Culture of learning pdf pdf by Dan Kesterson

Focus on Learning Theory and Teaching Strategies which Contribute to a Culture of Academic Expectation and Creativity. Whitepaper

DAN KESTERSON

C HAPTER 1

Culture of High Expectations

Dr. Tinto suggests that there are several determinants of student learning that must be met to foster student success. - Student abilities and skills - High expectations of student performance - Support (academically and socially) and, - Student involvement (e.g. time on task)

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Culture of Academic Expectations Focus on learning theory and teaching strategies which contribute to a culture of academic expectation and a culture of creativity.

Culture of Academic Expectation What is mean by a culture in a culture of academic expectation and a culture of creativity? From the Literature Importance of High Academic Expectations When teachers have high expectations for students and provide tasks that are engaging and of high interest, students build self-esteem, increase confidence and improve academic performance (Brophy, 2008; 2010). Student confidence is critical because it is linked to student’s willingness to tackle challenging learning activities. A Self-Fulfilling Prophecy A teacher’s expectations, either high or low expectations, become a self-fulfilling prophecy. Students perform in ways that teachers expect. Teachers’ beliefs about student potential are particularly powerful for students of color and students from poor families (Ferguson, 2002). High Expectations and Motivation Many scholars report a link between expectations and motivation (Alexander, Ryan & Deci, 2000; Meece, Anderman & Anderman, 2006). Students’ intrinsic motivation is evident when they desire to learn simply because it interests them or they recognize the importance of learning. Extrinsic motivation is a response to either incentives (points, prizes) or disincentives (threats, punishments). Intrinsic

motivation has a greater impact on student learning than extrinsic motivation (Deci, Koestner & Ryan, 1999; Kohn, 1994). Elements of Motivation Blackburn and Armstrong (2011) describe two components of motivation---value and success. Students are more motivated when they see the value of learning. (Ronald Williamson, Eastern Michigan University, August 2012) http://gearup.ous.edu/sites/default/files/Research-Briefs/ResearchBriefHighExp ectations.pdf Attributions of Success and Failure “Expectations are also shaped by teacher and student perceptions of the reasons for successes and failures. Teachers may attribute successes and failures to factors such as ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. Teachers often project high expectations for the future if they believe that a student's success is due to her high ability, and will attribute a high achiever's failure to bad luck. When a student's failure is attributed to low ability, a teacher will begin to expect less in the future. Subsequent "lucky" successes of such a student are unlikely to be taken as evidence that the low ability label should be changed. Students attribute successes and failures to either changeable or unchangeable factors (e.g., effort and ability, respectively), influenced by beliefs and expectations that they pick up from, among others, their teachers. A "low ability" student, who views failures as lack of ability and successes as luck, will lose his motivation, feeling that there is little he can change to improve his learning. The teacher who makes similar attributions, will feel helpless to intervene, believing that the student is not "cut out" for challenging academic work. The interplay of expectations with changeable and unchangeable attribution factors is moderately complex when looked at in detail. But while recognizing that there will always be slower and faster learners in every classroom, there would seem to be a great advantage to American education at all levels if teachers and students alike believed that successes were linked more to effort and less to ability. In the U.S...innate ability is viewed as the main determinant of academic success. The role played by effort, amount and quality of instruction, and parental involvement is discounted....Poor performance in school is often attributed to low ability, and ability is viewed as being immune to alteration, much like eye or skin color.

Therefore, poorly performing students often come to believe that no matter how much effort they put forth, it will not be reflected in improved performance. (Lumsden 1997)

sense of efficacy exhibit the opposite tendenciesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;adapting instruction to student characteristics and showing a high level of tolerance for a variety of student learning styles.

It is a peculiarity of American culture that assigns so much of a learner's success to their ability. Education research of Japanese and Chinese schools show that teachers and students alike attribute successes and failure more to training received and effort expended than to ability.

Improvement of ineffective teachers is possible, however. High-quality staff development efforts can change both teachers' self-expectations and foster improved student learning (Guskey, 1982, cited in Bamburg 1994). It appears that teacher and student expectations are intertwined in the classroom and both must receive attention to ensure success.

For instance, many Americans blame their failure to draw a credible representation of an object on lack of ability, explaining, "I am no good at drawing." In Chinese and Japanese cultures, the response to a person who had difficulty drawing would be, "Isn't it a shame that no one taught you how to draw." (Bamburg 1994) Teacher Attitudes and Expectations Public speakers commonly relate stories about a tough old teacher from their past who refused to let students slack off and achieve less than their best. Some of this "tough teacher" behavior may be a shared trait of effective teachers. A characteristic shared by most highly effective teachers is their adherence to uniformly high expectations. They refuse to alter their attitudes or expectations for their studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;regardless of the students' race or ethnicity, life experiences and interest, and family wealth or stability (Lumsden 1997). Brophy (1986) advises teachers to "routinely project attitudes, beliefs, expectations, and attributions...that imply that your students share your own enthusiasm for learning. To the extent that you treat your students as if they already are eager learners, they will be more likely to become eager learners." Another vital part of expectations for teachers is their own belief about their effectiveness.

Unifying Expectations of Institutions and Groups Schilling cites the need for a college faculty collectively to have fairly uniform expectations for students. Faculty members who have markedly higher expectations than their colleagues may be "punished" by students through poor student evaluations and/or through low course enrollments. A coherent vision or mission may contribute, in part, to the student learning successes of certain Catholic and magnet schools: there is a sharing of expectations among administrators, teachers, parents, and students. A school without vision or mission may end up with as many different sets of expectations for students as there are teachers in the school....School staff must share high expectations for all students and for themselves (Bamburg 1994). Conflicting social and academic expectations with complex historical origins may pressure individuals in specific ethnic and racial groups to achieve less in school than they might do otherwise. African-American students are sometime accused by peers of "acting white" if they are serious students. Such mixed messages need to be resolved if our hope is for all students to take full advantage of learning opportunities. Bamburg suggests "developing programs to teach black children that academic pursuit is not synonymous with one-way acculturation into acting white."

Teachers who produce the greatest learning gains, accept responsibility for teaching their students. They believe that students are capable of learning and that they (the teachers) can teach them (Encyclopedia of Educational Research 1992).

Working to Change College Students' Expectations

The Encyclopedia goes on to cite research that shows how teachers who doubt their own efficacy exert little effort in reshaping their instruction to help their students. They may have a low tolerance threshold for students with learning difficulties and not persist in helping such students through their difficulties. Teachers with high

Schilling cites research that reveals a significant difference between the amount of homework that professors say that they expect of students and the amount that students actually do. Many students receive excellent grades even while maintaining minimal effort in their college studies. Student expectations for how much time they will need to study start out low in the freshman year and then decrease!

Schilling believes that the first year on campus is critical to setting high expectatioboth for the quantity and quality of work. Setting high expectations in the first semester establishes the tone for the rest of a student's time on campus. Higher expectations do not simply translate to harder grading: the level of intellectual challenge should be high, with students engaged in critical analysis, problem solving, etc. Such engagement in higher order learning motivates students and makes learning more exciting.â&#x20AC;? (Ross Miller, AAC&U)

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Culture of Creativity Creative Thinking – generative, nonjudgmental and expansive. When you are thinking creatively, you are generating lists of new ideas. Tout creative thinking throughout your organization. “Companies that are good at cranking out novel ideas understand creativity should not be the domain of only certain departments. It's a way of thinking that should pervade your entire organization, including (all staff and faculty). Keep creativity at the forefront of everyone's minds. Moxie USA sends a Friday email to all of its 600 employees shouting out the top handful of the company's creative successes across functions every week. "It's just a philosophical difference of what is creative and what makes creativity," Deering says. "It comes from anywhere." (INC.) Encourage in-person relationships. “If your workers are outfitted with modern technology there's a good chance they never have to leave their desks to get their work done. "Relationships are not necessarily done through email," she says. "It's a tool that we can use, but some of the best discussions and best thinking comes from... having a thought and sharing it with somebody live where you can go back and forth and bounce off of each other." (INC.) We are back looking at motivation. “To do something for a reward, the whole order of the activity, and the energy required for it, are determined by arbitrary requirements that are extraneous to the creative activity itself. This activity then turns into something mechanical and repetitious, or else it mechanically seeks change for its own sake. The state of intense passion and vibrant tension that goes with creative perception then dies away. The whole thing becomes boring and uninteresting, so that the kind of energy needed for creative perception and action is lacking. As a result, even greater rewards, or punishments, are needed to keep the activity going.” (Cloosterman, Mindstructures Blog)

