Phase I: Schematic Design

Schematic design consists of several components, beginning with early meetings with the client, initial research (due diligence), site analysis, programming, and the preparation of one or more schematic design proposals.

Pre-Design: Background Research, Inventory, and Evaluation

The first phase or step of the design process comprises gathering information and gaining familiarity with the client’s project aspirations, the site and its physical and historical context, and the legal landscape. At the outset of a new design project, the landscape architect must first become familiar with four important factors of the project. The process of gathering information for the four factors has two components: (1) gathering or inventorying the information; and (2) interpretation and evaluation of the information collected. The aim is to gather what will be useful information that will later inform site planning and site design decisions. That information is:

1. Research concerning the client, users, and stakeholders including:

a. Program elements including activities and uses, facilities and other structures. b. Likes, dislikes, and desires of client. c. Project aspirations of the client. d. Area and other dimensional requirements of each program element and structure. e. Optimum relational diagram of program elements. f. Circulation requirements including: vehicular, pedestrian, bicycle, service vehicles, and parking. g. Climate, sun exposure and prevailing winds. h. Hydrology analysis, particularly general direction of surface water flow patterns.

2. Knowledge and understanding of the physical attributes of the project site: the landscape architect must understand the site and its context1 (neighborhood and region), including the topography, climate, soils, vegetation, sun and seasonal variations, and myriad of other physical and temporal site-related characteristics including:

a. Topography, landform, and slope analysis (Figure 3.2).2 b. Aspect3 or topography-climate (Figures 3.3 and 3.4). c. Soils and geology. d. Vegetation (Figure 3.5). e. Climate, including seasonal rainfall, air temperature, and wind direction and speed. f. Sun angles (summer and winter). g. Views and landmarks. h. Existing man-made features. i. Utilities and infrastructure (on- and off-site).

j. Historical and physical context in which the project site resides, such as cultural and historical records of activity and legacies (such as structures) and physical features such as vegetation, and architecture styles and building types.

Figure 3.2 Slope map showing categories of slope from level to steep.

Figure 3.4 Sun aspect diagram: A: North–South sequence; B: West–East sequence.

A

B

Figure 3.3 Sun aspect map based on topography.

Figure 3.5 Vegetation map often created using aerial photography in combination with on-the-ground field studies.

3. Knowledge of applicable laws and governmental regulations and procedures, issues of safety, and environmental regulations. The information researched here is referred to as performing due diligence, a term that indicates the requirement that any professional must undertake to fulfill required professional responsibilities.

For instance, the need to determine the applicable zoning requirements and restrictions, fire and safety requirements, flood plain limits and restrictions, and permit requirements. The landscape architect must identify all applicable laws and regulations and permit requirements to insure the project design conforms. Each design discipline understands the importance and necessity of performing due diligence as a professional responsibility.

The designer as part of a professional service contract will investigate the local and governing laws and administrative requirements that are enforced in the jurisdiction(s) where the project is located including:

1. Land use zoning. 2. Building and other structure setbacks. 3. Rights-of-way, servitudes. 4. Building codes. 5. 100-year flood elevation. 6. Setbacks from wetlands and waterways. 7. Storm and surface water management requirements such as best management practices. Floodplain constraints and design elevation requirements (FEMA4). 8. Wetlands management and mitigation. 9. Health, safety, and welfare administrative guidelines and requirements. 10. Environmental Protection Agency requirements: clean water, clean air, and environmental impact assessment. 11. Government permit requirements (local, state, and federal agencies).

Other areas of knowledge include an understanding of the construction industry and available contracting companies, including:

1. Availability and sources of landscape and construction materials (vegetation, soil, building materials). 2. Construction methods. 3. Contractor expertise and capabilities.

Schematic or Preliminary Design: Establishing Design Intent

Now that the landscape architect has researched, gathered, and considered the relevant background information related to the project, the preliminary design phase of the process begins. That is not to say that the designer has not already been thinking about design until this point. Often ideas about design begin emerging almost at the first hearing of the project and even before a contract with the

client is signed. Design is not something one can necessarily turn on and off. Ideas “pop” into one’s head virtually of their own accord, as designers, by their very nature, live with the design switch turned on. But at this point in the process the designer will turn their full attention to developing design concepts while digesting and applying the background research.

Developing initial design ideas depends on the nature of the project. In the case of a community park, the designer might first focus on organizing the physical relations of the various park elements (the program), followed by considering the circulation sequence from entry to passage from area to area. Functional relationships of the program elements consider which activities are best clustered together in order to share such things as entry, parking, and support elements (such as restrooms). Clustering of program elements might be based on separating active from passive activities, organized and unorganized sports, and topographic features that might support and enhance the park visitor experience.

In addition to functional considerations the designer would consider the experiential possibilities for the park visitor. For instance, the design goal might be to create a naturalistic environment or to set the park elements within a cultural or historical theme, based on background research discovered about the site’s history. The schematic design phase considers function, the physicality of the project site and the program, and the experiential potential that will together create a sense of place or a unique character.

