Noise! An investigation into Noise: Its effects and countermeasures Nick Gratwick - Broadcasting (Sound design pathway) [2009]
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Contents Illustrations Acknowledgements Introduction Chapter 1 - Definitions and areas of Noise Industrialisation, a brief history Noise in art Noise and silence Chapter 2 - Noise and life Noise in the media Noise and Health Noise and Aggression Noise and Learning Noise and Retail Acoustic Ecology Noise Activism Chapter 3 - Looking to the future Advances in jet engine technology Acoustic Cloaking Design and noise Noise and Design Pill that protects against hearing damage Acoustic attenuators A quiet Jack Hammer Noise Cancellation Sound Lenses Conclusion Bibliography Appendix – Interview with Dr Arline Bronzaft
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Illustrations
Figure 1. Jackson Pollack painting – Number 33: http://www.worldgallery.co.uk/artprint/Number-33-(Silkscreen-print)-80884.html Figure 2. Man covering ears: http://www.castlepoint.gov.uk/Images/noise2.jpg Figure 3. London during the industrial revolution: http://imagescdn01.associatedcontent.com/image/A1844/18445/300_18445.jpg Figure 4. Luigi Rossolo and his noise making machines: http://uncarved.org/music/graphics/luigirussolocabinets.jpg Figure 5. Bruce Naumann in the Tate moderns turbine gallery:http://static.guim.co.uk/sysimages/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2004/10/12/nauman1.jpg Figure 6. Meditation http://yourdailythread.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/meditate300x200.png Figure 7. Tim Robbins in the film Noise: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/2008/05/09/movies/09noise.xlarge1.jpg Figure 8. Insomnia: http://www.soportonin.com/images/images/cant-sleep.jpg Figure 9. Diagram of the inner ear: http://www.riversideonline.com/source/images/image_popup/ww5r606.jpg Figure 10. A white noise generator: http://cn1.kaboodle.com/hi/img/2/0/0/f7/0/AAAAAsWzE2cAAAAAAPcDsA.jpg
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Figure 11: Inventor of hypersonic speaker Woody Norris http://www.technovelgy.com/graphics/content05/hypersonic-sound.jpg Figure 12. A group of Beaked Whales: http://www.biology-blog.com/images/blogs/122006/beaked-whales-7611.jpg Figure 13. A GEnx jet engine: (http://images.aviation.com/images/070705_genxchevronscloseup_01.jpg) Figure 14. Diagram of acoustic cloaking: http://www.boingboing.net/images/_news_bigphotos_images_080123-soundcloak_big.jpg Figure 15. Mobile phone: http://pic.photobucket.com/newsletter/Oct-2005/CellPhone.jpg Figure 16. A silentair vent: http://www.lupapi.com.au/images/photos/silenceair1.jpg Figure 17. Two sine waves cancelling phase: (http://lineout.thestranger.com/files/2008/10/OutOfPhase.jpg) Figure 18. A sound lens in use: http://pds.exblog.jp/pds/1/200606/22/55/d0074455_184486.jpg Figure 19. A Soundshower in use: http://www.rynander.com/Soundshowers/soundshower.htm
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Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Dr Bronzaft and Val Wheedon for their fortitude, devotion and knowledge. Much gratitude also goes out to Mary of the learning support team and Sue and Kay of the student support team at Ravensbourne College for their unyielding patience, hard work and support.
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Introduction ‘The uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason of the babel.’ (Sanders, 1997, P108) I intend to investigate the collective effect that noise, ambient noise, and noise pollution have in the 21st century. Through this investigation, I hope to explore the areas of life through which noise spans, its positive and negative effects and how it is possible to reduce its impact. To do so, I will be researching existing literature on noise and culture, Internet writings that I have accumulated, scientific investigations into the effects of noise and to interview several prominent figures in the movement against noise such as Dr Arline Bronzaft and a few members of the noise sectors of the UK transport department. Spending much of my time editing audio and dealing with Attention Deficit Disorder, I find that I lack an escape from the sound world and that industrial noise can be most distracting, specifically in terms of amplitude and timbre. Living, working and studying in London, where there is an elevated population density, I have noticed the minimal media attention and general conversation given to the creeping and imposing invasion of noise. The recognition of this nuisance seems to have been repressed in most individuals, despite holding strong opinions on the subject once prompted, as if the subject is taboo. I personally find concentration to be a signal that is easily lost in the seemingly irremediable and relentless static of all forms of noise, audible and otherwise. We have become accustomed to the uses of the sources of these noises and so the side effects are tolerated, despite an accumulation of scientific evidence showing that their acoustic output can impair our learning and physically damage our health. As world populations increase, industrialisation continues to thrive and levels of ambient noise swell, I believe this trend will become increasingly difficult to overlook and will require a colossal endeavour to be successfully overcome, but by this time it may well be too late. I believe it is time that these issues are addressed, with an appropriate level of consideration, importance and perseverance. In chapter 1, I will begin by establishing the definitions of noise, covering its history that will focus largely on the impact of the Industrial Revolution and I will be describing noises diverse contexts to provide a foundation for further discussion. In chapter 2, I will go on to describe the current, how
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noise impinges on human life from day to day right now, it’s coverage in the media, how it changes the health and well being of the ones it affects, it’s impact on learning, how retailers exploit it and I will bring the chapter to a close by exploring the field of acoustic ecology; that is, how noise affects the natural, non human environment. Finally, In Chapter 3, I will be looking to the future, discussing new possibilities for the improvement and prevention of excessive noise for a healthier future. I will be discussing advances in jet engine technology which reduce noise and increase efficiency, the potential of acoustic cloaking to enclose noise, how designers have considered noise in manufacture, the development of a pill that protects against hearing damage, noise reduction using acoustic attenuators, noise cancellation, and the potential in the use of sound lenses.
