphic, information sourced from: http://www.greentaxiing.com/benefits.

html [accessed 11/03/2015] 128

3.3.5

Still from film: http://www.greentaxiing.com/media.html [accessed 11/03/2015]

3.3.6

Author’s own

3.3.7

Ibid

3.3.8

Ibid

3.3.9

Ibid

3.3.10

Ibid

3.3.11

Ibid

3.4.1

Alamy, http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-a-landing-plane-crossing-the-barbed-wire-

perimeter-fence-at-heathrow-37189648.html [accessed 04/04/2015] 3.4.2

Muppley,

http://muppley.blogspot.co.uk/2010/06/weird-and-scary-airports-of-world.

html [accessed 04/04/2015] 3.4.3

http://www.2747.com/2747/world/amsterdam/haarlemmermeer/

hoofdweg/2009en/20090613britishairways.html [accessed 04/04/2015] 3.4.4

The Amazing Pics, http://www.theamazingpics.com/airbus-a380-crossing-the-

autobahn-at-leipzig-airport/ [accessed 04/04/2015] 3.4.5

Author’s own

3.4.6

CBS News, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/how-to-sail-through-airport-security/

[accessed 06/04/2015] 3.4.7

Budget Travel, http://www.budgettravel.com/blog/iata-reveals-the-checkpoint-of-the-

future,11854/ [accessed 06/04/2015] 3.4.8

Air News Times, http://www.airnewstimes.co.uk/checkpoint-of-the-future-page-5-283-

photo.html [accessed 06/04/2015] 3.4.9

Ibid

3.4.10

A light in the darkness, http://mara-gamiel.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/checkpoint-of-future-

plans-unveiled-for.html [accessed 06/04/2015] 3.4.11

Author’s own

3.4.12

Ibid

3.4.13

Daily Mail, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/afp/article-2934489/Turkey-airport-police-

hunt-extremists-en-route-Syria.html [accessed 10/04/2015] 3.4.14

BT Magazine, http://www.btmagazine.nl/Airport-detail/helsinki-vantaa-airport-finland/

[accessed 10/04/2015]

3.5.1

http://www.farmmresearch.com/groups/apgsshrc/weblog/fd2b6/TIckets.html

[accessed 05/04/2014] 3.5.2

You Know It, http://blog.youknowit.com/contact-lens-blog/index.php/colored-contact-

lens-passport-warning/ [accessed 05/04/2015] 3.5.3

Future Travel Experience, http://www.futuretravelexperience.com/2011/12/lufthansa-

presented-with-fast-travel-gold-award/ [accessed 05/04/2015] 3.5.4

British Airways, http://www.britishairways.com/en-gb/information/airport-information/

london-heathrow-airport/heathrow-t5 [accessed 05/04/2015] 3.5.5

Currybetdotnet, http://www.currybet.net/cbet_blog/2007/09/heraklion-airport-

doesnt-quite.php [accessed 05/04/2015] 129

3.5.6

JAL, https://www.jal.co.jp/en/inter/webcheckin/ba_flow.html [accessed 05/04/2015]

3.5.7

Business

Traveller,

http://www.businesstraveller.com/news/ba-launches-windows-7-

mobile-boarding-app [accessed 05/04/2015] 3.5.8

Android Central, http://www.androidcentral.com/smartwatch-boarding-pass-anything-

first-class [accessed 05/04/2015] 3.5.9

The

Independant,

http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/going-

budget-british-airways-ditches-free-baggage-allowance-on-key-european-routes-8808746.html [accessed 11/03/2015] 3.5.10

All about you, http://www.allaboutyou.com/country/travel-advice/hand-luggage-

baggage-allowance [accessed 11/03/2015] 3.5.11

Theifhunters in paradise, http://bobarno.com/thiefhunters/luggage-self-check-schiphol-

airport-amsterdam/ [accessed 11/03/2015] 3.5.12

Wolfson, R., & Soffera, M. (2014). The Future of Travel 2024: Travel Journeys (p. 7)

3.5.13

Author’s own

3.5.14

Ibid

3.5.15

Ibid

3.5.16

Ibid

3.6.1

European Aviation, http://european-aviation.net/heathrow-announces-new-measures-

connect-uk-nations-regions-global-growth/ [accessed 10/04/2015] 3.6.2

Author’s own

3.6.3

Still from film: Mexico City International Airport from Above, https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=PMWeVvjXytE [accessed 02/01/2015] 3.6.4

Author’s own

3.6.5

Ibid

3.6.6

Ibid

3.6.7

Ibid

3.6.8

Ibid

3.7.1

Arup, http://www.arup.com/Projects/Heathrow_Personal_Rapid_Transit_PRT.aspx

[accessed 05/04/2015] 3.7.2

Author’s own

3.7.3

Ibid

3.7.4

Ibid

3.7.5

Ibid

4.1

Ibid

4.2

Ibid

130

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