Literacy and History: The Celts by Teacher Superstore

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Foreword Literacy and history – The Celts is one title in a series of four books designed to develop students’ literacy skills in the areas of comprehension, vocabulary and spelling and to enhance their academic skills and historical knowledge. The books are designed to strengthen the links between the subjects of language and history. Each book deals with an ancient society and contains 12 units which deal with different aspects of each society and the people who lived in them. Each unit covers a wide variety of topics and includes a range of fictional texts based on historical fact. Each unit has a comprehension section, a cloze procedure section, a word study section and a cross-curricular section, which provides activities from other areas of the curriculum such as history, geography, science and mathematics. Titles in the series:

Literacy and history – The Romans Literacy and history – The Greeks

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Contents

Literacy and history – The Egyptians Literacy and history – The Celts

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Teachers Notes........................................................................................ iv – vii Glossary.................................................................................................. viii – xi

Unit 7: A farmer celebrates a festival – Scotland, 54 BC........................50–57 Teachers notes............................................................................................50–51 Text — A farmer celebrates with his clan in Scotland........................................... 52 Comprehension questions.................................................................................. 53 Cloze exercise................................................................................................... 54 Word study exercises......................................................................................... 55 Cross-curricular activities.............................................................................56–57

Unit 2: A silversmith gives an interview, Northern Italy – 370 BC..........10–17 Teachers notes............................................................................................10–11 Text — Calgacus gives an interview.................................................................... 12 Comprehension questions.................................................................................. 13 Cloze exercise................................................................................................... 14 Word study exercises......................................................................................... 15 Cross-curricular activities.............................................................................16–17

Unit 8: A refugee writes to his brother – Ireland 53BC...........................58–65 Teacher notes..............................................................................................58–59 Text — Gavrinis writes to his brother, Arvor......................................................... 60 Comprehension questions.................................................................................. 61 Cloze exercise................................................................................................... 62 Word study exercises......................................................................................... 63 Cross-curricular activities.............................................................................64–65

Unit 3: A warrior talks about his last raid at Delphi – 275 BC................18–25 Teachers notes............................................................................................18–19 Text — Abaris gives his account of his last raid................................................... 20 Comprehension questions.................................................................................. 21 Cloze exercise................................................................................................... 22 Word study exercises......................................................................................... 23 Cross-curricular activities.............................................................................25–25

Unit 9: A storyteller tell the story of Prince Dyfed – Wales, 30 BC.........66–73 Teachers notes............................................................................................66–67 Text — Aeron, a Welsh storyteller, tells a story about the kingdom of Dyfed........... 68 Comprehension questions.................................................................................. 69 Cloze exercise................................................................................................... 70 Word study exercises......................................................................................... 71 Cross-curricular activities.............................................................................72–73

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Unit 1: A widow mourns her husband’s death – Austria, 650 BC...............2–9 Teachers notes................................................................................................2–3 Text — Ana mourns her husband as she buries him.............................................. 4 Comprehension questions.................................................................................... 5 Cloze exercise..................................................................................................... 6 Word study exercises........................................................................................... 7 Cross-curricular activities.................................................................................8–9

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Unit 4: A druid discusses the festival of Samhain – France, 225 BC......26–33 Teachers notes............................................................................................26–27 Text — Euffiginex is interviewed for the Gaul Independent.................................... 28 Comprehension questions.................................................................................. 29 Cloze exercise................................................................................................... 30 Word study exercises......................................................................................... 31 Cross-curricular activities.............................................................................32–33

Unit 10: Queen Boudicca writes in her secret diary – England, 61 AD...74–81 Teachers Notes............................................................................................74–75 Text — Queen Boudicca writes in her private diary before she fights again........... 76 Comprehension questions.................................................................................. 77 Cloze exercise................................................................................................... 78 Word study exercises......................................................................................... 79 Cross-curricular activities.............................................................................80–81

Unit 5: A young girl plans her wedding – Galicia, Spain, 62 BC..............34–41 Teachers notes............................................................................................34–35 Text — Lusita plans her wedding in Galicia......................................................... 36 Comprehension questions.................................................................................. 37 Cloze exercise................................................................................................... 38 Word study exercises......................................................................................... 39 Cross-curricular activities.............................................................................40–41

Unit 11: A mother sings a ballad to her daughter – Ireland, 90 AD........82–89 Teachers notes............................................................................................82–83 Text — A mother sings a sad ballad to her daughter, Niamh................................. 84 Comprehension questions.................................................................................. 85 Cloze exercise................................................................................................... 86 Word study exercises......................................................................................... 87 Cross-curricular activities.............................................................................88–89

Unit 6: Warriors hold a boasting contest – Scotland, 57 BC...................42–49 Teachers notes............................................................................................42–43 Text — Warriors hold a boasting contest at a Celtic feast..................................... 44 Comprehension questions.................................................................................. 45 Cloze exercise................................................................................................... 46 Word study exercises......................................................................................... 47 Cross-curricular activities.............................................................................48–49

Unit 12: A commentator describes a baptism – Ireland, 513 AD............90–97 Teachers notes............................................................................................90–91 Text — Meabh describes baptisms at St Brigid’s monastery................................. 92 Comprehension questions.................................................................................. 93 Cloze exercise................................................................................................... 94 Word study exercises......................................................................................... 95 Cross-curricular activities.............................................................................96–97

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Literacy and history – The Celts

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Teachers notes

Literacy and history – The Celts contains 12 units, each with six pages: Teachers notes Reading Comprehension questions Cloze exercise Word study exercises Cross-curricular activities

Each unit has a teachers notes section, which provides additional information for the teacher. The teachers notes page contains six sections, designed to assist teachers in presenting the worksheets to their students. Each teachers notes section contains: Indicators Background information Worksheet information Answers

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Indicators:

The second indicator states the objectives for the word study exercises page. The third indicator states the objectives for the crosscurricular activities pages.

Background information: Presented in bullet points, this section identifies the type of text used and provides a definition of the type. A wide variety of styles have been included in the book including letters, dialogues, speeches, newspaper reports and interviews. More bullet points provide detailed historical background information to help teachers and students understand the content.

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The first indicator states the objectives for the reading/ comprehension/cloze pages.

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Presented in bullet points, this section includes background information that may be required by the teacher before students complete the questions and activities in the worksheets. There are practical suggestions for teachers included; e.g. whether students may need to use atlases or dictionaries in order to complete exercises and suggestions for reading activities, such as students reading dialogues aloud. Teachers are also encouraged to refer to the glossary on pages viii-xi of the Teachers notes, which explains keywords and terms relating to the ancient Celts, many of which form the basis for Exercise 1 in Exercise E of each unit.

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Answers:

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This section provides the answers for all questions where applicable. Answers are always given for literal and deductive questions where appropriate. Evaluative and open-ended questions and activities will require the teacher to check the answers during or following class discussion. This is indicated by ‘Teacher check’.

Cross-curricular activities: Presented in bullet points, this section provides suggestions for extra activities linked to the theme of the particular unit. There are also suggestions for relevant websites for further research.

Curriculum links: Presented in table form, this section illustrates how the activities in each unit match curriculum subjects such as Society and Environment, Science and Health. iv

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Teachers notes

Each unit has five student pages, which are structured in the following way: Exercise A: Reading Exercise B: Comprehension questions Exercise C: Cloze exercise Exercise D: Word study exercises Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities Example:

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Unit 1: Ana, a Celtic widow, mourns her husband’s death at his burial – Austria, 650 BC

Page 4: Exercise A: Reading This page contains a graveside speech, given by the widow of a Celtic warrior on the occasion of his burial at Hallstatt, Austria, 650 BC. Students should read the extract carefully as, in order to complete exercises in this unit, they may need to refer back to this text. Other units include texts such as dialogues, reports, diary entries, speeches, ballads and letters.

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Page 5: Exercise B: Comprehension questions This page contains a series of questions for students to answer. This exercise requires students to read the text in Exercise A carefully and answer questions related to the text. These questions require students to move between literal answers, deductive answers and evaluative answers. There is an assortment of question types, each designed to help students to think and to prepare for tests and examinations. The order in which questions appear do not necessarily follow the order of the information as it appears in the text, providing an additional challenge for students. Students may find the answers to some of the comprehension questions in the footnotes underneath the text.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

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Page 6: Exercise C: Cloze exercise

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This is a cloze procedure exercise which requires students to search for the correct word and develop their vocabulary and spelling skills. In all units there is a word bank provided above the exercise. There is some variety of presentation to encourage creativity and the development of language skills such as spelling and decoding. In some units, a number of dashes indicate the number of letters in the missing words to help students. In other units there are no dashes provided.

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Page 7: Exercise D: Word study exercises

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This page contains a range of word study exercises, each designed to help students develop their reading, writing and spelling skills. The exercises include: selecting and/or circling correct words, matching the beginning and endings of sentences, arranging the correct order of sentences in a paragraph or passage of text, correcting misspellings, completing word searches, completing sentences, identifying true and false items of information and using matching and decoding skills to find correct answers. Students are encouraged to engage in dictionary work to assist in the completion of these exercises.

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Teachers notes

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These pages contain activities and suggestions for further cross-curricular activities linked to the subject matter and theme of the unit. Activities include decoding, unscrambling and matching exercises, selecting correct answers and studying the meanings and uses of keywords and phrases found in the units. In some units, discussion points appropriate to the unit’s theme and text are included, along with suggestions for further research activities. Students are encouraged to develop their research skills by using the library and the Internet, if they wish. Suggestions on websites relevant to the theme of the unit and linked to the subject matter of the activities have been included in the Cross-curricular section of the Teachers notes at the start of each unit. There are activities related to the subjects of Society and Environment, Science, Music and Art.

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Pages 8–9: Exercise E: Crosscurricular activities

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There are discussion points included in some of the crosscurricular sections, designed to encourage students to reflect on some of the topics raised in the unit, to expand their knowledge and to develop informed opinions on the topic.

Some units also contain suggestions for further research in areas referred to within the unit. Students can research these topics by using resources such as their school library, public libraries and the Internet.

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Glossary A abstract—designs characterised by geometric and formal shapes, such as the spiral shape so often used by the Celts

bard—a tribal poet and singer who composed and recited verses on heroes and their adventures

bronze mirrors—used by the Celts to maintain their appearance, bronze Roman mirrors have been found in Ireland

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afterlife—an existence after death, which many ancient civilisations, including the Celts, strongly believed in Alps—a mountain chain in central Europe that extends over northern Italy, France, Germany and Austria

Bealtaine—Celtic festival held on 1 May to celebrate the beginning of summer when animals were sent out to graze

Camulos—Celtic god of war, often portrayed with an oak crown or a ramhorned head, equated with Mars, the Roman god of war, by the Romans

ambushed—to have suffered a surprise attack from an enemy waiting in a concealed position

Carpathian Mountains—major mountain system in central and eastern Europe and home to tribes of La Téne Celts

Antonine Wall—a wall stretching across Scotland, made of clay and turf, begun around 142 AD Aos Dana (pronounced ‘Ace Dawna’ by the Celts)—Irish term meaning ‘men of art’; an elite group in Celtic society which included master craftsmen, poets and judges

Caledones—an important tribe in Scotland who gave their name to the Roman name for Scotland, Caledonia

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bard—poets and singers who entertained and told stories and who held high status in Celtic society

boar—adult male of any species of swine

castros—settlements in north-western Spain located on mountains or cliffs, protected by ditches or solid walls, with a circular house

© Rboasting . I . Ccontest—contest .Publ c at i ons ini which Celtic warriors boasted about their hunting and fighting skills to get the cavalry—soldiers mounted • f o r r e v i e w p u r p o s e s o n l y • hero’s portion horseback Apollo—the god Apollo was the Greek

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Armorica—the name given to the peninsula of north-western France, which we now call Brittany

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Brehon Laws—a system of laws and customs regulating Celtic Ireland, passed down by word of mouth Brennus—Celtic leader who led the raid on Delphi, in which he was injured. Some Greek accounts claim that he committed suicide afterwards

Celtic fringe—a modern term describing the areas in Europe, usually on the edges, where Celtic culture has continued to thrive

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bairin breac (pronounced ‘bawreen brak’ by the Celts)—a cake made with currents and sultanas which is traditionally eaten at Halloween and contains a lucky ring

Brigantium— settlement of the Galician Celts meaning ‘high place’ in the northwest of Spain, now the modern city of Betanzos

ballad—a narrative poem, which can be read or sung

Brigit (pronounced ‘Brijit’ by the Celts)—the Celtic goddess of fire, smiths, fertility, crops, cattle and poetry, whose festival, Imbolc, was held on 1 February

baptism—a Christian religious rite in which the subject is sprinkled with water to symbolise that they are cleansed from sin

Brittany—an area of north-western France, which was ruled by the Veneti tribe who were eventually defeated by the Romans

barbarians—from the Latin word ‘barbarus’, meaning ignorant; the Romans regarded those who did not share their civilisation as barbarians

brochs—round stone-built structures with thick walls and towers, which could be as high as 15 metres

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Celtae—name given to the Celts by the Romans, whose accounts of their culture and customs are valuable resources for historians

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and Roman god of the sun and of healing who also sometimes bestowed the gift of prophecy

Literacy and history – The Celts

Celts—an Iron Age civilisation, sharing a common culture that stretched across Europe from Portugal to Turkey and from Scotland in the north to Italy in the south cauldrons—large kettles or pots used R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Glossary for boiling and cooking joints of meat and vegetables over a fire

Dyfed—an area of south-western Wales associated with the Mabinogion

chieftain—the head of a tribe, responsible for the defence of the tribe and acting as its representative, belonged to the ‘derbfine’ (Irish term); i.e. four generations of family

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Christianity—name given to the religion that follows the teachings of Jesus Christ

converts—people who have converted to another religion or belief cremation—the process of burning a corpse in order to reduce the remains to ashes

Epona—the Celtic goddess of horses, fertility and agriculture, usually portrayed on horseback with a foal, dog and bird

Hadrian’s Wall—a stone-built wall, built in 122 AD by the Roman emperor Hadrian to separate the Scots from northern England

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Coligny Calendar—a Celtic calendar dating from the 1st century BC, discovered in France in 1897

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Great Glen—a rift valley in the Scottish highlands, which is 100 kilometres long and contains three famous lochs (lakes)

file—the highest ranking of the Celtic poets, who trained for 12 years and were close in status to the druids flagons—containers for liquids that have handles, spouts and lids

flesh fork—a long metal fork designed to make it easy to take meat roasting on a spit

Halloween—name given to the holiday on 31 October, which is the modern version of the Celtic festival of Samhain

© R. I . C .Publ i cat i on s Hallstatt—archaeological site in fogou—a word used in Cornwall in Austria, excavated between 1846 and south-western England to describe an Danu—the mother goddess ofr thee Celts, 1899, underground passage • f o r v i e w p u r p o s e s o nwhich l ygave •its name to the she was associated with water and was earliest Celts believed to have created the Danube

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Delphi—most sacred site in ancient Greece, where the oracle (prophecy) of the god Apollo could be consulted, known as the ‘omphalos’ by the Greeks, the centre or ‘navel of the world’

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derbfine—the extended family of the king in a Celtic kingdom, which included four generations from the same greatgrandfather

folk tales—traditional stories that originated among the people of a particular area or country fosterage—system of fostering children, which was a custom in Celtic Ireland and Scotland fostered—the Celts operated a system of fosterage whereby their sons and daughters were fostered by a powerful patron

heads on spikes—Celtic warriors put their enemies heads on public display as a warning and to show that they had captured the souls of their enemies

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hero’s portion—the best cut of meat at a feast, usually given to the warrior who boasted the most at the boasting contest

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drinking horn—elaborately decorated horns used for drinking wine, which could be made of gold, silver or bronze druid—an order of male and female priestesses who had authority over divine worship and also over legislative and judicial matters R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Gaul—Latin name for an area covering modern France and beyond, conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BC geis (pronounced ‘gesh’ by the Celts)—a demand for someone to perform a particular action or to operate under a specific restriction

Literacy and history – The Celts

hoard—a collection of treasures usually hidden away out of sight and sometimes undisturbed for centuries honour price—the amount of compensation to be paid by someone who caused injury or damage to another person

I Iceni tribe—Celtic tribe originally from Belgium who had settled along the eastern coast of England ix

Glossary illuminated manuscript—sacred manuscripts decorated by hand in colours of gold or silver

Londinium—city on the banks of the Thames River founded by the Romans around 50 AD

inhumation—practice of burying a corpse in a tomb or in the ground

N nun—a female member of a religious community bound by vows of poverty, chastity and obedience

insubordination—disobedient and unwilling to submit to the authority of another

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Imbolc—one of four major Celtic festivals, Imbolc was held on 1 February and celebrated the return of the light as spring came on 1 February. It was dedicated to the goddess Brigit

M Macedonia—historic region in southeastern Europe, in the central area of the Balkan peninsula, home of Alexander the Great

oxen—large domestic mammals kept for their milk and meat oppida—name given to the bigger hilltop settlements of the Celts in France and in central and northern Europe oral tradition—the tradition of passing down knowledge such as history, laws, customs and beliefs from one generation to another by word of mouth

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons Otherworld—the name given to the Celtic afterlife, a heaven with hunting, manuscript—a written by hand •f orr ev i ew book pu r p ose so n yor• feasting and nol pain sickness

Keltoi—name given to the Celts by the Greeks, whose accounts of the Celts provide valuable insights into their culture and customs

Manannan—Celtic god of the sea who was often portrayed sailing his chariot over the waves

Mediolanum—name given by the Romans to the area settled by the Celts along the Po Valley in northern Italy, now Milan

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La Tène—an archaeological site at Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland that gave its name to late Iron Age Celtic culture

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miracle—an event that is attributed to a supernatural cause

legend—a story from the ancient past whose truth is accepted but which cannot be checked

mistletoe—sacred plant of the Celtic druids, which only they were allowed to pick and which grew particularly well on oak trees

legions—main division of the Roman army, which consisted of ten cohorts, each consisting of 480 men led by six centurions

Mona—name given to the Welsh island of Anglesey, which was the centre of British druidism

Parisii tribe—Celtic tribe that settled in northern Gaul on a marshy island in the Seine River and gave their name to Paris

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Loch Ness—the most famous of the three lakes of the Great Glen, said to the home of the Loch Ness Monster x

oak—sacred tree of the Celts, which was believed to contain the spirits of their ancestors

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Lunasduinn—a Celtic harvest festival, held on the 1 August in honour of the god of light and the sun, Lugh

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Insubres—a Celtic tribe that settled, according to Roman sources, in the western part of the Po Valley and founded Mediolanum

myths—legendary stories that present the beliefs of a people or explain a practice, belief or natural phenomenon

Literacy and history – The Celts

penannular brooch—ring shaped brooch, used to hold a cloak in place, worn at the shoulder with the pin pointing down or across Po Valley—the valley of the Po River, which is the longest river in Italy, rising close to France and flowing into the Adriatic Sea procession—a group of people moving forwards in a ceremonial manner prowess—a warrior’s strength, bravery and skill in fighting Pwyll—a legendary Welsh king who ruled over the kingdom of Dyfed, called Demetia by the Romans

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Glossary Q

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quern—stone hand mill for grinding corn, usually operated by Celtic women

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raids—surprise attacks by small bands of warriors

refuge—a place that offers shelter and protection from danger or distress rì—Irish word referring to the king or head of a tribe who ruled over a kingdom or ‘tuatha’ rì ruirech—Irish word referring to an over-king who was given allegiance by small kingdoms who needed protection Roman Empire— name given to the empire founded by the Romans, which stretched around the Mediterranean Sea and beyond and dominated the world from around 27 BC to 84 AD

spirits of the dead—the souls of those that have died, believed by the Celts to return on the night of 31 October during the festival of Samhain storyteller—a teller of stories who sometimes travelled around from place to place entertaining people at feasts sword—In early Celtic times, a sword had short blades and was closer to a modern dagger and used in hand-tohand fighting

W – X –Y – Z wagon—a wheeled vehicle pulled by animals and used for bearing humans and/or goods. Some Celts were buried with their wagons

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souterrain—an underground passageway or stone-lined trench, which sometimes led to an underground room

votive offerings—devotional offerings to the gods in thanks for the fulfilment of a wish or to ask for divine help

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torques—heavy metal collars, signs of status and wealth, which were believed to offer the wearers divine protection translation—the process of translating text from one language into another

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sacrifice—the killing of a victim as part of an offering to a god during a religious ceremony

Treasury of Athens—Many Greek cities held their gold and silver treasures at Delphi, including the Athenians

Samhain (pronounced ‘Sow-anne’ by the Celts)—the most important of the four main Celtic festivals celebrating the end of the old year and beginning of the new

tribe—a social group composed of numerous families, clans and generations

shrine—a place where devotion is paid to a god, such as the shrine of Apollo in Delphi, where the sick brought offerings to the god, hoping for a cure to their illness. Apollo was the Greek god of healing as well as the god of the sun

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tuath—Irish word meaning ‘kingdom’, which refers to the land ruled by a particular tribe tunic—a knee-length garment for men, worn with a belt. Celtic women wore a similar but longer garment

Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

Unit 1: Ana, a Celtic widow, mourns her husband’s death at his burial – Austria, 650 BC Indicators: Students read text and complete comprehension questions and cloze exercise based on text. Students complete word study exercises in choosing appropriate words, correcting spelling and choosing correct answers. Students learn about different phases of Celtic civilisation, Celtic beliefs about the afterlife and the physical geography of Europe and the Alps.

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Background information:

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This text is a graveside speech. Speeches are the communication of a person’s thoughts in words. There are formal and informal speeches. In this case, this is an informal speech in which Ana mourns for her husband at his burial and prepares to bury his body. Her husband was an important Celtic warrior and is being given a warrior’s burial at Hallstatt in Austria. Ana expresses her personal grief for her husband who has died in his prime leaving her with five children to rear. She expresses the wish that he has a safe journey into the afterlife and she prays to the Celtic god, Danu, to grant her wish for her husband.

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According to some historians, the Iron Age began around 750 BC and lasted until around 50 AD. During the Iron Age, the civilisation we now call the Celts flourished in Europe, using their highly developed metal working skills to make strong iron weapons, sturdy armour and well built war chariots. They also created distinctive artefacts made of bronze, iron and gold. The Celts were the first Pan-European civilisation, spanning the continent of Europe from Galicia in northern Spain to Galatia in Anatolia in modern Turkey and from Scotland in the north to the Po Valley in Italy in the south. Historians believe that the first major phase of Celtic civilisation began around 1000 BC and was a Bronze Age society known as the Urnfield Celts because of their practice of cremating their dead and placing the ashes in cremation urns (vessels in the form of vases used to preserve the ashes of the dead). The second phase of Celtic civilisation was named after Hallstatt in modern Austria and probably began around 750 BC. The people we call the Celts did not think of themselves as ‘Celts’ or as one identifiable group, but historians believe that they shared many characteristics and customs and were linked in many ways. The Celts at Hallstatt in Austria controlled large salt mines, which made them extremely wealthy. Salt was an important commodity in ancient times as it was used to preserve food, was used as a condiment and was also used to cure animal hides. It was so valuable that some ancient societies used it as money and the Latin word for salt, ‘salarium’, developed into the modern word ‘salary’, which means regular wages for work. Salt was a valuable trading commodity for the local Hallstatt people. The word ‘hall’ was the Celtic word for salt and the word ‘statt’ was the Celtic word for ‘place’. Historians believe that the salt mines first attracted attention around 1000 BC during the late Bronze Age. As the Iron Age developed, a settlement developed close to the salt mines. In 1824, an ancient cemetery was discovered nearby containing over 2000 graves and cremation remains dating from the 8th to the 6th century BC. Historians have identified several stages of the Hallstatt settlements, starting with Hallstatt A and B (1200–750 BC) and Hallstatt C (750–600) which coincided with the start of the Iron Age. During Hallstatt D (600–480 BC) the Celts expanded westwards into France.

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Hallstatt was excavated in the 19th century by Johann Georg Ramsauer between 1846 and 1863. A burial ground of over 2000 bodies was found there. About a quarter of the dead were buried with no grave goods at all and were presumed to be the slave labourers of the salt mines. The majority of the dead were probably skilled artisans who were buried with daggers and shoulder ornaments. About five percent of the dead were the elite, probably the male owners of the salt mines, who were buried with a selection of weaponry, ornaments and vessels while the females of the elite were buried with rings, belts, bracelets and headdresses. Historians believe that the Hallstatt C people began to bury their dead by inhumation (burying the body) rather than by cremation, which the previous Hallstatt settlements had done. The dead were buried with pottery and bronze vessels holding food and drink. The wealthiest were buried with a four-wheeled chariot in a timber-lined pit crowned with a barrow, along with other valuable objects such as daggers with iron blades and gold handles.

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As Hallstatt was the first site of the early Celtic Age (750–450 BC) to be excavated, archaeologists advocated that the name should be applied to all sites of that age. Many similar sites have been discovered across Europe in Germany, Hungary, France and Belgium and they reveal a complex and sophisticated civilisation. Although Hallstatt C was founded at the start of the Iron Age, one of its greatest features is the skill of its bronzesmiths. The discovery of copper smelting marked the beginnings of metallurgy, which is the science and technology of metals. The experience of working these metals led to knowledge of other materials. The Celts who developed these metallurgical skills were known as the La Tène Celts (450 BC – 50 AD) and they developed a new style of decoration and art. In 1857 many valuable objects were discovered in a small village called La Tène, which lies on the shores of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland and this village gave its name to these Celts. During the 19th century, the lake was partly drained, revealing that the bed of the lake was scattered with many objects, thought to have been left there by worshippers. The La Tène Celts prospered in Europe from the early 5th century BC and the La Tène style, inspired by images of the natural world, used circles, zigzags, geometric designs and lines that swooped, whorled and looped to create striking expressionistic images.

Worksheet information: Students may wish to use a dictionary when completing Question B in Exercise D. A glossary of keywords and terms relating to the ancient Celts in this particular unit is provided on pages viii – xi for teacher reference. Many of them appear in Question 1 in Exercise E. Students will find it beneficial to check the glossary as they work through the unit. Detailed footnotes for the text in Exercise A have also been provided to assist in comprehension of Celtic terms.

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Teachers notes

Answers: Exercise C......................................... page 6 was, because, dead, Celtic, shore, objects, some, obvious, centuries, belief, air, society, carried, warriors, laid, burial, prince, excavated, many, symbols, pleasant, beautiful, goddesses, gift

Austrian town of Hallein, which means ‘saltwork’. Hallein is near the famous Austrian city of Salzburg, which means ‘salt town’. The body was found with a pickaxe close by. He was bearded and wearing trousers, a woollen jacket, leather shoes and a conical-shaped hat. He was bearded and those who found his body were amazed at his brightly coloured clothing. An article in the Saltzburg Chronicle stated ‘a man who was 9 hand spans in length, with flesh, legs, hair, beard and clothing in a state of non decay, was dug out of the mountain’, and went on to say that his body had not decayed. 3. lies, conquered, mountainous, tallest, eastern, several, metres, rivers, Black, length 4. (a) v, (b) vii, (c) viii, (d) x, (e) i, (f) iii, (g) ix, (h) ii, (i) iv, (j) vi

r o e t s Bo r e p ok u S Exercise D......................................... page 7 1. (1) armour (2) leather (3) stitching (4) iron (5) eagle (6) torque (7) bronze (8) tunic (9) woollen (10) shield (11) shears (12) trumpet 2. extremely, preserve, burial, Austria, people, quarter, labourers, shoulder, buried, ornaments 3. (a) i, (b) i, (c) ii, (d) iii, (e) i, (f) ii. Exercise E................................... pages 8–9 1. Teacher check 2. The burial site at Hallstatt was well-preserved due to it being close to an ancient salt mine. In 1573, the body of a man was dug out of the Dornberg mountain mine close to the

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Exercise B......................................... page 5 1. Ana says that the Celts viewed the afterlife, which they called the Otherworld, as a delightful place of great beauty, filled with green forests and sparkling rivers. 2. Her husband died suddenly in the space of two weeks despite all the efforts of the doctors. 3. His tomb has been equipped with a specially made chariot and food, wine, clothes, weapons and jewellery have been placed in it. 4. Six metres high and sixty metres wide 5.–6. Teacher check 7. His appearance. She has told the servants to put a mirror and shears into his tomb so that he can trim his beard and moustache. 8. The Celtic goddess Danu was their mother-goddess and ruled over water. A statue of Danu has been found in a baby’s grave in Cambridgeshire, England. 9. Teacher check 10. (b), (c), (e), (f) and (h) should be ticked

Cross-curricular activities:

Students may find it useful to view information about the area of Hallstatt where salt is still being mined today. There is information at <www. visit-salzburg.net/surroundings/hallstatt.htm>. Hallstatt is on the World Heritage List of the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) which lists areas of special importance which are protected at <http://whc.unesco.org/en/list>. Students may also wish to find out more about the La Tène excavations and culture. Visit <http://www.latene.com/background.html/>. Students can find out more about the work of archaeologists at <http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/archaeology/>.

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The La Tène Celts were masters of art and design. Students can see images of some of their work at the ‘Images from History’ site at <http:// www.hp.uab.edu/image_archive/uj/ujk.html>.

Curriculum links

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Society and Environment

English

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

Vic.

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

State

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Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise A: Reading

Ana, a Celtic widow, mourns her husband’s death at his burial – Austria, 650 BC

My beloved husband, I stand here with our five children ready to send you on your last journey.

We are gathered here to wish you well. I have shed enough tears now and I must say goodbye to you for the moment. I send you into the afterlife1 with my best hopes that you will travel there in peace and arrive there safely. Our view of the Otherworld is that it is a delightful place of great beauty, filled with green forests and sparkling rivers. Those who reach there enjoy good food and enchanting music and all sickness is banished. It will comfort me to know that you are waiting for me there.

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You are well equipped for your journey. The carpenters have spent days building you a special four-wheeled wagon that will accompany you to the afterlife. We have spent the morning following your wagon to your burial place here. This has been placed upright and in one piece in your burial chamber2. In the sad and lonely days to come, I will close my eyes and think of you riding your wagon to meet me when it is time for me to join you there. I still cannot believe that you fell ill and died so quickly, all in the space of two weeks, despite the best efforts of the doctors in preparing many herbal medicines for you to take. They could not save you and I can only believe that the Otherworld was calling you and that you had to go. I pledge to you that our children will grow up to honour you. Your three sons will follow in your footsteps and become brave warriors, while your two daughters will marry brave warriors.

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I have ordered our servants to place five joints of pork and ten flagons of wine in your tomb. I have told them to place your golden drinking horns and your Greek bronze dishes on your wagon so that you can eat and drink as you did in this life. You will lie on a bronze couch with your sword at your side as you travel into the Otherworld. Your daggers lie beside you, as does your wooden and leather shield. The weavers have made you a long-sleeved tunic, woollen trousers and a heavy woollen cloak to protect you from the cold. Your golden torque3 is around your neck, as you wore it in this life and you are wearing your favourite shoes, the ones decorated with gold4 on your feet. I have told our servants to put a bronze mirror and small shears into the tomb so that you can trim your hair and your moustache, as I know you were always very particular about your appearance in this life and will continue to be in the next. The slaves are now ready to pile a mound of earth over six metres high and sixty metres wide over your wooden burial chamber, which will be visible from our house. I will think of you every day, my love, and I will pray every night to the goddess5, Danu, to protect you on your journey. I now place this small statue of her in your hands. She protected me when I had our children. She is the goddess of love and I will pray that she will protect you as you are my one and only love. Farewell, for now. 4

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. 1. What is the Celtic view of the Otherworld, as described by Ana, at her husband’s

burial? 2. Why does Ana say that she cannot believe that her husband died so quickly?

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3. Why does Ana say that her husband is well prepared for the afterlife?

5. Why, in your opinion, does Ana say that their three sons will be warriors and

their two daughters will marry warriors? What do you think this reveals about Celtic society in the 7th BC?

6. Why do you think Ana is comforted by the thought that her husband is waiting

in the afterlife?

7. What does Ana say her husband was always very particular about in life? Why

do you know this?

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8. Who was the goddess Danu and what did she rule over? Have archaeologists

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discovered any primary sources connected with this goddess?

10. Read the following statements and tick those that are correct.

4. A Celtic prince buried at Hochdorf (in modern Germany) around 525 BC was probably buried wearing shoes decorated with gold as decorated gold bands were found on the remains of his feet when his tomb was excavated.

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9. Why do you think wagons and chariots were so important to the Celts?

3. Torques are the best known items of Celtic jewellery today and were very popular with all Celts, who wore them as symbols of their status in society. They also believed that torques offered the wearers divine protection from harm. Solid gold torques with detailed decorations were very valuable and indicators of high status.

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2. Wagons and chariots were important symbols to the Celts, even after death, as not only did they transport bodies to graves and into the next life, they were also indications of high status. Some burial sites have revealed wagons taken to pieces, with the wheels laid on their sides and with the body laid on top of them. A Celtic noblewoman’s grave discovered at Vix in France has this arrangement. In other sites, the wagon has been buried standing upright and in one piece.

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4. How high and wide will the burial mound be when the slaves have finished it?

1. The many grave goods found in Celtic burial sites such as Hallstatt provide evidence that the Celts believed in an afterlife. At certain times during their development, the Celts practiced inhumation by burying bodies with their worldly goods, showing a belief in a bodily afterlife, sometimes known as the Otherworld. At other times, they practiced cremation, showing a belief in what classical authors called metempsychosis, a belief that on death the soul is released into the air, perhaps to pass into another body. Roman observers of the Celts; e.g. in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, suggested that they believed that their souls lived on after death, sometimes passing from one body to another.

(a) The Celts did not believe in an afterlife........................................................ (b) Warriors were important to the Celts and were sometimes buried with their chariots............................................................................................. (c) The Celtic afterlife was called the Otherworld............................................... (d Celts were buried at sea and never on land................................................. (e) The Celtic goddess Danu was associated with water gifts and ruled love....... (f) The Danube River was named after the Celtic god Danu............................... (g) The best-known item of Celtic jewellery today is the golden wristband.......... (h) Celtic doctors prepared herbal medicines in order to help their patients.........

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Literacy and history – The Celts

5. The Celts worshipped many gods and goddesses and while some Celtic gods were worshipped throughout the Celtic world, many others were local gods that were only worshipped in certain regions. Certain places were also worshipped by the Celts, as were animals, trees, hills and rivers. Danu was the mother goddess of the continental Celts. She was associated with water and the Celts believed that she created a river, often identified as the Danube. Danu was similar to the Roman goddess Venus as she represented love and fertility. The Celts sometimes buried her image with the dead as they believed she gave protection as the soul journeyed to the Otherworld. A small statue of Danu was found in the grave of a young baby in Cambridgeshire in England. This kind of evidence is called a primary source by archaeologists. 5

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word Bank

air was excavated beautiful

some Celtic objects carried

because laid many goddesses

dead burial symbols gift

shore prince society belief

centuries obvious

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pleasant warriors

The Celts were the first Pan-European civilisation. They flourished in Europe during the Iron Age. The earliest phase of their civilisation when the Urnfield people lived in Europe, so called

they buried the ashes

of their dead in urns. Urns are special vessels, in the form of vases on pedestals, which were used to preserve the remains of the

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. The Urnfield people were late Bronze Age Celts and their culture probably began around 1000

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BC. The next phase of Celtic civilisation occurred during the early Iron Age, 750–450 BC, and is usually named after the Hallstatt Celts, Hallstatt, in modern Austria, where archaeologists discovered the burial grounds of over 2000 people buried close to salt mines. ‘Hall’ was the

word for salt and ‘statt’ was the Celtic word for place. The La Tène period was

the high point of Celtic civilisation and lasted from about 450 BC to 50 AD. La Tène was the name of a small village, located on the

of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland, where a large number of

discovered in 1857. The La Tène Celts were skilled metalworkers and

were

of the most beautiful artefacts

created by the Celts come from this period.

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i on s from the large number of goods found buried with the dead in graves. Roman observers of the Celts in the 1st and 2nd suggested • f o r r e v i e w p u r p o s e s o n l y • that they may have believed in a process called metempsychosis. Metempsychosis is a that, at

The Celts held a strong belief in an afterlife. Evidence of this is

death, the person’s soul is released into the

to pass into another’s body. The Celts did not write any

descriptions of their

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or their beliefs, therefore we have to rely on accounts and on the evidence provided

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by artefacts. Wagons and chariots were very important to the Celts as they indicated high status and were used to carry bodies to their graves and into the afterlife. Some wheels

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were buried with their wagons taken to pieces, with the

on their sides and with the bodies laid on top. Other

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sites have

revealed the wagon or chariot buried standing upright and in one piece. A burial site at Hochdorf, now in Germany, included a Celtic probably buried with his shoes. When his tomb was

, decorated gold

bands were found on the remains of his feet.

Jewellery was often buried with the dead and

gold and silver objects have been found. Torques,

which were heavy metal collars, usually made of gold or silver and decorated with Celtic designs, were important status for the Celts. The Celts believed that torques gave their wearers divine protection. The Celts believed that the afterlife was a

place, which they called the Otherworld. Those who lived in the Otherworld

enjoyed feasts of good food and

music. They believed that those living in the Otherworld did not

suffer from pain or illnesses. The Celts believed that it was a place of great beauty, with many forests and rivers. They worshipped many gods and

, with many of their gods only worshipped within a local region, being associated with

animals, trees and rivers. Danu was the mother-goddess of the Celts and she was associated with water. The Celts believed that her to them was the Danube River. 6

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise D: Word study exercises 1.

You are married to a Celtic warrior who is about to go into battle. You are ordering your slaves to arrange your husband’s armour and equipment. Read the following paragraph and choose 12 words from the list underneath in order to complete the paragraph. The number of letters in the missing words is indicated by the number of dashes.

‘You will go and fetch my husband’s

and polish it before you present it to him. I want him to wear his

(1)

sandals and his leather knee guards. The (3)

(2)

in one of his sandals has loosened.

Have the slave girl in the kitchen sew it securely before he puts it on. I want him to wear his (4) bronze decorative

(5)

on the top. He will be wearing his heavy gold

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protection from evil. Also bring his (7) with his heavy

(8)

(6)

helmet with the

so that the gods will give him

wristbands. I want him to wear his tartan leggings and his long-sleeved

-cloak. Make sure that they have been washed and thoroughly dried before

(9)

he puts them on. He will be bringing his new rectangular (10)

, as well as his iron sword and his daggers. They

are to be cleaned and polished. Now, fetch the barber and tell him to bring the bronze mirror and (11)

with him.