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Chapter 1 – Definitions and areas of Noise Chapter one provides a basis for further discussion of noise; describing its definitions, history, association with art and connections with silence. The word noise is commonly associated with unpleasant acoustic experiences, but it has come to be used very broadly to describe all manner of signals that convey energy and are subjectively unwanted, both physical and metaphysical. The defining aspect of a noise is its imposition on an individual; one individual’s noise may be quite pleasant for another (see Fig. 2). One may even enjoy the source, but under certain conditions, such as whilst trying to get to sleep or sustain concentration, it may well prove to be undesirable and therefore, noise. As time goes on and man continues to create more, noise takes on an exponentially increasing number of forms. Advertising can form a sort of noise, a signal that, in the developed world, people are constantly bombarded with and are unable to escape. An eyesore such as a burnt out car on a neighbourhood roadside can be described as noise, an undesirable visual hindrance on the surroundings people inhabit. Spam email can also be talked about in terms of noise; it is a continuous and unwanted signal that is inflicted on Internet users worldwide nonetheless.
Fig 2. Man covering ears.
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Industrialisation, a brief history
Fig 3. Britain in the Industrial revolution Although Industrialisation is largely believed to be to blame for the ambient noise phenomenon that we experience today, the issue of noise is certainly not a new one. Going back as far as the ancient Roman civilisation, nearly 2518 years ago, noise has been a common grievance. Julius Caesar himself, banned the use of chariots in the cobbled streets of Rome at night, because the clatter of ironed hooves upon stone resounded around the city and prevented it’s citizens from sleeping, and therefore working efficiently the following day; this is accepted to be the first recorded case of urban noise pollution (Hall, 2002, P12). Later on, nearly 700 years ago, in medieval Europe, Horses and their carriages were banned from cities at night and/or the cobbled streets were covered with earth to dampen the sound of clattering hooves and wheels. (Goines, L. Hagler, L). Up until 1760, noise was largely confined to occasional occurrences, however at this point, machinery and manufacture produced a consistent blanket noise, which must have been all the more resonant with the rest of the country being so quiet. This is the start of what R. Murray Schaffer describes as an overpopulation of sounds, ‘(today) there is so much acoustic information that little of it can emerge with clarity’ (Schaffer, 1994). The industrial revolution began in Britain (See Fig. 3) when the demand for manufactured goods called for the mass mining of coal and iron to produce machines to regulate supply. At this point, noise was seen as a necessary by-product of technological progress and was tolerated by the masses, although not without complaint. Mills, factories and trains were cast, thriving and fuelling the British
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Empire and it’s mighty economy. It was not until 1887 when Lord Rayleigh, superintendent of the National Physical Laboratory’s Physics Department, developed a spinning disk that measured the intensity of sound. This was perhaps the most important development in noise awareness for some time to come. Noise had become quantifiable and could eventually be considered enforceable. This discovery gradually increased public awareness of what noise actually is and provided an improved understanding of the concept. In this time numerous industrial workers had become deaf as a result of working in excessively loud working environments, blacksmiths being a prime example. Industrial noise had become inhumane and unstoppable. (Bud, 1998, P546). It was not until the 1960’s that any laws were drawn to protect the public from the adverse effects of industrial noise; at this time this was exclusive to Britain, with the introduction of the noise abatement act. In 1967 Japan followed and the US in 1972 with the noise control act (Informaction.org) and the office of noise abatement and control, which Nixon left to the country. Unfortunately, since this time the next president, Regan, removed funding and closed the office, which has remained this way ever since. This leaves a gap of 210 years of unregulated noise in Britain alone, in which governments ruled over the working classes with the power of sound, which R. Murray Shaffer frequently claims to have been an intimidating and controlling influence (Schaffer, 1994). A prime example of this is the American militaries active use of the phrase ‘shock and awe’ and the numerous times they have deployed noise in this context to diffuse siege situations and intimidate opposition. It is possible now, in an information driven society, that as people are more aware, or could be made more aware of the dangers of noise and the signs of improvement are there, that the future will be a more tranquil place than the past. Noise in art Post modern art riffs on the aesthetic unpleasance of noise. The definition of noise has now become so broad that it may even be enjoyed; Noise music flips the conventional characterization of the word on its head; this is noise that one listens to for pleasure, no matter how acquired a taste this may require. This seems to be an extreme eventuality of the association of 70’s rock music and high volume. Initially and perhaps most famously,
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the Futurist and painter, Luigi Russolo (See Fig. 4) wrote his manifesto of noise in 1913, which would go on to be a massively influential document of musical directionality for the 20th century. (Russolo, 1913) Russolo predicted the end of the monopoly of traditional musical timbres, favouring instead, the noise of the modern industrial world. “We must break out of this narrow circle of pure musical sounds, and conquer the infinite variety of noise sounds...Let us wander through a great modern city with our ears more alert than our eyes, and enjoy distinguishing between the sounds of water, air, or gas in metal pipes, the purring of motors) which breathe and pulsate with indisputable animalism), the throbbing of valves, the pounding of pistons, the screeching of gears, the clatter of streetcars on their rails, the cracking of whips, the flapping of awnings and flags. We shall enjoy fabricating the mental orchestrations of the banging of store shutters, the slamming of doors, the hustle and bustle of crowds, the din of railroad stations, foundries, spinning mills, printing presses, electric power stations, and underground railways.� (Snyder)
Figure 4. Luigi Russolo and his noise machines Russolo would prove to have great influence, inspiring many prominent artists like John Cage, Karlheinz Stochhausen, Steve Reich and even rock revolutionary, Frank Zappa. These are all artists that have used noise in their performances, some straightforward, others far more subtle, John Cages 4:33 for example, involves a concert pianist sitting in front of a blank score for 4 minutes 33 seconds. This may at first appear to be a cheap post-modern art stunt, but within this performance Cage highlights the importance that silence plays in punctuating music and speech and shows that there is never truly an absolute silence, encouraging the audience to listen more carefully and to hear the
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surrounding ambience of the world. If this performance were to be recorded in the same location periodically, it would serve as an interesting indicator of the rising ambient noise levels over the years. Much like libraries, art galleries usually have a strict policy of quiet, to allow contemplation and interpretation. More recently sound artists have occupied gallery spaces, experimenting with the interference of this sacred silence. Bruce Naumann for instance, filled the turbine gallery of the Tate (See Fig. 5) with hundreds of voices, of varying extremes of emotion designed to affect the listener in various ways. (Dorment, R 2004). Other artist like Christian Marclay, have encouraged attendees to use the quiet of galleries to make use of their imagination in an auditory capacity, presenting objects that evoke the memories of sounds.