From Cultivating Creativity in the Classroom in Psychology Today: “Notably, while creativity is often valued in principle, it is clear that much of education is focused on standardized testing and memory recall. In Bloom’s classic taxonomy of learning outcomes, remembering information (knowledge) is the foundation stone in his hierarchy of learning outcomes. However, higher-order learning outcomes are also desirable: beyond memory of information we should seek to cultivate comprehension, analysis, and evaluation skills — and at the top of the hierarchy Bloom places synthesis, which implies creativity and possibly the creation of some new knowledge or other artifact of culture. Without synthesis and the creative push to constantly create something new, cultural evolution would cease. While not all creative products result in positive evolutionary outcomes, we nevertheless depend on the creativity of people to help us survive, adapt and flourish — and yet we somehow continue to devalue mastering the teaching of creativity in schools. Even at University, where the goal is to prepare students to be independent and innovative contributors to society, creative impulses are often stifled by a continuation of the didactic approach to teaching that dominates primary and second level education. In Nurturing Creativity in the Classroom, Beghetto & Kaufman have collated essays from creativity experts, primarily from the U.S., who disagree with this view. Over the course of nineteen chapters, a case is made for the need to cultivate creativity and the standard model of education is questioned. The standard model is described as a transmission and acquisition model: knowledge (i.e., facts and procedures) is transmitted in increasingly complex chunks by teachers in a regimented and structured manner. Students are obliged to acquire, memorize, and later recall this knowledge in an examination context. It is argued by the authors, that the byproduct of this model is a creativity deficit in students, who ultimately fail to reach their full potential. The essayists, realizing that teachers and school administrators are under considerable pressure to conform to the policy, program, and financial constraints of the standard education model, provide arguments to support their beliefs in support of cultivating creativity in the classroom. Nickerson (Chapter 1) provides a satirical, humorous account of how to disabuse students of a creative inclination. He recommends, for example, that teachers nurture a sense of fear and conformity in students; that they should endorse the notion that creativity and originality are the innate assets of the few; that there is only one answer to any given question and that fun and enjoyment have no place in instruction. Nickerson further suggests that knowledge should be compartmentalized, curiosity should be discouraged and, importantly, that enthusiasm spreads like a disease, and so should be inoculated against using insult and discourage-

ment. There is hope, then, with regular application of these 'principles', that creativity will be eradicated once and for all.” Anna Craft (Chapter 14) argues for the importance of creativity, not only for the economy, but for the individual and society; an argument that has received support from successive U.K. governments. This support from the U.K. government has provided Craft and her colleagues with the resources and space to experiment with Possibility Thinking, a continuously evolving creativity education program. Fundamentally, the program “involves posing, in many different ways, the question 'What if?' - and therefore involves the shift from 'What is this and what does it do?' to 'What can I do with this?'” (p. 293). (Hogan, 2012)

ing, evident by observation in human and many animal species.[1][2] The term can also be used to denote the behavior itself being caused by the emotion of curiosity. As this emotion represents a thirst for knowledge, curiosity is a major driving force behind scientific research and other disciplines of human study. “One marker provided by psychology, that curiosity is negatively correlated to fear. In the human brain, our curiosity is treated much like other pleasurable activities like eating. When we actively pursue new information through our curiosity, we're rewarded with a flood of the pleasure-inducing chemical dopamine.” (Clark)

“According to Kenneth Heilman, a neurologist at the University of Florida and the author of “Creativity and the Brain” (2005), creativity not only involves coming up with something new, but also with shutting down the brain’s habitual response, or letting go of conventional solutions.

“No one should be surprised to hear us say curiosity is a key value of highly creative people and innovation inspiring leaders. It’s one of those easy “duh” statements. Curiosity fuels the acquisition of new information. Our brain takes in information and sorts, categorizes, relates, leverages and combines with what is already present to create novel connections. Novel neural connections are the source of all that is new, all that is creative, and all that leads to innovation. So curiosity is key.

Risk taking and addictive behavior should also be measured, since both traits play a role in creativity, he said.

Learning to Think Outside the Box

There may be, for example, a dampening of norepinephrine, the neurotransmitter that sets off the fight-or-flight alarm. That’s why creative connections often occur when people are most peaceful — relaxing under a tree, like Isaac Newton, or in a dream state, like Coleridge when he thought up “Kubla Khan.” (Cohen, 2010)

“Once considered the product of genius or divine inspiration, creativity — the ability to spot problems and devise smart solutions — is being recast as a prized and teachable skill. Pin it on pushback against standardized tests and standardized thinking, or on the need for ingenuity in a fluid landscape.

Fleith (2000) determined that, "in a climate in which fear, one right answer, little acceptance for a variety of students products, extreme levels of competition, and many extrinsic rewards are predominant, it is difficult to foster high levels of creativity." The true reward a student should receive for being creative is purely intrinsic. In order to avoid a competitive and extrinsically rewarding classroom, the teacher needs to provide a friendly and comfortable environment that students can feel comfortable enough to voice their opinions and explore new ideas. One way to get students comfortable enough to do this is for teachers to model creativity and show their own interests. Beth Hennessey (1997) suggests teachers, "Show students that you value creativity, that you not only allow it but also actively engage in it."

“The reality is that to survive in a fast-changing world you need to be creative,” says Gerard J. Puccio, chairman of the International Center for Studies in Creativity at Buffalo State College, which has the nation’s oldest creative studies program, having offered courses in it since 1967.

Curiosity Curiosity (from Latin curiosus "careful, diligent, curious," akin to cura "care") is a quality related to inquisitive thinking such as exploration, investigation, and learn-

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High Expectation and Motivation *Focus on learning theory and teaching strategies which contribute to a culture of academic expectation and creativity. High Expectations and Motivation -

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Improve Student’s Future Orientation “Class content, the uses students have for that content, and the skills students are expected to develop should relate to student’s goals” “Students are engaged at the affective level only if they see a future utility, benefit or relevance from their learning.” (Mark Taylor). Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation refers to internal drive that causes an activity or a task to be associated with the experience of personal pleasure or interest. When people are intrinsically motivated, they have a genuine desire for the activity itself and enjoy it or find it fun. Research makes clear that, when students are intrinsically motivated to learn or engage in academic tasks, they are more likely to persist through struggle, continually evaluate their problem-solving strategies, take intellectual risks, and believe they can succeed. Students are more likely to be intrinsically motivated when they associate their achievement with factors they can control, such as their level of effort. And, intrinsic motivation is more likely to flourish when students have choice and control over their learning goals and strategies for accomplishing them. Extrinsic motivation refers to external drives that influence the performance of an activity—in essence, driving our efforts by factors outside of ourselves, such as achieving a reward or preventing punishment. Extrinsic motivators provide pressure to either obtain something or avoid harmful feedback. Extrinsically motivated students are more likely to hold performance goals that are focused on wanting to look competent to others or on avoiding failure. Students with extrinsically moti-

vated goals have been found to be less likely to seek help and persist in the face of challenge. For many academic tasks, both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators interact. For instance, a student may enjoy and find pleasure in seeking solutions to challenging problems but also want a good grade on those problems. This supports the notion that parents and educators should look for ways to tap into students’ intrinsic motivation around a task, such as their academic and long-term goals, while still offering external motivators. http://learningandtheadolescentmind.org/ideas_intrinsic.html Motivation is the psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed behaviors. Are There Advantages To Intrinsic Motivation? Does it really matter whether students are primarily intrinsically or extrinsically oriented toward learning? A growing body of evidence suggests that it does. When intrinsically motivated, students tend to employ strategies that demand more effort and that enable them to process information more deeply (Lepper). J. Condry and J. Chambers (1978) found that when students were confronted with complex intellectual tasks, those with an intrinsic orientation used more logical information-gathering and decision-making strategies than did students who were extrinsically oriented. Students with an intrinsic orientation also tend to prefer tasks that are moderately challenging, whereas extrinsically oriented students gravitate toward tasks that are low in degree of difficulty. Extrinsically oriented students are inclined to put forth the minimal amount of effort necessary to get the maximal reward (Lepper). Although every educational activity cannot, and perhaps should not, be intrinsically motivating, these findings suggest that when teachers can capitalize on existing intrinsic motivation, there are several potential benefits.

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

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emphasize personal development or growth.

http://userpages.umbc.edu/~koconne1/605TheAdultLearner/ivse.htm

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are more task oriented.

“Intrinsic motivation is associated with curiosity, exploration, spontaneity, and interest…extrinsic motivation is associated with undertaking to attain an end state that is separate from the actual behavior…determined by some external contingency such as good marks or the avoidance of negative consequences.”

•

are more excited about the course.

•

use more deep level learning strategies.

•

persist more and perform better.

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have more interests.

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are more confident.

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persist longer.

•

receive better exam scores.

Simons (2004) describes two different motivational patterns and learning styles. He states, “Students can have both orientations, but only one can be prevalent when achieving.” • T a s k / M a s t e r y o r L e a r n i n g G o a l s  When developing a skill or acquiring knowledge following task or learning goals, a student will take on a challenging task, even if there is a risk of making a mistake. They learn from these mistakes, enriching their learning process. • E g o o r P e r f o r m a n c e G o a l s  The main concern when working on tasks focusing with ego or performance goals is how a student’s performance will be viewed relative to others. They are concerned about looking incompetent or judged in a negative way by others, often avoiding the task all together. I n t r i n s i c M o t i v a t i o n  According to Ryan and Deci (2000), learners who are intrinsically motivated, therefore being interested leaners: •

are more content in their learning processes.

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acquire knowledge in a more differentiated and more coherent form.

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show a long-term retention of what was learned.

•

apply their knowledge more often than others.

•

show higher academic achievement.

•

perceive themselves as more competent.

Simons enhances Deci and Ryan’s studies by listing the following characteristics of internally regulated learners:

Muller provides reasons a student will perform an activity for its own sake, stating that this is intrinsic. Motivation in this case: •

derives from activity level, interest, and curiosity.

• taps into the natural human tendency to pursue interests and exercise capabilities. • tivating.

doesn’t require incentives because the process itself is inherently mo-

• students often experience “flow”, defined as a feeling of enjoyment that occurs when they have developed a sense of mastery and are concentrating intensely on the task at hand. E x t r i n s i c M o t i v a t i o n  Simons lists the following characteristics of externally regulated learners: •

are more approach and avoidance ego-oriented.

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study less regularly.

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show less excitement.

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persist less.

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use more surface level strategies.

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have lower exam results.

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are less interested in the course.