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My husband will not go into battle unless he looks good. I want the barber to apply lime into his hair when he has cut it so he regards as lucky and likes to blow while riding into battle.’ eagle armour

bronze woollen

torque shears

trumpet iron

shield leather

stitching tunic

, which

Read the following short passage on the Hallstatt Celts and correct the spelling mistakes. There are ten spelling mistakes in the passage. Write your corrections underneath. You may need to consult a dictionary to check the correct spellings of the words.

The Hallstatt Celts controlled large salt mines, making them extremly wealthy at a time when salt was needed to perserve food. Archaeologists discovered the buriel grounds of over 2000 people at Hallstatt in Austtria in 1824. ‘Hall’ was the Celtic word for salt and ‘statt’ was the Celltic word for place. The early European Celts, who lived from around 750 to 450 BC, were called the Hallstatt Celts after these peopel. A qaurter of the dead were buried without any funeral goods and were presumed to be the remains of the mine’s slave laybourers. The majority of the dead were buried with their daggers and shouldir ornaments. About five percent of the dead were bureyd with a large amount of grave goods, such as weapons for the males and ornements and jewellery for the women.

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Circle the correct answers in the following statements.

(e) At Hallstatt, the remains of over 2000 people (i) were buried in a singe stone tomb. (ii) were discovered buried near a salt mine in 1824. (b) The Urnfield Celts got their name (iii) were burned in a because they ceremonial sacrifice. (f) (i) buried the ashes of their dead in urns. (d) The Hallstatt Celts lived in (ii) buried their dead in urn- (i) the early Bronze Age. shaped graves. (ii) the early Christian (iii) buried their dead in graves Period. marked by urns. (iii) the early Iron Age.

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that it is spiky and sticks out at the side, underneath his helmet. Also, do not forget his bronze (12)

(a) The Hallstatt Celts were a group (c) of people who lived in (i) the Middle East. (ii) South America. (iii) central Europe.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

The La Tène Celts were named after (i) a small village on the shores of Lake Neuchâtel. (ii) a small town on the slopes of the Alps. (iii) a small lake in Switzerland. The La Tène Celts were highly skilled (i) musicians who wrote many songs. (ii) metalworkers who designed and made artefacts. (iii) poets who wrote many poems. 7

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1. Read these keywords/terms, which occur throughout the unit and use them in sentences.

(a) afterlife: An existence after death, which many ancient civilisations, including the Celts, strongly believed in.

(b) Celts: An Iron Age civilisation, sharing a common culture that stretched across Europe from Portugal to Turkey and from Scotland in the north to Italy in the south.

(e) Hallstatt: Archaeological site in Austria, excavated between 1846 and 1899, which gave its name to the earliest Celts.

(f) inhumation: Practice of burying a corpse in a tomb or in the ground.

(g) Otherworld: The name given to the Celtic afterlife, a heaven with hunting, feasting and no pain or sickness.

(h) torques: Heavy metal collars, signs of status and wealth, which were believed to offer the wearers divine protection.

(i) tunic: A knee-length garment for men, worn with a belt. Celtic women wore a similar but much longer garment.

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(d) Danu: The mother-goddess of the Celts, she was associated with water and was believed to have created the Danube River.

(j)

their wagons.

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Punctuation means to apply a set of marks to a piece of writing in order to clarify its meaning. There are several kinds of punctuation marks. Full stops, commas and inverted commas are among the most common. Read the following short passage, about the discovery of the remains of Celtic salt miners in Austria, and punctuate it correctly, placing full stops, commas and inverted commas. There should be 6 full stops, 10 commas and 3 sets of inverted commas in the passage. Check the ‘Guide to punctuation’ underneath the passage to help you choose correctly.

The burial site at Hallstatt was well-preserved due to it being close to an ancient salt mine. In 1573 the body of a man was dug out of the Dornberg mountain mine close to the Austrian town of Hallein which means saltwork Hallein is near the famous Austrian city of Salzburg which means salt town The body was found with a pickaxe close by He was bearded and wearing trousers a woollen jacket leather shoes and a conical-shaped hat He was bearded and those who found his body were amazed at his brightly coloured clothing An article in the Saltzburg Chronicle stated that a man 9 hand spans in length with flesh legs hair beard and clothing in a state of non decay was dug out of the mountain, and went on to say that his body had not decayed

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Guide to punctuation: Full stops: marks the end of a sentence; e.g. Salt was a valuable commodity in ancient times. It can also mark an abbreviation (when a word is shortened); e.g. Students study Eng. Hist. and Geog. Commas: used mainly to separate words or word groups within a sentence; e.g. The Hallstatt Celts traded salt with their neighbours for goods such as pottery, glassware, wine and precious gems. Inverted commas: used to punctuate direct speech; e.g. A spokesman said ‘They worked extremely hard in the salt mines’.

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 3.

Read the following paragraph on the physical geography of Austria. There are 10 spelling mistakes in the paragraph. Identify them and write the correct spellings underneath. You may need to use your dictionary to complete this exercise.

Austria is a European country that lyes north of Italy and Slovenia and south of Germany and the Czech Republic. Austria was home to many Celtic tribes until the Romans conqered the area south of the Danube River in 14 BC and it became part of the Roman Empire. Austria is a mountanous country, with a mountain range called the Alps covering more than two-thirds of its land area. The talest mountain in the Alps is called Mont Blanc. It is 4807 metres high and is located in south-eastren France on the border with Italy. There are severel other very high mountains in the Alps, such as the Matterhorn, which is 4477 meetres high, the Eiger, which is 3970 metres high and the Jungfrau, which is 4166 metres high. The Danube River is one of Europe’s great riveres. The capital city of Austria, Vienna, lies on the Danube. It flows from Southern Germany into the Blak Sea. It is 2850 kilometres in lenth.

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10.

Can you match the following statements so that they make sense?

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(a) The Alps is a mountain range that

(i) called Mont Blanc and is located in south-eastern France.

(b) The great European river, the Danube,

(ii) believed strongly in the afterlife.

(iii) excavated between 1846 and 1899. © R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons (d) Austria is a very mountainous country (iv) of their proximity to the ancient salt mines there. • f o r r e v i e w p u r p osesonl y• because (c) The Brenner Pass is very important as it connects

(f) Hallstatt, a burial site near ancient salt mines, was

(vi) offers excellent skiing facilities in its Alpine regions.

(g) The Celts of the late Bronze and early Iron Ages are

(vii) flows across northern Austria.

(h) Evidence from the Hallstatt site shows that the Celts

(viii) Austria with Italy.

(i) The bodies at Hallstatt were wellpreserved because

(ix) known as the Hallstatt Celts.

(j) Austria is very popular with tourists as it

(x) two-thirds of its land mass is covered by the Alps.

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Discussion points

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(v) crosses Europe from eastern France to western Hungary.

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(e) The highest mountain in the Alps is

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The Celts were great innovators. They were the first Pan-Europeans, living across a vast area of Europe. They developed the first organised agriculture in northern Europe. They introduced wheat to northern Spain. They were master metalworkers. They introduced the use of iron into much of western Europe, including the iron chain and the iron sword. They also invented the seamless iron rim for wheels, the barrel and the horseshoe. Some historians believe that they may have been the first people in Europe to ride horses. The Celts worshipped nature and many of their gods and goddesses were gods of rivers, lakes and forests. However, they did not leave us direct written sources to help us understand them. Discuss the inventions of the Celts and, in particular, the introduction of iron and their contribution to European life and culture. Discuss the Pan-European nature of Celtic society. Discuss the beliefs of the Celts and, in particular, their worship of nature. Hold a class debate on the difficulties of researching the Celts because of the lack of direct written evidence by them.

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Teachers notes

Unit 2: Calgacus, a Celtic silversmith, gives an interview – northern Italy, 370 BC Indicators: Students read text and complete comprehension and cloze exercises based on text. Students complete word study exercises in choosing correct words and identifying correct answers. Students learn about the Celts in northern Italy, the skills of Celtic metalworkers, Celtic coins, La Tène art and the science of metallurgy,

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Background information:

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This text is a dialogue. A newspaper journalist, Riothamus, is conducting an interview with Calgacus, a Celtic silversmith. Calgacus is describing his work, his approach to design and some of his recent commissions. The La Tène Celts first developed their distinctive art and designs around 500 BC. The artwork of this period is extremely important as it is one of the main sources of our knowledge about the Celts before the coming of the Romans. Celtic artists created beautiful bronze artefacts, inspired by Celtic beliefs in the sacredness of the natural world. The La Tène period reached its height in the second century BC. La Tène artists created gold amulets with decorative beading in the form of nuts, berries and twigs; cauldrons and shields with intricate designs incorporating human and animal faces; and swords, scabbards and armour decorated with swirling patterns and animals such as dragons. Celtic sculptors created sculptures in stone, metal and wood, creating stylised human heads. The Celts began to settle in northern Italy around 400 BC where they lived in the broad valley of the Po River. We have to rely on Roman historians for information on the tribes that settled here as the Celts recorded very little written information. According to Roman sources, the Insubres tribe arrived first and settled in the western part of the valley, establishing a settlement called Mediolanum (now modern Milan) by the Romans. Other tribes, the Boii and the Cenomani, settled further west and the Senones settled along the Adriatic coast. The arrival of the Celts threatened the survival of the Etruscans, who had lived in this part of northern Italy and they were forced to retreat behind the Appennine Mountains. The Boii took over the Etruscan city of Felsina (modern Bologna). The Senones tribe, led by Brennus, continued to lay siege to the Etruscans, forcing their way into the city of Clusium (modern Chiusi). The Etruscans asked the Romans to assist them and the Senones found themselves attacked by two forces. They were so angry that they marched on Rome in 391 BC and sacked the city. The Romans had to pay the Senones a huge amount of money to persuade them to leave the city. The Romans, who were beginning to build their empire at this time, never forgot this humiliating defeat at the hands of the Celts and vowed to exact revenge for it. The Italian Celts lived in an area named by the Romans as Cisalpine Gaul, which comprised the prosperous northern region of modern Italy and consisted of the Po Valley and its mountains from the Apennines to the Alps. Roman writers, such as Livy, described how different Celtic tribes, beginning with the Insubres, migrated into the Po Valley. These Roman accounts of Celtic societies in northern Italy are compatible with archaeological evidence in the region. After 200 BC, the Celtic way of life in Cisalpine Gaul was replaced by the Roman way of life and few traces of the Italian Celts remained. However, archaeological evidence has revealed much information, such as evidence of Iron Age warrior graves in Piedmont and Lombardy. The Celts were introduced to wine making by the Greeks who traded with them along the Rhone River. Trade with the Greeks also introduced the Celts to one of the innovations of the Iron Age, that of coinage. The Celts became familiar with coinage as booty (goods seized from enemies in war) and as payment to Celtic mercenary fighters (soldiers who sell their fighting skills to foreigners). By the middle of the 3rd century BC, some Celts began to produce their own coinage. Early Celtic coins were usually produced in mainland Europe on the orders of Celtic kings and princes. The adoption of coinage by the Celts, instead of merely acquiring the valuable metals in quantity, caused major economic and political changes in the Celtic world, as the Celts were primarily farmers and for centuries cattle had been the most important means of exchangeable wealth. In Germany, non-precious metals such as iron ingots (iron cast into a convenient shape for storage or transportation) were also used and in Celtic Britain, iron bars were used. When the Celts began to strike their own coins, they copied the coinage of the Greeks, such as that of Philip II of Macedon (382–336 BC), the father of Alexander the Great, and the coins produced by the Greek colony of Massalia (modern Marseilles) in France. In the Celtic regions of southern Europe, such as southern France and the Po Valley in northern Italy, silver was the chief metal used. In the northern Celtic regions, gold was preferred. The design of Celtic coins developed from simply copying the typical Greek designs, such as a portrait as used on the coins of Philip II to complicated abstract designs using elements of Celtic symbolism such as horses, trumpets and wheels. Celtic coins were well designed and well made, with careful and painstaking workmanship. The Nervii, a Celtic tribe in Belgium, produced gold coins with abstract designs, influenced by the coins of the German Celts, who produced distinctive gold coins with abstract designs on saucer-shaped flans of metal known as ‘rainbow-cup’ coins. The Celts who followed the Hallstatt Celts continued this tradition of skilled metalworking and developed a new style of decoration and art which has given its name to another phase of Celtic civilisation, which is called La Tène (450 BC – 50 AD.) The naming of this phase of Celtic civilisation occurred when many valuable objects were discovered in La Tène in Switzerland in 1857. La Tène is a small village which lies on the shores of Lake Neuchâtel. During the 19th century, the lake was partly drained, revealing that the bed of the lake was scattered with 270 spears, 170 swords, jewellery and some human and animal bones. These objects were thought to have been left there as votive offerings to the gods by devout worshippers. The La Tène Celts prospered in Europe from the early 5th century BC and the LaTène style, inspired by images of the natural world, used circles, zigzags, geometric designs and lines that swooped, whorled and looped to create striking expressionistic images. La Tène art produced during the La Tène period (450 BC – 50 AD) was when Celtic artists created their most distinctive art and designs. At first, they adapted earlier motifs (features that recur repeatedly in a design) such as tendrils, buds and lyres from Greek artists, but later they began to develop the loose and flowing designs and swirling patterns that characterise La Tène art. Winding tendrils sometimes half-hid human faces and animals also featured strongly in the designs. Iron swords and scabbards were decorated with elaborate abstract designs.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

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Teachers notes

Worksheet information: Students may find it useful to look at an atlas of Europe in order to locate the Po Valley in northern Italy. Students may need to use dictionaries to complete Question 1 in Exercise E. Students completing Question 2 and Question 3A in Exercise E may need to use dictionaries. A glossary of keywords and terms relating to the ancient Celts in this particular unit is provided on pages viii – xi for teacher reference. Many of them appear on Question 1 in Exercise E. Students will find it beneficial to check the glossary as they work through the unit. Detailed footnotes for the text in Exercise A have also been provided to assist in comprehension of Celtic terms.

Answers:

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8. He says it is to achieve the same skills as his father and to be accepted as a master craftsman and be admitted into the elite group of the clan. 9. (a), (c) (d), (g) and (h) should be ticked.

Exercise C....................................... page 14 valley, Europe, been, human, from, surface, silver, called, used, handles, spears, weapons, time, jewellery, bows, evidence, designs, Europe, regions, being, name Exercise D....................................... page 15 1. (1) torques (2) wife (3) well (4) everything (5) impressed (6) winter (7) cold (8) other (9) six (10) amber (11) reward (12) fine. 2. (a) metalworkers (b) evidence (c) workmanship (d) bronze (e) torque (f) rings

(g) designs (h) swirls (i) brooches (j) fibulae (k) ring-shaped (l) Tara (a) ii, (b) iii, (c) iii, (d) ii, (e) iii, (f) i

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Exercise B....................................... page 13 1. Calgacus was born in Mediolanum and the modern name for this city is Milan. 2. He makes silver jewellery such as torques and bracelets, silver cauldrons and silver coins. 3. Master craftsmen were admitted into an elite group within the clan. Other members included poets, jurists, doctors, musicians and druids and it had very high status within the clan. 4. Teacher check 5. From the age of three, he spent every day in his father’s workshop, watching him and the other workmen. 6. The Celtic goddess of fire was Brigit and the festival of Imbolc on 1 February was associated with her. 7. (a) His most difficult commission was to design a new silver coin for the chieftain. (b) Teacher check

Exercise E............................... pages 16–17 1. Teacher check 2. (1) northern (2) valley (3) early (4) during. (5) chieftains (6) south (7) raids (8) which (9) occupied (10) Romans (11) numerous (12) buried 3. (1) important (2) make (3) crust (4) pure (5) added (6) stronger (7) shiny (8) oxygen (9) thousands (10) good (11) closely (12) except 4. (a) ii, (b) iii, (c) ii, (d) iii, (e) iii, (f) ii, (g) iii, (h) i, (i) ii, (j) i

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Cross-curricular activities:

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Students should look at images of La Tène art and choose an item. Students write a report on it, saying when and where it was made and describing the techniques used in its creation. Students can design a Celtic coin of their own, using designs inspired by the Celts. It may be useful for students to find examples of ancient coinage in order to complete this activity. A good website with images of Celtic coins, is <http://www.finds.org.uk/CCI/gallery.php>.

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Curriculum links

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Society and Environment

English

Science

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

NPM 4, EC 4

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

ESS 3.6, PSS 3.5

Vic.

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

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Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

NPM 4.1, NPM 4.3

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

4.7

State

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise A: Reading Our leading reporter, Riothamus, interviews Calgacus of Mediolanum, one of the finest young silversmiths in the Celtic world today.

The Cisalpine Chronicle,15 January 370 BC Riothamus: So, Calgacus, tell me something about your background and training. Calgacus: I was born in Mediolanum1 where my father was also a metalworker. He specialised in making gold torques2 and was known to be the best torque maker in our area.

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Riothamus: Where did you learn your trade?

Calgacus: Well, obviously from my father and also from the men who worked with him in his workshop. From the age of three, I spent almost every day in the workshop, watching and learning from them.

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Riothamus: Have you also specialised in the making of golden torques, like your father?

Riothamus: What have you been working on recently?

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Calgacus: I make torques but I specialise in silver rather than gold. I also make other silver objects such as cauldrons, bracelets and now I am making silver coins for the clan. I find it more interesting to vary my skills and take on new commissions from time to time. This ensures that my skills don’t get dated and I can work with new designs. Calgacus: I have just been given a new commission by the chief druid who wants me to create a silver torque for him to wear at the ceremonies for the feast of Imbolc3, which we will be celebrating soon. Riothamus: Where do you get your ideas for your designs?

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons He has• asked me to design av thick, twisted torque with detailed decorations of n flowers, leaves f o r r e i e wsilverp ur p os eso l y •and young birds intertwined with some spirals symbolising the sun and the moon. As you know, the feast of Imbolc celebrates

Calgacus: Well, in the case of this commission, the chief druid has described to me exactly what he wants. Riothamus: And what does he want? Calgacus:

Riothamus: Can you tell me what has been your most difficult commission so far?

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the coming of spring and is associated with the goddess Brigit, the goddess of fire. The chief druid also wants me to include shooting flames in this design to honour our goddess, Brigit.

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Calgacus: Yes, I was asked to design a new silver coin for use in this region with the portrait of our chieftain on the front and an abstract design showing features of the god of the sea, Manannan, who rides the waves in his chariot, on the back. I found it quite difficult to complete the portrait of the chieftain and was worried that he wouldn’t like it. The reverse side was difficult too, as I was asked to design curved shapes that represented the waves of the sea as they rose with the power of the sea god as he sailed across the Mediterranean. It was a very demanding commission but I think I succeeded.

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Riothamus: And was the chieftain pleased with his portrait on the coin?

Calgacus: Yes, very pleased! In fact, he has recently asked me to design another coin for use here.

Riothamus: Your work has been described as the best in Mediolanum and many people from beyond the Alps seek to trade their valuable cattle for one of your silver pieces. Does this please you? Calgacus: Of course! It especially pleases me that my reputation is as good as my father’s. In his day too, his torques were considered the best in this region and even kings sought to own them. He has gone to the Otherworld now but I know he is proud of me and of my work. He was the best teacher anyone could have and he taught me well. He still watches over me. Riothamus: You may be right there. Your father’s reputation spread far beyond the valley of the Po and still lives today. I heard that he was admitted to the Aos Dana, the highest group in the clan4, before he died. Is that true? Calgacus: Yes, and it will be my life’s ambition to achieve as much as my father and be admitted into this group also. Riothamus: I think you will succeed. Thank you for your time today, Calgacus. It was an interesting insight into your work. 12

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. 1.

Where was Calgacus born? What is the modern name for his birthplace?

What kind of pieces of jewellery does Calgacus make?

Calgacus’s father was highly regarded and was admitted into an elite group within the clan. Who was admitted into this group and what status did it have in the clan?

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Describe Calgacus’s latest commission, in your own words.

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Where did Calgacus learn his trade?

Who was the Celtic goddess of fire and what important Celtic feast was she associated with?

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(a) Has Calgacus ever had a difficult commission?

(b) Describe his difficulties in your own words.

What does Calgacus say is his life’s ambition?

city of Milan in northern Italy............................... (b) The Celts celebrated three major religious

festivals during the year..................................... (c) The Italian Celts settled in the Po Valley around

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(e) Torques were heavy golden chains worn around

the waist........................................................... (f) The Otherworld was where Celtic gods and

goddesses lived................................................. (g) The Celts believed that wearing a torque gave

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(a) Mediolanum is the Roman name given to the

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400 BC............................................................. (d) The Celts of the La Tène period were highly

skilled metalworkers..........................................

divine protection................................................ (h) Master craftsmen in Celtic Ireland were admitted into an elite group called the ‘Aos Dana’.............

1. Mediolanum is the Roman name for Milan, a city in northern Italy which was founded by the Insubres tribe and who came to northern Italy around 400 BC, and settled in the western area of the Po Valley. 2. Torques were thick necklaces, which were made of a single piece of metal or several thick wires bent almost into a circle and worn around the neck with the ends at the front. Torques could be made of gold, silver, bronze and sometimes iron. Their decoration ranged from simple twisting of thinner torques to detailed surface decoration of thicker torques. The ends, known as terminals, were sometimes enlarged and jewellers attached elaborately shaped animals to them. Wearing a solid gold torque may have shown that the wearer was an important warrior or a person of noble status and was believed to give them divine protection. The skilful metalworkers of the La Tène Celts created elaborate and intricate designs and many beautiful artefacts. 3. The festival of Imbolc was one of four major festivals celebrated by the Celts. It was celebrated on 1 February and anticipated the lengthening of daylight as the season of spring arrived. It was associated with the Celtic goddess Brigit, the firegoddess, and continued into Christian times as the festival of St Brigid. The other major festivals were Samhain, celebrated on 1 November, Bealtaine, celebrated on 1 May and Lunasa, celebrated on 1 August. Samhain is still celebrated today in many countries on 31 October as Halloween. 4. Celtic society was tribal and was based on the family, with kings and high-kings as overall rulers. The Celts admitted master craftsmen into an elite group, which also included poets, jurists, doctors, musicians and druids. This group were considered to be very high in status within the clan (family). In Celtic Ireland, this elite group were known as the ‘Men of Art’ or Aos Dana. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word Bank called from spears

Europe Europe weapons

name surface time

been silver jewellery

human designs valley

being used bows

regions handles evidence

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Celtic settlers began to live in the Po Valley in northern Italy around 400 BC. According to Roman commentators, the Insubres tribe were the first to arrive there, settling in the western part of the

and establishing a settlement called Mediolanum.

The Italian Celts lived and worked in Italy at the height of the La Tène period, which flourished in

around

seen in many beautiful artefacts produced by them, which have

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450 BC and continued until around 50 AD. The La Tène Celts were highly skilled metalworkers and evidence of their skills can be identified as being from this period. An

artefact is an object such as a tool or an ornament, which shows

skill in its design and in its figurative

or abstract decoration.

Celtic metalworkers made items such as torques, which could be made of gold, silver or bronze and sometimes iron. They ranged thin, twisted silver torques to thick golden torques with detailed

decoration.

The ends of the torques, known as the terminals, were sometimes enlarged, with animal shapes attached to them. Celtic men and women wore bracelets, rings and wristbands made of gold,

called penannular brooches and were ring-shaped. Celtic metalworkers also made cauldrons, which were large kettles or pots. Some cauldrons were

for cooking and some were used for holding drinks such as beer. Decorated flagons,

which were containers for liquids with

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, spouts and lids, were used to serve wine at the feasts of the

wealthier Celts. They created horns and trumpets to announce the beginning of ceremonies and festivals, and as Celtic warriors began a raid on their enemies. Celtic metalworkers also made weapons for warriors, such as

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and swords. They made their strong iron

from iron ore, which was often mined in marshy or wooded

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areas. The earlier Celts worked with bronze, but by the

of the La Tène Celts, iron was used to make

weapons and bronze was usually used to decorate weapons and to make The Celts in Gaul (France) also used

, shields

and household implements.

and arrows, according to the Roman general, Julius Caesar, who

wrote about the Celts in eight books called the Commentaries on the Gallic war. The Celts may also have used slingshots as weapons and archaeological

of these has been discovered. Around the 3rd century BC, the Celts also began

to use coins and make their own coinage, copying with other regions in

from Greek coins they encountered as they traded

. Early Celtic coins were produced on the orders of kings and princes. In the Celtic

regions of the north, gold coins were preferred while in the southern preferred. Master craftsmen who were recognised as

, such as Italy, silver coins were the best in their craft were sometimes admitted

into an elite group of poets, jurists, doctors, musicians and druids. In Celtic Ireland the

for this group

was Aos Dana and the word meant the ‘Men of Art’. 14

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise D: Word study exercises 1. You are a Celtic metalworker. The wife of an important chieftain has come to offer you a new commission. She wants

you to create some items of jewellery as gifts for the king of the tribe. Read the following passage and circle the correct twelve words from the choices offered in bold throughout the passage. There are 12 correct words to be chosen. You may need to use your dictionary to complete this exercise. I want you to make three (1)torques/torches/tortillas of the finest gold, one for the king, one for his (2)aunt/mother/wife, Queen Meabh, and one for his seven-year-old daughter, Princess Niamh. It is very important that his daughter’s torque is made especially

badly/well/carelessly as she is the apple of his eye. He watches over her like a hawk, checking

(3)

nothing/everything/something that she is given, even gifts. I want him to be (5)depressed/impressed/surprised by my gifts

(4)

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and by the quality of your workmanship. I also want you to make each of them a golden armband inscribed with decorations showing circles and spirals. I want to bring them new brooches for their cloaks as it is now (6)winter/summer/spring and they will surely be wearing them to protect themselves from the bitter (7)heat/cold/sun here in the Alps. I want you to make two types of brooches for each of them, one in the fibulae (pin) style and the (8)latter/former/other in the pennanular (ring-

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shaped) style. I want these (9)four/seven/six brooches to be made of silver and bronze. I also want you to make earrings for the

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queen. I want them made of gold and amber, as I have been told that (10)diamond/amber/emerald is her favourite stone. I will fine/reward/tax you handsomely if you do a good job and I will spread the word among my tribesmen that you are a (12)bad/

(11)

fine/unsatisfactory workman if you complete this commission well.

2. Complete these sentences on Celtic metalworkers by choosing the correct words from the list underneath.

The number of dashes indicates the number of letters in the correct word. (a) The Celts were very skilled

(b) They have left us much

(d) They created artefacts from gold, silver,

(e) An item of jewellery called a

(f) They also liked wristbands, bracelets, amulets (small objects worn as charms), anklets and

(g) The metalworkers of the La Tène period used

(h) The La Tène metalworkers developed new designs using

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The Celts wore woollen cloaks and used

(j)

The metalworkers created brooches called

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and iron.

was one of their favourite items.

(i)

bronze

Tara

and circles with half-hidden human and animals. to secure them in place.

, which were similar in design to a safety pin. –

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One of the most famous Celtic brooches in the world is the rings

which incorporated buds, tendrils and lyres.

(k) They also created penannular brooches, which were

(l)

of their artefacts.

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of their art and design skills.

ring-shaped

swirls

Brooch, found on a beach in Ireland in 1850.

designs brooches workmanship torque evidence fibulae metalworkers

3. Read the following statements and tick the correct answers.

(a) The Insubres tribe settled in northern Italy (i) around 400 AD. (ii) around 400 BC. (iii) around 1000 BC.

(b) The city that developed there is now called (i) Rome. (ii) Naples. (iii) Milan. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

(d) The Celts used their brooches to (i) secure their hair pieces and wigs. (ii) secure their woollen cloaks. (iii) secure their helmets.

(e) The La Tène Celts developed new designs in (i) tunics, trousers and cloaks. (ii) hill forts. (iii) artefacts such as torques and brooches.

(f) A penannular brooch, found on a beach in 1850, was (i) named the Tara Brooch. (ii) named the Celtic Brooch. (iii) named the Irish Brooch.

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1. Read these keywords/terms, which occur throughout the unit, and use them in sentences.

(a) abstract: Designs characterised by geometric and formal shapes, such as the Celtic spiral shape so often used by the Celts.

(b) Alps: A mountain chain in central Europe that extends over northern Italy, France, Germany and Austria. (c) Brigit: The Celtic goddess of fire, smiths, fertility, crops, cattle and poetry whose festival, Imbolc, was held on 1 February.

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(d) druid: An order of male and female priestesses who had authority over divine worship and also over legislative and judicial matters.

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(e) Imbolc: One of four major Celtic festivals, Imbolc was held on 1 February and celebrated the return of the light as spring came. (f) Insubres: A Celtic tribe that settled, according to Roman sources, in the western part of the Po Valley and founded Mediolanum. (g) La Tène: An archaeological site at Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland that gave its name to late Iron Age Celtic culture. (h) Manannan: The Celtic god of the sea who was often portrayed sailing his chariot over the waves.

(i) Mediolanum: Name given by the Romans to the area settled by the Celts along the Po Valley in northern Italy, now Milan.

Read the following paragraph on the history of the Po Valley and choose 12 words from the list underneath in order to complete the paragraph. The number of letters in the missing words is indicated by the number of dashes.

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The area called Cisalpine Gaul by the Romans contains Italy’s largest plain, the Plain of Lombardy, and is drained by Italy’s longest river, the Po, which is 652 kilometres long and flows across the

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part of Italy into the

(1)

Adriatic Sea on the east coast. During prehistoric times, the lower (2)

of the Po was inhabited by Paleolithic

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people, followed by Neolithic people who established their (3)

settlements near the river’s swampy banks.

Historians believe that some Celtic tribes may have migrated into Italy (4)

the 4th century BC, in order to

escape overpopulation in their original areas. Celtic tribes such as the Insubres, the Boii and the Senones, were led by their (5) on

to settle in the north and the (6)

of the Po Valley. The Senones tribe went

deep into the heart of Italy and even besieged the city of Rome in 391 BC. The Etruscan civilisation,

(7)

had previously flourished there, was absorbed by the Celts. When the Boii tribe (9)

(8)

the Etruscan city of Felsina (modern Bologna) they did not change its name and the city continued to grow and flourish. The city of Milan, called Mediolanum by the (10)

, was founded by the Celts. Archaeologists have identified

burial sites of Celtic warriors in the area of the Po Valley, (12)

(11)

complete with their

armour and weapons. 16

which

chieftains

numerous

raids occupied

Romans northern

Literacy and history – The Celts

during early

buried south

valley

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 3. Read the following passage about metallurgy and circle the correct words from the choices offered in bold throughout the passage. There are 12 correct words to be chosen. You may need to use a dictionary to complete this exercise. Metallurgy is the science and technology of metals. The science of metals is part of chemistry and is extremely (1)unimportant/ important/irrelevant as scientists explore what substances are made of and how they can (2)delete/destroy/make new materials. Metals are found in rocks that make up the Earth’s (3)core/crust/cavity. Metals used in metal objects are either pure/impure/improper or alloys, which are metals that have had other metals or non-metals (5)taken/subtracted/added

(4)

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to them. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and is (6)weaker/stronger/purer than both metals because it does not corrode. All metals are (7)slimy/shady/shiny when they are freshly cut or polished. Some metals lose their shininess because their surfaces react with the (8)moisture/oxygen/smoke in the air. Gold does not react with oxygen so it stays shiny and has

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been used in jewellery for (9)hundreds/thousands/several of years. All metals allow heat to flow through them and are

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bad/good/damaging conductors of heat because the atoms they are made of are (11)closely/loosely/randomly packed

(10)

together and strongly joined. Atoms are the smallest particles of elements. All metals, (12)including/except/accept mercury,

are solids and have high melting and boiling points. Iron melts at 1535° C and boils at 2861° C.

Read the following statements and tick the correct answer.

(a)

The science of metals is called (i) minerology. (ii) metallurgy. (iii) mythology.

artefacts. (ii) the mining of metal ores. (iii) the science and technology of metals.

(i) is capable of melting. (ii) is found in low-lying areas. (iii) is a non-solid.

(h)

Nearly all metals have (i) high melting and boiling points. (ii) low melting and boiling points. (iii) the ability to evaporate.

(i)

Metals are made of strongly joined (i) ores. (ii) atoms. (iii) conductors.

(f) The science of metals is part of the subject of (i) astrology. (ii) chemistry. (iii) astronomy.

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(c) Metals are found in (i) the seas, lakes and rivers of the Earth (ii) rocks that make up the Earth’s crust. (iii) high mountain ranges such as the Alps.

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(d) Heat can flow through all metals because (i) it is combustible. (ii) it is attracted to ores. (iii) they are conductors.

(j) Some metals lose their shininess because (i) their surfaces react with the oxygen in the air. (ii) their surfaces react to contact (e) Gold has always been used in jewellery with human skin. because (iii) their surfaces react to contact (i) it is considered easy to work with moisture. with. (ii) it looks so poor when used in artefacts. (iii) it stays shiny.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

Unit 3: Abaris, a Celtic warrior, gives an account of his last raid at Delphi to his biographer – 275 BC Indicators: Students read text and complete comprehension and cloze exercises. Students complete exercises in word search skills, correcting spelling errors and matching skills. Students learn about Celtic warriors, the expansion of the Celts in Europe and their raid on Delphi and river valleys, including the Po Valley in northern Italy.

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Background information:

This text is a warrior’s biographical account, told to his biographer as he prepares to retire. A biography is a written history of a person’s life. A biographer is the writer of a biography. An autobiography is when an author writes his or her own life story. A biography is when someone tells their life story to another person who writes it down. In this text, Abaris, a Celtic warrior whose last battle was the Celtic raid on the ancient Greek shrine of Delphi in 279 BC, tells the story of the raid in detail to his biographer so his account is a biographical account.

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The Celts continued to migrate and spread their culture across Europe. From the beginning of the Urnfield Celts in Germany (1000 BC), Celtic culture grew and expanded in Europe. By the sixth century BC, they had expanded into the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Austria as well as Belgium, the Netherlands and France. They migrated across the Alps into northern Italy and settled in the Po Valley in the 4th century BC. The Romans experienced first-hand the fighting skills of the Celts in 391 BC, when they occupied the city of Rome for seven months, looting and burning down its buildings. They agreed to leave only after the Romans paid them a massive payment. In the 3rd century BC, they flooded into the Danube region and southwards into Thrace. They defeated a Macedonian army in 281 BC and beheaded their king. They invaded Macedonia in 279 BC and continued southwards into Greece with the intention of sacking (looting) the Treasury of Athens in Delphi, where the Greek city-states held the treasures from their wars with the Persians. This band of Celtic warriors was led by two leaders, Brennus and Acichorius The sacred site of Delphi was dedicated to the god Apollo and was one of the most sacred sites in ancient Greece. In its sanctuary, people from all over the Greek world and beyond came to consult the oracle and find out what the future held in store for them. The shrine at Delphi was filled with gold and silver offerings to Apollo, along with many statues left there for Apollo.

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There are two versions of this raid. Greek historians wrote that the raiding Celts were stopped by a Greek army on the outskirts of Delphi but the next day the Celts gained the upper hand in the fighting and pushed forward into Delphi. According to the Greek version, as the Celts slept that night, the Greek gods visited them and caused them to have nightmares and visions, which spread panic among them and they began a hurried retreat, pursued by the Greeks. They lost half their warriors and slaughtered some of their own wounded men rather than let them be killed by the Greeks. One of their leaders, Brennus, committed suicide because of this defeat. The other account of the raid, which may be a Celtic legend, suggests that the Celts did indeed sack Delphi. In this account, Brennus deeply offended the Greeks by laughing at their gods, who appeared too human to him. The Celts worshipped gods but also trees, rivers and other natural objects. The Greeks regarded the Celts as barbarians because they did not bury their dead. A large amount of treasure, thought to have been looted by the Celts from Delphi, was found by the Romans in the sacred Celtic lake of the temple at Tolosa (Toulouse) in France. Celtic tradition allowed the offering of precious objects to the gods and goddesses by throwing them into sacred waters. The Celts did not record things in writing as the Greeks did, so we cannot assemble a completely accurate picture of this event. When opposing sides give differing accounts of events, and offer accounts that reflect well on themselves and badly on the opposition, this is called ‘propaganda’, which means to spread ideas, information or rumour for the purposes of helping or injuring a cause. Celtic society was a warrior society, which was first called ‘Keltoi’ by the Greeks and ‘Celtae’ by the Romans, who went on to distinguish between different types of Celts. They called the French Celts ‘Galli’ or Gauls, the British Celts ‘Belgae’ (originally from Belgium) and ‘Brittani’ (Britons). Ancient writers noticed the war-like characteristics of the Celts when they began to attack. Celtic warriors carried spears or javelins that could be up to 2.5 metres in length. Their spears had iron heads fixed onto them. They also had bows and arrows and evidence has been found which suggests that they used slingshots. The wealthier warriors carried swords, which in early Celtic times were quite short and were like daggers. In the 3rd century BC, technological improvements meant that swords could be made much longer and warriors on horseback could also fight with them. Celtic warriors carried shields to protect themselves in battle. Their shields, either oval or rectangular in shape, were made from a flat sheet of wood covered with leather and could be up to 1.4 metres tall. Celtic shields had an iron grip in the centre and this was used as a weapon if the shield was destroyed in battle. Celtic warriors wore helmets made of leather, bronze or iron. From the 3rd century onwards, some Celtic warriors wore chain mail shirts to protect their bodies, but, as it was time-consuming to manufacture and very expensive, only the wealthiest and most important warriors could wear it. Celtic warriors often bleached their hair with lime and styled it into spikes. Some Celtic tribes also dyed their skin blue using skin dye from a herb of the mustard family called woad. When they rode into battle, they made as much noise as possible, blowing their trumpets and horns as loudly as they could.

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The Celts relied on intimidation and fear to firstly undermine their enemies, taunting them with fierce war cries and insults, with their trumpets blowing loudly, before charging at them at full speed. They fought to the death rather than admit defeat at the hands of their enemies. The Celts believed that the human head was the most important part of the body and contained the soul of the person. If they could, they beheaded their enemies and took their heads as war trophies. They believed that in doing this, they had captured their enemy’s soul.

Worksheet information: Students may find it useful to view images of Celtic warriors and their weapons, using books or the Internet. Students may need to use their dictionaries when completing Question 2 in Exercise D. 18

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Teachers notes

Students may need to use their dictionaries when completing Question 2 in Exercise E. A glossary of keywords and terms relating to the ancient Celts in this particular unit is provided on pages viii – xi for teacher reference. Many of them appear in Question 1 in Exercise E. Students will find it beneficial to check the glossary as they work through the unit. Detailed footnotes for the text in Exercise A have also been provided to assist in comprehension of Celtic terms.