Figure 5. Bruce Naumann in the Turbine Hall
Noise and silence Silence is the antithesis of noise and religion has always been synonymous with silence, after all, before anything else, there was a deep silence and the universe will eventually return to this state once it has collapsed back upon itself. Man has always sought answers to the metaphysical by plunging himself into silence in an attempt to achieve clarity (See Fig 6). In the face of the inexplicable, the Buddhist faith believe that the only appropriate response is silence, since trying to explain the divine is impossible it is not attempted, 12
instead, a Buddhist absorbs wisdom through silent meditation, in the belief that it will be transcended. Susan Sontag once wrote that idle talk ‘leads to a devaluation of language’ (Cox, Warner, 2002); there is a great deal of speech occurring at all times, without much meaning, consideration or importance. I have heard it said that the next revolution will be a spiritual one; perhaps humanity needs to reflect upon the association of noise and materialism and that of silence and spirituality. If at some stage, noise pollution becomes so prolific that spots of quiet become scarce; the whole ethos of quiet meditation and spirituality will be put at risk. (Sim, 2007).
Figure 6. Meditation
As pointed out in “big noise = big carbon”– guardian (Siegle, 2008), Man is constantly developing and producing more noise making devices, intentionally or not, all of which devour energy in their production, so one could say that noise is certainly not green. Outside of the acoustic/ecological effect that it has, transport is in large to blame. Cars, trains and aeroplanes are all incredibly noisy. The average car produces around 100 dB, the average train about 100 dB, the average train horn 135-130 dB and the average Jet 120 dB on take off. Consider, 120 dB is the threshold of pain for a human and at 140 dB a human eardrum will burst. Obviously there is dissipation in volume as a person is generally shielded or farther away than these recordings allow for, but the world is literally flooded with these machines. (Hamby, 2004)
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Chapter 2 – Noise and life Chapter 2 covers the effects noise has on an individual on a daily basis, ranging from the influence of the media, the health implications, connection with aggression, effects on education, how retailers use noise to aid sales, the effect of man made noise on the environment and the groups that are fighting to tip the balance. Noise in the media Lately there has been an increased media presence in the war against noise, for example, the Guardian recently published an article called ‘Quiet please’ (Hardy, 2008). This article highlights the potential harm that noisy British cities can cause and acts as a sort of survival guide. The fact that the topic has received several pages of exposure in a media channel as widespread as the Guardian, must mean that it has gained a fairly large viewer ship and has on some level, entered the public consciousness. Perhaps this will in turn, in the general public, awaken a sense that this can be talked about and perhaps, something can be done about the issues raised here. The British Government launched a campaign urging people to be more considerate on public transport, portraying the nuisance that cell phones and music played from them causes on bus journeys playing on television and film advertisements. The film ‘Noise’, written and directed by Henry Bean, a well renowned Hollywood script writer, is a sort of public call to arms, like Howard Beale in the film Network, except in this case, the subject of scrutiny is the unbearable volume of noise pollution in New York City. The film is semi-autobiographical, showing the main character, David Owens played by Tim Robbins (See Fig. 7), breakdown as night after night, he is awoken by car alarms in his neighbourhood. After complaining and receiving no assistance from the police, Bean is ‘as mad as hell’ and decides to take matters into his own hands, breaking into cars to unclasp the bonnet and disconnect the battery, putting a stop to their incessant whining. Owens is ultimately driven to vigilante vandalism and names himself ‘the rectifier’. Here is an example of how strongly a man can feel about the invasion of his acoustic space and the effect that this can have, turning an intelligent,
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civil citizen into a criminal capable of fairly extreme, antisocial behaviour (Noise. Film (2007).