If a student is presented with a task and provided external incentives and reinforcements, they generally may not develop an intrinsic motivation to learn. In addition, if a student is provided external incentives to perform a task and they would naturally find motivating, their desire to perform the tasks can actually decrease (Muller). Generally, when students focus their attention on external incentives, the rewards become the end themselves, rather than serving their proper function, to provide feedback on progress the students are making. Intrinsic motivation first, extrinsic second (or even never) When students are learning due to intrinsic motivation over extrinsic motivation, the learning is far more substantial. Sadly, most classes are providing students with extrinsic motivators. Intrinsic motivation is when a student is motivated by internal factors. Students who are demonstrating intrinsic motivation will be driven to do things “just for the fun of it”, or because they truly believe it is worthwhile to do. Extrinsic motivation is when a student is motivated by external factors. Students who are demonstrating this type will be driven to do things because of rewards in a class, such as grades. When a student is completing a task because of intrinsic motivation, he/she does not need an explanation to complete it, due to the simple fact that he/she already understands the meaning behind it. Extrinsic motivation forces the students to complete the task for a reward, and most students will become more interested in the reward than the actual task itself. What Instructors Can Do Citing a Swedish experiment from the 1970s, Bain says most learning approaches fall into three broad categories: the surface approach -- students interested primar-

ily in surviving the course -- the strategic approach -- students driven by a desire to receive good grades and accolades -- and the deep approach. These deep learners use intrinsic motivators rather than extrinsic motivators, such as grades. “They found a passion within themselves rather than depending on someone else to motivate them,” he says. Getting good grades in college is not as important as developing a creative, integrated and lifelong learning style, writes Ken Bain, a university administrator and professor, in What the Best College Students Can Do. “Imagine for a moment a different world, a place in which students find deep meaning in everything they learn (even reading to learn mental processes). In that universe, learning changes who people are and how they view the world. It makes them into better problem solvers, more creative and compassionate individuals, more responsible and self-confident people. Students are able to think about the implications and applications of what they learn. Not afraid to make mistakes and full of questions and ideas, the citizens of this place easily and happily explore new areas with ease while possessing a deep humility about how complex their world can be. Learning Remains an adventure. Someone may forget a few facts but still know how to find them when needed.” (Ken Bain, 2012) Fundamentally, we want to promote deep, passionate, joyous, and creative learning. Grades are important, but anyone who concentrates just on making straight A’s will probably not become a deep learner. Anyone who concentrates on deep learning, however, can make high marks” (Ken Bain, 2012). Instructors must give students ways to learn and find success through trial and error -- all before making a mark in the gradebook. This way, students take time during the process to develop their interests instead of being motivated solely by receiving a good grade. But today’s education climate makes it difficult for teachers to avoid fostering surface or strategic approaches, he says. “A lot of traditional education does in fact foster a very strategic or surface approach to learning rather than that deep approach. George Kuh and others emphasize the role of student engagement in ensuring student success. As the authors note, “the best predictors of whether a student will graduate or not are academic preparation and motivation.” Thus, as the authors assert, admitting only “well-prepared, academically talented students” is the only way to ensure success. However, as the authors continue, “The problem with this

approach is obviousâ&#x20AC;ŚMore people from a wider, deeper, and more diverse pool of undergraduates are going to collegeâ&#x20AC;Śadmitting only the most talented and wellprepared students is neither a solution nor an optionâ&#x20AC;?

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What are Your Academic Expectations? Do “Great Expectations” Matter? The Relationship between Teacher Expectations and Student Academic Success (Woolston, Stanford University)

A Self-Fulfilling Prophecy A teacher’s expectations, either high or low expectations, become a self-fulfilling prophecy. Students perform in ways that teachers expect. Teachers’ beliefs about student potential are particularly powerful for students of color and students from poor families (Ferguson, 2002).

Woolston’s most important finding shows that teacher expectations are self-fulfilling. (1) Can teachers predict which students are likely to excel academically, even controlling for observable features of the student? (2) Do exogenous changes in a teacher’s expectation change a student’s academic success? Are teacher expectations self-fulfilling? (3) Do teacher expectations have larger effects for some populations or for some subjects? Do you have high expectations for minorities? Do you have high expectations for low-income students? Do you have high expectations for all learners? Are teacher Expectations more important in some subjects or for some students?

Test questions: Would you be in favor of placing borderline developmental learners in gateway entry-level content courses in programs of study with support if the research concluded that more of these learners succeed in gateway courses when given support and that if they succeed in three gateway courses in one year it doubled their graduation rates; furthermore very few of these learners make it to gateway courses if they have to take sequences of developmental courses first?

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Developing Competence “A key finding in the learning and transfer *Focus on learning theory and teaching strategies which contribute to a culture of academic expectation and creativity.

literature is that organizing information into a

Developing Competence in an Area of Inquiry

“transfer”; that is, it allows the student to apply

Experts in any area of inquiry have developed competence by:

conceptual framework allows for greater what was learned in new situations and to learn related information more quickly.” (Bransford)

KEY: developing a deep foundation of factual knowledge KEY: in which they learned facts and knowledge in the context of a conceptual framework, and KEY: have organized knowledge in ways that facilitate application. (John Bransford)

retrieval and

This enables them to: •transfer (applying information to new situations)

Contrary to popular belief, John Bransford, learning basic facts is not a prerequisite for creative thinking and

•learn new related information easier.

problem solving -- it's the other way around. Once you

In order to do this they have: learned cognitive strategies and habits of mind that have enabled them to develop competence in an area of inquiry.

grasp the big concepts around a subject, good thinking will lead you to the important facts. (John Bransford)

C HAPTER 2

Rigor and Transfer Learning Transfer of learning is the ability to apply knowledge learned in one context to new contexts. It recognizes common features among concepts, skills, or principles; links the information in memory; and. sees the value of utilizing what was learned in one situation in another. The social research group MDRC defines academic rigor as “a demanding yet accessible curriculum that engenders criticalthinking skills as well as content knowledge.” Students should “raise questions, think, reason, solve problems and reflect.”

S ECTION 1

Developing a Deep Foundation of Factual Knowledge

Rigor and Transfer Learning

Rote knowledge (facts) alone with no meaning is of no value to transfer learning - reasoning, justifying, planning, decision making, and problem solving. As a result, learning facts has been underestimated. However, when the facts carry with them meaning for the learner, the facts or ideas become shallow knowledge and have value as an intermediate step toward deep learning in which the learner has to understand the relationship among facts. There are many ways of moving from shallow facts (facts with meaning) to (deep learning) interrelated facts - it is what facts and ideas have in common that is important and understanding those commonalities in the context of a conceptual framework deepens the learning. Deep learning involves reflection - thinking about one's thinking - observing one's own thinking metacognition. There are also habits of mind which prompt re-exposure with elaboration of the fact's meaning, learner's prior knowledge, and relation to other facts. Developing a deep foundation of factual knowledge provides the foundation (prior knowledge) for constructing meaning, as well as critical thinking; however, that knowledge base must be learned in the context of a conceptual framework. That is key to transfer learning.

Rigor and Transfer Learning The goal of education is transfer, which is dependent on transfer learning. The goal of reading to learn in content courses is the same - transfer. Not all learning transfers to new situations. Whether learning transfers to new situations is the criteria for whether learning is rigorous or not. Rigor in learning is about mental processes that result in transfer. Transfer learning is dependent on three criteria. (1) If the learner does not develop a deep foundation of factual knowledge, transfer of newly learned isolated facts to solve problems in new situations is unlikely. (2) If the learner does not understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, transfer is not only very limited, but learning new related information is more difficult. (3) If the learner does not organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval while learning, then application is seriously hampered. Developing competence in an area of inquiry is dependent on developing the mental processes to meet the three criteria below when reading to learn. College readiness should be built upon enabling the reader to meet the three criteria (learning outcomes or competences): The reader should be able to • Develop a deep foundation of factual knowledge • Understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework • Organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application (Bransford) It is within the goal of developing competence in an area of inquiry that transfer learning occurs. Competence - thinking like a psychologist, a historian, or a biologist means being able to think critically in the discipline. The means for developing competence involve the three criteria above.

Brain Note: Learning only occurs if new information interconnects with prior knowledge and new dendrites grow. Learning is physiological. It takes repeated exposure to new information with elaboration to deeply strengthen new dendrites or they will reabsorb in the brain (forgetting). Brain Note: “We now know that every brain can change, at any age. There is really no upper limit on learning since the neurons seem to be capable of growing new connections whenever they are used repeatedly. I think all of us need to develop the capacity to motivate ourselves. One way to do so is to search for meaningful contact points and bridges, between what we want to learn and what we already know. When we do so, we cultivate our neuronal networks. We become our own gardeners.” (Zull) What does the research say about the role of factual knowledge in providing an advantage when learning new information? Research finds just what would be expected. "Comprehension demands background knowledge because language is full of semantic breaks in which knowledge is assumed and, therefore, comprehension depends on making correct inferences" (Willingham). (Note: Because this seems so obvious, reading instructors often try to teach "making inferences" as isolated units of instruction, but this is based on misunderstanding the role of factual knowledge plays in inferencing. A more sound approach is helping the learner develop the

mental processes for developing a deep foundation of factual knowledge; that is the key. One sees this misunderstanding with all the isolated skill instruction (main idea, supporting facts, drawing conclusions, etc.), which are ends in themselves, thereby failing to address the problem of transfer learning. "Knowledge brings more knowledge" (Willingham). It is knowledge that facilitates inference. Most reading texts and reading software ignore the problem of transfer; they still tend to focus on isolated skill instruction with a few strategies thrown in. Understanding Facts and Ideas in the Context of a Conceptual Framework A conceptual framework is a set of loosely defined concepts which are systematically organized All new facts and ideas need to be understood in the context of a conceptual framework if those facts or ideas are to become useful in transferring to new situations. Brain Note: The main limitation for many developmental students regarding transfer learning (usefulness and application in new situations) is the limitation of working memory. Working memory can hold only about four unrelated facts and for only a short time (seconds). It is in working memory that information is mentally manipulated. Facts and ideas that have not been learned in the context of a conceptual framework take up to much of working memory when trying to retrieve and apply these facts. Facts and ideas learned in the context of a conceptual framework enable the facts and the whole related conceptual framework to be available in the present moment in working memory. Without this ability, transfer learning is severely limited. Transfer learning is dependent on learning facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework. It is the big picture that makes learning related facts an ideas easier to learn. Think of understanding facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework as building cognitive capacity. The latest research findings indicate that cognitive capacity is built by doing anything involving novelty, variety, and challenge, which stimulates the brain and in doing so builds brain reserve. (More on identifying or developing the conceptual framework instruction later.) Brain Note: “ Networks of neurons are built following the principle that ‘cells that fire together, wire together’ (Hebb’s rule). In short, neurons that are frequently active at the same time tend to become associated and end up connecting to one another. This principle has major implications for brain fitness. First, the more a network of neurons is activated (i.e., the more often the neurons fire to-