Answers:

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Exercise C........................................................................................................................page 22 hands, leave, and, Athens, consult, spoke, given, god, about, written, memory, sacred, wrote, successful, treasure, lake, goddesses, Celts, fact, worshipped, picked, nature Exercise D....... page 23 1. Teacher check word search 2. 1. mythology 2. Scottish 3. believed 4. refilled 5. buried 6. offering 7. controversial 8. authorities 9. Bulgaria 10. cauldron 11. treasure

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Exercise B...................................... page 21 1. Abaris says that the Greeks have lied about the raid by saying that they defeated the Celts at Delphi. 2. The leaders names were Brennus and Acichorius. 3. The Celts wanted to take the treasures held in the Treasury of Athens. 4. Abaris says that he was glad to rest that night because his bones were aching and his head was throbbing with fatigue. He realised that it was time for him to retire because he was thinking of home rather than the battle the next day. 5. Delphi was the most famous shrine in ancient Greece and was where people consulted the oracle about the future. It was dedicated to the Greek god Apollo, the Greek god of the sun and of healing. 6. Abaris is from the Carpathian Mountains. 7. Treasures from the Persian Wars held by the Greek city-states. 8. Brennus laughed at the statues of the Greek gods. He was badly injured in the fighting and died. 8. To make themselves look more frightening to their enemies and intimidate them. 9. Teacher check 10. The following should be ticked: (b), (c), (f) and (h).

Exercise E..........pages C M I R T R E R E T O I 24–25 M D L E I H S H S A R N 1. Teacher check 2. (1) thousand E D M X S D I A R O R I (2) washed R T V I O L E N C E C D (3) soft (4) away M U S I C F W S P I K E (5) rare (6) liked (7) finest (8) large (9) included (10) golden (11) believe 3. (1) rich (2) deep (3) way (4) forest (5) rainwater (7) settled (8) Italian (9) area (10) stretches (11) path 4. (a) ii, (b) ii, (c) iii, (d) ii, (e) ii, (f) ii, (g) iii, (h) ii, (i) ii, (j) iii

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Cross-curricular activities:

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(12) Celtic (6) first (12) called

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Students should look at images of Celtic warriors and write a description of one of them. Images and information on Celtic warriors in Britain before the Romans are available at <http://www.gallica.co.uk/celts/war2.htm>. Students can find out more about the Gundestrup Cauldron by using the Internet. The cauldron is held at the National Museum of Denmark, whose website is at <http://www.natmus.dk/sw20379.asp>. Students can find out more about the story of the oracle at Delphi at <http://www.oracleofdelphi.com/oraclestory.htm>.

Curriculum links

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State

Society and Environment

English

Science

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

NPM 4, EC 4

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

ESS 3.6, PSS 3.5

Vic.

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

SCCS 0401, SCCS 0503

Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

NPM 4.1, NPM 4.3

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

4.7

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise A: Reading Abaris gives his account of his last raid – 275 BC

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You have asked me to tell you about the last time I fought with my band of warriors. It was at Delphi1 four years ago. I want to set the record straight as the Greeks have lied about this raid many times2. They have said that they defeated us at Delphi. This is not true. I was there. I should know. This is what really happened: Our leaders, Brennus and Acichorius, led us towards Delphi after our victorious battle with the Macedonians. We were keen to arrive in Delphi as there was much treasure to be had there. Our leaders stopped us and ordered us to make camp for the night just outside the shrine because they wanted us to rest, pray to our gods and attack in the morning. The Greeks did not prevent us from entering the shrine that night, as they keep claiming. I prayed to our god of battle, Camulos, and made him an offering of a precious ring, which I threw into a stream near our camp. I was glad to rest as I laid down on my bed of straw that night with my sword at my side. I could feel my bones aching and my head throbbing with fatigue. For the first time as a warrior, my mind was filled with thoughts of home, rather than the battle facing me in the morning. I realised then as I lay there that it was time for me to retire. I had been a warrior all my life since I was a young man and this was the first time that I was more concerned with going home than with winning the battle. I slept deeply and dreamed of my wife and my children and of our home3 in the Carpathian Mountains.

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In the morning we rose before the dawn and arrived in Delphi with our horns and carnyxes (war trumpets) blaring and our weapons brandished above our heads. We had limed and spiked our hair and we carried our shields with pride. I rode my chariot into the battle, secure in my saddle4, as I fought my way through the Greeks to get to the treasures. If I was to retire at that time, I needed the raid to succeed so that I would have something to bring home with me to protect my family’s security in the future. Determined to win, I fought hard all day with my fellow warriors until we had pushed the Greeks back and broken into the treasury. Inside it we found magnificent treasures of gold and silver to take away with us. I heard Brennus laugh loudly as he looked around at the statues in the Treasury. ‘Look at them’, he said. ‘The Greeks worship gods in the image of humans like themselves. Have they never looked at the trees, the forests or the rivers? That is where the gods are. Not here in this stone building, made by human hands5.’

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When we began to make our way home the next day, I felt lighter in my heart as I vowed to stick to my decision to retire. I had fought well but the aching in my body had returned with a vengeance. I could not have afforded to let my fellow warriors down in their next battle if the aching had begun to affect my fighting skills. I resolved to tell Brennus about my decision but there was tragic news that evening. Brennus had been badly hurt in the fighting but he had concealed his wounds from us. He died that night. I know the Greeks say that he killed himself but, again, they are lying. He died as a brave leader of our tribe and a proud warrior. I will always honour his memory and smile as I remember our victory over the Greeks at Delphi. 1. Delphi was the ancient site of the most famous oracle in Greece. It was dedicated to the god Apollo, the god of the sun and of healing. People travelled to Delphi to consult the oracle about the future. An oracle could refer to the place itself, the priestess who spoke for the god Apollo or the message given. Valuable offerings were made to the god by the people consulting the oracle, including treasures of gold and silver. 2. There are two conflicting accounts of the Celts raid on Delphi in 279 BC. The Celts did not record details of events in writing, so we have to rely on Celtic legends about the raid, which suggest that they did indeed carry out a successful raid and take away a considerable amount of the treasures held by the Greek citystates in the Treasury of Athens. The treasury was full of wealth gained by the Greeks in the Persian Wars. In the second account, according to Greek historians who recorded events in detail, the Celts were thwarted by the Greeks, who forced them to retreat and inflicted great damage on them. There is some evidence that a raid did take place but historians cannot state conclusively if it was a success. Treasures from Delphi may have been found in a sacred Celtic lake in France. 20

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. 1.

Why does Abaris say that he wants to ‘set the record straight’ about the raid at Delphi?

What were the names of the Celtic leaders involved in the raid at Delphi?

What was the reason for the raid at Delphi?

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Why does Abaris say that he was glad to rest the night before the raid? What did he realise that night and why?

Why was Delphi so famous in the ancient world? Which of the Greek gods was it dedicated to?

Where is Abaris from?

What was held in the Treasury at Delphi?

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Why did Abaris and the other warriors lime and spike their hair before the raid began?

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10. Read the following statements and tick the correct

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3. Abaris was lucky to have slept deeply because according to the Greeks, their gods visited the Celtic warriors while they slept and tormented them with horrific visions of death and frightening nightmares of bloodshed. The Greeks claimed that this frightened the Celts, who retreated quickly from Delphi pursued by the Greeks. The Greeks called the Celts ‘Keltoi’ and the Romans called them ‘Celtae’.

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answers. (a) Delphi was a famous shrine in Italy................ (b) The shrine at Delphi was dedicated to Apollo, the Greek god of the sun................ (c) Celtic warriors did not carry shields and spears................................................... (d) Greek historians did not record events in detail....................................................... (e) Celtic religion was based around the worship of nature......................................... (f) Celtic warriors put lime in their hair and spiked it in order to frighten their enemies..... (g) Greek religious beliefs did not differ greatly from Celtic religious beliefs................ (h) At the time of the raid on Delphi, Celtic warriors used chariots in battle......................

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4. Celtic warriors in Europe used chariots in battle until the 2nd century BC, throwing spears at their enemies as they sped past them. Historians believe that after this time they may have used chariots to travel to and from the battle site, preferring to fight on foot. In Celtic Britain, the Celts rode chariots into battle until the 1st century AD. Celtic cavalry used saddles with four tall pommels that held the rider securely in his seat and allowed him to balance with his thighs, leaving his arms free to use his weapons and control his horse. They also put lime in their hair and spiked it in order to look frightening to their enemies and intimidate them. 5. According to some reports, the Greeks were deeply offended by the idea of Brennus making fun of their gods. They differed from the Celts, whose religion was based around a worship of nature and whose sacred sanctuaries were often hidden in secret oak groves and beech forests. The Celts saw trees, for example, as having spiritual properties and worshipped them, especially the oak, beech, alder, elm and yew. Mistletoe was considered to have magical properties and could only be handled by the druids, the Celtic priests.

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word bank leave consult god goddesses

and lake fact memory

nature spoke about sacred

Athens worshipped written wrote

picked given Celts successful

treasure

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The Celts were formidable warriors. The Romans experienced humiliation at the

hands of the Celts

in 391 BC, when they occupied the city of Rome for seven months, looting it and burning its buildings. They only agreed to after receiving a massive payment from the Romans. During the third century BC, the Celts continued of Alexander the Great, in 279 BC

continued into northern Greece. They raided the sacred shrine at

Delphi as they wanted to reach the Treasury of

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to spread into the Danube region and into Thrace, an area to the north of modern Greece. They then invaded Macedonia, the kingdom , which contained wealthy treasures from the Greek city-

states’ wars with the Persians. The band of Celtic warriors at Delphi were led by two men, Brennus and Acichorius.

Delphi was one of the most famous sites in the ancient world. It was dedicated to the Greek god, Apollo, who was the god of the sun, light and healing. Those who visited Delphi went to

the oracle about their futures. The word

‘oracle’ could refer to the place itself, to the priestess, called the Pythia, who

for the god Apollo, giving

by the god. The visitors gave valuable offerings to the © R . I . C . P u b l i cat i ons and prayed for his answers to their questions. Alexander the Great visited Delphi to consult the oracle. There are conflicting reports the raid on Delphi. The Celts did not keep • f o r r e v i e w pur posesonl y• records, as writing was not part of their main culture. Important knowledge, such as the sacred knowledge of the druids, was committed his prophesies, and to the message actually

and transmitted by oral tradition. Writing was considered to be a

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activity and the domain of the druids. The Greeks were extremely literate and Greek historians

books and kept detailed records. There are

Greek accounts of the raid on Delphi, which may not give the most indicator view of events. Celtic legend and folklore suggests

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that the raid on Delphi was indeed

and that the raiders took away a considerable amount of

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from the Treasury of Athens. Archaeologists have examined a large amount of treasure, thought to

have possibly come from Delphi, which was found by the Romans in the sacred Celtic

at the temple at

Tolosa (Toulouse) in France. Celtic tradition allowed the offering of precious objects to their gods and

by throwing them into the sacred waters of rivers, lakes and streams. It is thought by some historians that this may prove that the did succeed in their raid.

However, Greek records suggest that the Celts were forced to retreat by the Greeks. The Greeks claimed that their gods visited the sleeping Celts and tormented them with nightmares forcing them to flee. Celtic folklore suggests that the Greeks were deeply offended by the

that the Celts laughed at their gods. Celtic gods and goddesses were usually in places such as oak forests, riverbanks and beech groves. The Celts believed that trees, for example,

had spiritual properties and they worshipped the oak, beech, alder, elm and yew trees. They believed that certain plants, such as mistletoe, were sacred and could only be worship of 22

by druids. Their religious belief was deeply rooted in the

, whereas the religious beliefs of the Greeks were dominated by their gods and goddesses. Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise D: Word study exercises 1.

Complete the following word search on Celtic warriors, using the word bank underneath.

Celtic warriors G

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Word bank

battles beards beer boasting bragging chariot cloaks contests death feasts fighting

hair helmet heros portion horns horses leather sandals lime moustaches music raids roast boar

shield spear spikes sword tunics violence war warrior wine

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© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons Read the following information about the Gundestrup Cauldron and see if you can identify 11 spelling errors. Write the words underneath. may to use a dictionary. •correctly f or r evYou i e wneedp ur posesonl y•

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The most famous surviving cauldron is the silver Gundestrup Cauldron, which was discovered in 1891 in the Raevemosen Bog at Gundestrup in Jutland, which is a province of Denmark. Cauldrons were very important to the Celts. Magical cauldrons play a very important part in Celtic mythologie. They occur frequently in Welsh, Irish and Scotish mythology. They were widely used from ancient to medieval times. The Celts beleived that in the Otherworld there was a special cauldron called the Cauldron of Plenty, which always magically filled and refiled itself with food and was never empty, even after a feast. The Gundestrup Cauldron was a ceremonial vessel, dismantled into parts before being bureyd in the bog. Historians believe that it was put there as a religious votive ofering, which is an offering to the gods made in gratitude or devotion.

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The Gundestrup Cauldron is considered to be among the finest examples of Celtic treasures. It is also controvercial, as historians cannot agree on the date it was made or on its origins. Most authoritys agree on only one thing and that is that it was not made in Denmark. Some historians believe that it was created by silversmiths from Thrace, a land that extended over present-day Bolgaria and Romania. Some historians believe that the cauldron came from Gaul. They are also divided over how the caldron came to be in Denmark. Some believe that it was brought to Denmark by German mercenaries (soldiers hired by foreign countries to fight in their armies) attached to the Roman army. Others hold the view that it was treazure taken from Gaul in a raid. 1.

10.

11.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1. Read these keywords/terms, which occur throughout the unit, and use them in sentences.

(a) Apollo: The god Apollo was the Greek and Roman god of the sun and of healing, sometimes bestowing the gift of prophecy.

(b) Brennus: Celtic leader who led the raid on Delphi, in which he was injured. Some Greek accounts claim that he committed suicide afterwards. (c) Camulos: Celtic god of war, often portrayed with an oak crown or a ram-horned head.

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(d) Carpathian Mountains: Major mountain system in central and eastern Europe and home to tribes of La Téne Celts.

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(e) Celtae: Name given to the Celts by the Romans, whose accounts of their culture and customs are valuable resources for historians. (f) Delphi: Most sacred site in ancient Greece, where the oracle (prophecy) of the god Apollo could be consulted; known as the’omphalos’ by the Greeks, the centre or ‘navel of the world’. (g) Keltoi: Name given to the Celts by the Greeks, whose accounts of the Celts provide valuable insights into their culture and customs. (h) Macedonia: Region in south-eastern Europe, in the central area of the Balkan peninsula and home of Alexander the Great. (i)

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons or r e wsuchp r pdedicated ose so nl y• shrine: A • placef where devotion is v paidi toe a god, as u the shrine to Apollo in Delphi where the sick brought offerings to the god, hoping for a cure to their illness. Apollo was the Greek god of healing as well as the god of the sun.

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(j) Treasury of Athens: Many Greek cities held their gold and silver treasures at Delphi, including the Athenians.

2. Read this following short paragraph about gold and circle the correct words from the choices offered in bold throughout the passage. There are 12 correct words to be chosen. You may need to use a dictionary to complete this exercise.

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Gold is a metal that does not react with oxygen to form an oxide and therefore stays shiny and bright. It was first discovered by human beings over ten (1)million/thousand/hundred years ago and it has been used for thousands of years to make jewellery and other objects. It is found in rock veins or stream beds, where it is (2) washed/damaged/destroyed from weathered, gold-bearing rocks. It is a (3)hard/liquid/soft metal and is usually alloyed with other metals such as copper and silver to stop it from wearing (4)over/away/under over time. Gold is a very (5)common/rare/cheap metal and only makes up 0.0000005 percent of the Earth’s crust, compared with other metals such as aluminium which make up seven percent. The Celts, like other ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, really (6)hated/disliked/liked gold and valued it highly. One of the (7)finest/worst/oddest examples of La Tène gold working is the gold torque known as the Broighter Collar, probably made in the first century BC. The torque is a (8)small/tiny/large decorated collar with buffer terminals, which formed part of a gold treasure hoard found on the shores of Lough Foyle in Ireland in 1896. It is made from tubular sheets of gold, ornamented with relief decorations with lotus bud motifs. Other items (9)excluded/included/inverted a model of a boat, complete with (10) golden/silver/bronze mast and oars, two gold chains, a bowl and two gold collars. Historians (11)reject/believe/deny that the hoard may have been a votive offering to the (12)Roman/Celtic/Greek god of the sea, Manannán. 24

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 3.

Read the following paragraph and choose 12 words, from the list underneath in order to complete the paragraph. The number of letters in the missing words is indicated by the number of dashes. The Celts who raided Delphi had migrated to Italy in the 4th century BC and settled into the area of the Po Valley. The Po Basin has been a (1)

agricultural area for thousands of years. The river’s plain is the widest and most fertile in Italy. Over

time rivers erode rock and soil and carve (2) marine life. On their (3)

valleys. They deposit minerals and nutrients into the ocean that support

to the sea, rivers irrigate the land and support different ecosystems. Ecosystems are ecological

communities of organisms that interact with their environment. A (4)

is an ecosystem which contains trees

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and is sustained by rainfall and sunlight. It interacts with its environments in many ways; e.g. by supporting animal and insect life, soaking up excess (5)

and preventing erosion. The rich alluvial soil of river basins, such as the

Po, contribute greatly to the lives of the people living there. The Etruscans were the (6)

to introduce the practice

of fallowing; allowing the land to lie fallow (without crops) in order to allow it to protect its fertility. The Celts who (7)

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there raised animals and grew crops, benefiting from the area’s fertility. The Po River has contributed greatly to (8) agricultural production for centuries. One third of Italy’s population live in this area, giving this (9)

names such as the ‘bread basket’ and the ‘fruit bowl’ of Italy. The Parco Delta del Po is a national park which (10) for 600 kilometres, following the (11)

reserve

rainwater first

of the river and supporting much wild life along the way. A nature

the Bosco della Mesola is an area of ancient woodland which is home to large herds of deer.

(12)

path rich

called way

deep forest

settled area

stretches Italian

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons River Valleys. Read the following statements and tick the correct answers. •f orr evi ew pur p o sesonl y• (a) The longest river in Italy is called the River (f) When they reach the sea, rivers deposit 4.

(i) Tiber. (ii) Po. (iii) Arno.

(i) crops into the sea. (ii) minerals and nutrients into the sea. (iii) plants and insects into the sea.

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(b)

The river’s plain is the (i) narrowest and least fertile in Italy. (ii) widest and most fertile in Italy. (iii) shortest and most mountainous.

(g)

The Po Basin is home to (i) one half of Italy’s population. (ii) one quarter of Italy’s population. (iii) one third of Italy’s population.

(c)

The Po Basin is known as the (i) the ‘biscuit tin’ of Italy. (ii) the ‘pastry kitchen’ of Italy. (iii) the ‘bread basket’ of Italy.

(h)

The practice of fallowing means that the (i) the land is farmed intensively every year. (ii) the land is not planted every year. (iii) the land is planted with crops.

(d)

The first people to farm in the Po Basin were (i) the Romans in the 1st century AD. (ii) the Etruscans in the 9th century BC. (iii) the Celts in the 4th century BC.

(i)

The Parco Delta del Po in the Po Basin is (i) a large adventure theme park in the area. (ii) a national park which extends for 600 km. (iii) a ancient woodland.

(e)

On their way to the sea, rivers (i) dry the land. (ii) fertilise the land. (iii) damage the land.

(j)

The Po Basin has been a rich agricultural area (i) for hundreds of years. (ii) for millions of years. (iii) for thousands of years.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

Unit 4: A Celtic druid discusses his preparations for the festival of Samhain – France, 225 BC Indicators: Students read text and complete comprehension and cloze exercises based on text. Students complete word study exercises in word search skills, matching statements and punctuation skills. Students learn about the origins of the festivals of Samhain and Halloween, the religious beliefs of the Celts and other ancient festivals around the world.

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Background information:

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This text is a tabloid newspaper report. Newspaper reports are informational texts, designed to give the public information about current issues. There are two kinds of newspapers, broadsheet and tabloid. Broadsheets newspapers usually report in a balanced and considered way, emphasising facts and verifying information. Tabloid newspapers usually report in a sensational and provocative way, emphasising opinions and popular views of current issues. In this report, the more sensational aspects of the Celtic festival of Samhain and the role of the druids are emphasised and described. During the La Tène period, there were about 16 tribal areas in France (called Gaul by the Romans). These tribal areas were usually further divided into divisions and subdivisions, which were ruled by lesser tribal rulers who owed their allegiance to the high chiefs or high kings. Some of the larger settlements later developed into cities and towns, such as Paris, the capital of the Parisii tribe; Trier, capital of the Treveri tribe; and Chartres, capital of the Carnutes tribe. The Celts were continuously fighting amongst themselves with one high chief or high king vying for power against another. Their society seems to have had very few unifying elements and when the Romans invaded Gaul in 59 BC, it was easy to conquer for this reason. The Gauls tried to repel the Romans under their leader, Vercingetorix, a prince of the Arverni tribe, but he was defeated by Julius Caesar, the leader of the Romans, at Alesia in 52 BC. Caesar later paraded him as a defeated leader in Rome, where he was tortured and eventually executed. Samhain, celebrated on 1 November, was associated with the ending of summer, the beginning of winter darkness and the start of the new year. Animals were brought in from grazing at this time and those not required for breeding were slaughtered in order to provide food for the clan throughout the winter months. Spirits from the Otherworld, the Celtic afterlife, were believed to visit the living during the eve of Samhain, on 31 October, and a tradition of building huge bonfires to light the darkness developed as well as wearing masks in order to frighten off evil spirits. Druids made sacrifices to the gods to ensure that the new farming year would be fertile and prosperous for Celtic farming communities. The Celts believed strongly in the supernatural and had great respect for it. The status of druids in Celtic society confirms this as druids had extremely high status and were second only to the head of the tribe and their family. Roman commentators described Celtic society as having three main groups: the ‘learned men’ or druids, the ‘equites’ or warriors and the ‘plebes’ or ordinary people. Poets, jurists, doctors, musicians and master craftsmen were also included in the same class as the druids. In Ireland, this group was known as the Aos Dana, the ‘Men of Art’ and were considered to be an elite, powerful and socially superior group within the clan. Celtic druids made sacrifices to the gods and some Celtic priests and priestesses were considered to be prophets who could also foretell the future. Sometimes animals were sacrificed but there is evidence that there were also human sacrifices. Analysis after the discovery of the preserved body of a young Iron Age man in a bog at Lindow, England, in 1984 suggests that he may have been ritually sacrificed by druids as he was hit with a blunt instrument, probably an axe, garrotted (strangled with a tight cord) and his throat was cut. His stomach contents have revealed that he ate wheaten griddle cakes laced with mistletoe before he was killed, a plant associated with the druids and poisonous to human beings when eaten. Druids were also judges, teachers, astronomers and advisors to kings and chieftains. All of their knowledge was transmitted orally from druid to druid and nothing was recorded in writing. What little evidence has survived shows the depth and extent of their knowledge. A bronze tablet from the 2nd century BC, which was discovered in 1897 and is known as the Coligny Calendar, contains detailed records of life in Gaul over 62 months, listing the cycles of the sun and the moon, and recording the waxing and waning of the moon in relation to the solar cycle of the sun. This calendar may have been used to foretell good and bad times to carry out tasks as dictated by the druids, as some months are marked ‘good’ and others ‘not good’. The Celts did not have an organised pantheon (official list) of gods and goddesses, as the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans did. Instead they worshipped many local gods and goddesses under different names in different places and at different times. Local gods and goddesses were very important and were worshipped regularly by the Celts. There were some identifiable gods and goddesses who were comparable to gods such as Mars, the Roman god of war. The Celts love and respect for nature, and in particular for water, resulted in many gods and goddesses being associated with streams, rivers, wells and lakes. Shrines to the Celtic gods were very common. A Celtic shrine has been excavated at Heathrow in Essex in England. Votive offerings, which were offerings such as gold and silver jewellery, made in devotion or in gratitude to the gods were often left at shrines. The Celts also threw these offerings into the waters of sacred streams, rivers, wells and lakes. The Celts also worshipped trees such as oak, alder and yew. The Romans found the Celtic druids particularly difficult and troublesome to deal with because they were highly educated and they did not easily accept Roman authority. The island of Anglesey in Wales, known as Mona in Celtic times, was a major centre of druidic learning and activity and was the last stronghold of the Celtic druids in Britain after the Roman invasion. However, Anglesey was attacked by the Romans, led by Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman governor of Britain, in 61 AD. He later returned to crush the rebellion of Queen Boudicca of the Iceni tribe. Celtic society was an oral society and leaders were expected to speak well and engage in what, in the modern world, we would call ‘propaganda’ (the spreading of ideas, information or rumour to help or injure a cause) by boasting of their deeds past and to come. Education by the druids was based primarily on oral teaching and everything had to be memorised. The druids and the seers, or prophets, taught subjects such as astronomy, philosophy and oratory to their students through oral transmission. It took 20 years to train as a druid and druids were well educated and literate. However, they did not write any of their knowledge down, believing that it was their sacred duty to guard their secrets and that writing them down would somehow compromise their powers. Some evidence of writing has been found on standing stones with what is known as ‘ogham’ writing, an inscription of sacred symbols.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

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Teachers notes Worksheet information: Students may find it useful to use their dictionaries when completing Question 3 in Exercise E. A glossary of keywords and terms relating to the ancient Celts in this particular unit is provided on pages viii – xi for teacher reference. Many of them appear on Question 1 in Exercise E. Students will find it beneficial to check the glossary as they work through the unit. Detailed footnotes for the text in Exercise A have also been provided to assist in comprehension of Celtic terms.

Answers:

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Exercise B....................................... page 29 1. In Amfreville in northern Gaul. 2. The festival of Samhain was the most important festival in the Celtic calendar as it marked the end of the old year and the beginning of the new. It was held for three days around the end of October and it has special significance for us in the modern world because we still celebrate it today on 31 October as Halloween. 3. Teacher check 4. The Celts believed that the mistletoe plant was sacred and could only to touched by druids. We know about the customs of the Celts from the Greek and Roman writers who wrote about them, such as Pliny the Elder 5. Teacher check 6. Female priestesses had a lesser role in the ceremonies; e.g. they prepared the ceremonial cups and horns for the music. The Celts had women prophets who, they believed, could foretell the future. 7. ‘Bairín breac’ or barm brack is a sweet cake baked with currents and sultanas and it is still eaten at Halloween today. It may contain a lucky golden ring, which may mean that the finder will get engaged or married within the year. 8. (a), (d), (e), (g) and (h) should be ticked

Exercise D...................................................................................................page 31 1. Teacher check word search 2. (a) iv, (b) viii, (c) vi, (d) x, (e) iii, (f) i, (g) ix, (h) v, (i) vii, (j) ii 3. I am Bran, chief druid of the Parisii tribe of northern Gaul. I am here today at the lakeside in order to make an offering to you, Dis Pater, our god of the earth whom we are descended from here in Gaul. I appeal to you, great lord of the rivers, seas and streams and master of the forests, mountains and hills, to hear me. Our chieftain, Kristof, has to travel soon across the mountains with his warriors and has asked me to pray for his protection. ‘I will bring back more gold, silver and bronze treasures to offer to Dis Pater if he will protect me during this raid’, he said. He is a brave warrior and has always returned from raids without injury because of your protection. I am asking you to protect him again. I cast this golden torque, this silver cauldron and this bronze dagger into your waters, my lord, and pray that you will listen to my prayer. ‘Bring my finest torque as an offering’ my chieftain said. ‘Offer the god my finest silver cauldron and the bronze dagger my father left me,’ he said. So I have. F S E P G O G H E X J V C O S Exercise E.......pages E I R L C A S O H K I H T N E 32–33 1. Teacher check S C U I L K T P L S A H C E S 2. (a) iii, (b) v, T K T N N E Q S I D E C I T S (c) iv, (d) i, (e) ii 3. 1. allow I L U Y L G T T D R E O G H E 2. oxygen V E F T N G O E W I I N A G D 3. remains 4. preserved A C S H S R O O R H U T M I D 5. tight L I L E S U R D T O I R S R O 6. stomach 7. revealed M P U E T L O A S L F N D F G 8. associated 9. handle I T G L D S E I N O M E R E C 10. poisonous I K H D K D Q P G P O W E R S 4. (1) yew (2) been A F T E R L I F E I S K S A M (3) wood E S C R C E L T S D L I V E W (4) layers (5) tree S D C S T N E T R O P E C D Y (6) to S A M H A I N S T S E I R P Y (7) our (8) way (9) Their (10) Waste (11) be (12) Some

Exercise C....................................... page 30 time, when, not, came, lakes, play, found, which, empty, celebrated, modern, large, please, relating, many, next, white, touch, plant, drink, other, religion, future

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Cross-curricular activities:

Students may like to design and make their own Halloween masks. Students may like to research other festivals and the special foods that are prepared for them. A useful website with information on festival food around the world is <www.culinarykingdom.com/articles_festivalfoods_intro.htm>. The government website <www.australia.gov.au> contains information on enviromental and natural resource management.

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The Celts worshipped trees and treated them with great respect as a valuable resource. Students can find out more about trees native to Britain at <www.british-trees.com> and information on Australian native trees and plants can be found at <www.acn.net.au/articles/flora/>.

Curriculum links State

Society and Environment

English

Science

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

NPM 4, EB 4, LL 4

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

PSS 3.5, ESS 3.6

Vic.

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

SCCS 0401, SCBS 0502

Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

EB 4.1, EB 4.3, LL 4.3, NPM 4.1, NPM 4.3

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

4.1, 4.6, 4.8

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise A: Reading A tabloid newspaper reporter interviews the chief druid during his preparations for Samhain.

The Gaul Independent 28 October 225 BC

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Chief druid claims to have met the dead as the feast of Samhain approaches! I travelled to Amfreville in northern Gaul to meet Euffiginex, the chief druid of the Parisii tribe. He was busy preparing for Samhain1 but he agreed to meet me to talk about preparations for the festival, which starts in a few days. He told me that he has to first supervise the collection of wood for the bonfires and bless it in order to please the gods. ‘It would not be right to take the wood and not thank our gods for it’, he said. I asked him if he ever feared Samhain, as the borders between our world and the world of the dead dissolve and the spirits come amongst us. ‘I do not fear the spirits of the dead,’ he replied, ‘as much as I fear the violence of the living, for the spirits rarely hurt us while the living hurt us all the time’. I asked him if he had ever actually met a spirit at Samhain. He told me that he had encountered several over the years. ‘Once,’ he told me, ‘when I was supervising the collection of wood before the feast, a friendly red-haired man approached me. He advised me to keep the wood under cover as the weather that night would be very wet’.

I mentioned this when we had collected enough wood and one of the druids asked me to describe the man. When I did, he went pale and collapsed on the ground. When we managed to revive him, he told us that his father had been a woodcutter and that it was him who had advised me about the weather. When I asked why he was reacting so badly to my receiving this advice from his father, he looked at me and said, ‘I have to tell you that my father has lived in the Otherworld for the last seven years. ‘Since that time, I am always aware that at this time of year, the spirits of the dead walk among us. However, they do not appear to be any different from us, so why should we fear them? They are not always evil, as I myself have experienced. They may even be helpful to us.’

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The Celtic feast of Samhain fast approaches and today our main reporter, Aurillax, interviews, Euffiginex, the chief druid of Amfreville, as he makes the final preparations for the celebration of the Celtic new year.

us and for our farmers. We have also dug deep pits, which will be filled with offerings of jewellery, pottery and weapons, which I will ceremonially bless before I throw them into the pit. Our gods expect this and it will be done.’

Wild celebrations, huge bonfires and allnight feasting causes complaints! I asked Euffiginex for his opinion about the belief that portents of the future can occur during Samhain. I mentioned particularly the belief among young girls that they could find out if they would marry by finding the golden ring in a bairín breac4. He laughed and said, ‘Do you know, one Samhain my own sister found the ring in the bairín breac. Sure enough, she was married at the feast of Imbolc the following spring. I wonder if it was magic?’ Finally, I asked him about the fact that some of the tribe had complained that the revellers were too loud and too wild last year. ‘Samhain is so sacred to us that it must be celebrated and celebrated well. The people who complained last year were disrespectful to our gods. They should give thanks for the blessings bestowed on them last year and pray that the new year will be as good. Do they not respect those from the Otherworld? The spirits of their ancestors may wish to communicate with them. They should join in with the feasting and not be complaining.’ I left Euffiginex as he ordered the wood to be stacked even higher on the piles for the bonfires that will burn all night long at Samhain, and hopefully keep the evil spirits away.

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Rivers of sacrificial blood will flow as the new year begins! I asked him about his other preparations for Samhain. He told me that he had instructed his druids to collect the sacred plant, the mistletoe2, for use in the ceremonies on the sixth day of the new moon. As we spoke, others were assembling the animals for the sacrifices during the night of the feast. The female priestesses3 were working on preparing the ceremonial cups and horns for the music. I asked Euffiginex about the sacrifices that he and the other druids would make on the night of Samhain. ‘We will sacrifice three boars, two oxen and one bull. As you know, our gods demand that blood is shed in order to honour them and to ensure that the new year is prosperous for

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Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. Where is Aurillax interviewing the chief druid, Euffiginex?

What was the festival of Samhain? When was it celebrated and why does it still hold special significance for us in the modern world?

Why did the Celts only allow druids to collect the mistletoe plant? How do we have such knowledge with regard to this when they did not record their beliefs in writing?

Describe, in your own words, how Euffiginex has experienced the borders between his world and the world of the dead dissolving and say what you think this experience had made him aware of?

Did female priestesses take part in the festival of Samhain? Did women have any other role in the area of Celtic religion and belief?

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2. Mistletoe, a green plant with yellow flowers and white berries that grows on the branches and trunks of trees, was considered to be a sacred plant by the Celts. According to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder in his book Natural history, only whiterobed druids were allowed to cut it from oak trees, using golden pruning hooks on the sixth day of the new moon. Mistletoe leaves often feature in ancient Celtic carvings and people wearing mistletoe headdresses figure in Celtic art. The Celts believed that the mistletoe plant symbolised the winter spirit of the oak tree, which they worshipped. They also worshipped other trees such as the beech, alder, elm and yew. Ceremonies were carried out in sacred groves of trees.

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Why do you think Euffiginex laughs when Aurillax asks him for his opinion on the belief that portents of the future can be found by eating bairìn breac?

What is bairìn breac? Is it still eaten today? What might it contain and why is this considered lucky for the finder?

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1. The festival of Samhain was usually held for about three nights around 31 October. The Celts reckoned their calendar in terms of nights rather than days and the middle night and the eve of the feast; the night of 31 October was the most important as the Celts believed it was a time when the barriers between the natural world and the Otherworld dissolved and the dead visited the living. Samhain marked the end of summer, when animals were brought from their pastures and prepared for winter. Bonfires were lit to repel evil spirits. In Christian times, Samhain became All Hallows or All Saints Day (1 November) preceded by All Hallows Eve or Halloween on 31 October. Halloween has retained its otherworldly character in the modern world and is now celebrated in America, Australia and other parts of the world, as well as in Europe.

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Read the following statements and tick those that are correct. (a) The festival of Samhain was one of four major festivals in the Celtic religious year................................................................................................ (b) Mistletoe was considered to be sacred by the Celts and only female priestesses could pick it................................................................................

(c) The Celts did not carry out sacrifices at Samhain............................................ (d) Offerings of jewellery, pottery and weapons were made to the Celtic gods at this time...................................................................................................

(e) The Celts celebrated Samhain with three nights of feasting..............................

(f) The druids were not very powerful in Celtic society..........................................

(g) Samhain celebrated the Celtic new year......................................................... (h) On the night of 31 October, the Celts lit large bonfires to keep evil spirits away..................................................................................................

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Literacy and history – The Celts

3. Women could hold high status in Celtic society and there is evidence that there were female priestesses who played a role in religious life. However, it seems likely that they could not be chief druids and they played a less important role in religious ceremonies. There may also have been women prophets who, it was believed, could foretell the future and were consulted regularly by members of their clan. 4. 'Bairín breac' (barm brack) is a cake made with currents and sultanas which is still traditionally eaten at Halloween. It sometimes contains a gold ring, which is considered lucky for the person who finds it in their slice of cake, as it may indicate happiness in the near future; e.g. a marriage or engagement. 29

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word bank

future white empty please

time lakes touch many

when play celebrated next

relating plant modern drink

not found large other

came which religion

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Samhain was one of the most important festivals in the religious calendar of the Celts. It was the end of the old year, the when summer ended and animals were brought in from their pastures and preparations for winter the new year began. The new year was celebrated over three consecutive

began. It was also the time

days. Three nights

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nights around 31 October, as the Celts counted their calendar in terms of nights,

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of feasting and celebrating were held to celebrate Samhain. The eve of the feast on the night of 31 October was the most important as the Celts believed it was the night when the barriers between their world and the world of the Otherworld dissolved and the dead back to visit them. The Otherworld was where they believed they went after death. They believed that

sometimes specially chosen people were allowed to visit the Otherworld or they could enter it by accident, as there were places, , believed to contain entrances to the Otherworld. In Welsh legend, Pwyll visits the

such as caves and

Otherworld, as does the hero Cúchulainn in Irish legend.

an important part in Welsh, Irish and Scottish mythology and they were widely used © R . I . C.Publ i cat i ons from ancient to medieval times. There is substantial archaeological evidence about cauldrons. The most famous surviving cauldron in o Denmark. There are n also l numerous is the silver Gundestrup which wasv •Cauldron, f or r e i ew pur p se so y•mythological

Magical cauldrons

references to cauldrons. The Celts believed that in the Otherworld there was a special cauldron called the Cauldron of Plenty, was always magically filled with food and was never

, refilling itself every

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on 1 November, preceded by All Hallows Eve or Halloween on 31 October. Halloween is still celebrated in the world and has retained its otherworldly character.

The Celts built

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bonfires, which they hoped would keep evil spirits away from their settlements. Druids

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the gods and to ensure that the following year’s

performed religious ceremonies and held sacrifices to

harvest would be as plentiful. Druids were close to the chieftain and advised him on important matters

of their rituals were performed in secret. Their knowledge

to the tribe. They were well educated and was passed from one generation to the

through oral tradition and memory.

The Roman writer, Pliny the Elder, observed that druids picked the mistletoe plant on the sixth day of the new moon, dressed in and using a golden sickle. Druids were the only ones allowed to pick the sacred plant. Mistletoe is a green

and

with yellow flowers and white berries, which grows on the

branches and trunks of trees. Evidence shows that it was used in sacrificial ceremonies by the druids, who may have forced their victims to

its highly poisonous juice before they died. The chief druids were very important in Celtic

society and held great power. They were assisted by

druids and also by female druids or priestesses. , acting as prophets who could

Another group of women in Celtic society played a role in the area of foretell the

and who were often consulted by members of their clan.

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise D: Word study exercises 1. Complete the following word search on the festival of Samhain.