Figure 7. Tim Robbins in the film Noise Noise and Health “Our bodies were built thousands of years ago, and our hearing developed in a different environment – without machinery, jet skis and Sea-Doos. We’re forcing our bodies to work in a different environment from what they were made for. And that’s where you start running into health effects,” (Rinehart, 2007) The Metro paper (The Metro, 2009, P17) claims that it is possible to lose up to a year of a person’s life expectancy, directly due to noise exposure. According to research by the World Health Organisation ‘Coronary heart disease caused 101,000 deaths in the UK in 2006, and the study suggests that 3,030 of these are caused by chronic noise exposure, including to daytime traffic’ (Jha, 2007). One of the most common complaints of noise is its ability people prevent people from sleeping. It was stated that noise “puts your body into a state of raised alert” and even when sleeping the body reacts by outputting “stress hormones” that prevent suitable rest. Spreng’s experiment into how aircraft noise affects sleep (Spreng 2004), shows adrenaline, cortisol and noradrenalin production increase proportionally with the volume of the aircraft to which the subject is exposed to during sleep (See Fig 8). These chemicals are catecholamines, hormones that the body produces when it feels that it is under threat, stimulating the body to give it the energy it needs to
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combat a predator or flee to safety. The recommended volume of ambience whilst sleeping is no higher than 30dBAs. The World Health Organisation, many European inhabitants are continually exposed to noise levels of over 55dBAs and 45% live in an environment that is considered uncomfortable in this respect. Fortunately, there is no predator in this scenario, however the effect of regularly flooding the body with natural stimulants increases blood pressure, prevents effective relaxation and in the long term, is relatively detrimental to a persons health and wellbeing (Miyara, 2000). As Shanghai has experienced massive economic development, it has rushed building supply to meet a critical demand for business. As a result the city has granted building permits to build throughout the night, causing this effect on a massive scale. In recent years technology has undoubtedly progressed far more rapidly than the body’s age-old defence mechanisms, which have long prevented humans from becoming a feast for their predators.
Figure 8. Insomnia Many younger people make use of portable music players to mask city noise, particularly in commuting situations, many of which far exceed the recommended duration and volume. The issue is, that by drowning out loud noise by listening to music, the result is a cumulative volume that is far too loud for the ear to cope without permanent damage, especially on such a frequent basis. The generally accepted rule is to listen to half the volume of the music player’s maximum for a limited period, taking breaks at least every hour to protect your ears from fatigue. The European Union’s Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health risks claim that ‘Up to 10 per cent of iPod and other MP3 users across Europe are risking deafness if they listen for more than an hour a day for at least five years’. (Martin, 2008). Given that young people also regularly attend 16
club nights, bars, concerts and raves, where volumes have been recorded at up to 110dB(A), The RNID (The Royal National Institute for Deaf People) say that “you can only safely be in that sort of noise level for less than two hours a week.”. The employees of these establishments are the ones who are truly at risk, “Because noise damage is cumulative and the effects not immediate, employers often fail to enforce hearing protection for their staff. And yet, a simple measure of wearing quality earplugs would protect these workers from long-term irreparable hearing damage” (Onrec.com, 2004). The hearing Charity RNID claim that “Nine out of ten young people have experienced the first signs of hearing damage after listening to loud music on a night out” (BBC online, 05/03/2008). Over time, a large percentage of the population are risking serious hearing loss, perhaps without even knowing. Tinnitus, the term given to the ringing in ones ears caused by damage to the hairs on the cochlea in the inner ear is irreversible and alarmingly common (See Fig. 9). The frequency of the ringing that is heard is an indication of the damage to the hairs responsible for the detection of that particular frequency. In serious cases, these hairs are broken in such a way that the ringing continues incessantly, “it can lead to poor concentration, difficulty in sleeping and depression” (NHS online, 7/04/2007), (RNID website. What is tinnitus?).
Figure 9. Diagram of the inner ear and the effects if tinnitus Studies that have tried to link long-term ambient noise exposure with anxiety and depression have so far been unsuccessful in their attempts to provide conclusive evidence. This is believed to be because of every subject’s long-term exposure to noise throughout his or her life. Further testing seems to indicate that, “Environmental noise is
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not an important cause of overall psychiatric disorder but nevertheless may contribute to anxiety” (MBJ website, 1996). Noise and Aggression There have been many studies linking noise to aggression; Geen and O’neil for example, showed that participants, when exposed to higher levels of white noise were more likely to inflict electric shocks upon other participants (although these shocks were not actually administered). Another study by Donnerstein and Wilson showed that when asking participants to solve difficult mathematical problems and exposing them to random and uncontrollable bursts of noise, the participants were more likely to administer higher shock intensities to others. (Clarke, 2003, p108). The physiological arousal caused by uncontrollable noise is potentially hazardous to all, particularly given increasing ambient noise levels. There have been numerous cases of neighbourly disputes over noise ending in violence and even murder; in many cases the violent party had no previous history of mental health disorders or violent tendencies. Mr Holt of Halliwell, for example was found stabbed to death outside his apartment in 2007 after a noise dispute caused by excessively loud music resulted in violence. There are many more cases just like this one, spurred on by incivility, proximity and loud and repetitive behaviour that personally prevents surrounding occupants from living their lives normally, although violence should absolutely not be condoned. Noise and learning A study carried out in the 70’s by Dr Arline Bronzaft, a psychologist and long time advocate of the benefits of reducing noise, set out to determine whether or not noise would impede the cognitive development of children. The experiment monitored a class of children who attended classes in a room next to an elevated train siding and compared their progress with those of another class who studied in a class on the quiet side of the same building, ‘by the 6th grade, children on the noisy side of the building were nearly a year behind the students on the quiet side’. There is therefore conclusive proof that noise
