Basic grammar by Teacher Richard

ÂŠ 2010 Christian Schrade

BASIC GRAMMAR Christian Schrade, attorney-at-law TESOL, College of Teachers

www.esl-law.com

BIBLIOGRAPHY  American Heritage Children’s Dictionary © 2010 Houghton Mifflin Company  Basic Grammar in Use, Murphy/Smalzer © 2002 Cambridge University Press  Practical English Usage, 3rd edition © 2005 Michael Swan

CONTENTS Pronouns – I, Me, My, Mine, Myself

Page 03

Article/Plurals

Page 04

Number v. Amount - Much, Many, Little, Few, Some, Any

Page 05

Comparison - Comperative/Superlative

Page 06

Present - Simple/Progressive

Page 07

Past - Simple/Progressive

Page 08

Post-Present/Future - Simple/Progressive

Page 09

Questions

Page 10

Passive Voice - Past, Present, Post-Present, Future

Page 11

Modals - Degrees of Certainty; Permission, Prohibition, Obligation

Page 12

Collocations - Word Combinations, Idioms, Phrasal Verbs

Page 13

PRONOUNS – I, ME, MY, MINE, MYSELF PERSONAL Subject

People

Object

I you he/she we they

I know Jim and he knows me. You know Jim and he knows you. He/She knows Jim and he knows him/her. We know Jim and he knows us. They know Jim and he knows them.

me you him/her us them

it/they

Things

it/them

POSSESSIVE They tell us who owns something. To own means to have and keep something: Jim owns a lot of books. Bob is owner of a restaurant. To possess also means to own or have something: Everything that I possess is in my bedroom.

I you he/she it we they

my your his/her its our their

mine yours his/hers ours theirs

It’s my money. It’s mine. It’s your money. It’s yours. It’s his/her money. It’s his/hers. NYC is famous for its skyscrapers. It’s our money. It’s ours. It’s their money. It’s theirs.

REFLEXIVE They tell us that subject (I/we/etc.) and object (me/us/etc.) are the same person.

I you he she it we you (Pl.) they

me you him her it us you them

myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves

I cut myself. I love you for yourself. He looked at himself in the mirror. She talks to herself sometimes. The bag itself is nice but small. We enjoyed ourselves. Please help yourselves. They paid for themselves.

ARTICLE - A, AN, THE a, an

the

Can you give me a pen?

Can you give me the pen?





a pen = any pen

the pen = the one in your hand

 A/an means one out of many: Red is a color (there are many colors).  The tells us which one: The red of your shirt is nice (only this red). Use an before a/e/i/o/u: Ease of pronunciation* * pronunciation - how you speak the sound of words; to pronounce (v.); pronunciation (n.)

a banana a hat a boring TV program

an apple an umbrella an interesting TV program

a university (pronounced: yuniversity)

an hour (h is not pronounced = silent)

PLURALS - FLOWER/S, BUS/ES The plural of a noun is usually: noun + s/es a week  two weeks a box  many boxes Some plurals are irregular: man  men woman  women child  children

foot  feet tooth  teeth mouse  mice

sheep  sheep fish  fish person  people

NUMBER v. AMOUNT











none

a little/a few

some

much/many

all

None of the square is black.

A little/Some/Much of the square is black.

All of the square is black.

MUCH, MANY Much means a lot, a great quantity or amount: There’s not much food in the icebox. Many means a large number: There are many different colors. much + uncountable noun*

many + countable noun**

much money/food/time

many books/people/days

* Uncountable noun: We see them as masses and not as separate objects. ** Countable noun: We can use numbers and the article a/an; they have plurals.

LITTLE, FEW A little means a small amount or quantity: Sue drank only a little of her milk. A few means a small number, not many: There are only a few apples on the tree. a little + uncountable noun

a few + countable noun

a little money/food/time

a few books/people/days

SOME, ANY Some means a number or quantity that is not known: Brenda didn’t read all her books. She read only some of them. Any means that it does not matter which one: Take any seat you like. limited

unlimited

I like some pop music. I don’t like some pop music. Is there someone here on Saturday?

I like any pop music. I don’t like any pop music. Is there anyone here on Saturday?

COMPARISON adjective + -er/-est; more/most + adjective Adjective

Comperative

Superlative

1 syllables: old, fat, late

older, fatter, later

oldest, fattest, latest

2 syllables: po·lite

politer/more polite

politest/most polite

3 syllables: beau·ti·ful

more beautiful

most beautiful

EXAMPLES





Take a seat! couch  chair/seat  floor



 is the biggest.

A couch is the most comfortable to sit in.

 is bigger than , , and .

A couch is more comfortable than a chair.

, , and  are not as big as .

A seat is not as comfortable as a couch.

, , and  are not so big as .

A seat is not so comfortable as a couch.

 is as big as . ( is so big as )

A chair is as comfortable as a seat.

 and  are bigger than .

A seat is more comfortable than the floor.

 is the smallest.

The floor is the least comfortable to sit on.