The festival of Samhain F

P G O G H

V C O S

C A

S O H K

H T N E

S C U

A H C

T N N

E Q S

G T

E O G H

T N G O E W I

A C S H S L

T D R

N A G D

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R O O R H U T M

S U R D T O

R O

N D

F G

D S

L O A

K H D K D Q P G P O W E

A M

S C R C

S D

E W

R O P

C D Y

Teac he r S

T N

A M H A

N S

N O M E

goddesses gods golden Lugh magic masks mistletoe oak

otherworld Pliny the elder portents powers priests religious ring Samhain sickle spirits visitors

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T G

S D C S

afterlife cake Celts ceremonies death druids evil festival foretell frighten future

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Word bank

2. In 61 AD, the last stronghold of the druids in Britain was attacked and destroyed by the Romans. Can you match the following statements about the attack on Mona (Anglesey) so they make sense?

(a) The Romans disliked the Celtic druids because

(i) Camulodunum (Colchester) were led to Wales.

(b) The Romans were also suspicious of the

(ii) rebellion of Queen Boudicca of the Icenii tribe.

(iii) was Mona.

(iv) theyt were opposed to Roman power in Britain. © R. I . C.Publ i ca i o ns (e) The ancient name for the island of Anglesey (v) of druidic power because it presented a threat. (f) The Romans stationed ate called • f olegions rr evi w pur p(vi) owas se sSuetonius onPaulinus. l y• (d) In 61 AD, he led a military campaign

(h) The Romans decided to crush this centre

(viii) power and mystical beliefs of the druids.

(i) Suetonius Paulinus led the legions into Mona and

(ix) druidic learning and training.

(j) This campaign was interrupted by the

(x) against the druids who lived in Anglesey.

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(vii) destroyed the last stronghold of the druids in Britain.

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(g) At Mona, the druids had an important centre of

3. In this account, a Celtic druid makes a votive offering to the gods and prays for the safety of his chieftain. However, his account

has no punctuation. Punctuation means to apply a set of marks to a piece of writing in order to clarify its meaning. There are several kinds of punctuation marks. Full stops, commas and inverted commas are amongst the most common. Read this account and punctuate it correctly. There should be 10 full stops, 15 commas and 3 sets of inverted commas in the passage. Check the guide to punctuation underneath the passage to help you choose correctly.

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I am Bran chief druid of the Parisii tribe of northern GaulI I am here today at the lakeside in order to make an offering to you Dis Pater our god of the earth whom we are descended from here in Gaul I appeal to you great lord of the rivers seas and streams and master of the forests mountains and hills to hear me Our chieftain Kristof has to travel soon across the mountains with his warriors and has asked me to pray for his protection I will bring back more gold silver and bronze treasures to offer to Dis Pater if he will protect me during this raid he said He is a brave warrior and has always returned from raids without injury because of your protection I am asking you to protect him again I cast this golden torque this silver cauldron and this bronze dagger into your waters my lord and pray that you will listen to my prayer Bring my finest torque as an offering my chieftain said Offer the god my finest silver cauldron and the bronze dagger my father left me he said So I have

Guide to punctuation: Full stops: marks the end of a sentence; e.g. The druids were very powerful members of Celtic society. It can also mark an abbreviation (when a word is shortened); e.g. Students study Eng. Hist. and Geog. Commas: used mainly to separate words or word groups within a sentence; e.g. The Celtic druids sometimes made offerings to their gods by throwing gold, silver and other treasure into the waters of lakes, rivers and streams. Inverted commas: used to punctuate direct speech; e.g. The druid prayed, ‘Great god of the earth, I offer you our gold and pray for your protection’.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1. Read these keywords/terms, which occur throughout the unit and use them in sentences.

(a) bairín breac: A cake made with currents and sultanas, which is traditionally eaten at Halloween and contains a lucky ring.

(b) Gaul: Latin name for an area covering modern France and beyond, conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BC. (c) Halloween: Name given to the holiday on 31 October, which is the modern version of the Celtic festival of Samhain.

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(d) mistletoe: Sacred plant of the Celtic druids, which only they were allowed to pick and which grew particularly well on oak trees.

(f) oxen: Large domestic mammals kept for their milk and meat.

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(e) oak: Sacred tree of the Celts, which was believed to contain the spirits of their ancestors.

(g) Parisii tribe: Celtic tribe that settled in northern Gaul on a marshy island in the Seine River and gave their name to Paris. (h) sacrifice: The killing of a victim as part of an offering to a god during a religious ceremony.

(i) Samhain: The most important of the four main Celtic festivals, celebrating the end of the old year and beginning of the new. (j) spirits of the dead: The souls of those that have died, believed by the Celts to return on the night of 31 October during the festival of Samhain.

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(a) The Egyptians: The Festival of Sed.

(b) The Greeks: The Olympic Games.

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2. The Celts celebrated important religious festivals during the year. Other ancient civilisations, such as the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans and the Vikings, also celebrated important feasts The following descriptions of some religious festivals have been mixed up. Can you match them correctly with the civilisation they came from? There are clues in the descriptions to help you if you.

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(i) This festival was celebrated in honour of the goddess Flora and was held at the end of April. People wore garlands of flowers around their necks and celebrated the coming of summer. (ii) This festival was celebrated at the time of the winter solstice, the 21 December. People exchanged gifts and believed that their gods flew through the northern European skies with presents in their chariots.

(iii) This festival was celebrated with music and dancing, honouring pharaohs who had ruled for 30 years. It was celebrated on the anniversary and every third year after that.

(d) The Romans: Ludi Florales (the Feast of the Flowers).

(iv) This festival was celebrated at the start of February in honour of the goddess Brigit, goddess of fertility. It celebrated the coming of the season of spring and the lengthening of the daylight.

(e) The Vikings: The Festival of MidWinter.

(v) This festival was celebrated in honour of the god Zeus, the chief god. This festival was held every four years, when athletes competed in games to bring honour to themselves, their families and their home towns. Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 3.

As well as sacrificing animals, the Celtic druids made human sacrifices. One of the most important Celtic archaeological finds was of what is called ‘Lindow Man’, an Iron Age human body. There are ten spelling errors in the following account of this important archaeological find. Identify and write the words correctly in the spaces below. You may need to use your dictionary. Peat bogs in northern Europe have revealed evidence of well-preserved human bodies. Wetland sites such as peat bogs do not allowe bacteria (which cause the process of decay in organic matter) to grow because of lack of oxigen. Wood, leather and other organic materials can survive from the past, as can plant, insect and animal remanes. Excavating a waterlogged site can be very difficult as the remains must be kept wet and are fragile. The discovery of the perserved body of a young Iron Age man in a bog at Lindow, England, in 1984 suggests that he may have been ritually sacrificed by druids. He was hit with a blunt instrument, probably an axe, garrotted (strangled with a tite cord) and his throat was cut. His stomache contents have reveeled that he ate wheaten griddle cakes laced with mistletoe before he was killed. Mistletoe is a plant asociated with the druids, who, according to the Romans, were the only ones allowed to handel it. It is extremely poisenous to human beings when eaten.

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10.

The ancient Celts worshipped trees as sacred objects but they also used wood to make their dwellings, shields and domestic implements. Read the following short passage about wood and circle the correct homophone from the words provided in italics. A homophone is a word that sounds the same as another word but has a different meaning. In some cases there are two choices and in others, three. You may need to use your dictionary when making your choices.

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© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons The ancient Celts worshipped trees including the oak, beech, elder, elm and you/yew/ewe trees. Wood is a much-used bean/been usedi for thousands of u years. Largeo amounts ofs would/wood are used material• and f haso rr ev e wp r p se onl y •in the building and (1)

(2)

(3)

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paper industries. Trees provide wood for our use. Trees are made up of different (4) lairs/layers. The sapwood or the heartwood comes from inside the (5) three/tree and most of the woods used in carpentry come from them, They are moist when first cut and have (6) to/two/too be dried out. Different types of wood are suitable for different uses and wood comes in a great variety of colours, strengths and hardnesses. In (7) hour/our world today, forests are being cut down and not enough trees are being planted to replace them. This process is called deforestation and it can be very damaging to an area, causing flooding and damage to animal and wild life. One (8) weigh/way to reduce deforestation is to produce man-made woods that reduce the use of solid timber. Man-made woods are produced from waste material left behind when trees are cut down. (9) They’re/ There/Their quality and appearance is not as good as original wood. (10) Waist/Waste material is made of sawdust and small pieces of wood and can (11) be/bee mixed with glue to produce artificial woods such as chipboard, fibreboard, blackboard and plywood. (12) Some/Sum of these woods are made by layering several sheets of poorer quality timber together to produce a strong board. This kind of layered wood is called laminated wood.

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Discussion points

The Celts worshipped nature and recognised the important role it played in their lives. The importance of preserving our natural resources for the well being of our world has been recognised by many people today. Students should research current issues in conservation, using the Internet if they wish. Suggested topics for research could include the preservation and protection of the rain forests, climate change and current threats to the world’s eco systems. Investigate how they or their class could make a personal contribution to the preservation of natural resources e.g. recycling their paper. Information on this topic is available in libraries, school libraries and from the internet.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

Unit 5: A young girl plans her wedding – Galicia, Northern Spain, 62 BC Indicators: Students read text and complete comprehension and cloze exercises based on text. Students complete word study exercises in correcting spellings and practising capitalisation. Students learn about the Celts in Spain, life for Celtic girls, marriage customs of the Celts, Celtic family structure and patterns of settlements and housing in different areas of Europe.

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Background information:

This text is a dialogue. A dialogue is a conversation between two or more people which may be spoken or written. In this dialogue, Lusita, a young Celtic girl, describes her plans for her forthcoming wedding as she talks with her friend, Merida. She outlines her plans for the celebration and describes her wedding outfit to her friend.

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The Celts in Spain and Portugal can be divided into two main groups. A group of Celtic settlers who lived in central and eastern Spain probably migrated from France and are known as the Celtiberians. Their way of life, identifiably Celtic, changed with the Roman conquest of Spain in the 2nd century BC. A second group of Celts, who lived in Galicia in northern Spain and along the Atlantic coast, were descended from a number of Celtic tribes such as the Cotini, the Celtici, the Lusitani and the Gallaeci tribes all of whom may have arrived there as late as the mid-1st century BC. Some of these tribes lived in fortified settlements called hill forts or ‘castros’. They were an agricultural and herding people who were divided into many independent territories. They were also skilled metalworkers and evidence of this can be seen in the distinctive torques and bracelets made of silver and gold which have been found in this area.

The Celts viewed marriage as an equal partnership between men and women. Political alliances developed through marriage did exist, especially among noble families. However, evidence suggests that Celtic women could not be married against their will and may have even been allowed to pick their husbands. Evidence from Iron Age groups in Ireland, Wales and France suggests that each party in a marriage brought an equal sum to the marriage. Upon the death of a partner, the survivor got their share back with profits. Upon divorce, the same custom applied. Married women could own and inherit property. They could pursue legal cases without the consent of their husbands. Divorce was allowed and could be requested by either party. Divorced women were free to remarry if they wished. These customs were in stark contrast to those of other ancient societies such as the Romans, who restricted the rights of women. Celtic women, on the other hand, enjoyed more freedom and also acted as rulers; e.g. the Irish Queen Meabh in Ireland and the two British queens; Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes tribe; and Queen Boudicca of the Iceni tribe, who led a major rebellion against the Romans in 61 AD.

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The word ‘castro’ was used to describe the typical hilltop or cliff top Celtic settlements in north-western Spain. They were protected by ditches and walls and the buildings were made of stone with straw roofs and wooden doors. Several round and rectangular buildings were built inside these defensive enclosures. The Latin word ‘oppida’ (hilltop towns) was used to describe the larger settlements of the Celts in France and in central and northern Europe and south-eastern England. In Celtic societies the term ‘hill fort’ is often used and castros and oppida are types of hill forts. All of these terms apply to a wide variety of settlements but they all have several features in common. They were usually built on a hill or mound or some other protected environment, had a circular wall or rampart, and were built to house and protect their inhabitants from the elements and from attack by enemy tribes. Oppida were usually bigger settlements and were the closest to actual towns that the Celts seem to have established, as Celtic society was primarily rural and agricultural. The Celts did not live in large cities or urban settlements, as, for example, the Romans did, and their society was essentially tribal in nature. Celtic clothing was very colourful. Accounts written by Greek and Roman writers describe the appearance of the Celts and tell us how they dressed. Men and women both wore their hair long. Women plaited their hair. Beards and moustaches were popular among men. Celtic craft workers dyed the yarn before weaving cloth, using natural ingredients as dyes. They used the bark of the birch tree for brown, the bark of the elder tree for black, red and orange from the roots of goose grass, blue from wild berries and the colour yellow came from gorse plants. Their tunics were embroidered with many colours and the men wore trousers. Cloaks were worn and held in place with a brooch.

Worksheet information:

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Teachers have the option of asking two students to read the dialogue aloud.

Students may find it useful to use a dictionary when completing Question 1 in Exercise D.

A glossary of keywords and terms relating to the ancient Celts in this particular unit is provided on pages viii – xi for teacher reference. Many of them appear on Question 1 in Exercise E. Students will find it beneficial to check the glossary as they work through the unit. Detailed footnotes for the text in Exercise A have also been provided to assist in comprehension of Celtic terms.

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Teachers notes

Answers: Exercise D....................................... page 39 1. 1. described 2. ornaments 3. bracelets 4. nicknamed 5. elaborate 6. moisturiser, 7. prepared 8. embroidered 9. tunics 10. fastened 2. (a) The wealthier Celts in Britain imported wine from Italy and traded goods with other tribes on mainland Europe. (b) The poorer Celts in Galicia brewed their own beer, which they made from wheat and sometimes sweetened with honey. (c) The Scottish Celts enjoyed eating meat and they stewed meat in a huge cauldron with herbs and vegetables. (d) The Irish Celts also enjoyed roasting meats such as pork, beef or wild boar on a spit over the fire. (e) A Roman writer called Diodorus Siculus wrote ‘They invite strangers to their banquets’. (f) The Welsh Celts celebrated many special religious festivals such as Samhain in November and Inbolc in February.

(g) Celtic farmers in Austria used salt to preserve meat in order to feed their families during the winter. (h) The Roman general Julius Caesar invaded Gaul and wrote eight books about it called The commentaries on the Gallic War. (i) Celtic farmers in Cisalpine Gaul reared animals, which provided milk for butter and cheese and wool for spinning and weaving. (j) The Celts in Gaul, which is now modern France, migrated to Italy in the 5th century BC, probably around 400 BC.

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Exercise C....................................... page 38 were, marriage, back, divorce, legal, allowed, great, tribe, contrast, who, higher, could, event, same, main, known, farming, evidence, torques, bronze, roasting, Romans, part

Exercise E............................... pages 40–41 1. Teacher check 2. (a) iii, (b) ii, (c) i, (d) ii, (e) ii, (f) iii, (g) iii, (h) i 3. (1) Spain, (2) dense, (3) Celtic, (4) James, (5) come, (6) begins, (7) hundreds, (8) bike, (9) cathedral, (10) most. 4. (a) vii, (b) iii, (c) viii, (d) ix, (e) vi, (f) i, (g) x, (h) ii, (i) iv, (j) v

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Exercise B....................................... page 37 1. Lusita is going to marry Finn, the son of the chieftain of the Turoli tribe. 2. He is bringing 20 druids to assist him. 3. Mead was an alcoholic drink made from water, honey, malt and yeast. 4. Castros were hilltop settlements or hill forts in Celtic Spain. 5. Teacher check 6. Gold earrings, a golden fibula and a penannular brooch. The fourth item is a gold torque, which will be new as it is being presented to her by her father on the occasion of her wedding. 7. The hero’s portion was the best portion of meat and was given to the champion warrior. 8. Teacher check 9. (a) A bard was a poet. (b) Teacher check 10. (b), (d) and (g) should be ticked

Cross-curricular activities:

Students may wish to design Celtic wedding outfits for the bride and groom, using information from research conducted by consulting their school library, the public library or the Internet. A website with information on the Celts and their dress is <http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/celts/ factfile/>.

The area of Galicia in north-western Spain is notable for its cooler climate, traditional fishing villages and rugged Atlantic coastline. Many Galicians speak their own language, which is called Gallego. Information on the region is available on the Internet. A useful website is <http:// www.lookatspain.com/galicia-region.html>.

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The distinctive homes of the Celts in Spain were called castros. Information on castros in Spain is available at <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Hill_fort#Spain_and_Portugal>. The annual pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela in Galicia in Spain attracts thousands of pilgrims to visit what is believed to be the tomb of one of the original twelve disciples of Jesus, St James the Apostle. More information on this famous pilgrimage is available at <http://www. santiago-compostela.net/en_site.html>.

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Students should carry out research on other famous places of pilgrimage in the Celtic areas of Europe, such as Croagh Patrick in Ireland where St Patrick reputedly spent 40 days fasting on the mountain. Information on Croagh Patrick is available at <http://www.croagh-patrick.com/ mountain.html>.

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The site of the tomb of St James the Apostle and the town of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia is a UNESCO World Heritage listed site. Students can look at a list of World Heritage sites and a list of sites in danger at the website of the United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organisation at <http://whc.unesco.org/en/list>.

Curriculum links State

Society and Environment

English

Science

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

EB 4, LL 4

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

LTS 3.3, ESS 3.6

Vic.

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

SCBS 0502, SCBS 0401

Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

EB 4.1, EB 4.2, EB 4.3, EB 5.1, EB 5.2

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

4.1, 4.5, 4.6

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise A: Reading Lusita plans her wedding – Galicia, Northern Spain, 62 BC Lusita: I want my wedding to be the best feast1 of the year, even better than Samhain or Bealtaine. I am marrying the son of the king of the Turoli tribe. Merida: Of course, your father is an important chieftain and your parents always give the best feasts in this area. What kind of drinks are you planning to have at your wedding feast? Are you roasting a boar?

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Merida: Will you have music?

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Lusita: Yes. In fact, we will have ten wild boars roasting on a spit and we will also have large cauldrons of beef cooked with root vegetables and fresh herbs. I want beer sweetened with honey, sweet mead2 and my father has traded with a chieftain from Brigantium for sweet wines from Italy. I also want to use the decorated silver flagons from Gaul that my father traded his cattle for last year. I have arranged to have our names engraved on them and the silversmith is doing this today. We will have several wild boars roasting on a spit and we will also have large cauldrons of beef cooked with root vegetables and fresh herbs.

Lusita: Of course. We will have the best music and dancing ever seen in this castro3. I have asked the musicians to be prepared to play their pipes, horns and fiddles until dawn. I want my wedding to be remembered for years afterwards! Merida: What about poetry and storytelling?

Lusita: The bard has already agreed to come and stay all night reciting poems and stories. There will be dancing all night. There will be a boasting contest and Finn wants to take part in that. He’s also insisting that he must take part in the fight for the hero’s portion4. However, I’ve told him that I won’t allow it, not on our wedding day. He could get hurt and he doesn’t need to fight for it anyway. Everyone knows he is the clan’s best warrior. Merida: Will the chief druid be there?

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Lusita: Yes, he is bringing twenty druids to assist him in our wedding ceremony. It will begin in the sacred oak wood where we will make our vows. Then the chief druid will throw offerings to our mother goddess into the lake, all before we return to our castro and begin the feasting. My father says that the feasting will surely last for a week! Merida: What are you going to wear?

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Lusita: It is the winter season and I will have to dress warmly, even if it is my wedding day. I have thought about this a lot. I have decided to wear a green tartan robe edged with a gold border. The weavers are currently weaving the cloth for my cloak, which will be dark green, flecked with gold thread. I intend to wear gold jewellery with this outfit. I will wear my gold earrings, a golden fibula to tie my robe and my gold penannular brooch5 will hold my cloak in place when I am outside. My father is having a new golden torque made for me to wear on the day, which will be decorated with designs showing the sacred leaves of the mistletoe. He wants me to wear it to show that I am the wife of a king’s son and must be shown respect from those around me, including the slaves and the members of my tribe.

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Merida: What kind of shoes will you wear?

Lusita: The shoemaker is making me a pair of brown leather shoes to wear in the oak wood and brown leather sandals for dancing at the feast later. Merida: How will you wear your hair? Lusita: My slaves will wash my hair, plait it with golden ornaments and dress it with fresh flowers from the woods. Merida: And what will your husband-to-be wear? Lusita: He is also wearing green tartan and my father is also presenting him with a golden torque to wear on the day. Oh, Merida! I am excited but I am nervous. I had only known Finn for a short time before I was allowed to choose him6. Merida: You only have another three weeks to wait and then you will have a whole lifetime to get to know each other. 36

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. 1.

Who is Lusita going to marry?

How many druids is the chief druid bringing to assist him in the wedding ceremony?

What kind of a drink was mead?

What kind of a settlement was a castro?

Describe, in your own words, the wedding outfit that Lusita intends to wear.

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Lusita plans to wear four items of jewellery on her wedding day. List the four items and say which item will be new. Who is presenting this item to Lusita and why?

What part of a Celtic feast was called the hero’s portion and who was it given to?

Why do you think Lusita has asked the musicians at her wedding to be prepared to play until dawn?

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3. The word ‘castro’ was used to describe the typical hilltop Celtic settlements or hill forts in Celtic Spain. The Latin word ‘oppida’ (hilltop town) was used to describe the larger settlements of the Celts in France, central and northern Europe, and south-eastern England. They all have several features in common. They were usually built on a hill or mound, with a circular wall or rampart, and were built to house and protect their inhabitants from the elements and from attack by enemy tribes. Oppida were usually bigger and were the closest to actual towns that the Celts seem to have established. Celtic society was primarily rural and the Celts did not live in large cities or urban settlements, as, for example, the Romans did. Castros were usually located in rural areas.

(a) What was a bard?

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(b) Why, in your opinion, were bards considered to be so important by the Celts?

4. At Celtic festivals the best portion of meat was called the hero’s portion and was given to the champion warrior. He could expect to carve himself the best portion of the meat cooked at the feast. Fights often broke out over who was the champion warrior. Sometimes warriors held boasting contests amongst themselves to determine the winner of the hero’s portion. The winner was the warrior who could recall and describe the most dramatic and violent events that they had participated in.

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2. Mead was an alcoholic drink made from water, honey, malt and yeast.

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1. There were many festivals celebrated by the Celts every year. Festivals and the celebrations that accompanied them were extremely important to the Celts, who were noted to have a love of feasting by commentators such as the Romans. Music, dancing, poetry recitations and storytelling were important in these celebrations so bards (poets) and storytellers were always present.

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10. Read the following statements and tick those that are correct.

(a) The Celts were not fond of feasting and celebrations..............................

(b) Bards were poets and singers who held high status in Celtic society........

(d) Celtic musicians played instruments such as pipes, horns and fiddles......

(e) Castros were large coastal towns in Celtic areas of Spain........................

(f) The ancient Celts did not have slaves.....................................................

(g) Wealthy Celts wore gold jewellery as a sign of their status in Celtic society.................................................................................................

(h) The Celts were forbidden to drink wine or beer.......................................

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Literacy and history – The Celts

5. A penannular brooch was used to hold a cloak in place. It had a pin which went through the material and which was then twisted around at the top to hold the cloak in place, A fibula was another kind of brooch used to hold tunics and shirts in place and was made of bronze, silver or gold. Wealthy Celts liked to impress so their jewellery was usually made of gold. As Lusita is the daughter of a chieftain and is marrying a king’s son, all of her jewellery is made of gold. 6. Evidence suggests that Celtic women could not be married against their will and may even have been allowed to pick their husbands. Unlike the Greeks or the Romans, the Celts viewed marriage as an equal partnership between men and women. 37

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word bank

evidence roasting tribe event

part legal known marriage

back bronze contrast same

Romans allowed who main

divorce great higher were

could farming

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torques

The Celts viewed marriage as an equal partnership between men and women. As in all ancient societies, political alliances forged through marriages, especially between families of nobility. However, evidence suggests

party in a

brought an equal sum to the partnership and if their partner died, they got their share

with profits. The same custom prevailed in the case of a

could own and inherit property and pursue

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that Celtic women could not be married against their wills and, in certain cases, could even choose their own husbands. Each

. Married women

cases without the consent of their husbands. Divorce was

and could be requested by women as well as men. Divorced women could remarry if they wished.

power, such as Queen Meabh of Ireland and Queen

Some famous Celtic women were rulers and held Boudicca of the Iceni

, who led a major revolt against the Roman invasion of Britain. These customs

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons The Celts did not live• in large cities preferred to live towns called or small hilltop forts,• called ‘castros’ f o randr e vi e win hillside pu r p o‘oppida’ ses on l y were in stark

to women in other ancient societies such as the Romans,

severely restricted the rights of women.

in Celtic Spain. There is archaeological evidence of large numbers of castros in north-western Spain and elsewhere. The Celts generally preferred to build their settlements on

ground for defensive purposes. This meant that they

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Sometimes they built settlements on islands for the

of an attack.

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see their enemies approaching and could be prepared in the

reason and even built crannogs, which were

artificial islands, in Scotland and Ireland.

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The Spanish Celts can be broadly divided into two to central and eastern Spain and are

groups; those who probably migrated from France

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as the Celtiberians, and those who settled on the Atlantic

coast in areas such as Galicia in north-western Spain. These Celts were descended from tribes such as the Cotini, the Celtici, the Lusitani and the Gallaeci. They were primarily

and herding people who lived in small settlements.

They favoured round-shaped houses and they built circular walls or ramparts around their homes. Like the Celts in other areas of Europe, they were skilled metalworkers and as

of their skills has been found in distinctive jewellery such

and bracelets.

Evidence of their love of feasting, another characteristic of Celtic society, has also been found with the discovery of cauldrons, spits and flesh hooks, all implements used in the cooking and of food for such feasts. The Celtic way of life changed completely with the arrival of the 2nd century BC. Spain became

in Spain in the

of the Roman Empire and the Romans dominated the country, calling

it Hispania. Despite the Romans, aspects of Celtic society and culture continued in Spain. 38

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise D: Word study exercises 1.

There are ten spelling mistakes in the following short paragraph about Roman attitudes to the Celts and their love of personal decoration and jewellery. Write the correct spelling of each word underneath. You may need to use a dictionary to complete this exercise. The Romans were very shocked by the Celt’s love of decoration and jewellery and the fact that both men and women adorned themselves so dramatically. A Roman writer, Strabo, discribed them as being vain and childishly boastful and too fond of decoration. He wrote that they wore gold ornements on their toes, gold torques around their necks, gold braceletes on their wrists and dyed garments sprinkled with gold. The Romans niknamed the Gauls as ‘Gallia aurifera’, which means ‘gold-bearing Gaul’. Another Roman writer, Pliny the Elder, describes their elabarate personal preparations. He refers to a special soap they invented, a special moisturisor made from natural oils and aromatic herbs, used by Celtic women. Special perfumes for men and women were prepard by slaves. Diodorus Siculus, another Roman commentator, described the Celts as being fond of eye-catching clothes, dyed and embroidared in many colours. He wrote that they wore tuniks and trousers, which he called ‘bracae’ and striped cloaks fasened with golden brooches. 1.

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10.

The Celts were fond of feasting and enjoying food in social settings. Celtic houses had one large room in which everyone cooked, ate and talked. The hearth, with its fire, was the centre of the home, providing heat, light and cooking facilities. The following sentences on the food and drink of the Celts have no capital letters. Can you correct them by rewriting them on a separate sheet of paper and putting in the missing capitals? There is a guide to use of capital letters underneath to help you.

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(a)

(b)

(d) the irish celts enjoyed roasting meats such as pork, beef or wild boar on a spit over the fire.

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© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons the wealthier celts in britain imported wine from italy and traded goods with other tribes on mainland europe. •f orr evi ew pur posesonl y• the poorer celts in galicia brewed their own beer, which they made from wheat and sometimes sweetened with honey.

(e) a roman writer called diodorus siculus wrote, ‘they invite strangers to their banquets’.

(f) the welsh celts celebrated many special religious festivals such as samhain in november and inbolc in february.

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(g) celtic farmers in austria used salt to preserve meat in order to feed their families during the winter.

(h) the roman general julius caesar invaded gaul and wrote eight books about it called the commentaries on the gallic war.

(i)

celtic farmers in cisalpine gaul reared animals, which provided milk for butter and cheese and wool for spinning and weaving.

(j)

the celts in gaul, which is now modern france, migrated to italy in the 5th century bc, probably around 400 bc.

Guide to capital letters. Capital letters are letters of a larger size and bolder style. The first letter of the first word in a sentence has a capital letter, as has the first letter of the first word quoted in direct speech. Capital letters are used for the proper nouns or names of persons, places or things; e.g. Italy. Capital letters are used for the days of the week and the months of the year but not for the seasons. Capital letters are used for most abbreviations but not for abbreviated weights and measures. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1. Read these keywords/terms, which occur throughout the unit, and use them in sentences.

(a) bard: A tribal poet and singer who composed and recited verses on heroes and their adventures.

(b) Bealtaine: Celtic festival held on 1 May to celebrate the beginning of summer when animals were sent out to graze again. (c) boar: Adult male of any species of swine. (d) boasting contest: Contest in which Celtic warriors boasted about their hunting and fighting skills to get the hero’s portion.

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(e) Brigantium: Settlement of the Galician Celts, meaning ‘high place’ in the north-west of Spain, now modern La Corua.

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(f) castros: Settlements in north-western Spain located on mountains or cliffs, protected by ditches or solid walls, containing a circular house. (g) cauldrons: Large kettles or pots used for boiling and cooking joints of meat and vegetables over a fire.

(h) chieftain: The leader of a clan or tribe, who usually belonged to the ‘derbfine’ (Irish term), meaning four generations of family. (i) flagons: Containers for liquids that have handles, spouts and lids. (j)

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2. Read the following description of Queen Meabh (pronounced ‘Mayave’ by the Celts) and circle the correct answers in the multiple choice questions which follow. One of the most famous Celtic women in mythology was Queen Meabh. She was the queen of Connacht and she was known as a warrior queen. She is the most important female character in the Irish saga, The Ulster cycle, which includes the famous story of her rivalry with her husband, Ailill, over a bull. According to mythological sources, Queen Meabh was tall and pale skinned, with bright red hair that flowed down to her knees. She was often portrayed with creatures such as birds and squirrels on her shoulders. She is often described as wearing a bright red cloak and carrying a flaming spear. She is described as being able to run faster than any horse. Her father, Eochaid, was king of Tara and her mother was named Clorthfinn. She had three sisters called Clothra, Eithne and Mugain, one of whom, Eithne, she killed in a rage. Her fortress was at Cruachain in County Roscommon. She argued and battled with Cuchulainn and outlived him, only to suffer a strange and undignified death. The sister that she killed was pregnant at the time of her death and the baby was saved. The legend says that her sister’s son, Furbaide, noticed a beautiful woman bathing one day and enquired about her, only to be told that she was the woman who killed his mother. To revenge his mother’s death, he took a piece of hardened cheese, placed it in his sling, and shot it at Meabh, hitting her in the forehead and killing her instantly. Historians believe that the character of Queen Meabh is a combination of a number of goddesses and mythological figures from Celtic sources.

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(a) Which area of Ireland did Queen Meabh rule over?

(i) Ulster

(ii) Leinster

(b) Which famous Irish saga tells her story?

(i) The Connacht cycle.

(ii) The Ulster cycle. (iii) The Midhe cycle.

(i) a warrior queen. (ii) a peace-loving queen. Literacy and history – The Celts

(iii) Connacht.

(iii) a timid queen.

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities (d) According to legend, Queen Meabh was

(i) small and petite, with blonde curly hair.

(ii) tall and pale skinned, with bright red hair.

(iii) tall and tanned, with black hair.

(e) Queen Meabh had three sisters, one of whom

(i) was married ten times. (ii) was killed by her in a rage.

(f) She was often portrayed with

(i) snakes wrapped around her ankles.

(ii) bees and butterflies on (iii) birds and squirrels on her her hair. shoulders.

(g) In revenge, her nephew, Furbaide, killed her by

(i) beheading her with a sword.

(ii) poisoning her food at a (iii) hitting her forehead with a feast. hard piece of cheese, shot with a sling.

(h) Historians believe that her character may be

(i) a combination of goddesses and mythological figures.

(ii) based on direct historical evidence.

(iii) was her twin sister.

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(iii) based on insubstantial evidence.

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3. Read the following short passage on the area of Galicia in north-western Spain and circle the correct words from the words provided in bold. You may need to research answers when making your choices. Galicia in north-western Spain has a cool, temperate climate with mild, moist winters and summers that lack the extremes of temperature sometimes experienced in other parts of (1) Italy/Spain/Germany. It is an area of (2) dense/light/dull forests with many fishing villages along the coast, which borders the Atlantic Ocean. Today, it still shows many (3) Greek/Celtic/ Egyptian influences such as the remains of many ‘castros’ or hilltop settlements. The world famous pilgrimage, the Camino di Santiago, finishes in Santiago de Compostela, where St James the apostle is buried. St(4) John/Jerome/James was put to death in 44 AD by Herod Agrippa, the ruler of Palestine under the Romans. Pilgrims from all over the world (5) leave/come/ sail to take part in the pilgrimage, which (6) begins/ends/finishes in Roncesvalles in the French Pyrenees and continues for (7) millions/thousands/hundreds of kilometres to Santiago de Compostela. The pilgrims, known as peregrinos, must cover 100 kilometres by foot or horse or 200 kilometres by (8) plane/bike/boat in order to receive an official certificate, from the (9) government/cathedral/Vatican, which is called La Compostela, The pilgrimage has been taking place since the 9th century AD and the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela is the (10) best/least/most frequented Christian shrine in the world today.

The science of studying past climates is called paleoclimatology. Can you match the following statements on paleoclimatology so they make sense? Look for clues in the sentences.

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(i) go through the process of becoming sediment over time.

(b) U-shaped valleys can tell us that

(ii) reveal what conditions were like when they lived on earth.

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(a) Scientists cannot measure past climates directly

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(iii) the area was once covered with glaciers.

(d) Fossils are the remains of plants or animals that

(iv) about climate in the past in their inscriptions, journals and diaries.

(e) Fossilised sea creatures can tell us

(v) to find out about variations in climate that affect the rings’ size.

(f) Layers of mud, sand and small stones

(vi) about the temperature of the sea in the past.

(g) Paleoclimatologists can examine sediment and

(vii) so they have to use physical evidence such as rocks, trees and land.

(h) The fossilized remains of animals can

(viii) glaciers deposited huge chunks of ice in the ground that melted.

(i) Ancient writers can reveal information

(ix) have been preserved in the earth’s crust.

(j) Scientists can ‘read’ the rings of tree trunks

(x) discover information about the climates of the past.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

Unit 6: A group of Celtic warriors hold a boasting contest – Scotland, 57 BC Indicators: Students read text and complete comprehension and cloze exercises based on text. Students complete word study exercises on sentence order, choosing correct words and correct answers. Students learn about Celtic warriors, boasting contests and the hero’s portion, the Galatian Celts who settled in Asia Minor and patterns of migration and language in the ancient and modern worlds.

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Background information:

This text is a dialogue in which a group of Celtic warriors hold a boasting contest at a feast to determine who will win the hero’s portion. A dialogue is a conversation between two or more parties, which may be spoken or written. Dialogues are usually an exchange of ideas or opinions. In this dialogue, there are four warriors taking part in a boasting contest which leads to a robust exchange of views and even threatens to escalate into violence several times.

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The Celts were fond of feasting and celebrated religious festivals throughout the year by holding elaborate feasts in the halls of chieftains. Information on the feasting of the Celts has not come to us directly, as they did not leave written sources, but through indirect sources such as the writings of Greek and Roman historians and from the oral traditions of the Celts, particularly in Scotland, Wales and Ireland. The Celtic tradition of storytelling and reciting poetry continued in the centuries after the Roman invasions of Britain and some of these epic-like sagas were eventually written down, giving us an invaluable insight into Celtic culture. The Táin Bó Cuailnge, known in English as the Cattle Raid of Cooley, tells the story of the Irish queen, Queen Meabh’s fight with the warrior Cuchulainn and the Welsh collection of stories called the Mabinogion, which means ‘a tale of childhood’, contains tales of Celtic heroes. The hero’s portion at a Celtic feast was the very best portion of meat and was awarded to the best warrior. If there were several important warriors they held a boasting contest and the winner won the hero’s portion. Boasting contests allowed warriors to boast extravagantly about their exploits and adventures in hunting and fighting. The winners won the honour of carving the meat for everyone and took the best cut for themselves. There are references to drinking contests in Celtic sagas. Drinking horns were used by warriors for drinking wine. They were made of gold, silver or bronze. According to Roman writers, they drank from them as they feasted, sitting around in circles. It may be that they were used in drinking contests between warriors.

Celtic houses were built inside their forts and were usually circular in shape, with stone or wooden walls and roofs thatched with straw, rushes and reeds. A fire, used for cooking, light and heat, usually burned in the centre of these one-roomed homes. There were no chimneys so they must have been smoky at times. The Celts sat on animals skins and slept on wooden platforms built along the walls.

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Cauldrons were considered to be very important to the Celts and archaeological and literary evidence confirms this. Cauldrons were used for domestic and sacrificial purposes. They were important possessions and owned mostly by wealthy Celts who could afford them. They symbolised regeneration and abundance and the Celts believed that there was a magical cauldron called the Cauldron of Plenty in the Celtic Otherworld, which never emptied. The importance of cauldrons in Celtic mythology has been linked to the development of legends about the Holy Grail, which were medieval legends that told the story of the search for the cup used by Christ in the Last Supper in Christian belief. One of the most valuable Celtic artefacts to be discovered was the Gundestrup Cauldron, found in Gundestrup, Denmark. Historians believe that it may have been brought to Denmark as loot; i.e. goods taken in war by warriors. It is made of silver and is ornately decorated. It has been dated by archaeologists to the 1st century BC. It depicts Celtic gods and has motifs such as elephants and griffons. It also depicts a number of Celtic warriors and historians differ on this aspect of the interpretation of the cauldron’s decoration. Some believe that it shows warriors preparing for battle while a sacrifice is being offered to the gods. Others believe that it shows warriors being initiated as Celtic fighters.