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impedes the development of children, which should mean that every self-respecting school should make an effort to investigate and if necessary, take precautions to dampen external sounds. In the same school Dr Bronzaft went on to demonstrate that when acoustic insulation was installed and railway tracks were padded, lowering noise levels, the students abilities returned to the same standard as the control class (Boyles, 2002). Like a radio transmission struggles to maintain a good signal to noise ratio, it makes sense to think that your inner monologue is competing with external stimuli and when you are processing foreign concepts, they must really form a clear signal in your thoughts to be processed efficiently. Tomasi et al have shown using functional magnetic resonance imaging, that the brains attention resources are increased as the subject is exposed to increasing doses of acoustic noise; the brain has to work much harder to perform ordinary tasks under the duress of noise (Tomasi, 2008). Interestingly a recent study into the learning of children with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADHD) by Goran Soderlund, showed that these children’s learning was improved with exposure to background noise. The study tested children with and without ADHD in a number of learning trials and compared their performances when exposed to white noise. The positive effect is apparently due to the fact that children with ADHD have very low levels of dopamine in the brain and so have a low level of cognitive activity, the noise stimulates the brain just enough for it to become normally active. The study goes on to say that this method does not benefit children without ADHD, as they become over stimulated with background noise and study more effectively in silence with the exception of some children that performed below average, who were positively affected. Goran believes that others with conditions that result in low dopamine levels may also stand to benefit; Parkinson’s sufferers for instance. (The Swedish Research Council, 2007). The term stochastic resonance describes this effect of adding noise to a system to improve the systems performance. Ironically, following the idea of stochastic resonance, noise does have a number of beneficial uses, including blocking out other noise. The use of white noise generators (See Fig. 10) is becoming increasingly more popular, a white noise generator will output a wide frequency of random noise, which masks other noise, uses include reducing distraction in open plan offices, sleeping through city noise at night and as mentioned previously, aiding ADD sufferers with their learning. (Kosko, 2006)
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Figure 10. A white noise generator Noise and retail: A study by Gueguen et al (2004) showed that as the volume of music is increased in a bar setting, the volume of alcohol consumed by the punters increases. This is believed to be because it is increasingly more difficult to interact socially under these conditions and punters become more focussed on drinking in the belief that this will make the increasingly more difficult act of socialising easier. Bars frequently use this technique to sell more alcohol, much as fast food restaurants used to use salt to sell soft drinks. In the last century, through the study of psychology, it is now understood how people react to certain stimuli and why (Loud music = more beer, noiseaddicts.com). This kind of manipulation is becoming increasingly more common, with retail shops taking on sound consultants to optimise the soundscapes in their stores to make shoppers more likely to purchase. (Treasure, 2007). This may not outwardly seem like noise, but no individual likes to feel like a retailer is manipulating him or her, although frequently without his or her knowledge, they are. Hypersonic sound opens up an even more invasive means of corporate manipulation. A hypersonic sound emitter (See Fig. 11) is capable of producing a beam of sound not dissimilar to a laser beam, by producing a hyper sonic, extremely high-pitched emission, which predicts the behaviour of and then distorts the air particles surrounding it, to produce audible lower frequency sounds. The result of a technology like this is that a sound can be projected onto an individual without any others being able
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to hear it, from up to 150 yards away without losing volume or becoming distorted. The upside of this technology is that it may be a solution to the noise pollution of amplification. Due to Hypersonic sounds incredible directionality it may be possible to replace traditional PA systems in clubs and party situations, so that only those participating are able to hear the music being played. This could also be used for smaller scale deliveries of sound like watching television at home without disturbing another in the same room or wireless communication without the use of radio. On the more sinister side, advertisers may target individuals and project sound upon them that may be confused with their own inner monologue; this would be incredibly menacing if it is not outlawed first. (American Technology Association)
Figure 11. Woody Norris, inventor of the hypersonic speaker Acoustic Ecology Acoustic Ecology or Soundscape Ecology was recognized as a specialism in the late 1960’s/early 1970’s when R. Murray Schafer founded the World Soundscape project from the Simon Fraser University in Alberto, Canada. The groups aim is ‘to find solutions for an ecologically balanced soundscape where the relationship between the human community and its sonic environment is in harmony”. It has since been shown that man made noise has had a profound effect upon the surrounding natural environment, for example, birds have complex acoustically based mating rituals which are subject to interference by external noise. In a study by Erin Bayne from the University of Alberta, birds that nested nearby a noise emmiting compressor station ‘had reduced pairing by almost 15 percent’. It is believed that the males call is either not heard 21