IRREGULAR Adjective

Comperative

Superlative

good bad much/many little few far

better worse more less fewer/less farther/further*

best worst most least fewest/least farthest/furthest

* I can throw a ball farther than you (= distance). Wait for further instructions (= more instructions)

PRESENT sketches © brainfriendly.co.uk

present simple



present progressive

(cf. past progressive)

Jim plays soccer, but he doesn’t play very well. Does he play soccer? Yes, he does.



Jim is playing computer games now, but he isn’t playing very well. Is he playing soccer now? No, he isn’t, but he plays soccer often.

PRESENT SIMPLE  Use the present simple for things that happen all the time or that are always true (it is not about present time, but about timeless facts and permanent situations). he/she/it + -s/es All the Time

Negative do not = don’t

Question

I play soccer every week. He plays soccer every week.

We don’t play soccer. She doesn’t play soccer.

Do you play soccer? Does he play soccer?

Always True

Negative does not = doesn’t

Question

Water boils at 100 °C*.

Water doesn’t boil at 50 °C*.

Does water boil at 50 °C*? * centigrade

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE am/is/are + -ing

 Use the present progressive for actions or situations that are happening at or around the time of speaking (before, during, and after the moment of speaking). Around Now

Negative is/are not = isn’t/aren’t

Question

It’s raining at the moment.

It isn’t raining at the moment.

Is it raining at the moment?

For point-in-time actions we normally use the present simple: He hits the ball (that’s a point in time, not a series of events or actions). The radiator* feels cold (that’s a point in time and also a fact). * a radiator is used for heating a room 7

PAST PAST SIMPLE  Use the past simple to talk about events in the past. Regular verbs end in [–ed]. Regular Verbs

Negative did not = didn’t

Question

Mozart lived in Salzburg.

Mozart didn’t live in L.A.

When did Mozart live?*

Irregular Verbs

Negative

Question

Mozart wrote music.

Mozart didn’t write books.

Did Mozart write good music? * 1756 -1791

PAST PROGRESSIVE sketches © brainfriendly.co.uk



Jim is playing computer games at the moment.



At this time yesterday, Jim was playing soccer.

Compare:

What were you doing when you heard the burglar** ? - I was reading in bed. What did you do when you heard the burglar? - I called the police. ** A burglar is a person who breaks into a house to steal something

 Use the past progressive for actions or situations that were happening at or around a specific time in the past. was/were + -ing Background Events

Negative

Question

was/were not = wasn’t/weren’t

While I was running down the stairs, I slipped and fell.

I wasn’t watching TV when you called me. I was working and didn’t hear you.

What were you doing when the telephone rang?

POST-PRESENT AND FUTURE  Jim is going to play soccer in Germany next week.

plan

post-present

 The game starts at 7:00 PM next Saturday.

schedule1

post-present

 He’s staying at a hotel near Frankfurt.

arrangement2

post-present

 He thinks his team will win.

guess3

future

schedule – a list of times; a program of events arrangement – planning we do ahead of time; preparation: Let’s make arrangements for our vacation. 3 guess – to try to think of the answer but having not enough information to be sure of it: I’d guess that there were more than 1,000 people at the concert. 2

PRESENT TENSES - FUTURE MEANING  Use going to for plans and intentions (intention = having the mind set on a goal). Be Going To + Infinitive

Negative

Question

We’re going to buy a car.

We aren’t going to buy a car.

Are we going to buy a car?

 Use the present simple for fixed events (schedules or timetables). Present Simple

Negative

Question

The plane arrives in NYC at 7:30 tomorrow morning.

The plane doesn’t arrive earlier than 7:30 tomorrow morning.

Does the plane arrive at 7:30 in NYC tomorrow morning?

 Use the present progressive for arrangements. Present Progressive

Negative

Question

He’s flying next Friday.

He isn’t flying next Friday.

Are you flying next Friday?

FUTURE  Use will to talk about what people think or guess will happen. Simple: will + infinitive

Negative will not = won’t

Question

It will be cold tomorrow.

It won’t be cold tomorrow.

Will it be cold tomorrow?

This time tomorrow, we won’t be lying on the beach anymore.

Where will you be flying today?

Progressive: will be + -ing Good luck! We’ll be thinking of you.

QUESTIONS VERB = ONE WORD verb = one word They play1 soccer every week. Water boils1 at 100 °C (centigrade). Mozart lived1 in Salzburg. Mozart wrote1 music.

do + infinitive Do they play soccer? Does water boil at 100 °C? Did Mozart live in Salzburg? Did Mozart write music?

verb = be Two plus three is1 five. They are1 all hungry. He was1 very angry.

do + infinitive Is two plus three five? Are they all hungry? Was he very angry?

VERB = TWO OR MORE WORDS verb = two or more words It is1 raining2 at the moment. She was1 running2 downstairs too fast. We are1 going2 to buy3 a new car. It will1 be2 cold tomorrow. I can1 tell2 you the time. I must1 really write2 to uncle Bob.

front the first verb Is it raining at the moment? Was she running downstairs too fast? Are we going to buy a new car? Will it be cold tomorrow? Can you tell me the time? Must I really write to uncle Bob?