A Bit of a Digression on Design

One of the dilemmas of taking a naturalistic approach, that is, developing a design that fits in with and incorporates the physical attributes of the site, is that it may result in a highly used and thus successful park design, but it may not appear that a designer was involved. The park looks natural, that is, its design does not make obvious the human hand. This approach to design is sometimes referred to as light-handed design. For clients like national park or historical property agencies, fitting in and looking natural (or appearing as if nothing or very little has been changed) often are the goal. For the landscape architect, a more heavy-handed design makes the touch of the designer more readily apparent. For some individuals, this is an approach that seems (not necessarily always) to garner design awards and other forms of recognition.

Contemporaneous, avant-garde designs make clear the hand of a designer was present, unlike designs that blend in with their surroundings. Some clients seeking unique and more highly visible built5 projects want this approach. The issue is not one of right or wrong but is an issue designers sometimes find themselves confronted with. Each landscape architect approaches the matter as fits their design sensibilities and professional goals. And also, marketing is often part of the discussion. Some landscape architects and their firms strive to create unique designs that are readily associated with the firm. The term branding comes to mind, where one’s designed built works have a consistent and recognizable style or aesthetic that clients may find

desirable, and this means they will seek these designers out for their projects. I cannot say for sure that Louis XIV’s minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert admired the design of Versailles (an earlier design by André Le Nôtre) when making the decision of selecting André Le Nôtre to design his Parc de Sceaux. Le Nôtre was hired to design the grounds of Parc de Sceaux, located south of Paris, and the resulting design shares many physical features with Versailles. This example should serve to demonstrate the notion of branding in design and its potential importance to landscape architects in marketing their services. Other factors, besides design style and aesthetics, are considered in response to a range of different circumstances where environmental, social, and economic issues must be addressed. Scarcity of water, loss of biological diversity, increased flood hazard, and a reduction in long-term maintenance funding are growing influences in landscape architectural design. These tugs on the attention of landscape architects and their clients do not necessarily mean that design aesthetics is no less important. On the contrary, landscape architects are being challenged to continue their creativity, but still considering other factors in the matrix of influences and considerations that go into creating an appropriate design.

At the completion of the research, the site and program analysis, and following through on the investigation of due diligence, the landscape architect will then prepare one or more preliminary or schematic designs to review with the client. In the case of government projects, the stakeholders and the general public will also have a chance to review the schematic design proposals and weigh in during the discussion. The drawings, models, and other means of representation produced in the schematic design phase are illustrative and more diagrammatic and not heavily detailed. They include three-dimensional and sectional representations and may be accompanied by a well-reasoned narrative outlining the design intent, the goals, and the critical considerations (site, economic, government, social, and environmental). The results and recommendations of alternative studies and designs may be included, outlining the logic and reasoning that support their consideration and clearly make a case for the preferred design. At the basic level, schematic design is a problem-solving exploration that relies on coherent and logical reasoning to help guide which design decisions will be made and demonstrate the justification of these decisions informed by the research, site analysis, client and stakeholder input, and other pre-design subjects investigated.

The typical elements included in the schematic design package are: a site design plan, sections, perspective drawings, 3-D models, and other visual materials used by the landscape architect to communicate design intent, benefits, and how the design meets the program and budget objectives of the client. The plans, sections, and other drawings contain sufficient detail without elaborating on the specifics of material selection and construction details. The plans, sections, and other drawings should be drawn to scale so that they are measurable. The site design plan is often referred to as an illustrative plan, but lacking the detail necessary to construct the project. The landscape architect will also prepare what is called an estimate of probable cost to construct the project based on the schematic design. The landscape

architect will consider the budget established by the owner when developing a design solution and generally will arrive at a design that is within the budget. If the designer, in the course of the schematic design phase, sees desirable opportunities that might result in a budget higher than established, the design will be presented to the client following the strategy of first showing a design that is within budget, then making the case for an increased budget while arguing the benefits of the additional and more costly design elements. One never knows when a client might be enthusiastic for the more costly design but the savvy landscape architect will either alert and discuss the possibility of a more costly design with the client beforehand or organize the presentation of the schematic design so there is a logical and acceptable fallback design that is within budget.

Figure 3.6 is an example of the kinds of schematic design-level images and drawings for a proposed river restoration and greenbelt park project, the Xin Jin Baihetan National Wetland Park.6 Figure 3.6A is one of several hundred photographs taken by the landscape architect to document the initial visit and field investigation to the project site. During this initial field trip, the team identified important physical features, land use activities, problems, and other attributes of the area in order to gain an understanding of the site and its context. Figure 3.6B shows work in progress after field studies and the kind of diagrams used to analyze information from field studies and develop initial diagrams of desirable program element relationships. Evolution of a design scheme from initial concept doodle is shown in Figure 3.6C. Further development of site design diagrams are shown in Figures 3.6D and 3.6E, further evolving into a more carefully worked-out site design shown in Figure 3.6F.

A B C

D E F

Figure 3.6 Design process drawings for Xin Jin Baihetan National Wetland Park, a greenbelt and river restoration project in central China; project team: Sichuan Agricultural University, Landscape Architectural College, with Bruce Sharky, FASLA.