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The Celts believed that the head, not the heart, was the centre of human emotions and that the soul of a person was contained in their head. Celtic warriors in Gaul cut off the heads of their enemies in battle and preserved them. The importance of the head for the Celts can be seen in how often it figures in Celtic art. Warriors took particular care to protect their heads in battle with the use of helmets, made of bronze, in the earlier part of Celtic history and of iron from about 400 AD. These helmets were decorated in bronze, and had cheek pieces, nape protectors and peaks. A horned helmet found in the Thames River in London, which dates from the 1st century BC, was decorated for ceremonial use and turned its wearer into a horned god. A Celtic helmet dating from the 3rd century BC, found in Romania, has a bronze crest of a bird of prey cast on its top and was modelled so that the wings of the bird flapped as the warrior rode towards his enemy. The bird of prey may have been a raven or crow and may have had links to a protective deity. From the 2nd century BC, the design of Celtic helmets was copied by the Romans. Celtic warriors valued personal bravery above everything else and accounts of Celtic warfare, from Greek and Roman commentators and from Celtic sagas such as the Tàin Bò Cuailnge, have many references to champions and to exceptionally brave warriors. Celtic warriors were praised for their individual deeds and skills rather than their part in a military structure. For this reason, the Romans easily defeated the Celts because of their superior military unity on the battlefield. The number three was a sacred number to the Celts. Many of their gods were portrayed as being triple-headed or triple-faced gods and the number three figured in much of their beliefs. They believed that there were three divisions in nature: earth, fire and water; in human beings: body, soul and spirit; and in the world: heaven, sea and the underworld.

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Teachers notes Worksheet information: Teachers have the option of asking four students to read the dialogue aloud. Students may need to use dictionaries when completing Question 2 in Exercise D. Students may need to use a dictionary in order to complete Activity 4 in Exercise E. A glossary of keywords and terms relating to the ancient Celts in this particular unit is provided on pages viii – xi for teacher reference. Many of them appear on Question 1 in Exercise E. Students will find it beneficial to check the glossary as they work through the unit. Detailed footnotes for the text in Exercise A have also been provided to assist in comprehension of Celtic terms.

Answers:

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Exercise D....................................... page 47 1. 1. Good morning, I have been asked to tell you about the preparations for the feast being held tonight in our chieftain’s broch. 2. Well, first of all, I sent two of my kitchen slaves to collect the wood we need for the fire in the hearth. 3. Secondly, I sent the slaves to dig up the onions and wild leeks that we are using tonight and told them to wash them well. 4. Thirdly, I asked the chieftain to send over the boar that he caught while hunting so that we could prepare it for roasting. 5. I also asked the chieftain to ask his warriors for any other catches that they would like to contribute to the feast. 6. They sent me three rabbits and a number of salmon. 7. Then we began to bake oatcakes and bread with the wheat and barley that we had ground with our querns this week. 8. We next put the dough for the bread and the oatcakes on the hot flagstones in front of the hearth. 9. I then told the slaves to fill the large cauldron with water and the vegetables they had picked.

10. Next, I put the skinned and filleted rabbits into the cauldron before I turned my attention to the boar. 11. The boar was then put on a large spit over the fire and it began to roast. 12. Finally, I baked the salmon by putting it on the hot flagstones after the bread and griddle cakes were cooked. 13. The very last thing that I did was to check that the stew was cooking, the boar was roasting and the salmon was baked. I then told the slaves to get the Italian wine and the beer ready for our guests who will be here soon. I must go! 2. 1. feared, 2. tears, 3. monster, 4. full, 5. bright, 6. swords, 7. daughter, 8. disappeared, 9. grateful. 3. (a) ii, (b) ii, (c) iii, (d) ii, (e) iii, (f) ii

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Exercise B....................................... page 45 1. A boasting contest was when warriors competed for the hero’s portion by boasting and bragging about their exploits and adventures and the best boaster won. There are four warriors in this contest. 2. They believed that the soul was in the head and that they had captured their enemy’s soul. Displaying the head frightened off other enemies. 3. Teacher check 4. Epona was the Celtic goddess of war, horses, fertility and agriculture and she was unique because she was adopted by the Roman cavalry and was the only Celtic goddess to be included in the list of Roman gods and goddesses. Her feast day was on 18 December, which was celebrated in Rome. 5. Dugall swears by the three-headed god of his ancestors because three was a sacred number to them and many of their gods had three heads or three faces. 6. (a) Dugall says that his walls are lined with hundreds of staring skulls. (b) Teacher check 7. Teacher check 8. (a), (c) and (f) should be ticked.

their, bravest, fight, make, used, battle, shouting, trumpets, iron, drove, needed, fruit, shrines, Rome, throughout

Exercise E............................... pages 48–49 1. Teacher check 2. (a) settled, (b) century, (c) language, (d) historians, (e) three, (f) soldiers, (g) examples, (h) adopted, (i) emperor, (j) preached 3. (a) vi, (b) ix, (c) vii, (d) ii, (e) viii, (f) iii, (g) iv, (h) v, (i) x, (j) i 4. (1) always, (2) earliest, (3) followed, (4) outwards, (5) France, (6) Alps, (7) even, (8) continued, (9) America, (10) expanded, (11) Ireland, (12) eastern

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Exercise C....................................... page 46 Warriors, males, with, war, had, silver, with,

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Cross-curricular activities:

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Students can design their own Celtic helmets. Information on Celtic warriors and clothing can be found at <http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/celts/>.

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There is information on European migration and emigration in the past at <http://www.casahistoria.net/emigration.htm> and there is information on emigration from Ireland during the Great Famine at <http://www.cobhheritage.com/index2.html>.

Curriculum links State

Society and Environment

English

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

Vic.

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise A: Reading A group of warriors hold a boasting contest at a feast in Scotland, 57 BC. Brianan:

I will begin. I am the best warrior in this tribe, better than any of you. I know how to use my sword. I have killed many enemies over the years, more than any of you. I have taken part in more raids and taken home more spoils than any of you. When I arrive, my enemies shake with fear. I line their heads on spikes1 as a warning to all who would challenge me.

Dugall:

You think that makes you the best warrior? Never. I deserve the hero’s portion2. My sword has cut more heads off than anyone else here. Hundreds of staring skulls line the walls of my fort and serve to warn anyone who would dismiss me. When my enemies hear that I am coming, they don’t even wait to shake with fear, they run like hares to avoid me.

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When they hear I’m coming, they throw down their arms and surrender because they know that I will catch them, as I am the swiftest rider in the clan. My horse, Mona, and I can catch anyone who tries to outrun us. The goddess Epona3 herself could not catch me when I am in pursuit of my enemies. In fact, she tried to catch me once and she failed. Since then, I have been acknowledged as the fastest rider in all of Scotland. As the best warrior and the fastest rider, I should get my hands on that cut of fine meat sizzling on the spit.

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Liam:

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Domhnall Donn: I deserve the best cut of meat. After all, I am the chieftain’s cousin and I have defended my clan for over 20 years. No-one has ever suffered from an attack since I came here as a young boy and was fostered by the chieftain. None of you could defeat me in a fight. In fact, I challenge you now to fight me to see who is the winner. I guarantee that it will be me and I will soon be enjoying a large piece of that tasty roast beef turning on that spit. Liam:

You want a fight now? I’ll give you one and I guarantee that you will not win. Put down your drinking horn and face me now. You are only here tonight because you are the chieftain’s cousin. I won my place here at the feast tonight fairly. I fought hard to be here and I should get the hero’s portion and an extra portion of stew from the cauldron as well.

(They stand and draw their swords, staring at each other with strong dislike.)

Dugall:

Stop this right now! We are here to boast, not to fight. The best boaster will win the hero’s portion tonight. We are all good fighters and everyone in the clan knows this. I will continue with the boasting by saying that once I confronted 20 warriors from the MacAdam clan and managed to defeat them in a single day. Can any of you match that?

Brianan:

I certainly can. I once fought 50 warriors from the MacPherson clan and defeated them single-handedly in half a day. At the end of that day, I still had time to attend a feast and celebrate the festival of Bealtaine.

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Domhnall Donn: This is rubbish! Last week I confronted one hundred warriors from the MacSweeney clan and killed them all in less than an hour! Afterwards, I still had time to act as my brother’s best man and attend his wedding feast. Liam:

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You really think that’s good, do you? Yesterday, I confronted 125 warriors from the Connolly clan. I defeated them and stuck their heads on spikes, all in the space of half an hour and I didn’t lose a breath.

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Domhnall Donn: But I saw you here yesterday morning. You weren’t fighting, you were here! You’re lying to us. Liam:

That’s it! You might be the chieftain’s cousin but you are a fool. I challenge you now to a fight to the death. You have insulted me and called me a liar. Draw your sword and get ready to travel swiftly to the Otherworld.

Domhnall Donn: And you can get ready to feel your head on a spike!

(They draw their swords again and start to fight but are persuaded to sit down by the others.)

Brianan:

Now, let’s talk now about our skills and prowess at hunting4. I know I’m the best hunter here. During the festival of Imbolc this year, I caught and killed a large red stag on the mountain single-handedly.

Dugall:

I swear by the three-headed god5 of our ancestors that I caught and killed two stags single-handedly near the lake.

Liam:

Well, I was hunting last month and I caught and killed five stags single-handedly and still had time to fish.

Domhnall Donn: You are all weaklings. When I go hunting, the animals hide in the forests, fearing the cut of my spear.

(The boasting continues until Brianan wins the boasting contest and is awarded the hero’s portion, much to Domhnall Donn’s disgust.) Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. 1.

What kind of contest was a boasting contest? How many Celtic warriors are involved in it?

Why did the Celts take such pride in capturing the heads of their enemies and displaying them?

The warrior, Liam, refers to Epona. Who was she and what was unique about her?

Why does Dugall swear by the triple-headed god of his ancestors?

2. The hero’s portion at a Celtic feast was the best cut of meat and was awarded to the warrior who won the boasting contest. Boasting contests allowed warriors to boast extravagantly about their exploits and brag about their adventures in hunting and fighting. The winners won the honour of carving the roasted meat for everyone and took the best cut for themselves.

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Who do you think deserves to win the hero’s portion at this feast? Why?

1. The Celts believed that the head was where the soul resided. In some areas of Celtic Europe, people placed great importance on the head. Warriors cut off the heads of their enemies and displayed them in public. Celtic artists created many artefacts of human heads in metal and in stone. Celtic decoration often contained hidden heads or faces within elaborate designs.

3. The Celtic goddess Epona was the goddess of war, horses, fertility and agriculture. Uniquely, she was the only Celtic goddess to be included by the Romans in their list of gods and goddesses. Her feast day was on 18 December. She was adopted by the Roman cavalry as their patron. She was linked to the Welsh goddess Rhiannon. One of the largest pictorial works of art in the world, the Uffington White Horse, is located in Oxfordshire in England. It may possibly have been carved by the Celtic tribe, the Dobunni, as a tribute to Epona as their patron goddess and to signify their worship of her.

(b) In your opinion, would this serve as an effective warning to his enemies? Why?

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Do you think that boasting contests often ended in fighting? Why do you think this was so?

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4. Celtic warriors hunted with daggers, swords and spears. Their swords were their status symbols and evidence shows that they were highly decorated. They also carried shields and wore helmets with horns, which were decorated with studs and relief patterns. In 1868, a warrior’s helmet was found in the Thames River in London. It may have been thrown into the river as an offering to the gods. This helmet was made of two pieces of bronze riveted together with a cresent-shaped piece at the front.

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Read the following statements and tick those that are correct.

(a) Celtic warriors liked to boast about their fighting and hunting skills...................

(b) The Celts regarded the number four as a sacred number.................................

(d) The Celts believed that the heart was where the soul resided...........................

(e) Drinking horns were used to drink sacred water in Celtic ceremonies...............

(f) Celtic art often contains hidden images of heads in its pictures and designs.....

(g) The hero’s portion was a special drink given to the best boaster.......................

(h) Druids held boasting contests to decide who was the best priest......................

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Literacy and history – The Celts

5. The Celts had many triple-headed and triple-faced gods as three was a sacred number to them. Many such representations of Celtic gods have been found at archaeological sites in Europe, such as the god worshipped by the Remi tribe in northern Gaul. 45

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word bank fruit had throughout silver

Warriors with trumpets drove

with their bravest shrines

needed make battle Rome

iron used fight war

shouting males

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The Celts were very proud of their warriors.

were their own separate class in Celtic society and there is

evidence of this in many Celtic cemeteries across Europe, where the remains of groups of heavily-armed have been discovered. Celtic sagas are filled

stories of brave warriors who fought against the odds and

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of every

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won. Irish stories show a culture where warfare constantly took place and where confrontations between selected warriors were part or fight.

Celtic warriors were very well equipped. In the early Celtic period, known as the Hallstatt period, their weapons were mainly bronze. By the La Téne period, the Celts

mastered the art of making iron weapons, decorated with bronze,

and gold. Their skilful creation of strong, durable swords,

triangular or parallel-sided blades, ensured

leaf-shaped,

success in battle. Celtic swords were short and mostly used

in close hand-to-hand combat. Many disputes were settled in single combat. The

warrior would be

to the death. © R. I . C.Pu bl i cat i ons Celtic warriors looked terrifying when they were preparing to fight. They combed their hair with lime to •f orr evi ew pur posesonl y• it stand up in spikes on their heads. Some Celtic warriors painted their skin with a blue dye made from a plant called woad.

chosen from each side and they would

They

horse-drawn chariots to rush at their enemies at full speed, raising their voices and

horned or had wings on the top that moved up and down as they rode their chariots to

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blowing trumpets called carnyxes. They sometimes wore helmets to protect their heads and their helmets were usually .

According to some Roman accounts, the Celts prepared for battle by driving their chariots in all directions, hurling their javelins and as much as possible, as well as blowing their

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and horns. The noise and

the movement intimidated and confused their enemies. Then the Celts attacked at full force.

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Their chariots were light two-wheeled vehicles that were speedy and easy to manoeuvre. Their wheels were spoked and made of iron and they had

lynch pins inserted into their axle-ends to keep the wheels securely in place. They had a

wooden frame with a long pole out front to which a pair of horses was attached. The chariots had room for two men; a charioteer and a warrior. They

at speed towards their enemies, hurling their spears at them. Then the warrior jumped

down to fight, depending on his charioteer to save him if he

to get away quickly.

The goddess Epona was the Celtic goddess of war and of horses and was also worshipped as a goddess of fertility and healing. She was usually shown on horseback, surrounded by horses, ears of corn, which was her sacred symbol. She was also associated with water and many of her

and a horn, called a cornucopia, were situated

close to springs. The Celts often left offerings to their gods, called votive offerings, near springs and in lakes and rivers. Epona was adopted by the Roman cavalry and a temple was built to honour her in 18 December each year. Worship of the Celtic goddess spread

. Her festival was celebrated on the Roman empire and continued for

many centuries afterwards. 46

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise D: Word study exercises 1.

In the following paragraph, a Celtic cook is describing her preparations for a feast but the order of her account has been confused. Can you rewrite it, on the back of this sheet in the correct order? To help you, some keywords/phrases have been put into italics. Finally, I baked the salmon by putting it on the hot flagstones after the bread and griddle cakes were cooked. Thirdly, I asked the chieftain to send over the boar that he caught while hunting so that we could prepare it for roasting. Good morning, I have been asked to tell you about the preparations for the feast being held tonight in our chieftain’s broch. I also asked the chieftain to ask his warriors for any other catches that they would like to contribute to the feast. We next put the dough for the bread and the oatcakes on the hot flagstones in front of the hearth.

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The very last thing that I did was to check that the stew was cooking, the boar was roasting and the salmon was baked. I then told the slaves to get the Italian wine and the beer ready for our guests who will be here soon. I must go! They sent me three rabbits and a number of salmon.

The boar was then put on a large spit over the fire and it began to roast.

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Then we began to bake oatcakes and bread with the wheat and barley that we had ground with our querns this week. I then told the slaves to fill the large cauldron with water and the vegetables they had picked.

Secondly, I sent the slaves to dig up the onions and wild leeks that we are using tonight and told them to wash them well. Next, I put the skinned and filleted rabbits into the cauldron before I turned my attention to the boar.

Well, first of all, I sent two of my kitchen slaves to collect the wood we need for the fire in the hearth.

Read the following passage spoken by a Celtic storyteller about a famous warrior and choose the appropriate words from the choices offered so that the passage makes sense. You may need to use a dictionary.

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons the people with loathing because of his vicious temper. He was loved/feared/honoured from the lowlands to the highlands •every f o r r ev i ew p u r pose nandl y •said that even the and across loch. His name brought trembling and laughter/tears/joy tos everyo broch people

‘My tale tonight concerns Nechtan the Bad-tempered, who was the most frightening warrior in all of Scotland and who filled

dinosaur/monster/fairy in Loch Ness swam deep under the waters when he rode by on his horse. He was very strong and had a straggly/sparse/full black beard. His brown eyes were dim/bright/dull and his ability to spot his enemy from afar

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was legendary. His brother, a smith, forged his swords/torques/coins for him and it was said that his brother was tired out

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because Nechtan the Bad-tempered required five swords every year because he wore them out with his fighting. However, one day he fell in love with Niamh, the beautiful son/nephew/daughter of the king of Ulster from across the sea, and brought her

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home to Scotland to be his bride. From that day on, his temper reappeared/disappeared/emerged and he became gentle

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and good-humoured. His new wife, Niamh, demanded that his name be changed to Nechtan the Good-natured and no-one argued with her because they were all so annoyed/angry/grateful to her.’

Read the following statements and circle the correct answers.

(a) Celtic warriors greatly valued (i) personal safety. (ii) personal bravery. (iii) personal hygiene. (b) Their swords were (i) long and made of iron. (ii) short and made of steel. (iii) long and made of wood.

(c) Celtic warriors combed their hair with (i) woad to dye it blue. (ii) coal to dye it black. (iii) lime to make it stand up in spikes. (d) They held competitions to decide who should get (i) the biggest piece of bread roasted over the spit. (ii) the best cut of meat, called the hero’s portion. (iii) the biggest barrel of beer.

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(e) The competitions for the hero’s portion sometimes (i) involved fighting with swords for five days. (ii) involved betting with silver coins. (iii) involved boasting wildly about their achievements. (f) Celtic warriors prepared for the battlefield by (i) reciting poetry about great battles in the past. (ii) blowing their trumpets and horns as loudly as possible. (iii) praying and meditating.

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1.

Read these keywords/terms, which occur throughout the unit, and use them in sentences.

(a) drinking horn: Elaborately decorated horns used for drinking wine, which could be made of gold, silver or bronze.

(b) Epona: The Celtic goddess of horses, fertility and agriculture, usually portrayed on horseback with a foal, dog and bird. (c) flesh fork: A long metal fork designed to make it easy to take meat roasting on a spit. (d) fostered: The Celts operated a system of fosterage whereby their sons and daughters were fostered by a powerful patron.

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(e) heads on spikes: Celtic warriors put their enemies heads on public display as a warning and to show that they had captured the souls of their enemies.

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(f) hero’s portion: The best cut of meat at a feast, usually given to the warrior who boasted the most at the boasting contest. (g) Imbolc: Celtic festival celebrated on 1 February. It was dedicated to the goddess Brigit and linked to spring. (h) prowess: A warrior’s strength, bravery and skill in fighting.

(i) raids: Surprise attacks by small bands of warriors.

(j) sword: In early Celtic times, a sword had short blades and was closer to a modern dagger. It was used in hand-to-hand fighting.

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2. The following sentences on the Galatian Celts in Asia Minor are missing some words. Choose twelve words from the list underneath to complete the sentences. in the area of Galatia, in Anatolia.

(a) One group of Celts crossed into Asia Minor and

(b) They settled there in the 3rd

(d) According to Greek

(e) These

(f) They continued with their warrior culture, serving as mercenary

(g) Archaeologists have found very few

(h) They believe that the Celts who settled in Galatia may have artefacts.

(i) In 25 BC, the Roman

(j) St Paul

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, three Celtic tribes settled in Galatia.

tribes were called the Tolistobogii, the Trocmi and the Tectosages.

or raiding neighbouring territories.

of the La Tène style there in artefacts or carvings. the local style of ornaments and

Augustus made Galatia part of the Roman Empire. the Christian gospel to the Galatians in his famous ‘Letter to the Galatians’ in 58 AD.

examples

soldiers century

language preached emperor historians

Literacy and history – The Celts

adopted three

settled

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities The Galatian Celts were said to have retained their Celtic language into Christian times. Can you match the following statements on Celtic languages so they make sense? Look for clues in the words. (a) The Celtic languages belong to the group of

(i) epic narratives were preserved and written and these have survived for us to study.

(b) Celtic languages are now only spoken in those areas

(ii) Brittany were split into two distinct groups.

(iii) in Wales, Cornwall and Brittany.

(d) The Celtic languages spoken in Britain, Ireland and

(iv) ongoing research into the origins and development of Celtic languages.

(e) The Q-Celtic group of languages, or Goidelic, were

(v) the epic narrative, in which a storyteller would recount the deeds of ancestors and of mythological heroes.

(f) The P-Celtic or Brythonic group of languages were spoken

(vi) languages known as Indo-European languages.

(g) Historians and linguists are still exploring the complex questions arising from

(vii) from Spain to Galatia in Asia Minor, where St. Jerome recorded that it was still spoken in the 4th century AD.

(h) One of the strongest traditions in Celtic culture was

(viii) spoken in Ireland, the Isle of Man and western Scotland.

(i) Unfortunately, most of the narrative epics from continental Europe

(ix) which lie on the Atlantic coast of Europe, sometimes called the Celtic Fringe.

(j) However, in Celtic Ireland, where Celtic culture and language survived for much longer,

(x) and Britain have not survived.

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Read the following paragraph on migration in the ancient and modern world and circle the correct words from the choices offered in bold so that the paragraph makes sense. You may need a dictionary. never/always/seldom shown patterns of migration. Some of the (2)earliest/latest/slowest humans were hunters and gatherers who (3)chased/pursued/followed animal herds in their seasonal migrations in search of food. From the 6th century BC, the Celts migrated (4)inwards/sideways/outwards from central Europe, especially from the eastern Alps, southern Germany and eastern France. They migrated across (5)Antarctica/France/Brazil and over the sea to Britain and Ireland. They migrated to central Spain and in Galicia in north-western Spain; over the (6)Alps/Himalayas/Pyrenees into the Po Valley in Italy; and they migrated south of the river Danube into Serbia, Hungary and Romania and finally into northern Greece. They (7)n ever/even/over crossed into Galatia in Anatolia. In modern history, great migrations of peoples have (8)ceased/stopped/ continued to take place. The discovery of (9)Asia/America/Australia by Christopher Columbus, in 1492, led to a great movement of people from Europe and to the forced movement of people from Africa, to be used as slaves. As Britain and France (10)expanded/contracted/curtailed their empires, people emigrated to North America, Australia and New Zealand. The Great Famine in the 1840s, in (11)Italy/Ireland/Iceland, led to the emigration of over one million Irish people to Britain and America. The recent growth of the European Union has led to migration from (12)southern/northern/eastern Europe to Western Europe.

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(1)

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Discussion points Throughout history, people have moved from one area to another. Investigate the meanings of the following words: migration, emigration, immigration, colonisation, migrant, and refugee. Investigate movements of people in the past; e.g. those begun by the great voyages of discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries. Discuss the issues that have affected the indigenous people of a country or area as a result of these events. Investigate the economic, social and cultural benefits of such movements of people. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

Unit 7: A Celtic farmer celebrates the feast of Lunasduinn with his family – Scotland, 54 BC Indicators: Student reads text and completes comprehension and cloze exercises on text. Student completes word study exercises on choosing correct words, rewriting a menu and correcting spelling errors and finding grammatical, spelling and capitalisation errors in a piece of writing. Student learns about the geography and mythology of Scotland; its valleys, mountains, lakes and its coast, including the Orkney Islands, the Shetland Islands and the Hebrides.

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Background information:

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This text is a speech. Speeches are the communication of thoughts expressed in spoken words. They can be formal or informal. Formal speeches are usually made in formal settings, such as parliaments, in connection with business or politics. Informal speeches are usually made in less formal settings such as parties and family gatherings. This is an informal speech, in which Briochan, a Celtic farmer, is celebrating the harvest festival of Lunasduinn with his extended family in Scotland. He is addressing them before the feast begins. There were 16 tribal divisions in Scotland. Four of these tribes lived in southern Scotland and the rest lived to the north. The tribe called the Caledones inhabited the Great Glen, which included Loch Ness. The northern tribes came to be known collectively as the Caledonians. The festival of Lunasduinn was one of the four great festivals of the Celtic year. It was a harvest festival which celebrated the ripening of the grain. It provided an occasion for horse racing, horse swimming and games. People climbed hills and gathered the ripening fruits of the season. Fairs were held and people gathered at sacred lakes to pray to the god Lugh. Feasts were held in Lugh’s honour, with food, dancing, music and the reciting of poems and stories by the bards. Lugh was an important god to the Celts. Lugh was always portrayed as handsome, youthful and athletic. His name meant ‘the shining one’ and he was the Celtic god of light and the sun. Throughout the Celtic world, his feast was celebrated with great enthusiasm. The festival was called Lughnasa by the Celts in Ireland and Laa Lunistyn by the Celts in Wales. In the city of Lyon, in France, the feast of Lugus was held on the first day of August each year. On the Isle of Man, the festival to honour the god Lug was traditionally held on 1 August. In Scotland, the festival continued into Christian times, renamed in honour of St Michael as Michaelmas, and was held on 29 September. The Coligny Calendar is from the 1st century BC and consists of a series of bronze plates engraved with inscriptions. It was from Gaul and was discovered in 1897. Historians studying it believe that the Celtic calendar was very advanced and complex and may have been more complex than the Roman Julian calendar that replaced it. The Celtic year was divided into a light period, after midsummer, and a black period, after midwinter. There were four seasons and the start of each season was marked by a festival. Each season corresponded to important events in the agricultural year. Samhain, held at the end of October, marked the end of the old year and the start of the new and the time when livestock were brought in from pasture. Imbolc was held on 1 February and heralded the start of the lambing season. Bealtaine, celebrated on 1 May, marked the beginning of summer when livestock were put out to pasture and the light returned. The festival of Lunasduinn (in Ireland, Lughnasadh or Lunasa) celebrated the harvest. Celtic months were 29 or 30 nights long as the Celts measured the passing of time in nights rather than days. The Celts also followed a 62 month or five year cycle, rather than a 12 month or yearly cycle. In the Coligny Calendar, months were labelled as ‘Mat’ (good) or ‘Anm’ (bad). The Celts were primarily farmers and cereals were their most important crops. They grew emmer wheat, spelt, bread wheat, barley and millet. Other crops included beans, peas and lentils and local plants such as bitter vetch and fat hen were used. Celtic farmers used the improved technology of the later Iron Age and grew high-yield crop varieties, using iron-tipped ploughs, probably based on Roman designs, which enabled them to make better use of heavy soils. Rotary querns, also probably inspired by the Romans, were also introduced and made grain processing much easier. Iron scythes could harvest large quantities of grasses and other plants for winter animal fodder. Cattle were the most important animals to the Celts and were used to value a person’s wealth. The value of other items in Celtic society was often calculated in terms of numbers of cattle. Sheep were also important as they produced meat, dairy products and leather as well as being a wealth indicator like cattle. Horses were very important as they gave their owners mobility and were essential for the management of cattle. Celtic farms also had pigs, who scavenged on waste material and working dogs, who helped with the herding and shepherding of the other animals. Celtic farmers lived in hill forts and farmed the lands around their forts. At night and during the winter months, they may have brought their animals inside for protection. In the wetter, damper areas of England, Ireland and Scotland, the Celts built settlements on islands in lakes called crannogs. In the north and west of Scotland, the Celts built a different kind of settlement called a broch. Brochs were towers built of stone, which narrowed towards the top. They could be as high as 15 metres. There are still the remains of around 500 brochs to be seen in Scotland today. Brochs had only one entrance and had thick stone walls, including inner and outer walls, designed to keep out intruders and raiders. Their roofs sloped down towards an open courtyard and were thatched with reeds or straw. The living areas were built on galleries or platforms built out from the inner walls. A broch was usually the home of several families.

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Worksheet information: Students may find it useful to look at an atlas in order to locate the areas of Scotland referred to in the unit. Students may need to use dictionaries in order to complete Question 3 in Exercise E. A glossary of key words and terms relating to the ancient Celts in this particular unit is provided on pages viii – xi for teacher reference. Many of them appear on Question 1 in Exercise E. Students will find it beneficial to check the glossary as they work through the unit. Detailed footnotes for the text in Exercise A have also been provided to assist in comprehension of Celtic terms.

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Teachers notes

Answers: months, harvest, season, Lugh, continued, held, first, time, Brochs, weather Exercise D....................................... page 55 1. 1. sighting, 2. swim, 3. rushed, 4. fled, 5. monster, 6. photograph, 7. sensation, 8. showing, 9. sign, 10. reward, 11. all, 12. freedom 2. feast, baked, Italian, course, lentils, barley, warriors, boar, storytelling, night. 3. Celtic women were involved in the (1) preparation of food for their families. (2) They used a quern, which was a small hand mill, to grind the corn. Querns (3) were made by putting two stones together, one convex at the bottom and one concave at the top. (4)Corn was (5) poured through a hole in the top stone and a wooden handle was fitted and pushed around so that the top stone moved over the bottom, crushing the corn (6)kernels, and allowing flour to fall out from the sides of the quern. This type of rotating quern was invented by the Celts. Celtic women cooked

many (7)different dishes, such as porridge, which could be made from oats, wheat or barley and mixed with fresh or sour milk. They flavoured it with honey, salt or herbs and ate it hot or cold. (8)It was a staple dish that could be eaten at any time. They also (9)made dough and baked bread and oatcakes on hot flagstones in front of the (10)hearth.

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Exercise C....................................... page 54 tribes, included, four, these, divided, important, time, summer, festival, passing,

Exercise E............................... pages 56–57 1. Teacher check 2. (a) iii, (b) i, (c) x, (d) v, (e) vii, (f) ii, (g) ix, (h) iv, (i) viii, (j) vi 3. 1.firths, 2. Numerous, 3. large, 4. inhabited, 5. biggest, 6. Romans, 7. furthest, 8. Norway, 9. Scotland, 10. three, 11. crosses, 12. monster 4. Teacher check

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Exercise B....................................... page 53 1. They have gathered to celebrate the festival of Lunasduinn. 2. A broch was a round stone-built settlement with thick walls and a round tower, built to withstand severe weather and attacks by raiders. There are around 500 brochs still to be seen in Scotland today. 3. Briochan says that the harvest this year has been one of the best in living memory and he thanks the god, Lugh, for this. 4.–5. Teacher check 6. He is referring to the Romans. 7. The two main crops were wheat and barley and bread was produced by using querns to grind the corn. Beer was also brewed from barley. 8 Teacher check 9. (a), (d), (f), (g) and (h) should be ticked

Cross-curricular activities:

Students can research the legend of the Loch Ness monster and hold a debate on whether it exists or not. A good website with information, current research and descriptions and images as at <http://www.nessie.co.uk>. Students can research the brochs of Scotland at <http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/ancient/index.shtml>.

A website with contributions by young people on the history and culture of Scotland, with images, information and quizzes, is at <http://www. ambaile.org.uk/en/index.jsp>.

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Students can write their own legends, using traditional structures such as quests, voyages and mythical monsters. A website with many examples of Celtic legends is <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_mythology>.

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Curriculum links State

Society and Environment

English

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise A: Reading

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r o e t s Bo r e p his family before the feasting okfor Briochan addresses u Lunasduinn S begins in Scotland – 54 BC

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Welcome. It is good to see our great tribe represented so well here tonight. We, the Caledones, are a proud tribe and all of Scotland follows our lead—from the Great Glen to Argyll. We have lived here for centuries1 and we will be here for centuries more. We are not afraid of the enemy from beyond the sea2. I can see that my brother, Acunn, and his wife and family from the broch3 by the two springs are here. I see my sister, and her new husband from the broch at the lake’s edge, and I can see that all of my cousins are here. I see all the young ones of the family and rejoice in their youthful presence. We are a proud family and we are strong in numbers. We fought successfully last year against the Mac Nab clan, who dared to try to take our fields away from us. We succeeded in pushing them back across the hills and there they had better stay. We have lived in this area for over two hundred years and our clan will be here for at least two hundred more.

‘Now that you are all gathered here, let us celebrate the feast of Lunasduinn4 and thank the god, Lugh, for his great generosity to us this year. He is our god of the sun and of the light and without his golden rays our crops would never grow. Without him, our world would be dark and grey and we would long for the taste of fresh bread or cool beer.

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‘Our harvest this year has been one of the best in living memory and we are more than prepared for the long, hard winter that lies ahead of us. Our crops grew abundantly this year. Our animals thrived. We have more than enough to feed our animals and ourselves through the wet, cold winter months ahead and we have plenty to trade with our neighbouring clans. Our grain stores5 are full to the brim with barley and wheat. We will not have to wake in the dark mornings to the sound of the wind howling and feel hunger pangs as we face the black winter’s day. Instead, we will wake to the smell of fresh bread baking in our kitchen ovens and eat the warm, golden loaves with gratitude to Lugh. At night, when we eat our supper and hear the wild winds howling outside the broch, we can drink deep of our beer and again give thanks to Lugh. It is his golden light that allows us to eat and to drink, even in the depths of our winters.

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‘We have already attended the ceremony of the druids in the oak wood earlier this evening. The chief druid gave thanks to Lugh and offered him our offerings. We believe that the druids know the will of the gods and that therefore the chief druid must know the will of Lugh. He told me that Lugh had decreed that our clan will have many more years of prosperity under my leadership and that next year will be an ever better year for our clan. ‘I can predict’, he said to me, ‘that your clan will go from strength to strength in the years to come and you will lead them onto even greater prosperity’. This is good news, my brothers and sisters. ‘Finally, I want to thank my brothers and my supporters for the bravery they showed this year. No-one could ask for a better band of fighters. We know that the enemy from beyond the sea, although defeated last year, has returned to attack the southerners again and may be coming to attack us soon6. So keep your hearts and your strength up, my brothers. The beef and boar have been roasted to perfection. The beer is at the table, the mead is in the flagons and the wine is ready to be poured into the cups. Let us now raise our drinking cups and toast the great god, Lugh. Drink deep and rejoice, my brothers and sisters, we have good reason to celebrate tonight. Our clan is strong and united and, as Celts, that is the most important thing.’ 52

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. 1. Why have Briachan’s family gathered together?

2. What kind of building was a broch? Why were they built in Scotland? Is there still

some evidence of them today?

4. In your opinion, why does Briachan repeat what the chief druid told him after the

5. What have you learned about the Celtic god honoured in the festival of Lunasduinn?

Can you say, in your own words why he was so important to the Celts?

7. What were the two main crops grown in Scotland in Celtic times? What was made

from them?

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8. Describe, in your own words, the kind of a picture Briachan creates of the winter

mornings

5. Grain stores were sometimes sealed holes in the ground where grain was kept for grinding into flour in the winter and for replanting in the following spring. Wheat and barley were the main crops and both were grown to make bread. Querns were used to grind the grain into flour. The people also brewed barley to make beer. They also grew small beans and they grew flax in order to make linen cloth, using its leaves to feed animals and making oil from its seeds.

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4. The festival of Lunasduinn was dedicated to the Celtic god Lugh and was celebrated by many of the Celtic peoples of Europe on 1 August. It was traditionally a harvest festival and Lugh was the Celtic god of light and the sun. His warmth encouraged the growth of the crops and ensured that the people would not starve during the long, dark and harsh winters in the north.

6. Who is Briachan referring to when he talks about ‘the enemy from beyond the

seas’?

3. The people of north and west Scotland built brochs, round stone-built settlements with thick walls and towers, which could be as high as 15 metres. Brochs were designed to protect the people and animals inside from severe weather; e.g. cold northern winters and also to keep intruders and raiders out. The remains of 500 brochs can still be seen in Scotland today.

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ceremony in the oak wood earlier that day? Do you think he has an ulterior motive in revealing this information?

2. Celts in the British Isles traded with the Romans and were very aware of their expansionist desire to build their empire. Celtic Gaul (France) had been conquered by the Romans and the Scottish Celts were aware that their culture was also under serious threat from them. The Roman general, Agricola, finally destroyed the Caledones and their allies in the north of Scotland in 83 AD.

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3. What kind of a harvest does Briachan say they have had this year and who does

he thank for this?

1. Historians believe that the Celts who lived in Scotland were the direct descendants of the Bronze Age people who had preceded them and not migrants who had come to Scotland from other areas in Europe. The Caledones were an important tribe in Scotland.

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(a) If their harvest had been bad?

(b) Now that their harvest has been good?

9. Read the following statements and tick those that are correct. (a) The harvest festival of Lunasduinn was celebrated on 1 August each year.................................................................................................... (b) Maize and potatoes were the main crops grown in Scotland........................... (c) The god Lugh was the Celtic god of the afterlife............................................. (d) Brochs were stone-built circular structures built by the Scottish Celts............. (e) The Caledones were a tribe who emigrated to Scotland from Wales................ (f) The Celts believed that oak woods were sacred places where the gods lived... (g) The family or clan was the most important unit in Celtic society...................... (h) The Romans first invaded Britain in 55 BC, led by the general Julius Caesar.... R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Literacy and history – The Celts

6. In August 55 BC, 10 000 Roman soldiers, under the leadership of the Roman general Julius Caesar, landed in the south of England, only to be met with strong resistance. Caesar returned in 54 BC with more soldiers and, after four years of bitter fighting, southern Britain was finally conquered. It took them 30 years to conquer Wales and the west, but it proved impossible to completely conquer Scotland. The emperor Hadrian built his famous stone-built wall, called Hadrian’s Wall, to separate northern England from the Scots in 122 AD. Another wall, the Antonine Wall, built of clay and turf, was begun around 140 AD but building was abandoned. 53

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word bank

Lugh tribes months first

held time divided time

Brochs festival harvest important

included season these weather

four passing continued summer

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The Celts who lived in Scotland were probably descended from the Bronze Age people who lived there before them. In the time of the Celts, there were 16 tribal divisions in Scotland. Four of these

lived in the south of the country and

the rest lived to the north. A tribe called the Caledones inhabited the Great Glen. This

a lake known as

The festival of Lunasduinn was one of the

great festivals celebrated by the Celts every year. As the Celts

were primarily farmers and their society was an agricultural one, year. The Celtic year was

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Loch Ness. The northern tribes came to be known collectively as the Caledonians.

festivals corresponded to the farming

into a light period, after midsummer, and a black period, after midwinter.