because it is drowned out, or that ambient noise distorts the call of the bird and misleads the female into thinking that the males call is below par, whichever the reality is, 15 percent is a huge percentage to lose out on a future generation (Schafer, 1994), (Goudarzi, 2006). A lack of foresight when implementing ocean machinery such as sonar and seismic equipment has meant that the inhabitants of our oceans have been suffering as their feeding, breeding and migrating habits have been interrupted. The oceans have become grounds for noise pollution that are rarely talked about by anyone but members of the marine biology community. According to the International Ocean Noise Coalition “Ocean noise levels in some areas have doubled every decade for the past 60 years” (IWC Scientific Report, 2004), if this trend continues, delicate ecosystems are likely to be irreparably damaged. (International Ocean Noise Coalition, 2008). Recently there have been a number of incidents where a relatively large volume of beaked whales (See Fig. 12) have grounded themselves on coastal areas, coincidentally, there had been a high volume of military exercises running nearby to each case, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote for example. Military sonar can broadcast up to 210 decibels of low frequency sound, which is equivalent to the level of sound given off by a space rocket launch. Antonio Fernandez of the Veterinary School of the University of Las Palmas in Gran Canari concluded that the military sonars that operate between frequencies of 1 to 5Khz are similar to that of the call of the killer whale, which may well have caused the beaked whales to act drastically and run themselves aground. (Black, 2008) Beluga whales have been observed raising the frequency of their calls to be heard over background noise (Au et al, 1985) and ‘Migrating bowhead and gray whales divert around sources of noise, whether actual industrial activities or playbacks of industrial activities’, this has been put to use in deterring whales from habiting areas where they may cause obstruction, harbours for instance (Richardson et al, 1995). (Committee on Potential Impacts of Ambient Noise in the Ocean on Marine Mammals, National Research Council, 2003)
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Figure 12. A group of Beaked Whales Noise Activism If not for noise activists the world over, the laws that are in place now would probably not have not come into being at all. It is through these groups that people have united and Groups such as Noiseoff, The Noise Pollution Clearing House, The League of Hard of Hearing and Hearing Education and Awareness on Rockers have made an impact on public consciousness and civil law. Perhaps one of the most current noise issues being fought by the public is that of the planned extension of Heathrow airport. The British government are expected to approve the building of a 3rd runway at the airport, presumably, solely for the capitals financial benefit, although the Chamber of commerce survey 2006 has shown that 78% of businesses in London were against the expansion (3rd Runway Consultation, 2007). Not only would the extension mean an increase in air
pollution, but also a huge quantity of London residents (150,000 or so) would be subjected to the sound of jet engines day and night, which as mentioned previously, would cause health concerns and education issues. This move has been met with a massive public outcry and attracted the attention of noise activists world wide. John Stewart from HACAN (Heathrow Association for the Control of Aircraft Noise) has been heading this stand. The group are campaigning for ‘a ban on nightflights at Heathrow, an extension of runway and flight path alternation, a cap on the number of flights at Heathrow, adoption of the noise levels recommended by the World Health Organisation,
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a tax on transfer passengers using Heathrow and clear information on flight paths’ (Anti Heathrow Expansion. 2009), (HACAN), (Anti- Heathrow expansion campaigner John Stewart, 2007) .This type of campaign has been successful before with public complaint resulting
in Mayor Bloomburg revising New York cities noise laws in 2005 and has since encouraged the enforcement of them. Although New York may still be a noisy metropolis, it shows the way forward, is certainly a welcome improvement and an example to cities like Shanghai where the building noise continues day and night. These groups continue to educate and lobby for the rights of the public and with cases like that of Heathrow, have enlisted many more members who themselves may go on to do the same.
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Chapter 3 – Looking to the future Chapter 3 covers a number of emerging technologies that may eventually result in an improvement to the world soundscape. It would be nice to think that beyond our daily diet of junk sounds, we might be able to look forward to a future where our soundscapes are more selectively constructed, comprising of more positive sound, that actively benefits and aids us rather than hindering and damaging. It is realistic to think that this may happen if we allow it, technology is capable of working in our favour in this respect. There are already numerous devices and methods for reducing/silencing unpleasant noise and perhaps it is time we put them to good use, the trend of realisation started in 1887 and has continued to bubble under the surface of society ever since, it has only to continue in this direction for a positive eventuality.. This quote is an excellent and exciting descriptor of the future of sound: ‘It seems that for many, particularly highly urbanised populations, the return to natural sound is all but impossible. In such a context, any way forward shall, even by default, fall to sound-designers, so that the built environment will become an opportunity for tinting and high-lighting new, probably unnatural soundworlds.’ Oliver Lowenstein, ‘Fourth Door Review’, 2001 (BBC worldservice. Sound in the future) Advances in jet engine technology General electric have produced an engine that promises not only to be more environmentally friendly in terms of air pollution, but in noise pollution also. The new Genx GE90-115B engine (see Fig 13) (of which GE have already sold $7 billion worth) was trialled in Boeings new 747-8 and together with a number of other noise reduction technologies, the aircraft was recorded as 10dBV’s quieter than its predecessor, the 747400. The engines noise optimisation lies in reducing its number of fan blades, which is made possible by some clever shape improvements. “These new technologies are just part of noise-reduction improvements being made to the 747-8,” said Billy Glover,
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director of Environmental Strategy, Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Not only does this make the engine quieter, noise also mean energy, the engines are more fuel efficient as a resuly. This product has been designed to meet the UK’s Quota count system. Put in place in 1995 by the UK government, the system categorises aircraft according to their noise output and more recently has banned more noise productive aircraft from flying at night. The motivation for this technology seems to lie with the manufacturers being able to sell large capacity aircraft that are able to fly at night, which was initiated by a government ruling (British Airways. Noise), (Boeing, 2006).