gether), the stronger the connections become. If a network supporting a brain function is repeatedly stimulated through practice and training, it will become stronger, contributing to the optimization of that brain function. Second, by contrast, the less a network of neurons is activated the weaker the connections become, and weak connections end up dying.” (Fernandez and Goldberg) Organizing Knowledge in Ways that Facilitate Retrieval and Application "The ability to chunk and its reliance on background knowledge has been tested in a number of studies. The important aspect of chunking is that it leaves more free space in working memory, allowing that space to be devoted to other tasks" (Willingham) such as reading to learn, critical thinking, or solving a problem. A rich network of associations makes memory strong: New material is more likely to be remembered if it is related to what is already in memory. Remembering information on a brand new topic is difficult because there is no existing network in one's memory that the new information can be tied to" (Willingham). Most educators are well aware of this fact; however, a great many are unaware about what to do about it. This is where cognitive science is making great strides. Again and again, studies are finding that students need to understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework and building and learning within a conceptual framework is dependent on organizing facts and ideas. A conceptual framework is systematically organized defined facts and ideas, and to understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework is to define and organize new information in the given conceptual framework. Instruction: The implications for educators is that they must help the student learn how to construct a conceptual framework within which to understand facts and ideas for which they have limited background, especially when reading to learn. Content instructors need to keep this in mind when selecting textbooks. Content instructors need to select textbooks that provide contextual frameworks for learning new facts and ideas. Developmental reading instructors need to help students identify or develop their own conceptual framework and this is where instructors need to spend the most instruction and practice time. An example of identifying and using an overarching conceptual framework in a content textbook will be presented later in the paper. (More on understanding facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework instruction later.) It understanding the big picture (conceptual framework) first that makes learning related facts easier and more transferrable. It is not the other way around. As facts

and ideas are understood in the context of a conceptual framework, reflection on the relationship among new ideas and the conceptual framework further expand conceptual understanding. Note: Almost always students on the attention deficit continuum (mild autism, ADD, Aspergers Syndrome) are put through programs of isolated skill instruction, when they need to be learning transfer learning mental processes with special attention to reflection instruction. Often the assumption is that these students lack ability or that they are just not "smart" - not so - their working memories are limited, not their ability, and the mental processes mentioned above are valuable in creating space in working memory for these students as it is for all students. Reflection "There is one factor that trumps all others in determining what is remembered: what the learner thinks about when they encounter the material. The fact that the material the learner is dealing with has meaning or that the learner constructs that meaning does not guarantee that the meaning will be remembered." (Willingham). For transfer learning to occur, it needs to meet the three criteria above, as well as reflecting while doing so. Recall that reflection is thinking about one's thinking while learning. It requires reflection to move newly learned information to the prefrontal cortex (executive functions) where planning, reasoning, decision making , and problem solving occur. Otherwise the information is stored in areas like the striatum where it is difficult to recall. Reflecting when reading to learn has to be taught and it takes time to develop the mental processes for doing so. This is the foundation for teaching metacognition and also one of the most neglected intermediate steps in developing rigor both by the instructor and student. Transfer learning depends on the mental process of reflecting, especially when the reader is trying to: •

Develop a deep foundation of factual knowledge

•

Understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework

Notes: Bransford enjoins us to resist substituting strategies for thinking. Learning strategies can be basically mindless unless the learner can step back and observe their thinking. Research is indicating “working memory (the stage) sits “above” our other working memory functions, monitoring our thinning and choosing how best to allocate resources (cognitivie strategies)” (Rock). “It gives us the space of mind in which we can consider various options and then choose the most appropriate ones” (Siegel). Mindful internal dialogue questions activate this executive function of providing space for directing thinking. We have learned about how the brain learns and are now learning about awareness of what the brain is actually doing moment by moment. “Knowledge of your brain is very helpful, but one also needs to be aware of what ones brain is doing at any moment for knowledge to be useful” (Rock). Notes: The good news is that “Mindfulness is a habit, it’s something the more one does, the more likely one is to be in that mode with less and less effort” (Rock). That is why the whole reading course is learning and practicing how to become aware of what the brain is doing moment by moment using cognitive strategies driven by internal dialogue. “One of the best ways of having our director handy is practicing using your director regularly (internal dialogue questions). A number of studies now show that people who practice activating their director do change the structure of their brain. They thicken specific regions of the cortex involved in cognitive control ad switching attention.” (Rock). Brain Note: Reflection moves information being learned to the prefrontal cortex, the home of executive functions. Why is this important? “Executive functions are abilities that enable goal-oriented behavior, such as the ability to plan and execute a goal, These, among others, include: • Flexibility: the capacity for quickly switching to a different mental mode, revising plans, adapting (think metacognition). •

•

Organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application.

Note: "The most important factor determining whether or not a memory is long lasting is how much the learner thinks about it" (Willingham). The more reflection incorporates re-exposure to facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework with elaboration the longer lasting memory will be and the deeper the conceptual framework will become.

Anticipation: prediction based on pattern recognition.

• Problem-solving: defining the problem in the right way to then generate solutions and pick the right one. • Decision Making: the ability to make decisions based on problemsolving, on incomplete information, and on emotions. • Working memory: the capacity to hold in mind and manipulate information in real time.

• Emotional self-regulation: the ability to identify and manage one’s own emotions. • inhibition: the ability to withstand distraction and internal urges.” (Sylweater)

dation of factual knowledge, understanding facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, organizing knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application, and reflecting (thinking about thinking about that being learned) while doing the afore mentioned - are all within the Common Core Standards. Illustrating Application of Mental Processes for Transfer Learning

Executive functions are crucial to transfer learning - the goal of education and meeting the goals of college readiness. Where to Spend Instruction and Practice Time - Isolated Units of Skills, Strategies, or Competence in Areas of Inquiry (transfer learning) As each instructor looks at their reading program, the questions to ask are what instruction and practice will produce the most positive outcome for meeting the goal of college readiness - being prepared to be successful in entry-level content courses and having learned the entry-level content well enough to be successful in subsequent courses. While isolated units of skill instruction is prevalent, the skills learned are sophisticated conventions that are ends in themselves and are not bridges for preparing learners for meeting the goals of college reading to learn readiness. Yes, standardized reading test still tests for these skills and test for these skills for placement in modules of instruction, but that does not mean that they have enough value in meeting college readiness goals for the time spent on them and their relevance to college reading. Strategies are relatively easy to learn and do aid comprehension, but comprehension is an intermediate step to college readiness - having learned the entry-level content well enough to be successful, that is useful in subsequent courses in programs of study. Developing mental processes for developing competence in areas of inquiry (transfer learning) is literally the goal of college readiness as defined by the Council on Postsecondary Education. For many in developmental reading, challenging the basic assumptions about reading instruction causes stress as all change does. The question is inevitably asked, should we ignore the Common Core Standards - the answer is no. It does mean, as the Standards recommend, selecting those standards that meet the specific goal(s) trying to be achieved. Transfer learning mental processes - developing a deep foun-

Note: Keep in mind that the criteria for developing competence in an area of inquiry for transfer learning are not independent of each other. Understanding facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework; developing a deep foundation of factual knowledge, organizing knowledge, and ongoing reflection are just like this paper -redundant, self-referring, spiral and recursive mental processes that together complement one another and create an ever expanding whole. They are not isolated skills. Brain Note: Redundancy, re-exposure, and recursive reflection are essential for myelin to build around the axons of brain cells to provide the insulation needed for electrical signals to move swiftly (300 times faster), thereby dramatically speeding up processing transmission, which helps working memory by facilitating faster retrieval. Factual Knowledge The more factual knowledge or conceptual frameworks of factual concepts about the reading material the reader brings to the reading the easier it is to apply the transfer learning mental processes. Transfer learning then has a leg up as a ever expanding conceptual framework of interrelated factual knowledge. Factual knowledge is not just about knowing a lot of facts; it is rather about knowing a lot of facts that are systematically organized. Keep in mind that the goal is preparing learners for developing competence in their areas of inquiry in their programs of study. When the reading content is somewhat unfamiliar to the reader the reader will need to either identify the overarching conceptual framework or develop one fairly quickly. This is essential if the reader hopes to learn the information -develop factual knowledge - in a way that will transfer and make future related learning easier. For example, explained in more detail later, knowing the psychological disorders is not sufficient to think like a psychologist (critical thinking), rather it is understanding the criteria for abnormal behavior that distinguishes normal from abnormal behavior that allows the learner to transfer the information to new situations - that is Bob exhibits a set of given behaviors; are those behaviors normal or abnormal, and therefore meet the criteria for a psychological disorder. Knowing the psycho-

logical disorders alone will not produce competence; however, understanding the the facts organized around the criteria for abnormal behavior (conceptual framework) will, and as will be illustrated later provide the foundation for problem solving. Developing a Conceptual Framework Some content instructors are savvy enough to provide the learner with an overarching conceptual framework or an overarching big picture question within which new facts and ideas relate and are understood. (This is not a study guide of the main concepts to be learned,) In such cases, transfer learning is greatly facilitated if the learner is also using mental processes to organize and retain this new information. Some textbooks are also better at providing the overarching conceptual framework, which readers need to identify and reflect on as they encounter new facts and ideas. Remember, transfer learning is strongly dependent of the learner understanding facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, so a conceptual framework needs to be identified or developed early. In some textbooks, concepts build on previous chapters and when systematically organized when they were studied act as the conceptual framework for each successive chapter; however, the process must be one in conscious awareness. Â In other textbooks, title, objectives, introductions, headings, questions, and summaries are all the reader have to go on and the learner needs to learn how to construct these text clues into conceptual frameworks.Â

C HAPTER 3

Basics: How People Learn and Myelination Learning Theories See http://www.learning-theories.com for an overview of learning theories and models. This knowledge base features learning theories and models that address how people learn.