There were four seasons in the Celtic year and the start of each season was marked by a festival. Each season corresponded to events in the agricultural year. Samhain, held at the end of October, marked the end of the old year and

R . I . C .Ponu i ca i on and heralded the start of the lambing© season. Bealtaine, celebrated 1b May,l marked thet beginning ofs when livestock were put out to pasture and the light returned. The of Lunasduinn (in Ireland, Lughnasadh • f o r r e v i e w p u r p o s e s onl y• or Lunasa) celebrated the harvest. Months were 29 or 30 nights long because the Celts measured the

the start of the new and the

when livestock were brought in from pasture. Imbolc was held on 1 February

of time in nights rather than days. The Celts followed a five year cycle, rather than a twelve month or yearly cycle. In the Coligny Calendar,

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Lunasduinn, a

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were labelled as ‘Mat’ (good) or ‘Anm’ (bad). festival, celebrated the ripening of the grain with horse racing, horse swimming and

other games. People climbed hills, collected the ripening fruits of the harvest

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and gathered at sacred

lakes to pray to the powerful god, Lugh. Celtic druids offered sacrifice to the god in sacred oak groves. Feasts and parties were held

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in Lugh’s honour. Bards attended the feasts and sang songs that praised

Lugh was a very important god to the Celts and he was always portrayed as handsome, youthful and athletic. The word ‘Lugh’ meant ‘the shining one’ and Lugh was the Celtic god of light and the sun. In Scotland, the festival Christian times, renamed in honour of St Michael as Michaelmas. It was

into

on 29 September. The festival

was called Lughnasa by the Celts in Ireland, Laa Lunistyn by the Celts in Wales and in the city of Lyon, in France, the feast of Lugus was held on the

day of August each year. In Ireland and the Isle of Man, the festival to honour the god

Lugh was also traditionally held on 1 of August each year at harvest

The Celts built forts such as hill forts, ringforts and castros (in Celtic Spain). However, in Scotland they built brochs, especially in the north and west of Scotland.

were stone-built settlements with thick walls and stone towers which could

be as much as 15 metres high. Brochs were designed to protect the people and animals inside from severe and to keep intruders out. There are still the remains of 500 brochs in Scotland today. 54

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise D: Word study exercises 1. Read this paragraph on the legend of the Loch Ness monster and choose 12 words from the list underneath to complete

the paragraph. The number of letters in the missing words is indicated by the number of dashes. There are many stories and there have been many sightings of the monster called the Loch Ness monster, which supposedly lives in Loch Ness in the Great Glen in the Scottish Highlands. The first recorded Columba ordered one of his monks to and

was when Saint

(1)

across the loch and fetch a boat. As the monk swam, the monster appeared

(2)

at the man. Saint Columba cried out ‘Do not touch the man. Go back!’ The monster is said to have

(3)

immediately. Over the centuries, many people have claimed to have seen the (5)

(4)

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ever been harmed. In 1933, the first (6) caused a

but no-one has

allegedly showing the monster appeared. This photograph

when it was published. In 1951, another photograph of the monster appeared, this time

(7)

a creature with three humps. In 1961, the LNPIB. (Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau) began its

(8)

work, using sonar to investigate the monster’s watery home. A vast underground cavern was found but there was no (9) So far, the monster has managed to elude

(11)

of 20 000 pounds to anyone who could capture the monster.

attempts by humans to spoil its (12)

Ness.

showing monster

rushed sighting

photograph sensation

all fled

freedom swim

in the waters of Loch

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of the monster. A rich circus owner once offered a (10)

reward sign

2. Read the following invitation with a menu for a Celtic feast. Rewrite it correctly in the blank menu box, correcting any

spelling errors. There are 10 spelling errors in the menu.

Occasion: The Clan of the MacSweeneys invite you to a feost in their broch on Lunasduinn night.

First course: Freshly backed bread with baked salmon and herbs, served with white Italienne wine.

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Second curse: Rabbit stew cooked slowly in the cauldron with herbs, lentals and peas, served with local beer brewed with Scottish barlee.

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Entertainment: Boasting competition of the warriores. No fighting, no bloodshed, just boasting!

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Third course: Roasted bore on the spit, served with turnips and carrots and a glass of red Gaulish wine.

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Dessert: Hot oatcakes drizzled with golden honey. Music: dancing, poetry, singing and storietelling all nite long. Everyone in the area is welcome!

3. Read the following paragraph and find 10 errors. Note that the errors may be (1) spelling errors or (2) errors of capitalisation

(capital letters missing). Celtic women were involved in the preperation of food for their families. they used a quern, which was a small hand mill, to grind the corn. Querns was made by putting two stones together, one convex at the bottom and one concave at the top. corn was pored through a hole in the top stone and a wooden handle was fitted and pushed around so that the top stone moved over the bottom, crushing the corn kernals and allowing flour to fall out from the sides of the quern. This type of rotating quern was invented by the Celts. Celtic women cooked many differint dishes, such as porridge, which could be made from oats, wheat or barley and mixed with fresh or sour milk. They flavoured it with honey, salt or herbs and ate it hot or cold. it was a staple dish that could be eaten at any time. They also mode dough and baked bread and oat cakes on hot flagstones in front of the heart. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1.

Read these key words/terms, which occur throughout the unit and use them in sentences.

(a) Antonine Wall: A wall stretching across Scotland, made of clay and turf, begun around 142 AD.

(b) Brochs: Round stone-built settlements with thick walls and towers, which could be as high as 15 metres. (c) Caledones: An important tribe in Scotland who gave their name to the Roman name for Scotland, Caledonia. (d) Coligny Calendar: A Celtic calendar dating from the 1st century, BC, discovered in France in 1897.

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(e) Great Glen: A rift valley in the Scottish highlands, which is 100 kilometers long and contains three famous lochs (lakes).

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(f) Hadrian’s Wall: A stone-built wall, built in 122 AD by the emperor Hadrian to separate the Scots from northern England.

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(g) Loch Ness: The most famous of the three lakes of the Great Glen and said to the home of the Loch Ness monster. (h) Lunasduinn: A Celtic harvest festival, held on 1 August in honour of the god of light and the sun, Lugh. (i) querns: Stone hand mills for grinding corn, usually operated by Celtic women. (j) tribe: A social group composed of numerous families, clans and generations.

2. Read the following descriptions of famous Celtic mythological characters and see if you can match them to their titles. There are clues in their descriptions, if you read carefully. One has been done for you.

(b) Ceridwyn (Welsh)

(ii) This beautiful mermaid lured the local lord’s son into her underwater kingdom because she had a lovely singing voice.

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(d) Cernunnos (Gaul) (e) Mel Duin (Irish)

(f) The mermaid of Zennor (Cornish) (g) Rhiannon (Welsh)

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(i) She was the shape-shifting1 keeper of a cauldron of wisdom in Lake Bala in north Wales.

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(a) Arawn, Dark Lord of the Underworld (Welsh)

(iii) This dark lord ruled over the Welsh Otherworld. He had the ability to shape-shift and owned a magic cauldron, which was believed to have the ability to restore life. (iv) The Irish god of the dead and ruler of the Irish Otherworld. Preferring isolation and solitude, he was believed to live alone with the dead. ‘Donn’ means ‘dark’ in Irish.

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(v) This god, worshipped by the Celts in Gaul, was the god of nature, animals, fruit and prosperity. He was often portrayed with a man’s body and the horns of a stag. (vi) Cornish knight who drinks a magic potion with Iseult and falls in love, only for the love affair to end in tragedy. (vii) Hero of an Irish legend about a voyage in which the hero encounters strange and fantastic creatures, beasts and people.

(h) Donn (Irish)

(viii) This legendary king led his men on a raid to the underworld kingdom of Arawn on a quest to find a magic life-restoring cauldron.

(i) King Arthur (British)

(ix) One of the main female characters in the Welsh series of legends called the Mabinogion.

(j) Tristan (Cornish)

(x) Sea-god of the Celts, he rode the waves in his chariot and wore a magic cloak (mackintosh) that blended its colours with the sea.

1. The ability to shape-shift or change one’s appearance at will was a feature of Celtic mythology. Gods and goddesses could change into animals or birds. They did not usually harm humans but other mythological figures, such as witches and fairies, were believed to have the ability to change humans into animals and they were feared for this reason. The Scottish bòcan, the Cornish spriggan and the Irish leprechaun were types of fairies believed by the Celts to have magic powers and the ability to interfere in human affairs. 56

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 3.

Read the following paragraph about the physical geography of Scotland and circle the correct words from the choices offered in bold so that the paragraph makes sense. You may need to use a dictionary. The coast of Scotland is pierced by many inlets from the sea. The larger inlets are called (1) forts/firths/fonts and the long, narrow inlets are called sea lochs. (2) Numerous/Few/No islands line the coast of Scotland. In the north, the Orkney Islands and the Shetland Islands are two (3) large/small/medium groups of islands. The Orkney Islands consist of about 70 islands. Only about one third of these are (4) industrialised/uninhabited/inhabited. In ancient times, the Orkney Islands were known as the Orcades. The town of Kirkwall is on the (5) smallest/largest/longest island and is the site of the 12th century cathedral of St Magnus. The

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(6)

Romans/Greeks/Egyptians called the Shetland Islands ‘Ultima Thule’ which means ‘the

(7)

closest/

nearest/furthest land’ and there are about 100 islands in this group, which lies 210 kilometres north-east of the Scottish mainland and 320 kilometres west of Italy/Spain/Norway. Both the Orkney Islands and the Shetland Islands were under (8)

the control of Norway and Denmark until 1472, when their control was handed to (9) Ireland/Scotland/Wales. Close to the

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western coast of Scotland lie the islands of the Hebrides group, Arran and Bute. Scotland is divided into (10) three/two/four

regions, the Highlands in the north, the Central Lowlands and the Southern Uplands. A long valley called the Great Glen (11) cuts/diverts/crosses the Highlands from south-west to north-east. This valley includes a series of lochs, the largest of which is Loch Ness, the home of the legendary Loch Ness (12) bear/dinosaur/monster.

Adjectives are important words that describe nouns e.g. high mountain, blue loch. Read this passage on mythological monsters and choose 12 adjectives to write in the box underneath. There have been many theories about the Loch Ness monster since the first reported sighting of it. One theory is that the

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons to catch one. Tales of incredible monsters have always formed part of mythology. •f orr evi ew pur posesonl y• Another theory about the Loch Ness monster is that it may be related to the dinosaurs, as photographs taken in the 20th century monster is a sea serpent, a legendary marine animal that looks like a huge snake. In the ancient world, people believed that sea

serpents lived in the deep seas. Although many stories have been told about them over the centuries, no-one has ever managed

allegedly show the monster as a gigantic creature with dinosaur-like features.

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Scandinavian mythology describes Jormungand, an enormous sea serpent that grew so large that it encircled the seas and

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threatened sailors throughout the oceans. Another Scandinavian legend concerns the Kraken, mythological sea monsters that were believed to reach out and tear sailors from their ships. The Kraken may have been based on real-life giant squid. In

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Japanese mythology, serpent people live beneath the seas. Another type of creature that appears in mythology is a winged

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dragon that breathes scorching fire. In Scandinavian mythology, the Fafnir is a man who turned into a dragon in order to protect his precious treasure. In Celtic mythology, the Cornish knight, Tristan, kills a vicious dragon in order to win the love of the beautiful heroine, Iseult.

Discussion points Discuss mythology and its importance in history. Discuss the legend of the Loch Ness monster, researching the sightings of the famous monster and discuss your opinions on its existence in a class discussion.

Research monsters in the mythology of ancient Greece and Rome.

Research the mythology of the Celts such as Cornish mythology, which has given us such legends as the legend of Tristan and Iseult, using the Research famous mythical monsters in mythology, including such dragons public library, school library and the Internet. and monsters such as the Kraken, the Fafnir and the Jormungand in Research your own area and the legends associated with it, using the Scandinavian legend, noting common themes that link them. public library, school library and the Internet. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

Unit 8: A tribesman from Brittany, fleeing from the Romans, writes a letter to his brother, describing the secret hiding place of a golden hoard – Ireland, 53 BC Indicators: Students read text and complete comprehension and cloze exercises based on the text. Students complete word study exercises in correcting spelling and choosing correct answers.

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Students learn about the Bretons in north-west France, archaeological techniques in the discovery and preservation of artefacts and Celtic metalwork, Celtic design and pre-Christian Celtic art in Europe.

Background information:

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This text is a letter, written by Gavrinis, a Celtic tribesman who is the owner of the treasure hoard and who has escaped from the Roman invaders in Gaul by sailing to Ireland. Gavrinis is writing to his brother, Arvor, and is describing in his letter where he has hidden the treasure that he has brought with him for safekeeping. Letters usually begin with a greeting, contain the information to be related and conclude with a farewell signed by the sender. Letters can be either formal or personal. Formal letters are usually brief and to the point while personal letters can be longer and more expansive. This is an informal letter, written from one family member to another in a time of crisis, and is therefore brief and to the point.

Five tribes lived in the remote western Breton peninsula, which became known as Armorica, and is now called Brittany. The Celts in Brittany resisted the influence of the Romans for as long as possible but were eventually overtaken by them. The Veneti tribe lived in the south-west of the peninsula. Julius Caesar commented on the seafaring abilities of the Veneti. Brittany’s Celtic roots were strong and Brittany became the last Celtic stronghold in mainland Europe when Celtic civilisation declined in the centuries after the Roman invasion of Gaul. Along with the other nations belonging to what is known as the ‘Celtic Fringe’, such as Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall and the Isle of Man, Brittany became one of the inheritors of Celtic culture.

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Collections of treasure, or hoards as they are sometimes called, have been discovered in bogs, graves, underground passageways (known as souterrains) and on beaches. A hoard found in 1990 at Snettisham in England, where Queen Boudicca and the Iceni tribe lived, was one of the largest hoards of gold and silver treasure found in England, with about 11 kilograms of gold and 16 kilograms of silver jewellery discovered. As well as using gold and silver, the Celts also used electrum, which is an alloy (a combined metal) of three parts gold and two parts silver when creating their jewellery. Historians believe that the Celts may have buried hoards of treasure for different reasons at different times. The Celts in Britain may have hidden their valuables from invaders such as the Romans. There is evidence that British Romans may have, in turn, hidden their valuables from raids by Celtic tribes. Sometimes the treasure may have been stolen or looted from its rightful owners and the thief hid it for safekeeping until later. They may also have been placed as votive offerings to the gods, for melting purposes by foundrymen or by merchants burying them along their trading itineraries. Treasures may have been buried for use at a later time by the owners. Valuables were buried with their owners to assist them in the afterlife. There is evidence that the later Celts, who had become Christian, also hoarded valuables to hide them from Viking raiders in the 7th and 8rh centuries AD. Whatever the reasons, hoards of Celtic artefacts have proved to be extremely important resources in the study of Celtic civilisation. The Celts left very little direct evidence in writing for historians to evaluate and therefore the evidence from such hoards provides historians with a great deal of information. The Celts in Brittany spoke a Celtic language, which belonged to the group of Celtic languages known as P-Celtic or Brythonic. These languages were spoken in Wales, Cornwall and Brittany. From the 5th to the 7th centuries AD, Brittany attracted a stream of Celtic settlers and the population grew. Trading links between the Britons, the Welsh and the Bretons ensured that they maintained constant contact with each other. The ‘Celtic Fringe’ is a term used to describe the surviving Celtic nations of Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall and the Isle of Man. Today, the Breton people celebrate their Celtic identify proudly in music, language and art and are part of the ‘Celtic Fringe’. Brittany has retained it’s Celtic character and today Breton is the only living Celtic language outside of Britain and Ireland.

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Worksheet information:

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Students may find it useful to look at an atlas in order to locate the area of Brittany in north-western France. Students may need to use dictionaries to complete Question 3 in Exercise E.

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Teachers notes

Answers: 9. (c), (d) and (f) should be ticked

the hearth, and stand in front of it and look to the left corner (6)(fullstop missing). (7) The entrance to the souterrain is there, usually covered by a sack of grain but (8)probably now it is just open for you to see. (9)Go down into it and halfway you will find a hole in the wall. Put my sack in there. I will reward you (10) handsomely on my return as you are the only man in Ireland that I can trust with this. (11)May the gods reward you in the same way too (12) (comma missing), my old friend. 2. (a) ii, (b) ii, (c) ii (d) i, (e) ii, (f) i, (g) i, (h) ii

r o e t s Bo r e p ok u S Exercise C....................................... page 62 by, amount, defeated, been, name, province, meaning, food, treasure, placed, collections, England, gold, jewellery, silver, various, some, stolen, safekeeping, merchants, become, Viking, sources, design Exercise D....................................... page 63 1. Oisín, (1)I need your help. Raiders are coming from the north and are (2) threatening the safety of my family so I am fleeing south tonight. I am asking you to take this sack of treasure and hide it for me until it is safe for me to return to my crannòg (3)(full stop missing). I want you to take it at night when the moon is full early next week to the (4)abandoned hill fort of my father and hide it in the souterrain under the fort. You will reach the hill fort by following the river until you come to the Hill of the (5)Two Oaks and turn left. In the silver light of the moon you should be able to see the outline of the hill fort on the hill in front of you. Go up and enter the fort. No-one lives there now and it will be easy to get in. The old wooden doors are probably rotten. Kick them in if you have to. Looking for

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Exercise B....................................... page 61 1. He has just landed and has had a very rough sea journey. He feels alone and uncertain and has not yet made contact with the chieftain suggested by his brother. 2. He has landed on the northern shore of Ulster in Ireland. His brother has told him to contact the chieftain of the Robogdh tribe to ask for refuge. 3. Gavrinis has travelled from Gaul and has sailed across from Scotland in order to escape from the Romans. He says that he feared that he would drown and he was sick many times. 4. He has hidden a hoard of treasure in a souterrain that leads underground from the hut and he wants his brother to know its location if something should happen to him. 5. Teacher check 6. Gaul was the name given by the Romans to the countries of modern France, Germany west of the Rhine, Belgium and western Switzerland. 7. Teacher check 8. He says that it is a strange country and he cannot guarantee his safety. Ankon was the Breton god of death, sometimes shown pulling a wooden cart.

Exercise E............................... pages 64–65 1. Teacher check 2. (a) iii, (b) iii, (c) i, (d) ii, (e) ii, (f) iii 3. (1) term (2) six (3) Romans (4) seek (5) forests (6) land (7) close (8) constantly (9) retained (10) outside (11) government (12) campaigned 4. True—(a), (f), (i) False—(b), (c), (d), (e), (g), (h), (j)

Cross-curricular activities:

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Students should design their own Celtic artefacts such as a gold torque, brooch or a bracelet and draw designs of their choice, suitable for use on an enamelled bronze cup. Students can find more information and look at images of the Snettisham Torque, found in 1950 and made around 75 BC, at the website of the British Museum at <http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/explore/online_tours/britain/war_art_in_iron_age_britain/snettisham_great_torc. aspx>.

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The website of the National Museum of Ireland, which houses and displays the Broighter Hoard and the Tara Brooch, is at <http://www.museum. ie>. Information on the history and culture of ancient Brittany, which was known as Armorica, can be found at <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Armorica>.

Curriculum links State

Society and Environment

English

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

Vic.

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise A: Reading Gavrinis, a tribesman of the Veneti tribe writes a letter to his brother, Arvor, a chieftain – 53 BC To Arvor My dear brother, I write this letter to you in the direst circumstances. I have only just landed on the northern shore of Ulster and have not yet succeeded in making contact with the chieftain of the Robogdh tribe to ask for refuge, as you instructed. I feel alone and uncertain but at least I have escaped the Romans. Now I will pray that you are already on the seas sailing towards me with my beloved wife and children on board with you. The journey from Gaul1 was rough and the crossing over the sea from Scotland was even worse. I feared that I would drown among the waves and I was sick many times. My body is now weak and I fear that I will have to rest for some time before I get my strength back. It is because of this weakness that, as a temporary measure, I have taken the following actions.

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The treasure that you entrusted to me is still safe and I have now hidden it in a safe place until my strength returns and I can continue my mission. As night fell, some hours after I arrived, I took the bag containing the hoard and walked silently under cover of the blackest darkness, seeking a safe hiding place. I found some huts on a hill in which I was blessed by the gods to find the entrance to a souterrain2. You will find this hill by looking for the three standing stones that sit on the top of it, about two kilometres from the harbour where I landed, which is called the Lough of the Screaming Seagulls. I also marked the path to the huts with standing sticks along the way. The bag contains all the items that you entrusted to me, including the tubular gold torque which you commissioned from the metalworkers to celebrate your accession to the kingship of our clan. You often wore this at our feasts and festivals. I can remember clearly the last time that you wore it. It was on the day of my youngest daughter’s wedding, during the festival of Bealtaine, a happy time for all of us. I danced and sang at the feast until my legs hurt and my voice deserted me. I wonder if we will ever see such happy times again, now that the Romans have succeeded in driving us out of our own land of Armorica3.

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There are also two Roman bronze mirrors, much valued by your wife, which were the mirrors of our mother and our grandmother. They were presented to your wife on her wedding day as good luck charms. Will they yet bring her luck? I hope so. I also hid your gold rings, your silver wristbands and the electrum brooch that you inherited from our father. There are also a number of coins hidden with the treasures. Some are Armorican and some are the coins of our enemy’s whom we are escaping, the Romans. It may be that the Roman coins will be useful in the future, when we are settled here in Ireland4. My treasures are there too, with yours. They will wait silently in the darkness for our return. My intention is to return and retrieve the treasures when I am stronger and more secure. I will then return yours to you as soon as you land.

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I am writing this letter to you because I want you to know the location of the hoard so that you or your family can retrieve it if there should be an accident or some other unfortunate circumstance that prevents me from returning here. I give you my word that I will do everything in my power to return here but as it is a strange and foreign country to me, I cannot guarantee my future safety. If anything does happen to me and I meet Ankon5, pulling along his wooden cart, I would ask only one thing of you and that is that you will look after my wife and children who, I pray, are coming here with you. May the gods protect you and allow you to escape here from the Romans. Gavrinis, your loyal brother. 1. Gaul was the name given to the countries of modern France, Germany west of the Rhine, Belgium and western Switzerland. Most of what we know about the Celtic people who lived in Gaul comes from Roman writers, the most famous of which is Julius Caesar, who conquered Gaul between 59–50 BC. The Romans portrayed the Gauls as barbaric but archaeologists have determined that they were much less barbaric than the Romans implied. 2. Evidence of underground passageways, called souterrains, have been found in Brittany, Ireland, western and northern Britain. Archaeologists believe that they may have been used for food storage and also as places of refuge in times of danger. It is also possible that they were used to hide hoards of treasure. Entrance to a souterrain was usually from the inside of a hut. Archaeologists have found evidence of wooden sticks which may have been put close to a hoard to indicate its location. 60

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. 1.

Why does Gavrinis describe his circumstances to his brother as being ‘the direst’?

Where has he landed? Who has his brother told him to make contact with and why?

Where has Gavrinis travelled from and why? How did he feel on his journey?

Describe, in your own words, the contents of the hoard which Gavrinis has hidden.

Which part of Europe did the Romans refer to as ‘Gaul’?

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Why has he marked the path to the huts with wooden sticks?

Archaeologists think that hoards may have been buried or hidden for a number of reasons; e.g as votive offerings to the gods, stolen treasure, treasure hidden for safe keeping from raiders. What is your opinion?

Read the following statements and tick those that are correct.

(a) There have been very few valuable hoards found that can be dated to Celtic times.................................................

(b) Gaul was the Roman name for Greece.................................................................................................................

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(f) Bealtaine was a Celtic festival held on 1 May each year to celebrate summer.........................................................

(g) The Celts were portrayed as being a very peaceful people by Roman writers..........................................................

(c) Souterrains were underground passages that may have stored food or offered refuge............................................

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(d) Brittany was part of Gaul and was known as Armorica in the 1st century BC..........................................................

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(e) By the 1st century BC, the Celts did not have any coinage of their own...................................................................

3. Brittany, in north-western France, was once known as Armorica and formed part of Gaul. The Veneti tribe ruled Armorica and were described as being expert sailors, controlling the ports and trade around Brittany. They also built a large number of forts or cliff castles to act as early warning in case of naval attack. However, the Romans defeated them and punished them savagely for their opposition. Many Armoricans fled to Jersey and to Cornwall. Thousands of Armorican coin hoards have been found in Jersey. It was later given the name Brittany because so many Celts from Britain migrated there across the English Channel to escape from the Anglo-Saxon invasion from the 5th to the 7th centuries AD. 4. Many Celtic hoards have been found. Archaeologists believe that in some cases they may have been votive offerings to the gods. They often contained precious objects such as gold jewellery, weapons and coinage. By the 1st century BC, coinage was common throughout the Celtic world and was used in trading. Archaeologists have found evidence of Celts producing their own coinage, strongly influenced by the design of Greek coins, probably brought back by Celtic mercenary warriors. Roman coins have been found in Ireland, providing evidence that the Romans traded with the Irish Celts. 5. Ankon was the Breton god of death and was sometimes pictured as an old man pulling along a wooden cart for the transportation of the bodies of the dead to the afterlife. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word bank become silver safekeeping name treasure placed stolen merchants

by meaning England sources

defeated food gold design

been Viking jewellery province

various amount

some collections

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Brittany in north-western France was once known as Armorica and formed part of what the Romans called Gaul. The Veneti tribe ruled the Roman general, Julius Caesar, as being expert sailors, controlling the

Armorica and were described

of forts or cliff castles to act as early warning

ports and trade around Brittany. They also built a large

them and punished them savagely for their opposition.

Many Armoricans fled to Jersey and to Cornwall. Thousands of Armorican coin hoards have

found on

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in case of naval attack. However, the Romans

from the many Celts from Britain who migrated back there

the island of Jersey. Modern Brittany gets its

across the English Channel to escape from the Anglo-Saxon invasion from the 5th to the 7th centuries AD. Brittania was the Latin of England.

name for the Roman

Evidence of underground passageways, called souterrains, has been discovered in Brittany, Ireland and western and northern Britain. In Cornwall, in south-western England, they were called ‘fogou’ and in Scotland they were referred to as ‘uamh’,

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons storage and also as . Entrance places of refuge in times of danger. It is also possible that they were used to hide hoards of • f o r r e v i e w p u r p o s e s o n l y • to a souterrain was usually from the inside of a hut. ‘cave’. They were stone-lined trenches, which were sometimes quite long and could lead to one or

more underground rooms. Archaeologists believe that they may have been used for

close to a hoard to indicate

Archaeologists have found evidence of wooden sticks, which may have been

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of treasure have been discovered in bogs, graves, souterrains and on beaches.

its location. Hoards or

and silver treasure found in

A hoard found in 1990, at Snettisham, was one of the largest hoards of

, with about 11 kilograms of gold and 16 kilograms of silver jewellery discovered. Celtic metalworkers

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made gold, silver and bronze

metal) of three parts gold and two parts

and artefacts. They also used electrum, which is an alloy (a combined

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reasons at different times. The Celts in Britain may

The Celts may have buried hoards of treasure for

have hidden their valuables from invaders such as the Romans. There is evidence that

Romans may

have, in turn, hidden their valuables from raids by Celtic tribes. Sometimes the treasure may have been

until later. Hoards may also have been placed

or looted from its rightful owners and the thief hid it for

burying them along

as votive offerings to the Celtic gods, for melting purposes by foundrymen or by

their trading itineraries. Hoards may have been hidden by their owners for use at a later time. Valuables were also buried with their owners to assist their passage into the afterlife. There is evidence that the later Celts, who had raiders in the 7th and 8th centuries AD. Whatever

Christian, also hoarded valuables and hid them from the reasons, hoards of Celtic artefacts have proved to be extremely valuable

of information in the study

of Celtic civilisation. They show clear evidence of the skills and creativity of Celtic metalworkers and give modern historians detailed information on Celtic mythology, 62

and art and on the nature of Celtic society and Celtic people. Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise D: Word study exercises 1.

You have been asked by your chieftain to hide a golden hoard. He has written his instructions so that you can find the hiding place he has chosen but he has made 12 mistakes, including spelling mistakes, capitalisation mistakes (leaving out capital letters) and punctuation errors (such as forgetting to put in full stops and commas). Can you find the mistakes and be able to hide his hoard successfully? Oisin, i need your help. Raiders are coming from the north and are thretening the safety of my family so I am fleeing south tonight. I am asking you to take this sack of treasure and hide it for me until it is safe for me to return to my crannog1 I want you to take it at night when the moon is full early next week to the abandened hill fort of my father and hide it in the

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souterrain under the fort. You will reach the hill fort by following the river until you come to the Hill of the two Oaks and turn left. In the silver light of the moon you should be able to see the outline of the hill fort on the hill in front of you. Go up and enter the fort. No-one lives there now and it will be easy to get in. The old wooden doors are probably rotten. Kick them in if you have to. Look for the hearth and stand in front of it and look to the left corner the entrance to the souterrain is there,

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usually covered by a sack of grain but probable now it is just open for you to see. go down into it and halfway you will find can trust with this. may the gods reward you in the same way too my old friend.

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a hole in the wall. Put my sack in there. I will reward you hansomely on my return as you are the only man in Ireland that I

1. Crannogs were houses, artificially built in the centre of lakes or wet bogland. Building materials used included logs, stones, straw, rushes and animal bones as well as peat and brushwood. Crannogs were connected to the shore of the lake by a narrow wooden bridge or by stepping stones hidden under the water, which were known only to the family who lived there. They had wooden walls and were built as defensive dwellings to protect the family from sudden attack. The remains of crannògs have been found in Ireland, Scotland and Wales. In Ireland, more than 300 crannògs have been found at Lough Gara in County Roscommon.

A hoard is a collection of (i) ancient documents. (ii) ancient treasure. (iii) ancient statues.

(e)

(b)

The ancient name for Brittany was (i) Brittania. (ii) Armorica. (iii) Bretonia.

(c)

The Celts may have buried their treasures to (i) forget about them forever. (ii) offer them to their gods. (iii) hide them from their families.

(f) The word ‘Gaul’ referred to (i) modern France, Belgium, western Germany and Switzerland. (ii) modern Italy. (iii) modern Spain.

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The Christian Celts also buried hoards to (i) hide them from pagan Celts. (ii) hide them from raiding Vikings. (iii) hide them from raiding Celtic warriors.

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(a)

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(d) Underground passageways under hill forts were called (i) souterrains. (ii) crannogs. (iii) raths.

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(g) Roman coins have been found in Irish hoards, (i) proving that the Irish Celts may have traded with the Romans. (ii) proving that the Romans may have lived in Ireland. (iii) proving that the Irish Celts may have minted Roman coins.

(h)

Brittany is the only continental area to have (i) completely lost its Celtic language. (ii) retained a living Celtic language. (iii) remained an independent Celtic region.

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1.

Read these keywords/terms, which occur throughout the unit and use them in sentences.

(a) Armorica: The name given to the peninsula of north-western France, which we now call Brittany.

(b) Brittany: An area of north-western France, which was ruled by the Veneti tribe, who were eventually defeated by the Romans. (c) bronze mirrors: Used by the Celts to maintain their appearance, bronze Roman mirrors have been found in Ireland.

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(d) cheiftain: The head of a tribe, he was responsible for the defence of his tribe and he acted as its representative.

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(e) Celtic Fringe: A modern term describing the areas in Europe, usually on the coast, where Celtic culture has thrived.

(g) hoard: A collection of treasures usually hidden and sometimes undisturbed for centuries. (h) refuge: A place that offers shelter and protection from danger or distress.

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(f) fogou: A word used in Cornwall, in south-western England, to describe a souterrain or underground passage.

(i) souterrain: An underground passageway or stone-lined trench which sometimes led to an underground room. (j)

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2. Read this description of the Broighter hoard and answer the multiple-choice questions which follow.

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The Broighter Hoard is the name given to a collection of gold objects, thought by some historians to be based on continental Celtic design. The hoard was discovered at the end of the 19th century during ploughing at Broighter, in County Derry in Ireland. The hoard consists of a group of seven gold objects, consisting of a model boat with its fittings, a gold bowl with rings for hanging, two gold chains, two twisted collars and a large decorated torque with buffer terminals. The chain clasps of the gold chains are a design that was used widely in the Mediterranean and some archaeologists believe that the exotic objects may have been imported, possibly from Roman Egypt. Others believe that the gold objects were made in Ireland, but were based on continental Celtic designs.The gold boat is a model of an ocean-going vessel and is very detailed, with seats, oars, rowlocks, a steering oar and a mast. The small gold bowl with rings may be a model of a cauldron.

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(e) Some archaeologists believe that the hoard was (i) imported, possibly from Galicia. (ii) imported, possibly from Roman Egypt. (iii) imported, possibly from Roman Gaul.

(a) The Broighter hoard was (c) discovered at the (i) end of the 21st century. (ii) end of the 18th century. (iii) end of the 19th century.

The Broighter hoard consists of (i) seven gold objects. (ii) twelve gold objects. (iii) two gold objects.

(d) (b) It was named ‘Broighter’ because (i) the discoverer’s name was called Mr Broighter. (ii) the discover couldn’t spell ‘brighter’ properly. (iii) the discovery was made at Broighter in Ireland.

The chain clasps of the golden chains are (f) (i) a type that was widespread in Scandinavia. (ii) a type that was widespread in the Mediterranean. (iii) a type that was widespread in Brittany.

Literacy and history – The Celts

The small golden bowl with rings may be a (i) a model of a salad bowl. (ii) a model of a jewellery bowl. (iii) a model of a cauldron.

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 3.

Read the following paragraph about the modern Bretons in France and choose 12 words from the list underneath to complete it. Use a dictionary to check the meanings of any words you are not sure of. Today, the Breton people celebrate their Celtic identify proudly in music, language and art and are part of the ‘Celtic Fringe’. The ‘Celtic Fringe’ is a (1)

used to describe the (2)

nations of Scotland,

Ireland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall and the Isle of Man where Celtic civilisation survived for much longer than in any other area in Europe. After the (3) refugees to migrate and

had left Britain in 410 AD, waves of Saxon invaders drove Romano-British a new life in Europe. Brittany attracted a stream of Celtic settlers

(4)

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from the 5th to the 7th centuries AD and the population grew. Dense (5) room and provide more

were cleared to make

for the settlers. Trading links between the Britons, the Welsh and

(6)

the Bretons ensured that they maintained

contact with each other. However, Brittany was (8)

(7)

of France. It has received official

(9)

land Romans

(10)

of Britain and Ireland. Breton is now a recognised language of France and since 1985 has support. The Union Democratic Bretonne is a political organisation which has

(11)

for self-determination for the Bretons.

(12)

it’s Celtic character and today Breton is the only living Celtic language

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in danger of being annexed and eventually, in the mid-ninth century, Brittany became a region

government campaigned

constantly six

seek outside

close forests

retained term

Read the following paragraph about the Tara Brooch and mark the statements in the box underneath true or false. The brooch, discovered near the seashore at Bettystown, County Meath, in Ireland in 1850, was given the name ‘Tara’ by a firm of Dublin jewellers although it had no links whatsoever to the Hill of Tara. Archaeologists are not sure where the brooch was made but they believe it was made around 700 AD. The brooch is not a true penannular brooch, which means that it was not meant to hold clothing, but was made to be a decorative item. It is made primarily of cast and gilt silver, with gold, silver, copper, amber and glass included in its design. It has filigree ornamentation, which is fine wire work of delicate and intricate design. The brooch contains no Christian motifs and no pagan religious symbols. The brooch is housed and displayed in the National Museum of Ireland in Dublin.

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(a) Historians believe that the brooch was made around 700 AD.

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True/False

(b) It is considered to be one of the most important artefacts of early Christian Ireland.

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(d) The brooch has filigree ornamentation, which means that it has etched decoration. (e) The Tara Brooch was discovered on a farm in County Meath in Ireland in 1850. (f) It is housed and displayed in the National Museum of Ireland in Dublin.

(g) The brooch was made in the penannular style, which means it was used to hold clothing. (h) The Tara brooch has direct links to the Hill of Tara.

(i) The creator of the brooch included gold, silver, copper, amber and glass in its design. (j) The brooch contains several Christian and pagan motifs. Discussion points

The art of Celtic metalworkers was renowned throughout the ancient world. Students should discuss the art and design of the Celts. Students should research the Celtic love of gold, which was used for jewellery and decoration, and the techniques used by the goldsmiths as they created these artefacts. Information is available in public libraries, the school library and using the Internet. Celtic enamellers decorated their bronze ware with enamel, which was a mixture of quartz glass, lead ore and a mineral such as cuprite, heated at a high temperature in a clay or stone crucible, a special pot made of heat-resistant material. Their favourite colour for enamelling was red, but they also used yellow, blue and green. Students should research the enamelled artefacts of the Celts, using public libraries, the school library and the Internet. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

Unit 9: A Celtic storyteller tells a story about the legendary Prince Pryderi of Dyfed, Wales – 30 BC Indicators: Students read text and complete comprehension and cloze exercises. Students complete word studies exercises in choosing correct words and identifying correct answers. Students complete exercises and learn about people and places associated with Celtic legend in Britain, identify figures from Celtic, Scandinavian, Greek and Roman mythology and learn about the importance of animals in Celtic mythology.

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Background information:

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This text is a story based on the legends of Pryderi, told by a Celtic storyteller, Aeron, whose job it is to tell stories at feasts, celebrations and gatherings. A legend is a traditional story from the past, which is usually about heroic characters; e.g. the legend of King Arthur and the legend of Cú Chulainn. A legend may be based on the truth and may also have been embellished over the years. Legends are popularly accepted but they cannot be proven to be true. Stories such as this were based on Celtic legends and were told by storytellers who handed them down to the next generation of storytellers through Celtic oral tradition. In Celtic Britain, stories were memorised and not written down. Celtic storytellers told the stories of both heroic myths and folktales at feasts in both ordinary houses and chieftain’s homes. They memorised hundreds of stories and wherever people gathered, the storytellers came to tell their tales. The Celts also had bards who sang and recited poems at feasts and gatherings, playing an important social role in Celtic society. They could create poems praising their patrons and could also produce poems that poked fun at their patron’s enemies. They passed their poems from teacher to student and did not write anything down. Their status was high and they were regarded as being almost like druids. They sometimes accompanied themselves on the harp. In the medieval period, bards continued with their work and some of them were employed in the houses of Celtic nobles. There were also wandering bards, sometimes known as minstrels. In medieval times, they travelled across Ireland, Britain and Europe, reciting their poetry for small amounts of money and helping to keep the oral tradition alive. They may also have contributed important details to the first written versions of their poems, although these were usually written down by Christian monks, who sometimes changed the stories to produce a more Christianised version.

The Celts of England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, the Isle of Man and Brittany had their own legends and mythological characters which were handed down in the oral storytelling tradition of the Celts over thousands of years. When Chrisitianity came to these areas, these stories were written down, usually by monks. In this way, many of the ancient stories have been preserved.

The Mabinogion, which means ‘tales of youth’, is a collection of translations of the most famous legends in Welsh literature. They were collected by Lady Charlotte Guest, basing her text on manuscripts that may have been written down in the 11th century and were based on oral tradition from the Celtic period in Britain. Many of these stories are very old and were passed from one generation of Celts to another through the oral tradition of storytelling. There are 11 stories in the Mabinogion, four of which tell stories about Pryderi, a prince of Dyfed in Wales. Lady Charlotte Guest wrote her three-volume translation of the Mabinogion between 1838 and 1849. One of the most famous Celtic legends is about King Arthur, about whom stories were first told in the 6th century AD and were probably based on stories passed down through the oral tradition about the life of a Celtic chieftain in Wales.