Figure 13. A GEnx engine Acoustic Cloaking Scientific investigation into visibility cloaking using microscopically designed ‘metamaterials’ that reflect light around them to render an object invisible, has lead to the planning and development of metamaterials to acoustically cloak objects. Although these technologies are still in their infancy, the scientists involved are certain that this technology is viable and achievable. “I do not have any of this material lying around my office, and you cannot buy it at your local DIY store, But there is no reason it cannot be designed and fabricated – it is just a matter of time and effort. I cannot say it will be this year or two years from now, but I believe it is inevitable.” Says Prof Andrew Norris from Rutger University. These acoustic metamaterials are called pentamode materials “Crystalline materials can have up to six independent constants describing stiffness,”, “Five of them are zero in a pentamode material.” “The single constant necessary is the bulk modulus that defines a stress that is larger in one direction than another. By tuning this difference, the material can be given acoustic cloaking properties.” (See Fig. 14) (Highfield, 2004), (Torrent, D. Sánchez-Dehesa, 2008) 26
Figure 14. The effect of the pentamode material on surrounding sound waves Noise and Design Some new innovations, although initially much quieter than their predecessors, have had noises compulsorily tagged to them. Electric cars for instance, are very quiet, and with noise reducing roads in place, virtually silent. After much protest against automobile noise form many fronts, this initially sounds entirely positive. However, electric cars are so quiet that they pose an inherent danger, pedestrians cannot hear them coming and so, they could potentially cause fatalities (Simonite, 2008). Camera phones (See fig. 15) are the latest technology to receive additional sounds for the interest of public wellbeing. To prevent individuals from taking photographs without another’s consent or knowledge, the shutter noise is mandatory. Japan and South Korea already have laws in place to enforce this, and other major cities around the world are following in suit. The latest country to put this law up for legislation is the US, the bill reads as follows: “(a) RequirementBeginning 1 year after the date of enactment of this Act, any mobile phone containing a digital camera that is manufactured for sale in the United States shall sound a tone or other sound audible within a reasonable radius of the phone whenever a photograph is taken with the camera in such phone. A mobile phone manufactured after such date shall not be equipped with a means of disabling or silencing such tone or sound.�. This may well lead to noise pollution that would have been completely unnecessary otherwise, for example, during a theatre show of performance, a multitude of clicks resonating around an auditorium as punters capture a special moment. Although the sentiment behind both
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bills are valid, to prevent accident and to discourage sexual predators and so on, there is something very strange about insisting that noiseless devices imitate those that cause issues already; “let’s make a way to create the fake sound of an artificial process that acts as a social cue” (Johnson, 2009), (Hawk, 2009). These kinds of actions may well becomes more frequent and publicly accepted as time goes on, adding rather than subtracting from the number of nuisance noises encountered in all aspects of city life.
Figure 15. Camera phone A pill that protects against hearing damage There is currently research into manipulating proteins in the ear that are responsible for the ears sensitivity and in doing so, may enable people to tailor their ears to the amplitude of the noisy environments that they inhabit, preventing damage to their hearing. The treatment has been trialled on mice; altering the allele Chrna9L9′T in the mice, produced a chemical offset that reduced the sensitivity of their ears and prevented hearing damage. Applying a strychnine blockade of the α9α10 hair cell nicotinic receptor, returned the subjects hearing to normal, completely reversing the effect. The implications hearing drugs could have for the future are both interesting and concerning, when hearing damage is cause for action, in reducing volume in the workplace and elsewhere. Administering drugs such as these may mean that employers may feel no need to bring about any change at all. More importantly, a hearing pill could be used to enhance hearing in those with hearing deficiencies (Taranda et Al, 2009), (Page, 2009).
Acoustic attenuators 28
Silenceair have created a brick (See Fig. 16) that allows air to flow in and out of a building but unlike a window or a breezeblock, it silences 85% of the noise as it does so. This works by channelling sound through a series of tubes, the lengths of which correspond to the wavelength of the sounds that are to be cancelled and similarly to the way an exhaust silencer works, redirects the sound to cancel phase. The arrays of resonators inside the bricks are tuned to block sounds in the range of 500Hz to 2kHz. (Humans have an audible range of 20Hz to 20,000Hz.) “The lengths of the tubes (resonators) can be adjusted, however, to suit the source of noise to be attenuated,” says Chris Field, who researched and produced the Silenceair at the University of Sydney. “For example, for installations near busy roads, the resonator lengths can be tuned to target traffic noise frequencies specific to the site.” (Silenceair)
Figure 16. A silenceair duct Acoustic attenuators like these are being used more frequently in industrial settings to hush air conditioners and machinery.
A quiet Jack Hammer 29
The better world alternatives website advertises a new form of jackhammer that claims to be at least as efficient as the traditional model, but is up to 80% quieter. As less energy is wasted in producing unwanted sound through vibration, the machine claims to last longer and wear less on the user. This model disproves the outdated attitude that a quieter solution is either less effective or more expensive to develop or produce (BWA network) (Befreetech). In a similar scenario, Dr Arline Bronzaft speaks of the Transport Association of America who reluctantly looked into how to quieten a new engine they were looking to deploy into their new trains (Bronzaft, 2009). With suggestion from outside parties, they shortened the blades, which were hitting the housing of the cooling unit, making a huge amount of noise, and by doing so they managed to build a longer lasting, quieter engine with a minimal amount of effort. Noise Cancellation Noise cancellation technology is available in the form of headphones that uses the principles of phase cancellation to reduce or eliminate ambient noise. Phase cancellation is “When a sound source is delayed slightly (by a real-world reflection, or in recording and mixing), so that two coherent waveforms of opposite phase are superimposed and cancel each other out� (Kirn, 2005) All this means, is that a microphone on the outside of the headphones picks up the wave patterns of the ambient noise and with the aid of digital signal processing, projects them out of phase (See Fig. 17) into the headphones, cancelling the unwanted noise. The same principal is applied to noise cancellation in car exhaust mufflers.
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Figure 17. Phase Cancellation
Sound Lenses
Figure 18. Applying sound to a sound lens It is possible to make sound directional by applying it to a concave sound lens (See Fig. 18). By directing the lower and middle frequencies at the apex of the lens and the high frequencies through two drivers directed off axis, the overall sound is “reflected by the sound lens into a downward substantially focused beam of full frequency spectrum sound� (Wiener, 2000). This technology has similar applications to Hypersonic speaker systems except and acoustic lens system boasts a broader frequency range (Patentstorm, 2000).