WH-QUESTIONS same rules He is1 talking2 about English literature. The brown coat is1 mine. They do1 their homework after school. We are1 going2 to the movies tonight. Jim would1 like2 some coffee. I liked1 Jim best. Jim is1 going2 to buy3 Bob’s car. Birds fly1 south because of the climate. She might1 be2 about 14 years old.

wh-question What is he talking about? Which coat is yours? When do they do1 their homework? Where are you going tonight? Who would like some coffee?* Whom did you like best?* Whose car is he going to buy?* Why do birds fly south in winter? How old might she be? * who - he / whom - him / whose - his 10

ÂŠ 2010 Christian Schrade

PASSIVE VOICE When A does something to B, there are often two ways to talk about it. If we want A (the doer = the one who acts) to be the subject, we use an active verb. If we want B (the receiver of the action = the one something is done to) to be the subject, we use a passive verb. be + past participle Examples: chambermaid* (doer/actor) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; room (receiver) * Someone who cleans bedrooms in a hotel (chamber = a room: Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets) Past Simple

Active Chambermaids cleaned the room yesterday. Passive The room was cleaned (by chambermaids) yesterday.

Past Progressive

Active Chambermaids were cleaning the room when I arrived. Passive The room was being cleaned (by chambermaids) when I arrived.

Present Simple

Active Chambermaids clean the room every day. Passive The room is cleaned (by chambermaids) every day.

Present Progressive

Active Chambermaids are cleaning the room right now. Passive The room is being cleaned (by chambermaids) right now.

PostPresent

Active Chambermaids are going to clean the room soon. Passive The room is going to be cleaned (by chambermaids) soon.

Future Simple

Active Chambermaids will clean the room later. Passive The room will be cleaned (by chambermaids) later.

Future Progressive

Active Chambermaids will be cleaning the room at this time tomorrow. Passive The room will be being cleaned at this time tomorrow.

You can leave out the doer/actor. If you mention (= speak of) the doer, use by: The room is cleaned every day. The room is cleaned by chambermaids every day. Sometimes you can even form two different passive sentences. This happens when the verb has two objects (= two receivers): Active We gave the information to the police.

Passive The information was given to the police. The police were given the information. 11

MODALS DEGREES OF CERTAINTY Certain means known for sure, feeling no doubt: Are you certain that you left the book on the bus? Probable means not certain but expected to happen: The probability of a tossed coin (= flipped coin) landing heads up (or tail up) is 50%. Possible means something can happen (maybe/perhaps): Rain is a possibility today. Certainty will, must, can’t

Probability should/ought to

Possibility may, might, could

I will be away tomorrow. I won’t be late on Tuesday. You must be tired. That can’t be Jim – he’s in L.A. She should be here soon. It shouldn’t be too difficult. She ought to be here soon. It oughtn’t to be too difficult. The water may not be warm enough to swim. It might rain today. We could all be millionaires one day.

PERMISSION, PROHIBITION, OBLIGATION Permission means it is all right (= allowed) to do something: Our parents gave us permission to go to the movies. Prohibition means that something is forbidden (= not allowed): Smoking is prohibited (not permitted) in public buildings. Obligation is something a person must do (= it is necessary to do it): He was under obligation to finish his work in time. Permission can, could, may, might

Prohibition mustn’t, may not, can’t

Obligation must, need, ought to, should

You can use the car if you like. Could I talk to you for a minute? May we use the phone? Do you think we might take a break now? Books must not/may not be taken out of the library. You can’t come in here. Students must register in the first week of semester. Do I need to get a visa for Canada? She really ought to/should take a shower (weak obligation).

MUST, NEED, HAVE TO Prohibition No obligation Obligation (internal) Obligation (external)

You mustn’t tell her - I don’t want her to know. You don’t need to tell her - she already knows. I must stop smoking. (I tell myself what my obligation is) I have to stop smoking. (someone else tells me, e.g. my doctor) 12

COLLOCATIONS WORD COMBINATIONS Collocations are words that often go together. You go by train (not: drive with the train), but you go on foot (not: go to foot). You do exercises (not: make exercises), but you make mistakes (not: do mistakes). Instead of studying single words, you should try to remember word combinations. This will increase your fluency and accuracy. Examples - You can catch a thief or catch a bus (= to get aboard in time); a room can catch fire (= to start burning) or you can catch a cold (= get an infection that causes a running nose and sneezing). Have you noticed the collocation running nose?

IDIOMS Sometimes word combinations can have a special meaning that cannot be understood from the meaning of the individual words. These are called idioms. Examples “Our play opens tonight.” “Well, break a leg!” (= good luck) She really broke his heart1 when she broke up2 with him. (= 1 to make someone feel very sad; 2 to end a relationship)

PHRASAL VERBS Break up (with somebody) is a phrasal verb. These verbs can have two or three parts and the meaning is often different from the meaning of the parts taken separately. Examples They were making out in the schoolyard (= they were kissing) Whether we like it or not, we have to put up with it (= we have to tolerate/accept it) Sometimes a phrasal verb has an object. Usually there are two possible positions: She switched off the light. She switched the light off. If the object is a pronoun, only one position is possible: She switched it off (not: she switched off it).