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Basics: How People Learn and Myelination Every human skill is created by chains of nerve fibers carrying a tiny electrical impulse – basically a signal traveling through a circuit. Myelin’s vital role is to wrap those nerve fibers in a fatty insulation the same way that rubber insulation wraps a copper wire, making the signal stronger and faster by preventing the electrical impulses from leaking out. When we fire our circuits in the right way our myelin responds by wrapping layers of insulation around the neural circuit, each new layer adding a bit more skill and speed. The thicker the myelin gets, the better it insulates, and the faster and more accurate our thoughts become. (Up to 3,000 time faster - transmission and processing) (Coyle, 2009)

1. Dendrites, synapses, and neural networks grow only from what is already there. The first time we experience a new subject, our brains must build a dendrite on a cell body for that topic or must connect to an existing idea. Only after that dendrite is in place or the related idea identified can we begin to know, remember, and understand a topic. 2. Dendrites, synapses, and neural networks grow for what is actively, personally, and specifically experienced and practiced. Nothing will happen in the brain for someone passively sitting in a class. We MUST make lessons and lectures engaging. (and the student must also learn how to take control of their own learning)

First, let’s walk through Rule #1 how the brain grows new dendrites (learning) before we start to look at how practice and the thickening of the myelin sheath enhances learning.

The question neurologist and educators have been asking is “why does it take so long for people to learn complex skills that result in application, decision-making, and problem-solving. The answer turns out to be both physiological and psychological. The physiological answer turns out to be myelination, the process of building a fatty insulation around neurons. “The brain senses nerve firing and responds by wrapping more myelin (fat) around the brain cell that fires. The more the brain cell fires the more myelin wraps around it. The more myelin wraps around it, the faster the signals travel, increasing velocities up to one hundred times over signals sent through an uninsulated brain cells. It is at this point that providing instruction becomes interesting. Mere repetition is not the key for accelerated learning of skills; it is here that scientist have discovered a twist – struggle is not optional – it is neurologically required; we tend to try to reduce struggle in learning; we try to make learning smooth, especially at the point of “assessment for learning.” This does not produce optimal learning of skills. However, it is a combination of the following that accelerates deeper learning: “In order to get ones skill circuits to fire optimally, one must by definition fire the circuit suboptimally, one must make mistakes and pay attention to those mistakes; one must slowly teach their circuits. Myelination is the physiological manifestation of metacognition.” (Coyle, 2009) A Quick Look at Myelination Two of the Five Brain Rules for How the Brain Learns Naturally Rita Smilkstein has filtered the following two brain rules from the literature and research:

There, naturally, is neuroscience behind rigor in learning. As David Rock will tell us, and John Bransford, John Mendia, Rita Smilkstein, and Liz WIllen will later support, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Knowledge of your brain is one thing, but you also need to be aware of what your brain is doing at any moment for any knowledge to be useful.â&#x20AC;? For rigor in learning to be successful, the learner has to be able to mentally step back and observe the learning process as it is occurring in the brain - this is the foundation of metacognition and it has to be taught. In order to take the most effective control of instruction and learning (rigor), the instructor and learner needs to understand what is occurring in the brain during instruction and learning that can transform both into rigorous learning.

C HAPTER 4

Critical Thinking and Creative Thinking

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Critical Thinking is the use of cognitive strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome.â&#x20AC;?

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What Does Reflection Do for the Learner?

Critical Thinking and Creative Thinking

Reflection is the key mental process learners must engage in for critical thinking to occur and as a foundation for creative thinking (more later). Reflection is stopping and stepping back in the mind and having an internal conversation or dialogue about what is being learner. Below are examples of activities that foster reflection.

*Focus on learning theory and teaching strategies which contribute to a culture of academic expectation and creativity. Critical Thinking and Creative Thinking The task is to focus on learning theory and teaching strategies which contribute to a culture of academic expectation and creativity. Defining Critical Thinking and Creative Thinking. • Creative Thinking – generative, nonjudgmental and expansive. When you are thinking creatively, you are generating lists of new ideas. •

Critical Thinking – analytical, judgmental and selective. When you are thinking critically, you are making choices. Keep in mind that we are teaching cognitive strategies (strategies are about making decisions while thinking about thinking while reading or learning.).

Diane Halpren offers the most useful definition for critical thinking: “Critical Thinking is the use of cognitive strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome.” This is a useful definition as the emphasis is on mental strategies and especially it is on using those strategies to accomplish a goal – desirable outcome. Reflection Diane Halpern, an authority on critical thinking also defines critical thinking as, “Critical thinking is both a deliberate meta-cognitive (thinking about thinking) and cognitive (thinking) act whereby a person reflects on the quality of the reasoning processes simultaneously while reasoning to a conclusion. The thinker has two equally important goals: improving the way she or he reasons and comes to a correct solution.”

Reflective Teaching Includes Engaging the Learner in Reflection Reflective Re-exposure with Elaboration: Reflective Re-exposure: Every time the learner re-exposes themselves to the information being learned, it strengthens the dendrites in the brain, which is where new learning is stored. Reflective Re-exposure with Elaboration: Elaboration is about having a mental conversation, discussing with friends, writing to learn, clarifying, or organizing the information. Writing - Summarizing: Writing to Learn and Summarizing: Writing and summarizing to learn are a very powerful processes for clarifying and organizing facts and ideas. Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions: Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions: When the learner adds inquiry questions to the learning process, they activate (prime) all the neural networks of related information and the brain starts looking for answers; this improves focus, concentration, interest, curiosity, retention and retrieval, and just makes learning easier. Example of Internal Dialogue Questions What do I already know about the math problems I am reading about now?

In Halpren’s definition, the mental process of reflection is key. Important: the common denominator and basis of all executive functioning is the ability to hold things in mind, step back, and reflect. Reflection underlies all critical thinking.

Teach to Learn: When one focuses the mind on explaining newly learned information, the learner becomes aware of the gaps and strengthens in their understanding of the new ideas

C HAPTER 5

Focus on Learning

Among the identified six features found within institutions known to have high levels of student engagement (as well as high graduation rates) (Kuh 2005, 24): â&#x20AC;˘An unshakable focus on student learning

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Marzano’s New Taxonomy

Reflection

Critical thinking is a habit of mind characterized by the comprehensive exploration of issues, ideas, artifacts, and events before accepting or formulating an opinion or conclusion (Rhodes, 2010).

Guideline For Reflection

Learning begins with metacognition, knowing one’s own thoughts and reflection, which allows the individual to identify the factors that influence one’s own thinking. Reflective writing focuses learners’ attention on their thinking by asking them to delve into their thoughts about specific topics as well as their individual learning methods.

http://www.guidelinesonlearning.com/guideline-four Structured occasions for reflection allow students to explore their experiences, challenge current beliefs, and develop new practices and understandings. "However, what gets us from experience to understanding is reflection. True, repetition and practice help us to learn but they do not substitute for the process of actively thinking about how we did, what we did well and what less well." (Improving learning through reflection – part one & two, Karen Hinett, The Higher Education Academy.) "Awareness and reflection are not merely symptoms of developments in learners, they bring about the developments. It is through engaging students in reflecting upon the process and outcomes of their studying that progress is made."  (Teaching Students to Learn: A Student-Centered Approach, Gibbs, G. 1981, The Open University Press, Milton Keynes, p. 91.)

Critical thinking is a result of reflecting on one’s learning and developing a metaawareness by “reflecting on one’s thoughts, feelings and actions” (Taylor, 1992, p. 15). The students need to transform their learning through critical self-reflection (Mezirow, 1990), and learning should take place in an environment of thinking, reflecting, and connecting the old to the new. Reflection, Mewborn suggests, is “both an individual and shared experience” (1999), and this metacognitive relationship is developed through reflective writing that will enhance what Brockbank & McGill call the “conditions for critical reflective learning” (1998, p. 5). As educators, we chose to introduce the process of reflection into our different academic environments through reflective writing prompts.

http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1045&context=cjsotl_rcacea

Reflection, once learned, is a skill that crosses disciplines. If a student learns to reflect in a math class, the same set of reflective skills or concepts can be used in language arts. As we began to describe to each other the ways in which we were attempting to get students to move beyond the surface of a topic to deeper understanding, we realized we were all using reflective practices. It did not matter whether we were teaching math, occupational therapy, or educational foundations. The skills needed to think critically about the material presented, to reflect upon the information provided, were the same.

also see http://download.intel.com/education/Common/in/Resources/DEP/skills/Marzan o.pdf

The concept of reflection crossed disciplines in ways that resulted in our deeper understanding and reflection. This study describes how each of us saw reflection deepen students’ ability to think critically. Reflection is content neutral.