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Figure 19. A sound shower installation Anna Karin Rynander has used this technology to produce the ‘sound shower’ (See Fig 19). Based on the idea that a shower produces white noise, the sound of flowing water, it is an ideal place to escape from the busy surrounding soundscape. “The Soundshower is equipped with a computer, a digital sound library and a control program which contains random parameters and rules for how the sounds shall be assembled. The computer executes the control program and the sound stream is composed in real time, which creates a unique experience each visit.” (Rynander, K). The Soundshower has now been installed in a number of airports and railway stations. The idea is futuristic, offering the public a safe haven from noise in which to relax and recharge.
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Conclusion Industrialisation and consequent urbanisation has meant that for mankind, the tolerance of noise has been a necessary and sometimes unrecognised burden. As a result of the following scientific advances the resulting damages have now been recognised and the means are now available to do away with most of the antiquated side effects of current manufacturing and product based noise pollution. The current and future technologies that I speak of are entirely viable if not already a reality. The future is however, entirely in the hands of the governing bodies that rule the enviroments that we inhabit, the legal framework and consequently the behaviour of the corporations that manufacture the machinery and electronics that are allowed to populate our cities, towns and villages. These commercial bodies are driven by profit and perhaps more importantly, with a concerted effort influenced by public pressure and the possibility of their refusal to grant these profits through non purchase. Public awareness and a new found interest for the implications of health, learning and well being, are capable of bringing about these changes. In the most visible channels; feature films like Noise, informative articles in the tabloids such as the Guardian and the Times, artistic endeavours like those of Christian Marclay and Bruce Naumann, religious teachings such as Buddhism and Quakerism and the infomercials presented on British television, challenge the acceptability of noise pollution and try to awaken the average consumer from denying the effects of the relentless and unyielding barrage of audible and inaudible noise they are readily exposed to. There are now means to dampen or silence many of the producers of noise that make up the average city soundscape: Planes, trains and automobiles for instance, have all had sufficient research lavished upon them to be capable of being virtually silent or at least, greatly hushed. Contrary to the initial purpose of this research, some machines that have been created to be quiet, are subject to various kinds of legislation for safety purposes and so have forcibly had sounds embedded within them; electric cars and camera phones for instance. It is possible then, that despite the capability of eradicating certain noises, automobiles for instance which are perhaps the most common and persistent form of noise pollution in the developed world, they will never be allowed to disappear completely. Since the Industrial revolution, governments have become increasingly
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aware of the potential damages, thanks largely to the scientific community and the protest of the public. There are now many laws in most countries governing the levels of sound at which a human is capable of working within and for how long. The British Health and Safety Executive for example have guidelines that advise employers on ways in which they can measure sound levels and protect their employees from harm, stating that an absolute ‘daily or weekly exposure of 87 dB;– peak sound pressure of 140 dB’ (Health and Safety Executive) must not be exceeded. In this respect, working conditions have improved no end. In the late 1800’s and early 1900’s there were an increasing number of incredibly noisy factories, but there were still relatively few sources of noise compared to today, where cities are densely populated by cars, trains, electronics and amplification. All this means, is that although people are no longer losing their hearing as quickly and dramatically, they are now surrounded by a dense soup of thousands of man made noises that, in their design or accidental inception, had no consideration for their psychological or physiological effect. Now more people are aware of the increased levels of stress, bodily strain and aggression that are produced by these channels than ever before. I suggest that the future may well provide a market for the employment of sound designers/consultants in the design process of all manufactured goods and to that end, the design of manufacturing equipment used to produce these goods and hopefully noise will eventually be given the same attention that other types of pollution are. The natural environment has certainly been seen to be suffering, which, when looking upon the sight of a city overflowing into the surrounding countryside, should not come as much of a surprise. As Theodore Roosevelt once said "I believe in power; but I believe that responsibility should go with power” and this has never been as resonant as in the present; mankind possesses an unprecedented wealth of power through knowledge and technology. With the benefits reaped from these riches, mankind should be taking the time to respect and preserve the ecosystems that surround and ultimately, support it. Research shows that the level and effects of noise pollution in the oceans, where creature communication is reliant on the clarity of the medium of water, is deplorable. The figure given in the ICW scientific report stating that “Ocean noise levels in some areas have doubled every decade for the past 60 years” (IWC Scientific Report, 2004), suggests that
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this is no small increase. Further research has shown that fish suffer hearing damage, much as humans do (Popper) and that noise pollution affects the mating, feeding and migrating habits of ocean life. Noise also has very similar effect on the birds that inhabit dry land. The populace of towns and cities around the world owe themselves and their surroundings the collective effort that would force governments to invest and legislate to ensure a healthier and safer future. There is a glut of inspiring technology that could provide the basis for mankind to continue to enjoy the benefits of the kinds of noisy lifestyles led currently with better compartmentalisation, less spill and less impact on the environment. Amplified sound can now be directionalised and insulated so that it does not impose on others, jet engines can be markedly hushed and the same technology used in marine vehicles, noise cancellation is becoming increasingly more powerful, electric cars are potentially more environmental in every sense and ultimately scientists may be able to entirely cloak objects from invasive sound. The benefits to health, wellbeing, education and preservation of natural resources are undeniable. In addition to this inspiring technology, one must not forget civility; the willingness to consider the person next door. As long as humans continue to live in close proximities, it remains vital that consideration and respect is shown mutually. Perhaps, if awareness is not provided by parenting across the board, schools should be teaching these values instead.
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Appendices
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