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The Bardic tradition has survived in Wales and is still an essential part of the Eisteddfod ceremony, which is a competition for bards for their vocal and harp-playing skills. Evidence suggests that eisteddfod competitions were held in Wales around the 11th century AD. They may have begun earlier but there is no written evidence to support this. The first modern eisteddfod was held in 1789 in north Wales. The first official national eisteddfod was held in 1858 and has continued ever since, alternating between north and south Wales. In 1947, the Llangollen International Eisteddfod was established and is now a major music festival in which more than 40 countries now compete.

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Of all the Celtic nations, the Welsh may have the best claim to be directly descended from the people of pre-Roman Britain. The word ‘Welsh’ comes from the Anglo-Saxon or Old English word ‘wealas’ which means ‘foreigners’. The Welsh language represents a survival of the Brythonic or P-Celtic languages, also spoken in Brittany and Cornwall. The Celtic druids had a great centre of learning on the island of Anglesey. The sacred site of Llyn Cerrig Bach was the site where many objects were thrown into a lake as votive offerings to the gods. The Romans eventually destroyed this druidic centre, fearing that it was a threat to their power in Britain.

Worksheet information:

Students may find it useful look at an atlas in order to establish the location of the areas mentioned in connection with the mythology of England, Wales and Ireland in this unit. A glossary of keywords and terms relating to the ancient Celts in this particular unit is provided on pages viii – xi for teacher reference. Many of them appear on Question 1 in Exercise E. Students will find it beneficial to check the glossary as they work through the unit. Detailed footnotes for the text in Exercise A have also been provided to assist in comprehension of Celtic terms.

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Teachers notes

Answers: 11. There is a strong element of magic, with many stories featuring magicians with magic wands who are casting magic spells. 12. In Irish stories, Wales is often presented as the home of specialised training in the supernatural. 13. (a), (b), (c), (f), (g) and (h) should be ticked.

Exercise D.................... page 71 1. 1. another, 2. entrance, 3. feasting, 4. hair, 5. father, 6. sweet, 7. back, 8. happily, 9. allow, 10. foot, 11. white, 12. never, 13. shocked, 14. desolate, 15. help, 16. Mindful, 17. golden, 18. immediately, 19. old, 20. true 2. (a) ii, (b) i, (c) i, (d) ii, (e) iii, (f) i, (g) ii, (h) iii

r o e t s Bo r e p ok u S Exercise C....................................... page 70 at, society, seven, recounted, those, handed, only, divided, travelled, news, criticise, poets, famous, written, prince, text, told, life, magicians, because, Anglesey, druids

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Exercise B....................................... page 69 1. He is telling his story after dinner in the house of Dylan. 2. The Mabinogion is the name given to the collection of translations of Welsh legends made in the 19th century. 3. Her name was Lady Charlotte Guest. 4. Prince Pryderi inherited the throne when King Pwyll died. 5. He is a pure white boar and white was considered to be a magic colour by the Celts. White animals were magical creatures who were capable of leading human beings into the supernatural world. 6. The stories are set on the west coast of Wales. 7. His life story dominates the first four books of the Mabinogion and he links many of the episodes together. 8. Manawyddan discovered that an army of mice were stealing his corn. 9. In the medieval version of the story, they became a scholar, a priest and a bishop, because the writer was probably a Christian monk or priest. 10. Manawyddan noticed that one of the mice was much slower than the others and he was able to catch it.

Exercise E................................................................................................................pages 72–73 1. Teacher check 2. (a) vii, (b) ix, (c) i, (d) v, (e) viii, (f) x, (g) iii, (h) iv, (i) vi, (j) ii 3. Celtic Viking Roman Greek giants/monsters dwarfs/fairies gods goddesses

Finn MacCool Kraken leprechauns dwarfs Lugh Thor Brigid Freya 4. (a) viii, (b) ix, (c) v, (d) vii, (e) vi, (f) i, (g) iii, (h) iv, (i) ii

Cacus dryads Mars Venus

Cyclops pygmies Apollo Aphrodite

Cross-curricular activities:

Students may wish to compose a story or poem of their own, using elements from the oral traditions of the Celts such as heroic quests, supernatural animals and magical enchantments, and perform it for their class. Students can find out more about the Eisteddfod ceremony in Wales at <http://www.eisteddfod.org.uk/english>.

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Curriculum links State

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Information on endangered animals can be found in the publications of the World Wildlife Fund and at their website at <http://www.worldwildlife. org> and at <http://www.panda.org>.

Society and Environment

English

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

LTS 3.3

Vic.

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

SCBS 0401, SCBS 0402

Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

LL 4.3

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

4.5

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Science

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Literacy and history – The Celts

LL 4

Exercise A: Reading Aeron, a Welsh storyteller, tells a story about the kingdom of Dyfed – 30 BC Settle down all of you and look into the red flames of the fire while you digest your fine dinner and drink your Italian wine, given to us by Dylan, our generous host here tonight. I am going to tell you another one of the great stories from the Mabinogion1. Tonight I will tell you about the enchantment of the kingdom of Dyfed and how the magician, Manawyddan, managed to lift the spell and rescue Prince Pryderi2.

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When King Pwyll died, Prince Pryderi inherited the throne and married Cigfa. The magician, Manawyddan, married Rhiannon. They all lived happily for a time until one day a magical mist descended on the kingdom. When it lifted, everyone had disappeared except for the prince and his bride and the magician and his bride. The four of them tried to survive at first by hunting. One day, their hounds were led by a pure white boar3 into a strange castle and, following them inside, Pryderi found a golden bowl next to a fountain. He touched the bowl and immediately became like stone, unable to move. Rhiannon went to the castle the next day in order to rescue him but exactly the same thing happened to her. Again, a thick fog descended and when it cleared, the castle and the prince and his wife had vanished.

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but their crops always disappeared just before they tried to harvest it. Manawyddan kept guard one night to see what was happening to their crops and saw an army of mice carrying off their corn. He chased them but managed to catch only one who was slower than the others. He brought it to Cigfa and prepared to hang the rodent. As he was making a mouse-sized gallows, three men appeared to plead for its life. They were a scholar, a druid and a chief druid4. The chief druid asked him to name his price for freeing it. Manawyddan demanded the return of Pryderi and Rhiannon and that the spell affecting the kingdom of Dyfed be lifted. He also asked the chief druid to explain why Dyfed had been enchanted.

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The chief druid explained that he was in fact Llwyd the Enchanter5, who had come for vengeance from Pryderi because his father, Pwyll, had tricked his friend, Gwawl, son of the goddess Clud, out of marrying Rhiannon. The mice were his followers and the mouse caught by Manawyddan was his own wife, who was slower than the others because she was pregnant. Manawyddan handed over the mouse to Llwyd the Enchanter, who freed Pryderi and Rhiannon, and restored the kingdom of Dyfed back to normal. 1. The Mabinogion was the title given to a collection of translations of stories by Lady Charlotte Guest in the 19th century. All of the stories have as their physical setting the west coast of Wales and the original author of the 11th century manuscripts that inspired them was himself thought to have been from Dyfed. This version of the ancient stories is a product of the Christian medieval period and so the characters operate in a medieval world, which would have been very different from the Celtic world they originally came from. Nonetheless, the stories of the Mabinogion show many characteristics in common with Irish stories of the same time. There is an absence of a clear line between the natural world and the world of the supernatural, with human and supernatural characters moving backwards and forwards between both with ease. There is also an absence of a sense of sin and punishment. The Welsh stories, however, have more magic and more magicians playing important roles in the stories. 2. Pryderi’s life history dominates the first four parts of the Mabinogion and he links many of the episodes together. 3. The Celts regarded white as a magic colour and animals with ‘pure white’ colour, such as the boar in this story, were magical animals who could lead people into the supernatural world. Mist was also a magical symbol in Celtic legends, symbolising the supernatural world. 68

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. 1.

Where is Aeron telling this story?

What is the name we give today to the famous collection of translations of Welsh legends?

These stories were handed down and were first written in the 11th century. What was the name of the woman who translated and presented them in a collection in the 19th century?

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According to the story, who inherited the throne when King Pwyll died?

In the story, why is the colour of the boar that leads their hounds into a castle significant?

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Where are these stories set?

What important role does Prince Pryderi play in these stories?

When the magician, Manawyddan, kept watch at night, who did he discover was stealing his corn?

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In the medieval version of the story, what did the scholar, the druid and the chief druid become? Why?

10. 11.

12. How is Wales presented in Irish stories?

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13. Read the following statements and tick those that are correct.

(a) The Mabinogion is the name of a collection of poems from Scotland..................................................................

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4. In the medieval version of the Mabinogion, the three men became a scholar, a priest and a bishop, with Llywd the Enchanter as the bishop. As the storyteller is telling this story in 30 BC it may be possible that in the original story the priest and the bishop were indeed druids, as the religion of Christianity had not yet started at this point. When the ancient stories were written down in the 11th century they were reinterpreted as Christian characters rather than druids as the writers were probably monks or priests.

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(b) Lady Charlotte Guest translated and presented the Mabinogion in the 19th century........................................

(c) The original stories were written down for the first time in the 11th century AD.....................................................

(d) Prince Pryderi is a minor character in these stories............

(e) Blue was a magic colour in Welsh mythology.....................

(f) The stories are set on the west coast of Wales...................

(g) Anglesey in Wales was the centre of British druidism and had a number of sacred sites.....................................

(h) The stories often have characters moving from the natural world into the supernatural world...........................

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5. Welsh mythology contains strong elements of magic. Many stories have magicians using their magic wands to cast spells. In some Irish stories, Wales is presented as the home of specialised training in the supernatural. In the legends of King Arthur, which are based on Welsh stories, Merlin the magician plays a major role. Mona (Anglesey) in Wales was the centre of British druidism and had a number of sacred sites. It was attacked in 61 AD by the Romans because it was the last stronghold of druidic power in Britain. In Anglesey in 1943, excavation of a site at what was once a lake at Llyn Cerrig Bach revealed a great hoard of treasures such as cauldrons, weapons, slave chains with collars attached and many bronze fragments decorated in the La Tène style. Archaeologists believe that this was the site of sacrificial offerings by the druids there from the mid-2nd century BC to the time of the Roman attack.

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word bank

Anglesey recounted criticise seven

written prince because poets

at these magicians famous

society divided only told

text news travelled life

handed druids

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The ancient Celts did not keep written records and for this reason the spoken word was greatly honoured in Celtic society. The storytellers feasts and celebrations were highly regarded. Celtic bards

that could recount the great Celtic legends

. In Celtic society there were several

were singers and poets and were held in high status in Celtic

different types of poets. The

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different kinds of people who entertained in this way. There were at least

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most important of all was from a ‘file’, a powerful caste or class of poets called the ‘fili’ who were believed to be seers into the future. sagas, romances and historical narratives.

A file was much more than a poet. He was a historian who

He also told satires (stories which exposed human failings and held them up for ridicule), and for

was feared, as he could satirise and make fun of chieftains as well as praise them in his poetry and his songs. He handed down judgements based on the Brehon Laws, which were records of the ancient customs of Celtic society. These laws were memorised and

down from one generation of fili to the next. The Brehon Laws were

finally written down during the 7th century AD.

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons into three groups, the chief poets, the poets of the warrior and the travelling minstrels. The minstrels •f or r ewith vi ewclansp ur p ose s o nl yand• around staying different or families at different times. They entertained educated the

A file trained for at least 12 years. The period of study for bards was about nine years. These popular entertainers were

of events in other areas.

members of the clan, telling them stories, reciting poetry and bringing them Bards had to memorise traditional poems but they also created new poems of their own to praise or

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listeners ate a feast. Just like the fili, the bards could use their abilities as and they were also feared for this.

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their hosts. The bards celebrated the safe return of a hero from a battle or a great victory in battle with poetry and song while the to poke fun or satirise people

legends in Welsh literature,

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which was collected by Lady Charlotte Guest in the 19th century. Many of these stories were extremely old and were passed down down in the second half

through the oral tradition of storytelling and poetry. The stories were eventually

of the 11th century AD. There are 11 stories in the Mabinogion, four of which tell stories about Pryderi, a

of the kingdom of Dyfed on the west coast of Wales. Lady Charlotte Guest wrote a three-volume translation of the Mabinogion between 1838 and 1849, basing her

on the ancient manuscripts. One of the most famous Celtic in the 6th century AD and were probably

legends is about King Arthur about whom stories were first

of a Celtic chieftain in Wales. The mythology of Wales contains

based on stories passed down about the

strong elements of magic. There are many legends that feature groups of

, including those who used

their magic wands to cast spells. The Romans attacked Anglesey in 61 AD

it was the last stronghold of

druidic power in Britain and a centre of British druidism. In

in 1943, excavation of a site at what was

once a lake at Llyn Cerrig Bach revealed a hoard of treasures. Archaeologists believe that this was the site of sacrificial offerings by the

, who lived and worked there from the mid-2nd century BC to the time of the Roman attack.

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise D: Word study exercises 1.

Read the following passage about the legend of Princess Niamh (pronounced 'Neeve' by the Celts) and circle the correct words from the choices offered in bold so that the passage makes sense. You may need to use a dictionary when making your choices. There are 20 choices to be made. Princess Niamh of the Golden Hair was from Tir na nóg, the Land of the Ever-young, where no-one ever suffered from sickness, age or decay. The Land of the Ever-young was (1)another/extra/alternative name for the Celtic Otherworld and was believed to lie off the west coast of Ireland with its (2)exit/entrance/orbit at Liscannor Bay, in County Clare, south of the Cliffs of Moher. Life in Tir na nóg was good, consisting of hunting and (3)fasting/feasting/fainting. According to the legend, Princess Niamh met Oisin one day when she was visiting from the Otherworld. She was beautiful with bright blue eyes and

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long golden (4)skin/hair/eyes. She rode a white horse with a golden bridle and golden horseshoes. She approached Oisin and told him that her (5)father/mother/sister was the king of Tir na nóg and that she had come to find him as she had heard of his handsomeness and (6)sour/sweet/severe nature. Oisin was speechless as he gazed upon her beauty. Princess Niamh brought him (7)forward/backwards/back with her to Tir na nóg, where they lived together (8)unhappily/happily/

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sadly and had three children.

Three hundred years went by, though it only seemed like three years to Oisin. However, he began to get homesick. He asked Niamh to (9)allow/forbid/forget him to return home for a visit to see his family and his friends. She warned him that he

could not set (10)leg/foot/arm on the land of Ireland or he would never be able to return to her and their children in Tir na nóg. 'I will give you my (11)dappled/tan/white horse and he will bring you back safely to me. But I warn you again, do not

set foot on the soil or you will (12)always/never/seldom return to this happy land.'

Oisin travelled home to Ireland and was (13)delighted/shocked/excited to find that all of his family and his old friends were

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons Forgetful/Mindful/Unaware of Niamh’s warnings, he leaned out of his saddle and tried to raise the slab. The horse’s •f or r e vi e w p ur po seHes o nl silver/golden/bronze saddle snapped and he was pulled violently sideways. was forced toy jump • onto the ground and,

dead and that all of his old haunts were (14)alive/desolate/rebuilt and deserted. He decided to return to Niamh and set off for home. But on the way he saw a crowd trying to (15)push/ignore/help a man being crushed by a large flagstone. (16) (17)

as he did, the horse galloped away out of sight. Oisin (18)loudly/immediately/finally began to wither and age before the crowd until he was lying on the ground (19)old/young/handsome and worn. He didn’t die but lived to tell his tales of the

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Land of the Ever-young and his (20)false/true/betrayed love, Niamh. Read the following statements and tick the correct answers.

(a)

The spoken word was (i) not respected in Celtic society. (ii) honoured greatly in Celtic society. (iii) never used in Celtic society.

(e)

A file had to train for at least (i) twenty years. (ii) five years. (iii) twelve years.

(b)

Celtic bards were (i) singers and poets who held high status. (ii) Celtic warriors who fought battles. (iii) musicians who sang lullabies.

(f)

Minstrels were bards who (i) travelled around the country. (ii) trained other bards. (iii) trained the fili.

(c)

The fili were a (i) powerful caste of poets. (ii) powerful caste of druids. (iii) weak group of slaves.

(g)

The word ‘Mabinogion’ means (i) tales of age and wisdom. (ii) tales of youth. (iii) tales of enchantment.

(d)

The records of the customs of the Celts were (i) called the Celtic Laws. (ii) called the Brehon Laws. (iii) called the Hiberian Laws.

(h)

One of the most famous Celtic legends is about (i) a legendary king called King Merlin. (ii) a legendary queen called Queen Nessa. (iii) a legendary king called King Arthur.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1.

Read these keywords/terms, which occur throughout the unit and use them in sentences.

(a) bard: Poets and singers who entertained and told stories and who held high status in Celtic society.

(b) Dyfed: An area of south-western Wales associated with the Mabinogion. (c) file: The highest ranking of the Celtic poets, who trained for 12 years and were close in status to druids. (d) folk tales: Traditional stories that originated among the people of a particular area or country.

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(e) legend: A story from the ancient past whose truth is accepted but which cannot be checked.

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(f) myths: Legendary stories that present the beliefs of a people or explain a practice, belief or natural phenomenon. (g) oral tradition: The tradition of passing down knowledge such as history, laws, customs and beliefs from one generation to another by word of mouth. (h) Pwyll: A legendary Welsh king who ruled over the kingdom of Dyfed, called Demetia by the Romans.

(i) storyteller: A teller of stories who sometimes travelled around from place to place entertaining people at feasts.

(j) translation: The process of translating text from one language into another.

2. Can you match the following descriptions of places and people associated with the legendary King Arthur with their names? There are clues to help you if you read the descriptions carefully. (i) The site of the last battle of King Arthur, according to legend.

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(b) Arthur’s Seat in Edinburgh, Scotland

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(a) Tintagel Castle in Cornwall

(ii) Legendary land where Arthur and other heroes went when they died, thought to lie on the western seas but also identified with Glastonbury.

(iii) Legendary king of Cornwall who figures in several Arthurian legends, he was the uncle of Tristan and engaged to be married to Iseult.

(d) Glastonbury in Somerset, England

(iv) This Welsh bishop and historian wrote a book called the ‘History of the Kings of Britain’, which told the legends of King Arthur.

(e) Joseph of Arimathaea in ancient Palestine

(v) Small town in Somerset, which may have been the model for the sites of Camelot and Avalon.

(f) Merlin

(vi) The legendary home of King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table, linked to several locations in England, Wales, Cornwall and Scotland.

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(g) King Mark of Cornwall

(vii) This ruined castle, on a cliff almost separated from the mainland in Cornwall, is thought to have been the place where King Arthur was conceived.

(h) Geoffrey, Bishop of Monmouth

(viii) According to legend, he brought the Holy Grail, the cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, from ancient Palestine to England in 63 AD.

(i) Camelot, home of King Arthur and the (ix) A hill close to the centre of Edinburgh, which some people believe is where Knights of the Round Table Arthur came from. (j) Avalon, a legendary land 72

(x) The famous wizard who assisted King Arthur and counted shape-shifting abilities amongst his powers. Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 3. Celtic mythology shares common themes with Scandinavian, Greek and Roman mythology. Look at the following table and see if you can fill in the chart underneath, matching the mythological characters with the civilisation they came from. There are clues if you read carefully. Giants/Monsters

Dwarfs/Fairies

Gods

Goddesses

This giant, called Finn MacCool, was believed to have built the Giant’s Causeway in Country Antrim, Ireland.

These fairies, called dryads by the Romans, were minor divinities who lived in forests and trees.

The Greeks believed that this god, called Apollo, god of the sun, could foretell the future.

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This female goddess, called Venus, was the Roman goddess of love and beauty.

This sea serpent, called the Kraken, lay coiled around the world at the bottom of the sea and the Vikings believed that it could sink ships.

These small Celtic creatures, called leprechauns, had to reveal the whereabouts of their pot of gold if they were caught by a human being.

This god, called Thor, had a magic double-headed hammer which the Vikings believed always returned to him.

This goddess, called Aphrodite by the Greeks, was born from the sea foam and carried by the winds to Cyprus.

This frightening giant, called Cacus, lived in a cave outside Rome and preyed on humans who strayed into his area.

These dwarfs, called pygmies by the Greeks, tried to attack Hercules but he laughed at them and wrapped them up in his lion-skin.

This god, called Lugh, was revered by the Celts all over Europe and gave his name to the harvest feast celebrated on 1 August.

This goddess, called Brigid, was worshipped by the Celts in pre-Christian and in Christian times.

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The Roman god of war, Mars, This Viking goddess, called gave his name to the third Freya, was pulled in a chariot month in our calendar, March. by two great cats.

Celtic

Viking

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One of these one-eyed giants, These dwarfs lived in caves called Cyclops, was blinded under the Scandinavian by the Greek hero, Odysseus. mountains and were magnificent goldsmiths.

Roman

giants/monsters

Greek

dwarfs/fairies gods

goddesses

4. Animals were very important in Celtic mythology. Read the descriptions of these Irish animals and see if you can match their descriptions with their titles. Look for clues while you read.

(b) Pigmy shrew

(ii) This member of the horse family is believed to be descended from animals brought to Ireland by the Celts. It is a sturdy, compact animal, ideal for awkward working conditions such as rocky terrain.

(iii) This sea mammal is also known as the Atlantic seal and ranges along the Irish coasts, especially in the west, north and south of the country, where it likes rocky conditions.

(d) Irish hare

(iv) Swift of foot and with a clever reputation, this red-coloured creature has survived and successfully adapted to modern conditions, preferring to hunt its prey at night under cover of darkness.

(e) Red squirrel

(v) This flying night creature is as small as the pigmy shrew and roosts around roof spaces, window frames and older buildings. It has one single baby that can fly a few weeks after birth.

(f) Irish stoat

(vi) This red-coloured creature is under threat from its larger and more aggressive grey cousins. It eats nuts, berries and seeds. Its coat reddens in the breeding season and turns darker when winter comes.

(g) Grey seal

(vii) Figuring in many shape-shifting Celtic legends, this animal is a swift runner. It lives in open countryside, liking dune-systems, but also lives near airports, golf courses and large fields.

(h) Red fox

(viii) This animal was hunted almost to extinction but due to intense conservation efforts it can still be found in Ireland. The only true natives are believed to be found in the mountain moorlands of County Kerry. They are herbivores who enjoy eating grasses, mosses and herbs.

(i) Connemara pony

(ix) This animal weighs only a few grams and can fit comfortably on a small spoon. It’s extra long nose and sensitive whiskers can seek out its prey successfully and it feeds on insects and insect-like creatures.

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(i) This small animal can kill animals much larger than itself by inflicting a lethal bite on the nape of its victims’ necks. It is a very inquisitive animal, noted for its curiosity around people whom it watches.

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(a) Red deer

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

Unit 10: Queen Boudicca writes in her private diary – England, 61 AD Indicators: Students read text and complete comprehension and cloze exercises based on text. Students complete word study exercises in correcting spellings, choosing correct words and finding correct answers. Students learn about the position of women in Celtic society, the rebellion and death of Queen Boudicca, Celtic religious beliefs, druids, shrines and languages and the Romans in Britain.

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Background information:

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This text is a diary entry in a personal diary. Diaries are daily records of a person’s personal experiences, observations and thoughts. They are usually written records and are personal in tone. Some diaries, dealing with a person’s experiences in political or public life, may be published. Other diaries are more personal and are not intended for publication, such as secret diaries. Queen Boudicca’s diary is a secret diary and is not intended for publication. In it, she reflects on the victories she has recently won against the Romans and prays to the Celtic goddess, Andraste, before her next battle. She writes of her fear that she may be defeated by the Romans. As queen of the Iceni tribe, she is not able to voice her fears publicly because, as leader, she must appear confident and certain of victory in the forthcoming battle.

Queen Boudicca was the queen of the Iceni tribe, which had originally come from Belgium and had settled in eastern Britain, along the Norfolk and Suffolk coasts. King Antedios of the Iceni made an alliance with the invading Romans to ensure that his lands would not be destroyed by them. The Romans disarmed the Iceni, angering the tribesmen, and King Antedios was ousted and replaced by Prasutagus, who was regarded as a puppet of the Romans. He died in 60 AD, leaving his wealth to his two daughters and to the Roman emperor, Nero, in a vain attempt to secure protection for his tribe. The Romans seized his kingdom, attacked his daughters and whipped his wife, Boudicca, for insubordination when she criticised their actions. Boudicca wanted revenge and she became the focus of a serious revolt against Roman authority. Another tribe, the Trinobantes from Essex, joined with the Iceni and they marched on Camulodunum (Colchester), which was left unprotected while the Roman governor and his legions (principal military units of the Roman army comprising 3000–6000 foot soldiers with cavalry) fought elsewhere. They massacred around 3000 of the Romans who lived there and burned the Temple of Claudius to the ground. The Romans sent forces to attack Boudicca and her allies but they were ambushed and the Romans began to withdraw. The Roman cavalry (part of an army composed of mounted troops) were the only ones to escape alive after this ambush. The rebels swept southwards, continuing to slaughter the Romans and sack (plunder and destruction by an army) Roman towns as they approached Londinium (London). The Romans evacuated Londinium before the rebels reached and pillaged it (robbed it of goods). Queen Boudicca’s warriors then sacked Verulamium (St Albans).The Romans assembled their legions which they had recalled from Wales and met the rebels in a battle to the west of Londinium, near Lichfield. Boudicca was defeated and committed suicide by poisoning herself rather than die at the hands of the Romans.

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The Romans were the rulers of the Roman Empire, which by the 1st century AD completely dominated the Mediterranean world and beyond. They invaded Britain in 43 AD with several legions under the leadership of the emperor Claudius and by the time of Boudicca’s revolt in 61 AD, much of England and Wales was under their control. The Romans established towns such as Londinium (London), Verulamium (St Albans) and Camulodunum (Colchester). After the defeat of Boudicca, the Romans continued their expansion in Britain and built more towns such as Eburacum (York), Deva (Chester) and Isca (Caerleon). Their influence on Celtic culture in Britain can be seen at the palace of King Cogidubnus in Fishbourne, who built his palace using the best features of Roman architecture and engineering. His palace included mosaics and hypocaust (underfloor) heating. At Lullingstone in Kent, a Roman villa has been excavated which reveals Roman features such as a private baths complex. By 84 AD, the Romans occupied the whole of Britain except for the Scottish Highlands. The Celtic system of independent hill fort settlements and oppida ruled by chieftains was over. The Romans changed the British landscape through their establishment of towns and cities and through their planned road systems, which linked their towns with other towns and cities. In the countryside, they also built roads and canals, cleared and drained land and built large villas, which controlled commercial farms and had extensive workshops producing pottery and other goods. Their policy was to build such a good infrastructure (the basic structures in a society including houses, roads and public buildings) that the tribes preferred to accept their rule than to continue to fight. The Roman invasion of Britain started the process of changing British society from a rural-based society to an urban-based society. The Romans also introduced their religious beliefs and their language into Britain, insisting that the chieftains learn how to speak Latin. As Britain became a Roman colony, Celtic culture began to decline. Some areas retained their Celtic identity such as Cornwall in the south-west of England and the north of Scotland. The Roman emperor, Hadrian, ordered the construction of a fortified wall across northern Britain after the Roman garrison at Ebaracum (York) was massacred by the Brigantes tribe in a raid. This wall can still be seen today.

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There are contemporary descriptions of Queen Boudicca by Roman writers. They describe her as being very tall with a strong voice. She had long bright red hair and she wore a golden torque around her neck. She wore a brightly coloured tunic and a thick cloak pinned by a golden brooch. She carried a long spear, a shield and rode into battle on a chariot. A Celtic shield, found in the Thames River at Battersea in London, was an important find. The shield was decorated by hammering copper alloy sheeting to make raised patterns and coloured red glass was added. The shield has half-hidden human faces in its decoration. Archaeologists believe that the shield probably dates from the 1st century BC or early 1st century AD and was deposited in the Thames River at Battersea as a votive offering to the gods.

Worksheet information: Students may find it useful to use an atlas to find the locations of the areas referred to in the unit. Students may find it useful to use a dictionary when completing Question 1 in Exercise D. 74

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Teachers notes

Answers: Exercise C......................................................................................................................page 78 landed, leadership, time, Britain, influence, Scottish, south-west, the, tribe, originally, Suffolk, Romans, daughters, revenge, was, fought, ambushed, cavalry, continuing, reached, warriors, west, poisoning

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Exercise D.................................................................................................................................... page 79 1. 1. embroidered, 2. waist, 3. dye, 4. terminals, 5. woollen, 6. hear, 7. chariot, 8. goddess, 9. committed, 10. overrun 2. (1) known (2) goddesses (3) sites (4) healing (5) established (6) Celtic (7) warm (8) temple (9) centuries (10) flow. 3. (a) ii, (b) iii, (c) iii, (d) ii, (e) i, (f) ii

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Exercise B.......................... page 77 1. She says that she did it in the white heat of anger. 2. Boudicca was angry because her husband has just died and the Romans had attacked her daughters and whipped her for insubordination. 3. The Roman city of Camulodunum (Colchester) had been left without its usual forces because the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus, was attacking the island of Mona (Anglesey) where there was a druidic centre. 4. She has sensed something evil in the air and has ordered her druids to sacrifice hares to the gods. 5. As many as 70 000. 6. Andraste was a Celtic goddess of victory who was worshipped in Britain. Queen Boudicca is invoking her help in the coming battle with the Romans. 7. Teacher check 8. Boudicca now faces another battle to the west of the city at Watling Street, which was one of the main Roman roads, which led to London. 9. Teacher check 10. (a), (b), (e), (f) and (h) should be ticked

Exercise E............................................................................................................................ pages 80–81 1. Teacher check. 2. 1. language 2. confined 3. divided 4. official 5. uncertain 6. first 7. minority 8. closest 9. documents 10. out 11. decline 12. agree 3 *Suggested answers *Similarities

Celts

Romans

1. Respect for warriors 2. Many feasts throughout the year 3. Strong belief in gods and goddesses

Celts

Romans

1. Cities/towns

The Celts lived in small settlements and hill forts.

The Romans built large cities with aqueducts, temples and amphitheatres.

2. Writing

The Celts left no written records

Roman writers recorded many details about Roman life and Roman warfare.

3. Women’s rights

Celtic women had many legal rights.

Roman women had few legal rights.

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4. (a) iii, (b) iv, (c) ii, (d) i)

Cross-curricular activities:

Students can carry out further research on the topic of Queen Boudicca and her rebellion against the Romans at <http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ historicfigures/boudicca.shtml>.

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Information on the Romans in Britain is available at <http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/celts/>.

A website with information on the Suleviae, the three Celtic goddesses worshipped at Colchester, Cirenchester and Bath, and other Celtic religious beliefs can be found at <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleviae>. Students can visit the official website of the Roman baths at Bath at <http://www.romanbaths.co.uk/>.

Curriculum links State

Society and Environment

English

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

Vic.

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise A: Reading Queen Boudicca writes in her private diary before she faces the Roman enemy again

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Late evening, the eve of battle with the Romans, Londinium, 61 AD. I need to plan my strategy carefully for tomorrow. It is essential that I plan correctly in order to finally defeat the Roman enemy. We have been successful against the enemy, more successful than I would ever have dreamed of. When I first raised an army against the Romans, I did it in the white heat of anger. My husband, Prasutagus, had just died and they had viciously attacked my two daughters and had whipped me for showing them insubordination1. My anger carried me forward as I fought against their legions. As success followed success, my confidence began to grow and I realised that it was possible we could repel them from our country.

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We succeeded so easily in destroying their city of Camulodunum (Colchester)2. How could they have been so foolish as to have left it undefended? I thought they had a reputation for being clever. But their actions continued to be stupid. We actually succeeded in ambushing them and forcing them to withdraw. I had thought they were brave fighters that had conquered all of Gaul, but they didn’t look so brave as they ran away from me and my warriors. It was then that I realised that victory could be ours. The Romans next deserted Londinium, leaving all of the city and its booty to us. Next, we succeeded in sacking Verulamium (St Albans) and, according to my warriors, we have now slaughtered as many as 70 000 Romans and their allies, the traitors and betrayers3 who preferred to fight with them than with us, their own people. Are they sorry that they betrayed us now? I hope so. Now we face another battle against them to the west of the city at Watling Street4.

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Some of my warriors are swaggering around, drinking beer and joking that this will be the final battle with the Romans and that they will soon be on their boats sailing back to Gaul. But I am not so sure. I sensed something evil in the air today. I have consulted my druids and they have agreed to offer 20 sacrificial hares to the gods in the sacred grove tonight. It would be so easy to become complacent now and allow them to defeat us. They would exact a terrible revenge on us if we failed. I know that they would kill me and it would not be an easy or a quick death. They would destroy my tribe and the tribes of my allies. They would walk all over us again, just as my husband allowed them to. I am different from him. I am not a puppet of the Romans. I know what they really think of us. They have even said it. They think we are barbarians5. My husband stupidly believed their lies. But I’m not going to. I would prefer to die than to be defeated by them. They are the barbarians! They treat their women like slaves preferring to keep them locked in their homes like servants. They have no women leaders. They worship strange gods with human forms and human names and pay no attention to the gods of the rivers, forests or lakes. They build huge settlements and insist that thousands of people live packed tightly together under their rule. This is not the Celtic way of life. We are used to our independence and our hill forts in the countryside. Our families rule themselves and do not want interference from such people.

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I pray to you, Andraste the Invincible, the goddess of victory6, to send me victory again over these crude invaders. You blessed my actions in Camulodunum, in Verulamium and in Londinium, giving me the strength to defeat this ignorant empire. I need your blessing once again to protect me as I ride my chariot into battle tomorrow morning. I, Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni, will win this battle and free Britain from the enemy. I vow this to my two daughters and my beloved tribe, the great Iceni. 1. Queen Boudicca was the Queen of the Iceni tribe who lived along the Norfolk and Suffolk coasts. She led her people in a revolt against the Romans and succeeded in inflicting several defeats on them. She killed many Romans and looted and sacked their cities. However, in 61 AD, she was defeated by the Romans and, rather than be executed by them, she committed suicide by taking poison. 2. The Roman city of Camulodunum ( Colchester) was left without its usual quota of Roman soldiers when the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus, concentrated his forces on organising an attack on the island of Mona (Anglesey), which was the last stronghold of the British druids who resisted Roman rule. Eventually the Romans massacred the Druids and destroyed their scared sanctuaries, crushing what they hoped was the last British revolt. Colchester was the first capital of Britannia, the Latin name for Britain. 76

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. 1.

How does Boudicca describe her mood when she first raised an army against the Romans?

What were the reasons for her mood?

Why did she find it so easy to destroy the Roman city of Camulodumum?

According to Boudicca’s warriors, how many Romans and their allies have died so far in this war?

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Who is the goddess called Andraste the Invincible and why is Queen Boudicca praying to her?

In your opinion, was Boudicca a good leader? Why/Why not?

What does Boudicca say she now faces to the west of Londinium? What was Watling Street?

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Why has Boudicca consulted her druids and told them to sacrifice 20 hares to the gods?

Do you agree with Boudicca that, if she is captured by the Romans, they will not grant her an easy or a quick death? Do you think this influenced her decision to commit suicide after defeat?

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10. Read the following statements and tick those that are correct.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

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Queen Boudicca was the queen of the Iceni tribe from East Anglia in England........................................................ The Romans regarded the British Celts as barbarians........................................................................................... Andraste was the Celtic goddess of weapons....................................................................................................... Queen Boudicca was captured by the Romans after the battle at Watling Street..................................................... Verulamium was the Roman name for the city of St Albans................................................................................... Queen Boudicca was an unsuccessful military leader............................................................................................ The goddess Andraste was worshipped in sacred beech forests............................................................................ Boudicca rode a chariot into battle.......................................................................................................................

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3. Some tribes decided to ally themselves with the Romans. This policy shows how the Celts were divided among themselves, fighting each other for power and therefore very easy to conquer by the Romans who played one tribe off against another. Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes tribe in the north betrayed Caratacus, who was a leader of the British resistance, to the Romans in 52 AD. She sought protection from the Romans and became dependent on them. 4. Watling Street was the name given to one of the main roads built by the Romans which led to London. The Romans developed an excellent system of road infrastructure, much of which still remains in place in Britain today. 5. A triumphal arch in Rome built by the emperor Claudius still states that ‘the barbarians beyond the sea’ were defeated. 6. Andraste the Invincible was a Celtic goddess of victory who was worshipped in Britain. Queen Boudicca invoked her help during her battles with the Romans. Andraste was worshipped in sacred oak groves and animals such as hares (swift rabbit-like mammals) were sacrificed to her by the druids. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word bank landed the revenge ambushed

leadership originally south-west continuing

time Suffolk warriors reached

influence Romans Britain west

cavalry daughters poisoning

was Scottish

fought tribe

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The Romans were the rulers of the Roman Empire, which by the 1st century AD, completely dominated the Mediterranean world and in Britian under the leadership of the Roman general Julius Caesar who

beyond. In 55 BC, the Romans

had to withdraw. He returned the following year, 54 BC, with more soldiers but the conquest still remained incomplete. In 43 AD, several of the emperor Claudius invaded Britain and by the

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legions under the

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Boudicca’s revolt in 61 AD, much of England and Wales was under their control. The Romans established towns such as Londinium (London), Verulamium (St Albans) and Camulodunum (Colchester). After the defeat of Boudicca, the Romans continued their expansion in Their

and built more towns such as Eburacum (York), Deva (Chester) and Isca (Caerleon).

on Celtic culture in Britain can be seen at the palace of King Cogidubnus in Fishbourne who

built his palace using the best features of Roman architecture and engineering. By 84 AD, the Romans occupied the whole of Britain except for the

Highlands. The Celtic system of independent hill fort settlements and oppida

© R. I . C Publ i caoft i on s – . England and the north of Scotland. The construction of a fortified wall across northern Britain after the Roman Roman emperor Hadrian ordered • f o r r e v i e w pur poses onl y• in a raid. Queen Boudicca was the garrison at Ebaracum (York) was massacred by the Brigantes ruled by chieftains was over. As Britain became a Roman colony, Celtic culture declined. Some areas retained their Celtic identity such as Cornwall in the

come from Belgium and had settled in eastern Britain, along

queen of the Iceni tribe, which had

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coasts. King Antedios, Boudicca’s husband, made an alliance with the invading

the Norfolk and attacking his

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to ensure that his lands would not be destroyed. He died in 60 AD and the Romans seized his kingdom,

Queen Boudicca wanted

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and whipping his wife, Boudicca, for insubordination when she criticised their actions. and she became the focus of a serious revolt against Roman authority.