"Reflection leads to understanding, which in turn leads to more informed action. Effective reflection leads to a better understanding of social problems and to the quest of better solutions". Reflection: A Key Component to Thinking Critically

Learning is enhanced by critical reflection, which involves the “creation of meaning and conceptualization from experience” (Brockbank & McGill, 1998, p. 56). As educators we need to facilitate critical reflection to enable students to move beyond a superficial understanding of their world. We agree with Mezirow (1990) that “re-

flection enables us to correct distortions in our beliefs and errors in problem solving. Critical reflection involves a critique of the presuppositions on which our beliefs have been built” (p.1). By creating a reflective environment for and with students, the educational experience will lay the foundations of a critically reflective member of the world community. Findings The New Taxonomy (Marzano, 2001) provided us with an analytical tool to understand the changes in students’ thinking that are the result of the reflections. Our findings are presented in the following three sections, each dealing with a different system of thought: (a) self, (b) metacognitive, and (c) cognitive. Examples have been drawn from the different classes and represent examples of individual and of common responses. Self-System Self-system thought is about attitudes, beliefs, and emotions. It motivates the student to the task of learning. As stated previously, students in College Algebra were expected to identify and change any misconceptions as well as increase their knowledge base in a short time. They needed to be highly motivated to stay engaged in this task. To this end, a series of reflective assignments (Appendix A) were created to focus the students on this difficult task of changing what had already been learned. Some of these assignments focused on self-system thinking. Cognitive System The cognitive system is “responsible for the effective processing of the information that is essential to the completion of a task” (Marzano, 2001, p. 12). Its processes include basic retrieval, comprehension, analysis, and utilization of knowledge. The first of six reflective activities focused on reading reflection where students responded to the prompts of observation, connections, surprises, and questions. Their questions were used as discussion in the class that followed, which again reinforced the reflective process. Metacognition Metacognition monitors, evaluates, and regulates our thinking. People use metacognition to set goals and to monitor their progress in meeting those goals. Metacognition also allows people to monitor the clarity and accuracy of their knowl-

edge. It is the metacognitive system that is “responsible for effective processing of the information that is essential to completion of the task” (Marzano, 2001, p. 12). Writing Reflection Response Given the emotional content of the course reading represented here, it is important to add that there was an emotional level to the learning that had less to do with consciousness and development and more to do with internal feelings. Reading responses were neutral across the board, but the class discussion was heated and rules of engagement had to be agreed upon – built on the idea of respect. Through in-class discussion much of the anger, frustration, guilt and surprise was dissipated, which allowed for a more level response in the reading reflection. Feelings are part of the internal process that impact learning. Here is where Marzano’s (2001) Taxonomy explains how the student moved beyond the emotional response and on to a flow of information through the other knowledge domains. Discussion In this study we asked the question: “How do we use reflection to facilitate students’ learning and their thinking?” We found that we asked students to use reflection in three ways: (a) to set goals (self-system), (b) to monitor their progress (metacognition), and (c) to think at different levels of processing. Implications Today’s undergraduate students are part of a rapidly changing world where knowledge is constantly evolving. They will need to have skills that will facilitate their success in that environment. We argue that reflection is one of those tools. It allows them to develop a realistic sense of efficacy and motivation. In addition it will develop their metacognition so they will be able to set and monitor the achievement of realistic goals. As educators challenged to develop life-long learning skills in undergraduate students, we need to use reflection as a key pedagogical strategy. Reflective conclusions This discussion paper has been prompted by several different events in my own life this last week, including my being a participant at a staff-development one-day course on 'influencing skills', where I took away the messages that:

â&#x20AC;˘ To influence people we have to move with them, rather than against them, therefore getting students to reflect is best done by asking them questions which they will be interested to answer from their own learning perspectives; â&#x20AC;˘ Influencing is not achieved by talking at anyone! (or indeed, more sobering for me as a writer, by writing at anyone).

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Reflection and Executive Function

What are Executive Functions? Key executive functions are: - cognitive flexibility, - inhibitory control (self-control), - working memory, - planning, - and self-awareness (Zelazo, 2010). Without cognitive flexibility we cannot: - change our minds, shift attention or perspective, - flexibly adapt to changes, - see another point of view, - solve problems or be creative. Self-awareness involves the ability to observe and monitor our performance so that we can make appropriate adjustments reflection . A common denominator and basis of all executive functioning is the ability to hold things in mind, step back and reflect. Without this capacity, it is difficult to have perspective, judgment, or control. http://www.icn.ucl.ac.uk/sblakemore/SJ_papers/BlaCho_jcp p_06.pdf The Challenge

Most first-time freshmen between the ages of 18 and 35 are still developing their prefrontal cortex and reading to learn instruction must go beyond learning content to learning how to activate the seat of executive control when learning through the mental processes of reflection. (Instructors and learners take a lot for granted which doesn’t reflect the reality of learners when reading to learn.) Quick Story Often Overlooked in Learning Between the ages of 10 and 17, the brain begins pruning all the connections in the brain that are not being used from the back of the brain to the front of the brain where the prefrontal cortex (seat of executive function is located). The pruning of unused connections makes the brain much more efficient enabling the developmental of prefrontal cortex functioning (executive functioning). It is between the ages of 18 and 35 that the prefrontal cortex functions begin to develop and the key and foundation of that development is learning how to reflect while learning. (Has to be taught.) Reflection Part of the whole process of thinking is the ability to reflect—to be in the present moment and aware of one’s place in time, to make the effort to understand more holistically (to see how ideas fit together), to take the time to revisit ideas and develop relevant questions and connections that will enhance one’s perspective and cognitive abilities. The Power of Reflection MRIs show that asking people to observe their own thinking process as they ruminate can cause activity to move to more 31

deliberate, conscious brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex. Research at the University of Toronto shows that moment-bymoment self-observation activates executive planning areas in the prefrontal cortex and deactivates areas involved in attention-distracting rumination.

The ability to stay on task is the foundation of planning and being able to follow through on a plan. Additionally, the ability to plan involves being able to anticipate and reflect on the future, keep a goal in mind, and use reasoning to develop a strategy. Working memory allows us to follow instructions involving multiple steps and do them in the right order. It allows us to hold things in mind while relating one thing to another. This capacity allows us to follow a conversation while keeping in mind what we want to say. It enables us to relate to something weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re learning to other things we know.

C HAPTER 6

Learning Communities, Co-Requisite Learning Aren’t learning communities about retention; actually they are about learning and retention may become an outcome? “Students are more likely to persist and graduate in settings that foster learning. Learning has always been the key to student retention. Students who learn are students who stay.” (Vincent Tinto)

S ECTION 1

Learning Communities and Co-Requisite Learning Despite recent innovations, it remains the case that most students experience colleges as isolated learners whose learning is disconnected from that of others. They continue to engage in solo performance and demonstration in what remains a largely show-and-tell learning environment. The experience of learning in higher education is, for most students, still very much a "spectator sport" in which faculty talk dominates and where there are few active student participants. Just as importantly, students typically take courses as detached, individual units, one course separated from another in both content and peer group, one set of understandings unrelated in any intentional fashion to what is learned in other courses. Though there are majors, there is little academic or social coherence to student learning. It is little wonder then that students seem so uninvolved in learning. Their learning experiences are not very involving. (Vincent Tinto) Learning Communities in Higher Education “How should (educators) engage the majority of first-year students who work or commute to college? For these students, indeed for most students, the classroom may be the one, perhaps only place where they meet faculty and student peers, the one place where they engage in learning. For that reason, the settings we build to promote retention must include, indeed begin with the classrooms and laboratories of the campus.” (Vincent Tinto) Learning Communities: Reforming the First Year Experience “For that reason, let me suggest that colleges and universities should make learning communities and the collaborative pedagogy that underlies them the hallmark of the first year experience. They should ensure that shared learning is the norm, not the exception, of student first year experience. Learning communities, in their most basic form, begin with a kind of coregistration or block scheduling that enables students to take courses together, rather than apart. In some cases, learning communities will link students by tying

two courses together, typically a course in writing with a course in selected literature or current social problems (Linked Courses). In other cases, it may mean sharing the entire first-semester curriculum so that the twenty-five to thirty students in a learning community may attend lectures with 200-300 other students but stay together for a smaller discussion section, often called the Freshman Interest Group, led by a graduate student or upperclassman. In still other cases, students will take all their classes together either as separate, but linked, classes (Cluster Learning Communities) or as one large class that meets four to six hours at a time several times a week (Coordinated Studies) The courses in which students co-register are not coincidental or random. They are typically connected by an organizing theme which gives meaning to their linkage. The point of doing so is to engender a coherent interdisciplinary or cross-subject learning that is not easily attainable through enrollment in unrelated, stand-alone courses. For example, the Coordinated Studies Program at Seattle Central Community College entitled “Body and Mind” which links courses in human biology, psychology, and sociology, asks students to consider how the connected fields of study pursue a singular piece of knowledge, namely how and why humans behave as they do. As described by Gablenick and her colleagues in their 1990 book Learning Communities: Creating Connections among Students, Faculty, and Disciplines, many learning communities do more than co-register students around a topic. They change the manner in which students experience the curriculum and the way they are taught. Faculty have reorganized their syllabi and their classrooms to promote shared, collaborative learning experiences among students across the linked classrooms. This form of classroom organization requires students to work together in some form of collaborative groups and to become active, indeed responsible, for the learning of both group and classroom peers. In this way, students are asked to share not only the experience of the curriculum, but also of learning within the curriculum. To be effective, learning communities require their “faculty”, that is the academic and student affairs professionals who staff the learning community, to collaborate on both the content and pedagogy of the linked courses. They have to work together, as equal partners, to ensure that the linked courses provide a coherent shared learning experience. One of the many benefits of such collaboration, where all voices are heard, is that the academic staff come to “discover” the wealth of knowledge that student affairs professionals bring to the discourse about teaching and learning.iii Furthermore, in leaving, at least momentarily, their respective si-

los, both come to discover the many benefits of looking at one’s work from fresh eyes.” (Vincent Tinto)

Co-Requisite Learning Benefits of Co-Requisite Models • Place academically underprepared students immediately into college-level courses with support • Create pathways to program of study • Saves students time and money be enabling them to complete remediation and their college-level course in one semester rather than two • Potentially reduce time-to-degree • Eliminate the challenge of students not enrolling in college-level courses in math or English after completing their remedial education sequence. Example In 2007, the Community College of Baltimore County (CCBC) launched a new innovation in developmental writing. The Accelerated Learning Program (ALP) was designed to accelerate the progress of developmental education students into the college-level writing course by co-enrolling them in the highest level of developmental writing along with the college-level course. Since its inception, ALP has been the subject of several studies by the Community College Research Center (CCRC) that showed a positive impact on student outcomes in both the developmental course and the college-level course. ALP has been highlighted by the Center for Community College Student Engagement (CCCSE) as an example of a high impact educational practice and Complete College America has recommended replacing traditional developmental education and making corequisite models, which include ALP, the default for students who place into developmental education. MDRC has also pointed to ALP as a successful example of mainstreaming developmental students into college-level courses. In an environment in which policy makers and college administrators are looking for ways to reform the system of developmental education and to improve student outcomes, ALP offers one model of reform that has produced impressive results at CCBC.

Under the ALP model, ten students who placed into the upper level of developmental writing are mainstreamed into the college-level writing course along with ten students who placed into college-level writing. The college-level course is not modified to accommodate the developmental writing students; the high standards of the college-level course are maintained. However, the ten developmental students are co-enrolled in the developmental writing course which meets immediately following the college-level course. The same instructor teaches both classes. ALP is one of the few innovative models for developmental education that has produced dramatic improvements in success rates and has demonstrated that it can be scaled up. And ALP’s successes are not limited to the Community College of Baltimore County where it originated. As of April 2014, 178 schools throughout the nation have begun offering ALP and five states have launched state wide scale adoptions of ALP: Indiana, Michigan, Virginia, Colorado, and West Virginia. Early data from ALP demonstrated impressive results showing that more than twice as many ALP students passed the college-level course compared to students who followed the traditional developmental sequence. More extensive studies by CCRC have shown that, compared to traditional developmental students, ALP students have higher success rates in both the first and second college-level writing course, earn more credits, and are retained at higher rates. ALP has also been shown to be more cost-effective in terms of the cost per successful student.

C HAPTER 7

Collaborative Learning Increase Student Learning Activity and Engagement “Higher-order and lasting learning will never be effectively reached by passive students who spend class time listening to faculty deliver content. In Mark Taylor’s model, class content is moved out of class to free class time for active learning to help students move to the higher learning process level of skills and values, behavioral applications and the affective level of caring. To help students understand content, let them actively teach it to another person. To help students learn a skill, let them actively practice it, with someone observing for accuracy. To help students come to care, value or see worth in a subject or skill, let them actively identify how it will benefit them in the future and actively articulate this belief to another person. “No passive students” should be the expectation during class” (Mark Taylor).

Collaborative Learning

IGNITING STUDENT INVOLVEMENT, PEER INTERACTION, AND TEAMWORK: A TAXONOMY OF SPECIFIC COOPERATIVE LEARNING STRUCTURES AND COLLOBARATIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES Joseph B. Cuseo This book of collaborative learning activities and explanations is the best and clearest book on collaborative learning activities that can be found:

Assumptions of Social Constructivism Social constructivism is based on specific assumptions about reality, knowledge, and learning. To understand and apply models of instruction that are rooted in the perspectives of social constructivists, it is important to know the premises that underlie them. Reality: Social constructivists believe that reality is constructed through human activity. Members of a society together invent the properties of the world (Kukla, 2000). For the social constructivist, reality cannot be discovered: it does not exist prior to its social invention. Knowledge: To social constructivists, knowledge is also a human product, and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest, 1999; Gredler, 1997; Prat & Floden, 1994). Individuals create meaning through their interactions with each other and with the environment they live in. Learning: Social constructivists view learning as a social process. It does not take place only within an individual, nor is it a passive development of behaviors that are shaped by external forces (McMahon, 1997). Meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities. (Kim, Social Constructivism) Social constructivism is one of the three main schools of thought in the constructivist theory of education. This theory has been developed and supported by many educational theorists like Kenneth Gergen and John Dewey. The basic principal behind social constructivism s that the knowledge is constructed through social interaction, and is the result of socialprocesses (Gergen, 1995).

http://www.amazon.com/Igniting-Student-Involvement-Interaction-Teamwork/d p/1581070489 The student-centered pedagogical practices of cooperative learning, collaborative learning, and team learning can be united and defined inclusively as two or more learners who work interdependently toward a common goal, on a common task, that culminates with a consensual decision or creation of a common product. The purpose of this monograph is to provide a description and rationale for a taxonomy designed to delineate and categorize itself is included as a separate unit, with the intention that it may serve as a stand-alone "user's manual" or "procedural index file" containing specific, step-by-step practices that can be accessed conveniently and implemented expeditiously. Here is a small sample of the kinds of collaborative learning activities in the book: 1. PAIRING STRUCTURES: DYADIC (TWO-MEMBER) TEAMS Pairing structures are both an effective and efficient means for promoting student collaboration. As a general rule, the amount of involvement and interaction that occurs in a group is inversely related to the group’s size. Since a group of two represents the smallest possible group size, dyads are most likely to generate the largest amount of face-to-face interaction and student involvement. Pairs also provide a social context that minimizes individual anonymity and maximizes individual accountability. As the aphorism goes, “It’s hard to get lost in a group of two,” In addition, groups of two provide a collaborative context within which consensus may be most easily achieved and conflicts most easily avoided (Silberman, 1996). Pairs also provide a comfortable social context within students can prepare to participate in larger group settings (Nelson, 1997). In addition to being effective, pairing structures are also efficient. They have the practical advantage of being amenable to quick and easy formation (e.g., by turn-

ing to the person on the right/left or front/back) without requiring movement of furniture (desks) or movement of bodies (students).

ing information. Each member must take something from her partner’s notes and include it in her own. (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991)

The large and varied number of structures listed within this category (below) serves as testimony to the effectiveness, efficiency, and popularity of pairing as a procedural vehicle for promoting collaborative learning.

Pair Review: At the end of a lecture, students are presented with a list of topics that have been covered and form pairs whose task is to recall as many things as they can remember about each topic. (Silberman, 1996)

1.1 LECTURE-PROCESSING STRUCTURES

Note: This structure and the preceding one (“Closure Note-Taking Pairs”) serve to summarize and bring closure to the learning process, ensuring that students reflect on and consolidate the information they have received.

Active Knowledge Sharing: Before a lecture, students are provided with a list of questions relating to the subject matter to be covered (e.g., words to define, people to identify, pretest of facts or concepts). Students then pair up to answer the questions as best as they can, following which they mill around the room to find other pairs who may have answers to questions they were unable to answer. (Silberman, 1996) Note: This procedure also serves the important purpose of pre-assessing and activating students’ prior knowledge (and latent misconceptions) before the learning process begins. Cooperative Note-Taking Pairs: At a designated point during a lecture, students pair up and ask each other questions such as: “What have you got in your notes thus far?” or, “What are the most important points that have been presented?” Each member of the pair must take something from the other’s notes to include in his own. (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1995) Scripted Cooperation: At a key point during the lecture, students form pairs and one member assumes the role of summarizer—who attempts to summarize the information presented without looking at his notes, while the other assumes the role of listener—who provides feedback about its accuracy and completeness. Then partners elaborate on the information by personalizing it, relating it to previously learned information, or creating mnemonic devices to remember it. (O’Donnell, 1994) Note: This structure and the preceding one (“Cooperative Note-Taking Pairs”) serve to intercept long periods of information reception—and the attention loss that normally accompanies this passive process—by engaging students in tasks that requires them to actively process the information they have received.

1.2 DISCUSSION STRUCTURES Pairs Compare: Students pair-up to generate ideas, then each pair joins another pair to compare the ideas they have in common and the ideas that were unique to each pair. (Kagan, 1992) Think-Pair-Share: Students are given a specified period of time in class to think individually about some concept or issue that has been presented to them by the instructor, then individual students pair-up with a neighboring student to discuss their thoughts, listening carefully to their partner’s ideas so that they can jointly construct a composite response that builds on their individual thoughts. Students are then asked to share their pair’s thoughts with the whole class (Lyman, in Kagan, 1992). Think-Pair-Square: Students first think alone about a question or issue, then pair-up with a nearby student to discuss their thoughts; lastly, two pairs join together to form a “square” (4-member team) to discuss or integrate their ideas. (Kagan, 1992) 1.3 READING & WRITING STRUCTURES Cooperative Dyads: Working in pairs, each partner reads a passage. One member first assumes the role of recaller—who attempts to summarize the essential elements of the reading, while the other member plays the role of listener/ facilitator—who corrects any errors in the recaller’s summary and offers additional strategies for organizing and retaining the just-read material. The partners then read a second passage and reverse roles, with the previous recaller now becoming the listener/facilitator and vice versa. (Dansereau & Associates, 1979)

Closure Note-Taking Pairs: At the conclusion of a lecture, one partner summarizes his notes for the other—who, in turn, corrects any mistakes and adds any miss-

Paired Annotations: Individually, students read an article or chapter and prepare a reflective commentary on it—using a double-column format—in which they list on the left side the major points gleaned from the reading and, on the right side, their reactions to these points, (e.g., their questions, interpretations, and perceived connections with other readings or lecture material). Students then form pairs and the partners read one another’s reflective commentaries, noting similarities and differences, after which they construct a composite annotation that integrates their thoughts and summarizes the reading. (Millis & Cottell, 1998) Reciprocal Letter Writing (a.k.a., Responsive Written Exchanges): Students form pairs and the two members, working independently and simultaneously, write a personal letter to their partner based on sentence stems provided by the instructor. All writing assignment sheets begin with a salutation, “Dear . . . .” and end with the P.S., “One personal thing about me you may not know is . . .” The partners exchange letters, read them independently, and then write a response to their partner’s letter that is focused on the issue introduced by the sentence stem. In addition, respondents may also elect to write a P.S. in response to the P.S. (personal comment) made by the letter sender. Students can keep these letters or, more commonly, the letters are collected by the instructor, read informally, then returned to the students to become part of an ongoing class journal. (Fulwiller, in Millis & Cottell, 1998) Dyadic Essay Confrontation (DEC): In response to an assigned reading, students: (a) construct an integrative essay question which compares the reading with previously covered material, and (b) write a model answer to this question. Then, during class time, students (a) exchange essays questions with another student and write a spontaneous essay in response to the question they receive, and (b) compare their spontaneous answer with the model answer, noting similarities and differences. (Millis, Sherman, & Cottell, 1993)

1.4 PEER TUTORING STRUCTURES Peer Coaching: Working in pairs, one member attempts to solve a problem while the other member serves as coach—observing and providing feedback on each step involved in the problem-solving process. (Millis & Cottell, 1998) Drill-Review Pairs: A problem-solving structure whereby partners first adopt either the role of: (a) explainer—who provides a step-by-step explanation while solving a problem, or (b) checker—who confirms that the explanation is correct and provides coaching if needed. The partners then alternate roles on the next problem. After two problems are completed, the pair checks their solutions with another pair. If the two sets of pairs do not agree, they attempt to reach consensus about the correct answer; if they agree, each pair moves on to the next problem. (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991) Havru “Companionship” Method: An Israeli approach to peer tutoring (“haver” means “friend” in Hebrew) in which students are pre-tested for performance in a specific skill or content area and the instructor forms dyads comprised of students who differ in their level of achievement or performance on the pre-test. Students are then presented with a learning task (or a series of learning tasks) relating to the content or skill to be learned, and they work together on the learning task until each one of them understands and masters it. Each partner is then tested individually on a post-test. Grades are determined on the basis of three components: (a) the individual’s score on the post-test, (b) bonus points achieved, based on the gain score between pre- and post-test—with maximum bonus points awarded if there are gains by both students, fewer bonus points awarded if either the tutee or tutor achieve a gain, and no bonus points awarded if neither the tutee nor tutor achieves a gain, and (c) the pair’s score on a jointly-produced, cooperative product—with both students receiving the same score. (Hertz-Lazarowitz, 1990)

Pair Paper Swap: Pairs of students exchange papers and evaluate them, using a checklist of criteria provided by the instructor. If some elements of the paper do not effectively meet the evaluative criteria, partners assist each other in making necessary revisions. (Medina, 1997)

C HAPTER 8

Learning and Math Improve Student’s Future Orientation “Class content, the uses students have for that content, and the skills are expected to develop should relate to student’s goals” (Mark Taylor).

S ECTION 1

Learning and Math Resetting Assumptions About Remediation If the goal of college readiness is for students to succeed in college-level courses, students need access to— and experience in—college-level courses. We strongly believe that early college mathematics, whether it is developmental or collegelevel, should focus on preparing students for their programs of study, not on reteaching a full high school curriculum.

ing students to and through college-level courses as soon as possible is the co-requisite model of developmental education (Commander, Stratton, Callahan, & Smith, 1996; Boylan, 1999; Edgecombe, 2011; Complete College America, 2011). Evaluations of such models indicate that co-requisite approaches are associated with higher grades and higher completion rates in introductory college-level courses, increased fallto-fall persistence in enrollment and higher total credit accumulation (Wilcox, et al., 1997; Jenkins et al., 2010; Tennessee Board of Regents, 2009). (Charles A. Dana Center, 2012)

In terms of curriculum design, such a focus means that students should engage immediately with applications and contexts that historically have been delayed until a college-level course. In our new model, these applications and contexts are supported with instruction on developmental skills aligned to students’ majors and careers.

Improve Student’s Future Orientation

When it comes to preparing students for success in college, stakeholders broadly agree that faster is better and, as an extension, that students should be referred to the highest level course that can be responsibly defended (Bailey, Hughes, & Jaggars, 2012; Complete College America, 2011).

New Mathways Project

For many students, the emphasis on acceleration means they go directly into college-level courses that are bolstered with mandatory supports. An increasingly popular approach to achieving the goals of accelerating student progress and mov-

“Class content, the uses students have for that content, and the skills are expected to develop should relate to student’s goals” (Mark Taylor).

The New Mathways Project embodies the Dana Center’s vision for a systemic approach to improving student success and completion through implementation of processes, strategies, and structures built around three mathematics pathways and a supporting student success course. The path to higher education and upward mobility is no longer open to hundreds of thousands of students due to high 42

failure rates in developmental and gateway mathematics courses. Far too many students are unsuccessful in these courses, and the course content does not build the mathematical skills needed for many jobs and for informed citizenship. The New Mathways Project is a systemic approach to improving student success and completion rates through implementation of processes, strategies, and structures built around three accelerated mathematics pathways and a supporting student success course, connected to modern programs of study. Our work is based on four fundamental principles: 1. Multiple pathways with relevant and challenging mathematics content aligned to specific fields of study 2. Acceleration that allows students to complete a college-level math course more quickly than in the traditional developmental math sequence. 3. Intentional use of strategies to help students develop skills as learners 4. Curriculum design and pedagogy based on proven practice Pathways Structure The three mathematics pathways serve students who are placed into developmental math at the Beginning/ Introduction to Algebra or Intermediate Algebra level or who have completed Basic Arithmetic. Each pathway leads to completion of a college-level, transferable math course.

Core Mental Strategies for Learning Deeply When Learning Math •

Reflection

•

Re-exposure with elaboration

•

Writing - summarizing

•

Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions

•

Organizing - ex. mind mapping

•

Retrieval Practice

Reflection: Reflection: Reflection is stopping and stepping back and having an internal conversation or dialogue as the learner is encountering new rules, procedures, or formulas. Why? It is the most powerful mental process the math learner will do as they are learning to think like a mathematician. Math is about solving problems and the area of the brain that solves problems, plans, makes decision, applies what is learned to new situations is the prefrontal cortex. Reflection routes new information being learned through the prefrontal cortex - this is very powerful. Always stop and reflect as new math information is encountered - don’t memorize. Re-exposure with Elaboration: Re-exposure: Every time the learner re-exposes themselves to the information being learned, it strengthens the dendrites in 43

the brain, which is where new learning is stored. Every time the learner re-exposes themselves to the information, a layer of fat (myelin) wraps another layer of fat around the neural pathways to the newly stored information, which speeds up the transmission and processing during future retrieval of the information (up to 3,000 times faster). Re-exposure with Elaboration: Elaboration is about having a mental conversation, discussing with friends, writing to learn, clarifying, or organizing the information. Having that internal conversation when re-exposing yourself to newly learned information strengthens not only the storage of new information against forgetting, but also builds new connections with prior knowledge, thus building new pathways for retrieving the information and retrieving the information with richer meaning. Writing - Summarizing: Writing to Learn and Summarizing: Writing to learn is a very powerful process for clarifying and organizing new rules, procedures, or formulas in the context of a conceptual framework. Writing to learn is not about writing to communicate. There are no rules, grammar, punctuation, etc to follow. It is just you and your thinking about your thinking about what you are learning and writing as clearly and with as much organization as you can muster. Writing to learn is about writing for yourself, not for an instructor or for a grade, but for the pure power of what it can do for your learning and making later related learning easier.

Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions: Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions: We have talked about internal dialogue under elaboration (connecting what is being learned to prior knowledge) and reflection (routing new information through the prefrontal cortex). When the learner adds inquiry questions to the learning process, they activate (prime) all the neural networks of related information and the brain starts looking for answers; this improves focus, concentration, interest, curiosity, retention and retrieval, and just makes learning easier. Example of Internal Dialogue Questions • What do I already know about the math problems I am reading about now? • How is this new rule, terminology (concept), procedures or formula related to the big picture procedures for solving an equation? • How is what I am reading reinforce what I already know (compare and contrast)? • What do concepts (terminology) introduced in textbooks have in common? • How are all the concepts in a reading related? (mind mapping – systematically organizing)

Organizing - ex. mind mapping: Organizing - ex. mind mapping: We know that there are mental processes for making organizing new information eas44

ier and richer. Mind mapping is one of those organizing strategies that make learning richer. Retrieval Practice Retrieval Practice: When learners practice retrieving what they have learned a number of things happen in the brain that makes future retrieval easier and faster with less forgetting. Why does retrieval practice work? Think of learning as involving two parts, first, as students encounter new information they try to use what they already know to make sense of it and retain itâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;this is called encoding. Second, learning also involves being able to recall what was previously encodedâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;this is recall or retrieval. Students devote most of their study effort to encoding, trying to make sense of the material and retain it. This is important for comprehending the material and getting it into memory. Testing, on the other hand, focuses on a different set of processes related to retrieval of what one has learned. Researchers believe that as students try to recall what they learn they reconstruct their knowledge, strengthening their ability to recall it again in the future. (Note: this contributes to myelination faster transmission and retrieval)

C HAPTER 9

Working Memory and Learning From the Research “The typical human brain can hold about 4 pieces of information for less than 30 seconds. If something does not happen in that short stretch of time, the information becomes lost. If you want to extend the 30 seconds to, say, a few minutes, or even an hour or two, you will need to consistently re-expose yourself to the information. This type of repetition is sometimes called maintenance rehearsal. We know that “maintenance rehearsal” is mostly good for keeping things in working memory – that is for short periods of time” (Medina, 2008).

S ECTION 1

Working Memory and Learning

C HAPTER 10

Learning and Multitasking Evidence from psychology, cognitive science, and neuroscience suggests that when students multitask while doing schoolwork, their learning is far spottier and shallower than if the work had their full attention. They understand and remember less, and they have greater difficulty transferring their learning to new contexts. So detrimental is this practice that some researchers are proposing that a new prerequisite for academic and even professional successâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the new marshmallow test of self-disciplineâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;is the ability to resist a blinking inbox or a buzzing.

S ECTION 1

Learning and Multitasking