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Another tribe, the Trinobantes from Essex, joined with the Iceni and they marched on Camulodunum (Colchester), which left unprotected while the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus, and his legions (principal military units elsewhere. They massacred

of the Roman army comprising 3000–6000 foot soldiers with cavalry)

around 3000 of the Romans who lived there and burned the Temple of Claudius to the ground. The Romans sent forces to attack Boudicca and her allies but they were

and the Romans began to withdraw.

(part of an army composed of mounted troops) were the only ones to escape the ambush

The Roman

to slaughter the Romans and sack (plunder and destruction

alive. The rebels swept southwards,

by an army) Roman towns as they approached Londinium (London). The Romans evacuated Londinium before the rebels it and started to pillage. Queen Boudicca’s

then sacked Verulamium (St

Albans). The Romans assembled the legions they had recalled and met the rebels in a battle to the Londinium, near Lichfield. Boudicca was defeated and committed suicide by

of herself rather than die at

the hands of the Romans. 78

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Exercise D: Word study exercises 1.

The following description of Queen Boudicca has ten spelling mistakes. Find the mistakes and write the corrections underneath. You may need to use a dictionary. The warrior queen of the Iceni tribe is called Queen Boudicca. She is so tall that the Romans call her a giant. On the day that I saw her, she was wearing a green gown embroidared with gold. Her hair was a mass of long, red curls that hung down below her waste. She had some tendrils of curls dyed blue with woad, the blue die that Celtic warriors use to paint their bodies. She wore a thick gold twisted torque around her neck which had terminels in the shape of large dragons. A gold brooch, designed in the shape of a wolf, held her tartan woollan cloak in place. She had a commanding manner and her voice was very loud. I was told that she was used to shouting so that her people could here her during battle. Her followers also told me that she always rode a chariote into battle, drawn by two white horses. She held her spear aloft and vowed to the godess, Andraste, that she would avenge the attack, commited by the Romans, against her beloved daughters. She is greatly admired by her tribe, who say that they will follow her to the death rather than allow the Romans to overrunn Britain.

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10.

Read the following passage about Sulis, a Celtic goddess of healing who was worshipped in southern England. Choose the correct words from the choices offered in bold.

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The Celts worshipped a triad (a group of three) of mother goddesses that were (1)unknown/known/unnamed by the Romans as the Suleviae. They were (2)priests/gods/goddesses who represented healing, regeneration and fertility to the Celts and were worshipped at three particular (3)schools/sites/stalls in Britain, Colchester, Cirencester and Bath. Evidence suggests that Sulis was the British goddess of (4)healing/sickness/health springs and was worshipped at the town of Bath by the Celts. When the Romans (5)destroyed/established/damaged their rule in Britain, they continued this worship and, unusually, kept her original (6)Celtic/Roman/Greek name at her shrine in Bath, which the Romans called Aquae Sulis. They linked Sulis with their goddess, Minerva, and they named her Sulis-Minerva. The copious amounts of (7)freezing/warm/cold water flowing from the hot springs at Bath meant that this area was popular long before the Romans invaded Britain. The Romans built a (8) house/temple/arena to the goddess and Roman baths at this site became very popular, with visitors coming from all over Roman Britain and abroad. The site became deserted in the (9)centuries/millennia/days after the Romans had left but is now popular again with modern visitors, who can visit the remains of the baths which still (10)rush/flow/flood with hot springs

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Read the following statements and tick the correct answer.

(a) Queen Boudicca was (c) the leader of the (i) Insubres Tribe. (ii) Iceni Tribe. (iii) Brigantes Tribe.

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(b) The Roman who defeated Queen Boudicca was called (i) Claudius Caesar. (ii) Julius Caesar. (iii) Suetonius Paulinus.

According to Roman sources, Queen Boudicca (i) was small, with short, dark wavy hair. (ii) was tall, with long, blonde straight hair. (iii) was tall, with long, red curly hair.

(d) Before her last battle, the queen prayed to (i) the Roman god of war, Mars. (ii) the Celtic goddess of victory, Andraste. (iii) the Celtic goddess of healing, Sulis.

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(e) The Romans punished the queen for insubordination (i) by whipping her. (ii) by taking away her lands. (iii) by killing all of her horses and hounds.

(f) Queen Boudicca’s death was caused by (i) the Romans, who executed her. (ii) suicide, when she took poison. (iii) an epidemic of plague in London.

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1.

Read these keywords/terms, which occur throughout the unit and use them in sentences.

(a) ambushed: To have suffered a surprise attack from an enemy waiting in a concealed position.

(b) barbarians: From the Latin word ‘barbarus’, meaning ignorant, the Romans regarded those who did not share their civilisation as barbarians. (c) cavalry: Soldiers mounted on horseback.

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(d) Iceni tribe: Celtic tribe originally from Belgium who had settled along the eastern coast of England.

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(e) insubordination: Disobedient and unwilling to submit to the authority of another.

(g) Londinium: City on the banks of the Thames River founded by the Romans around 50 AD.

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(f) legions: Main division of the Roman army, which consisted of ten cohorts, each consisting of 480 men led by six centurions.

(h) Mona: Name given to the Welsh island of Anglesey, which was the centre of British druidism.

(i) oppida: Name given to the bigger hilltop settlements of the Celts in France and in central and northern Europe.

(j) Roman Empire: Name given to the empire founded by the Romans, which stretched around the Mediterranean Sea and beyond and dominated the European world from around 44BC to 235 AD.

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Read the following paragraph on Celtic languages and choose 12 correct words from the choices offered in bold print. There are two main branches of Celtic languages recognised today. The first are the Goidelic or Q-Celtic languages such as Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx, a Celtic (1)music/language/poetry spoken on the Isle of Man. The second are the Brythonic or P-Celtic languages from Wales, Brittany and Cornwall. These Celtic languages are (2)imprisoned/released/confined to the maritime fringes, the peninsulas and islands of north-west Europe. Modern Celtic Europe is usually (3)divided/united/ restricted into six main regions: Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, Brittany and Cornwall. The Celtic language has (4) illegal/official/unofficial status in three of these regions, Ireland, Wales and the Isle of Man. There are approximately over three million Celtic speakers in total in these regions. The Celtic languages face an (5)rosy/prosperous/uncertain future in modern Europe. In Ireland, the use of the Irish language has declined, despite the Gaelic revival of the late 19th century and the adoption of the Irish language as the (6)first/third/second official language of the republic. In Scotland, only a small (7)majority/ minority/fraternity still speak Gaelic, mostly in the western Isles. The Welsh language is the language that is (8)furthest/ longest/closest to the ancient language spoken by the British Celts before the Roman invasion. All official (9)newspapers/ magazines/documents must be bilingual (in both Welsh and English) and there is a separate Welsh language television channel. The Celtic language of Cornwall died (10)out/in/away in the late 18th century but was revived by enthusiasts. The Breton language, originating from the language of the ancient Gauls, was revived but is still in danger of (11)decay/decline/ disarray. Celtic languages in the 21st century will probably continue to be under pressure but most commentators (12)object/ disagree/agree that, although they are extremely important, Celtic identity cannot be confined only to Celtic languages

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Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 3. Read the following paragraphs comparing the Celts and the Romans of Britain and fill in the charts underneath identifying three

similarities and three differences between the cultures. Read the paragraphs carefully to identify the answers.

The Romans

The Celts respected their warriors greatly and honoured them by awarding them the hero’s portion at feasts. They were very fond of feasting and celebrations and feasts were celebrated throughout the year such as the four major festivals of Samhain, Imbolc, Bealtaine and Lunaghsa. The Celts worshipped some common gods and goddesses such as Lugh and Brigit, but they also believed strongly in gods of nature such as gods of rivers, forests, mountains and lakes. Many Celtic tribes had individual or local gods. They lived in small settlements with their families and surrounded by their tribe. Some Celts lived in hilltop forts and in hilltop towns called oppida. The Celts left no written records and passed down their laws, traditions and beliefs by word of mouth. Celtic women had many legal rights such as the right to choose who they married, the right to divorce and to own and inherit property.

In Roman society, the Roman army was vitally important to the success and growth of the Roman Empire. The Romans celebrated many feasts throughout the year, with one Roman commentator complaining that there were more feast days than working days in the city of Rome. The Romans had strong religious beliefs and worshipped a system of powerful gods and goddesses, ruled by their chief god, Jupiter and his wife, the goddess Juno. Roman writers recorded many details about Roman life in writing and one Roman leader, Julius Caesar, wrote several books about his military campaigns, including The commentaries on the Gallic war. The Romans were great builders and built cities in almost all of the areas that they conquered. They were also famous for building aqueducts, temples and amphitheatres. Roman women had few rights and were considered the property of their father or their husbands.

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Similarities

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The Celts

Celts

Romans

Differences

Celts

Romans

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4. The following descriptions of some important Celtic goddesses have been confused. Can you match their descriptions with

their titles? There are clues in the descriptions. (a) The Morrigan, the chief goddess of War

(i) This goddess was a native British goddess worshipped by the British Celts. She was the goddess of victory and she was usually worshipped in a sacred grove and hares were sacrificed to her. Queen Boudicca prayed to her when she rebelled against the British.

(b) Epona, goddess of war, horses, fertility and agriculture

(ii) This goddess was the guardian goddess of Leinster and goddess of the arts, poetry, fertility, healing and light. Many historians believe that worship of Brigit ( pronounced 'Brijit' by the Celts) changed into worship of Saint Brigid of Kildare during early Christian times when she became one of the three patron saints of Ireland.

(iii) This goddess was the chief Celtic goddess of War and she had the power of shape-shifting, assuming the form of a crow or a raven. She stalked battlefields and filled warriors with fury as she picked over the corpses of the dead in her raven form.

(d) Andraste, goddess of Victory

(iv) This goddess was worshipped by the Celts on mainland Europe and was brought to Britain by Roman soldiers who adopted her as one of their divinities. She was the goddess of war, horses, fertility and agriculture and she was the only Celtic goddess included in the Roman’s pantheon (official list) of gods, usually shown with a bird, dog and foal.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

Unit 11: A mother sings a ballad to her young daughter who is leaving to be fostered – Ireland, 90 AD Indicators: Students read text and complete comprehension and close exercises based on text. Students complete word study exercises in identifying spelling errors and choosing correct answers. Students learn about ballads, ancient musical instruments and the importance of music to the Celts, the structure of Celtic society and the practice of fosterage and different forms of music such as Gregorian chant.

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Background information:

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This text is a ballad. A ballad is a narrative poem which can be read or sung and usually has stanzas of two or four lines with repetition of certain lines. Ballads usually describe an emotional event in a person’s life and their authorship may be unknown. They may have been passed down from one generation to another. In this ballad, Sadhbh sings a ballad, lamenting the fact that her daughter, Niamh, is just about to go to the home of a chieftain as part of the Celtic system of fosterage. The Celtic system of fosterage was part of life in Celtic Ireland and was regulated by the Brehon Laws, which were a set of laws and customs handed down from one generation to another. It also operated in Scotland in Celtic times and in some form until the 18th century. Fosterage meant that sons or daughters were often sent away and brought up by another family for a number of years. The foster family were usually powerful and distinguished in some way. One of the purposes of fosterage was to ensure that the foster family had allies in the future if they needed them, as close bonds of loyalty were often formed between the family and the foster children. They were expected to remember their foster family throughout their lives and be prepared to support them if they were asked. A fee for fosterage was usually paid, in land or in cattle and it varied according to rank; e.g. ranging from three cows to 30. The son of a lower chief paid three cows while the son of a higher chieftain might pay thirty cows. Higher fees were paid for the fosterage of girls as they were considered to be more troublesome. The children acquired a foster family, which could include a foster father, foster mother and foster brothers and sisters. The foster family was expected to look after the child as if he or she were their own, educating them and raising them with their own children. The children of noble families were carefully taught and educated in horse riding, swimming and the use of weapons. Girls were taught the skills of sewing and embroidery. The children were also instructed in music, poetry and games. Boys from less noble families were trained to work on the land in herding and farm work and girls were trained to use the quern and to be able to bake bread. Children were fostered from the age of seven to 17 for boys and from seven to 14 for girls.

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Celtic Ireland was divided into about 150 small kingdoms or tuatha, each ruled by a king and his family. The family group was more important to the Celts than any other consideration. There were four main groups of people within each kingdom: the king (rì) and his family, called the derbfine; the nobles; the freemen; and the unfree. Each tuath had a king who defended his people and represented them. The king and his family, the derbfine, extended to four generations and included the descendants of a common great-grandfather. Land was owned jointly by the derbfine and they all shared in their inheritance. Any member of the derbfine could be king but, in reality, the king was chosen for his skills in battle and his ability to manage the affairs of the tuath in peacetime. The king did not make laws or act as a judge and his role was defined in the Brehon Laws. The nobles were an elite class, which included landowners and warriors and the group known as the Aes Dana, the druids, poets and judges. The freemen were mostly farmers, minor craftsmen and freemen. The unfree were the slaves. The Celts did not have many slaves, and those they had were mainly captives taken in raids and kept to act as servants in noble households. Evidence of slave chains has been found, suggesting that slaves may have been traded. The rulers of small kingdoms may have given their allegiance to an over-king (rì ruirech) for protective purposes. Celtic society in Ireland had a system of compensation for injuries or damage called the honour price system. The Brehon Laws stated that compensation had to be paid for injuries or damage and the amount of compensation was related to the seriousness of the incident and the social rank of the person injured. The honour price of a chieftain was much higher than that of a slave. Fasting was used as a weapon by the Celts who would fast outside the defendant’s house to force him to pay up the honour price. If he didn’t, he lost his reputation within the tribe. Another weapon was the ‘geis’ (pronounced ‘gesh’ by the Celts), which was a demand upon someone to perform a particular action or live under a specific restriction. If the individual did not respect the geis they could or their family could suffer misfortune or bad luck. Many ‘gessa’ (plural for geis) were imposed on kings and women often imposed gessa on men. The Celts believed that breaking a geis could even bring instant death.

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Music was very important for the Celts. Every feast and every celebration was accompanied by music. Celtic sagas often include references to the emotional power of music and how it could calm people and send them to sleep. There were several different instruments in use in Celtic times. U-shaped lyres, harps and tymps (small drums or tambourines) seem to have been among the most common instruments played by the ancient Celts. Musical instruments such as horns, pipes and bronze trumpets were also very common. Trumpets were probably used on ceremonial occasions or to announce the arrival of important guests at a feast. Horns were very popular, especially among Celtic warriors, who used battle horns or war horns. These kinds of horns had a limited range of notes but they had good tone and depth of sound. The war horns of the Celts were probably derived from cattle horns in shape and each tribe may have had their own special recognisable sound. Music was accompanied by singing and provided one of the main sources of entertainment for the Celts, who loved feasting and celebrating to the sound of music and listening to ballads afterwards. The great Irish mythological hero, Cù Chulainn, was fostered by his uncle, King Conor of the kingdom of Uladh (Ulster). According to the legend, he was instructed in speech, oratory, music and poetry by Sencha the File; in the arts of fighting and the use of weapons by Fergus the Warrior; and in the arts of history and the Brehon Laws by Amergin the Sage. By the age of 17 years of age, Cù Chulainn was the greatest champion in the Kingdom of Uladh. Cù Chulainn is the hero of the Ulster cycle, a collection of stories centring on the exploits and actions of him and his companions as they defend their kingdom from attack.

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Teachers notes

Worksheet information: Students may find it useful to look at a map of Celtic Ireland to view the five ancient provinces mentioned in the unit. For example, the province of Midhe, the Middle Kingdom or modern Meath, where Tara, the Seat of the High Kings, and the ancient megalithic tomb of Newgrange are situated. Students may need to use dictionaries to complete Question 1 in Exercise D. A glossary of keywords and terms relating to the ancient Celts in this particular unit is provided on pages viii – xi for teacher reference. Many of them appear on Question 1 in Exercise E. Students will find it beneficial to check the glossary as they work through the unit. Detailed footnotes for the text in Exercise A have also been provided to assist in comprehension of Celtic terms.

Answers:

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children to be fostered for a number of years by a wealthier more powerful patron. During fosterage they received shelter, food and education and, in return, were expected to give their allegiance to their patron when they reached adulthood. It operated in Ireland and in Scotland, where it continued until the 18th century. 6.–7. Teacher check 8. Celtic Ireland was divided into five kingdoms: Uladh, Connacht, Munster, Leinster and Midhe, known as the Middle Kingdom. 9. (a), (b), (e), (g) and (h) should be ticked

Exercise D....................................... page 87 1. 1. celebrations 2. references 3. instruments 4. suggests 5. probably 6. cattle 7. musical 8. accompanied 9. arrival 10. recited 11. provided 12. listening 2. (a) ii, (b) ii, (c) i, (d) ii, (e) iii, (f) ii, (g) iii, (h) i

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Exercise B....................................... page 85 1. Ballads are narrative poems, which can be read or sung. They usually tell stories or deal with an emotional event in a person’s life. 2. Sadhbh is sad because her daughter, Niamh, is going away to be fostered and she will not see her for seven years. 3. She is referring to the fact that, according to Celtic custom, Niamh will probably be married at around 14 years of age, shortly after her return from her foster family. 4. The land of the bull was the peninsula of Cooley in County Louth. According to Irish legend, it was the site where many of the Irish stories in the famous saga, the Tàin Bó Cualinge, are set. 5. This was a system of fosterage practiced by the Celts, which allowed

Exercise E............................... pages 88–89 1. Teacher check 2. (a) t, (b) f, (c) f, (d) t, (e) f, (f) t, (g) f 3. (a) vi, (b) v, (c) ix, (d) vii, (e) viii, (f) iii, (g) iv, (h) x, (i) ii, (j) i 4. 1. sung, 2. suggests, 3. believe, 4. Gaul, 5. Europe, 6. churches, 7. incorporates, 8. exact, 9. used, 10. written

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons •f orr evi ew pur posesonl y• Exercise C....................................... page 86 described, skills, prepared, fee, foster, their, use, embroidery, herding, seven, loyalty, kingdom, Legends, ruled, four, Each, member, manage, druids, many, slave, given

Cross-curricular activities: Students should find out about the different traditional musical instruments played by Celtic musicians such as bagpipes, bodhràns (which are goatskin drums), fiddles, harps and tin whistles.

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Students may wish to write and/or sing their own ballad, researching and using traditional Celtic structures such as repetition within the song. Students should listen to Irish ballads and find out more about the Celtic tradition of ballad singing. Information about Celtic music in the past and about ancient Celtic musical instruments is at <http://libraryireland.com/IrishMusic/1.php>.

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A useful website on Celtic music today is at <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Music>.

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Students should listen to a selection of world music and find out more about the diverse influences of worldwide musical culture. A website with information on world music is <http://www.bbc.co.uk/music/world/>. Information on Gregorian and Gallican chant can be found at <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_chant>.

Curriculum links State

Society and Environment

English

The Arts

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

AR 4, AIS 4

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

MUS 3.3, MUS 3.4

Vic.

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

ARMU 0404, ARMU 0504

Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

DMU 4.5

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

4.4, 4.6

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise A: Reading Sabhdh, a Celtic mother, sings a ballad of sorrow as her daughter, Niamh, leaves home – Ireland, 90 AD My daughter, you are going away far away from me1, over the hills of Tara, And I will not see you until you return to me as a woman. You will grow up without me to guide you,

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And I will grow old without you to guide me, Niamh.

Remember me, daughter, when you look upon the golden clouds of Uladh,

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For I will remember you, daughter, when I look down upon the silver skies of Midhe. My daughter, you are going away, far away from me, over the hills of Tara, May you learn how to play the harp and to sing like the goddess, Bèbinn2. May you learn to recite poems that tell the stories of our people, May you learn to sew and embroider with the skill of a queen. Remember me, daughter, when you look upon the golden clouds of Uladh,

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons •going f o rfarr e v i e woverp osesonl y• My daughter, you are away, away from me, theu hillsr ofp Tara, For I will remember you, daughter, when I look down upon the silver skies of Midhe.

May you enjoy your years in the land of the bull3,

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May you look upon my face once more before you leave for your wedding day4. Remember me, daughter, when you look at the golden clouds of Uladh,

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For I will remember you, daughter, when I look down upon the silver skies of Midhe5.

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May you return to me safely after seven years,

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1. The system of fosterage was a feature of Celtic society in Ireland and also lasted in Scotland until the 18th century AD. Sons and daughters were protected and trained by a distinguished and powerful patron, probably not a family member. Fosterage was described in the Brehon Laws of early Ireland. The children were educated, instructed in music, poetry and games and boys were taught how to fight and girls taught homemaking skills. Foster children were expected to remember their patrons when they were adults, acting as allies for them if they were needed and prepared to defend them if they were in danger. 2. Bébinn was a Celtic goddess of birth and a protector of women. Her name was often invoked to look after women and girls.

3. The land of the bull refers to the Cooley peninsula in County Louth where, according to legend, the brown bull that featured in the famous Irish saga, the Tàin Bó Cuailinge, lived. Tara in County Meath is the site of many important archaeological remains. Meath used to be the fifth kingdom of Ireland, called Midhe or the Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom was the area where a number of sacred sites existed such as Tara, the Seat of the High Kings and ancient megalithic tombs which were considered to be the temples of the gods, the most famous of which is Newgrange. They believed that Newgrange was the home of the Dagda, the father of the gods. 4. Girls were fostered from the age of seven to 14 years of age, when they returned to their parents in order to prepare for marriage. According to the Brehon Laws, girls could marry from the age of 14 and boys from 17. 5. Ballads are narrative poems which can be read or sung and usually have stanzas of two or four lines with repetition of certain lines. The subject matter of ballads is usually an emotional event in someone’s life and their authorship may be unknown, as they may have been passed down over many years from one generation to the next. Sadhbh is very sad because she will not see her daughter, Niamh, for seven years, and when she returns, at 14 years of age, she will be ready for marriage. Ireland was divided into five kingdoms and Sadhbh is sending her daughter away to be fostered from the kingdom of Midhe (Meath) to the northern kingdom of Uladh (Ulster). The other kingdoms were the kingdom of Connacht, the kingdom of Munster and the kingdom of Leinster. 84

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. 1.

What are ballads?

Why is Sadhbh’s ballad so sad?

What does Sadhbh mean when she says that she hopes her daughter will look upon her face once more before she leaves for her wedding day?

Where was the land of the bull? Why is it a significant site in Celtic culture?

What is meant by the system of fosterage and where did this system operate?

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Do you think that this system may have caused difficulties for those involved?

Why, in your opinion, were foster children expected to have a sense of obligation towards their foster parents?

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How many kingdoms was Celtic Ireland divided into? Can you name them?

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Read the following statements and tick those that are correct.

(a) Celtic Ireland was divided into five main kingdoms................................................................................................

(b) Newgrange, a megalithic site, was thought to be the home of Dagda, father of the gods.........................................

(c) Fosterage was a system whereby children were formally adopted..........................................................................

(d) Ballads are always happy songs..........................................................................................................................

(e) The Brehon Laws regulated the system of fosterage.............................................................................................

(f) Foster children had no obligations towards their foster parents in later life.............................................................

(g) The famous Irish saga, the Tàin Bó Cuailinge, is set in County Meath.....................................................................

(h) A system of fosterage operated until the 18th century in Scotland.........................................................................

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word bank

slave use foster four

described herding prepared member

skills druids kingdom manage

their seven Legends many

Each embroidery fee given

ruled loyalty

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Fosterage was a system practiced in Celtic Ireland and Scotland. Parents allowed their children to be sent away from home to be protected and trained by a distinguished and powerful patron, probably not a family member. Fosterage was

in the Brehon Laws of early Ireland. The children were educated, instructed in music, poetry and games. The boys were taught . Foster children were expected to remember their

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how to fight and the girls taught homemaking

to defend them

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patrons when they were adults, acting as allies for them if they were needed and

paid for fosterage, usually in land or in cattle and

if they were in danger. There was sometimes a

it varied according to rank; e.g. ranging from three cows to 30 cows. Children acquired a foster family, which could include a father, foster mother and foster brothers and sisters. The foster family was expected to look after the own, educating them and raising them with their own children. Boys from

child as if he or she were

of weapons. Girls were taught the

noble families were educated in horse riding, swimming and the

© R. I . C.Publ i c t i oGirls ns anda farm work. from less noble families were to 17 for trained to use the quern and to be able to bake bread. Children were fostered from the age of • f o r r e v i e w p u r p o s e s o n l y • boys and from the age of seven to 14 for girls. . The children were also instructed in music, poetry and games. Boys from less

skills of sewing and

noble families were trained to work on the land in

to the tribe came first. There were

The tribe was the most important social unit in Celtic society and

of Connacht, the kingdom of Munster, the refer to Tara in the Middle

kingdom of Leinster and the Middle Kingdom, the kingdom of Midhe (Meath).

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five kingdoms in Celtic Ireland, the kingdom of Uladh, the

Kingdom as the Seat of the High Kings of Ireland, who ruled over the other four kingdoms and all of the smaller tuatha (kingdoms)

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contained within these. Celtic Ireland was divided into about 150 small kingdoms or tuatha, and his family. There were

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by a king

main groups of people within each kingdom; the king (rì) and his family,

called the derbfine; the nobles; the freemen; and the unfree.

tuath had a king who defended his people

and represented them. The king and his family, the derbfine, extended to four generations and included all of the descendants of a common great-grandfather. Land was owned jointly by the derbfine and all shared in the inheritance. Any of the derbfine could be king but, in reality, the king was chosen for his skills in battle and his ability to the affairs of the tuath in peacetime. The nobles were an elite group, which included landowners and warriors and the group known as the Aes Dana, which included , poets, master craftsmen and judges. The freemen were mostly farmers and minor craftsmen. The unfree were the slaves. The Celts did not have

slaves and those they did have were mainly captives, chains has

taken in raids and kept to act as labourers in noble households or on the land. Evidence of been found, suggesting that slaves may have been traded. The rulers of the smaller kingdoms may have their allegiance to an over-king (rì ruirech) for protective purposes. 86

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Exercise D: Word study exercises 1.

The Celts enjoyed feasting and entertainment and music played a big part at these occasions. Read the following description of a Celtic feast and identify 12 spelling errors. Write each error out correctly below. You may need to use a dictionary to complete this exercise.

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The Celts loved music. Music must have played an important role in religious celabrations but, as in other areas, the Celts did not write down any of their music. Celtic sagas often included referances to the emotional power of music and how it could calm people and send them to sleep. There were probably several different instrumentes used in Celtic times. Some evidence, such as figures from stone carving sugests that instruments such as the harp and the drum were important instruments in Celtic music. Battle horns or war horns accompanied Celtic warriors as they rode into battle. These kinds of horns probable had a limited range of notes but they had good tone and depth of sound. The war horns of the Celts were probably derived from cattel horns in shape and each tribe may have had their own special recognisable sound. U-shaped lyres and tymps (small drums) also seem to have been popular muzical instruments. Musical instruments such as horns, pipes and bronze trumpets were also very common. Every feast and every celebration was accompanyed by music. Trumpets were probably used on ceremonial occasions or to announce the arrivel of important guests at a feast. Mournful laments were played at funerals. When celebrating the great festivals of the Celtic year, bards sang songs and resited poetry. Bards had to learn many songs and play musical instruments. Music was accompanied by singing and provyded one of the main sources of entertainment for the Celts, who loved feasting and celebrating to the sound of music and lisening to ballads afterwards.

10.

11.

12.

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Celtic Ireland was divided into (i) 100 tuatha or small kingdoms. (ii) 250 tuatha or small kingdoms. (iii) 150 tuatha or small kingdoms.

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The most important unit in Celtic society was (i) the king. (ii) the tribe. (iii) the druids.

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(a)

(b) The Celtic system of fosterage was when (i) boys and girls were sent abroad. (ii) boys and girls were sent to live with another family. (iii) boys and girls were sent to the mountains.

(f)

The derbfine in Celtic society was (i) all the families of the tribe. (ii) the king’s family. (iii) the unfree.

(c)

The foster family was expected to (i) look after the child as if it was their own. (ii) train the child as a servant for their home. (iii) spoil the child.

(g)

The Aos Dana were the (i) the king’s personal servants (ii) senior druids. (iii) artists, poets, master craftsmen and judges.

(d)

Celtic Ireland had (i) seven kingdoms. (ii) five kingdoms. (iii) four kingdoms.

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(h) The Celts loved music and played instruments such as the (i) harp, pipes, lyre, horn and tymp. (ii) piano and organ. (iii) electric guitar and xylophone. Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1. Read these keywords/terms which occur throughout the unit and use them in sentences.

(a) Aos Dana: Irish term meaning ‘men of art’, who formed an elite group in Celtic society which included master craftsmen, poets and judges.

(b) ballad: A narrative poem which can be read or sung. (c) Brehon Laws: A system of laws and customs regulating Celtic Ireland which was passed down by word of mouth.

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(d) derbfine: The extended family of the king in a Celtic kingdom which included four generations from the same greatgrandfather.

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(e) fosterage: System of fostering children, which was a custom in Celtic Ireland and Scotland.

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(f) geis: A demand for someone to perform a particular action or to operate under a specific restriction.

(g) honour price: The amount of compensation to be paid by someone who caused injury or damage to another person. (h) rì: Irish word referring to the king or head of a tribe who ruled over a kingdom or ‘tuatha’.

(i) ri ruirech: Irish word referring to an over-king who was given allegiance by small kingdoms who needed protection.

(j) tuatha: Irish word meaning ‘kingdom’, which refers to the land ruled by a particular tribe.

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2. Read this account and mark the statements underneath as true or false. This account refers to one of the heroes of Celtic mythology, Fionn Mac Cumhaill and how he deals with a fairy musician who uses enchanted music to wreck havoc on the castle of the high king at Tara, County Meath.

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The first great feat achieved by Fionn Mac Cumhaill was to defend the Seat of the High King at Tara from the evil spell of the fairy musician, Ailln Mac Midgna. Ailln had been a fariy musician of the tuatha Dè Danann and every year at the festival of Samhain he travelled to Tara to play sweet music on his tymp, a kind of drum or tambourine. The sweetness of his music disguised his evil intent. His music would lull all the men of Tara to sleep. Even warriors with the deepest wounds fell fast asleep listening to his sweet music. Once they were sleeping deeply, Ailln would shoot red-hot flaming rocks from his mouth and burn the castle to the ground. This was allowed to continue for 23 years until, Fionn offered to get rid of Ailln. In return, Fionn asked if all of those present at Tara for the festival, including the nobles, poets and druids, would restore his family’s fortune, which had been lost, and establish him as head. They agreed and the hero made himself immune to the power of the music by inhaling poison from his own spear, which was so foul-smelling that it prevented sleep. As usual, Ailln returned and enchanted all who were present with his music—or so he thought. When he opened his mouth to send out the red-hot flames, Fionn caught them in his red cloak and sent the fire downwards into the Earth where it created a huge crater. Ailln tried to flee but was caught and beheaded by Fionn, who displayed his head on a pole at Tara for all to see and had his family’s fortune restored.

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True/False (a) Fionn Mac Cumhaill’s first great feat was to defend the Seat of the High King at Tara. (b) Ailln Mac Midgna was a druid who could shape-shift into the shape of an owl. (c) Fionn offered to get rid of Ailln if the High King would pay him a bag of gold. (d) Ailln burned the castle down at Tara every Samhain for 23 years. (e) He played sweet music on his tymp which caused all the men of Tara to sing loudly. (f) The enchanted music of the tymp caused all of the listeners to fall asleep. (g) Ailln had the power to breathe clouds of ice and freezing fog out of his mouth. 88

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 3.

The following descriptions of different types of music have been mixed up. Can you match each description to its correct title? There are clues in the descriptions. (a) Country music

(i) This kind of music, which appeals to many young people, became very popular in the 1950s.

(b) Classical music

(ii) Music composed to accompany films.

(iii) Music originating partly in African which came to Europe via South America where it has blended with elements of Spanish music.

(d) Ceilì music

(e) Chamber music

(v) Music composed in a strict, classical form such as the music of Mozart and Beethoven.

(f) Tango music

(vi) Music derived from the folk style of the Southern United States and cowboys.

(vii) Music usually played at Irish or Scottish dances to accompany dancers as they perform jigs and reels.

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(g) Rap music

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(iv) Music usually consisting of spoken rhyming couplets with a musical accompaniment, first popular in the United States in the early 1980s.

(h) Instrumental music

(viii) Music composed for a small number of instruments and performed in a small room or chamber.

(i) Film music

(ix) Music from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, sometimes played with period instruments.

(j) Pop music

(x) Music composed for musical instruments without the use of human voices.

Read this short passage on the development of Gregorian chant in Europe and choose the correct words from the choices offered in bold.

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons Popular legend shows/suggests/denies that it got its name from Pope Gregory the Great, who is supposed to have invented it. However, believe/berate/betray it developed combination of n Roman and • Gallican chant. Gallican •scholars f or r evi ewthatp ur pfrom oas eso l y

One form of early music is called Gregorian chant, which is (1)spoken/sung/talked unaccompanied by any musical instruments. (2)

(3)

chant was the music sung in (4)Galway/Gaul/Glasgow in the early Christian churches as the pagan Celts there became

Christian. As the spread of Christianity advanced through (5)Europe/America/Arctic and monasteries were established,

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Gregorian chant, sometimes called plainchant, was sung by choirs of men and boys in (6)schools/homes/churches or by the

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women and men of religious orders in their chapels. Christian music of this type (7)incorporates/cooperates/congratulates

some elements of Jewish chant and scholars are still debating its origins as (8)misleading/exact/false information on music

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from the 4th to the 9th centuries is scarce. Evidence suggests that Celtic chant was (9)used/lost/found in the early Christian

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churches and monasteries of Britain which was incorporated into plainsong. The first (10)painted/typed/written sources with

musical notation were not written until the 9th century as, before this time, plainchant had been transmitted orally.

Discussion points

Music was very important to the Celts.

Carry out a class survey on the importance of music to your classmates by compiling a questionnaire for them to complete. Your questionnaire could include questions such as what is their favourite music, when do they listen to music and how do they listen to music; e.g. on a cd, on an mp3 player or on their computer. Investigate musical instruments of the past and the present and research how musical instruments may develop in the future. You could ask your teacher to recommend a website with information on ancient musical instruments.

Research the rich musical traditions and influences that migrating and emigrating people from around the world bring with them. Research how these traditions have influenced world music. Information on world music is available on the Internet. Celtic music is very popular in areas of the world that are far away from the original source of the music such as Canada and Australia. Research modern Celtic music in the public library, your school library and by using the internet. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Literacy and history – The Celts

Teachers notes

Unit 12: Meabh, a commentator, describes a Christian religious ceremony – Ireland, 513 AD Indicators: Students read text and complete comprehension and cloze exercises based on text. Students complete word study exercises in word search skills and matching skills. Students learn about the spread of Christianity in Ireland; Saint Brigid, Saint Patrick and Saint Columcille; and the art of illuminated manuscripts and the Book of Kells.

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Background information:

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This text is a report. A report is a written document describing the findings of an individual or a group. It can take the form of a newspaper report, sports or police report, or a report about an animal, person or object. It can also take the form of a live commentary, with a series of comments or notes on a particular subject. In this case, it is a live commentary describing a religious ceremony. The commentator, Meabh, is present as Saint Brigid baptises five converts to Christianity at her monastery in County Kildare. Meabh is describing the ceremony as it happens and she gives further information on the events as they unfold. This type of commentary is informational so Meabh draws people’s attention to particular aspects of the ceremony and gives background information on the converts and on Saint Brigid during the ceremony. Her commentary also has a personal element as she tells of her own curiosity about the new religion. The spread of Christianity across Europe intensified when the Roman emperor Constantine converted to Christianity around 312 AD and declared Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. Early Christian monasteries were centres of religious, trading and business life in their communities. They were ruled by abbots and abbesses, such as Brigid. The story of Brigid is a link between the pagan world and the Christian world. The early Celts in eastern Gaul worshipped a goddess called Brigindo. The Celts in Britain worshipped the goddess Brigantia, who was associated with water and gave her name to rivers such as the Braint in Wales and the Brent in England. There is evidence that the veneration of Saint Brigid was linked to the worship of the Celtic goddess Brigit, the tutelary (guardian) goddess of Leinster and associated with the arts, poetry, fertility, healing and fire. Many of the legends associated with Saint Brigid have strong links with the goddess Brigit. One legend concerned an inextinguishable fire that burned in Brigid’s honour at Kildare in Leinster and which produced no ash. Men were not allowed near it and it was believed to have burned for 500 years. Brigid was from a noble family. Dubhthach, an Irish chieftain, married Brocca, one of his slave girls. Their daughter, Brigid, was born in the mid-fifth century AD, near Dundalk in County Louth, and at a young age she became a Christian. She left home when she was 18, accompanied by seven other girls who wished to be nuns. They lived near Croghan Hill in County Westmeath where Brigid founded the first convent in Ireland. Around 470, AD Brigid founded a religious community at Cill Dara, which means ‘The Church of the Oak’, now called Kildare. She became the abbess and led a community of both monks and nuns in a centre of learning, writing, art and education. According to legend, she died on 1 February 525 AD, on the day associated with the Celtic goddess Brigit and the springtime festival of Imbolc, and her feast day is still celebrated on this day each year. When the Vikings invaded Ireland, her body was moved to Downpatrick in County Down where she is buried with St Patrick. She is one of the three patron saints of Ireland and is referred to as ‘Mary of the Gael’. Saint Brigid was also venerated in Scotland, Wales, the Isle of Man and England. Saint Patrick is popularly known as the saint who introduced Christianity to Ireland, but some Christians were already living in Ireland around 431 AD as Palladius, a deacon of Auxerre, had been already appointed by Pope Celestine I to act as a bishop in Ireland. However, there is little evidence about Palladius and his time in Ireland. Historians cannot be certain if this is because he achieved very little or if the followers of the man who came after him, Patrick, deliberately removed any references to Palladius in order to emphasise Patrick’s role in spreading Christianity in Ireland. Patrick, who came from Roman Britain, wrote of his life in two surviving texts and his writing is extremely important as it gives a unique insight into life in 5th century Britain and Ireland. He was the son of Calpurnius, a Christian deacon and a member of a town council. The town may have been Carlisle, in Cumbria, northern England. When Patrick was 16 years of age he was captured by Irish raiders and brought to Ireland as a slave. He herded animals for six years until he managed to make his escape to France and return to his family in England. Patrick decided to return to Ireland when he dreamed that a messenger had come to him with a letter in which he heard the voice of the Irish calling to him and begging him to return to them. Saint Columcille was born in Donegal around 521 AD and died around 597 AD. His feast day (St Columba’s Day)is celebrated on 9 June and he is best known as the patron saint of early Scottish Christianity. He founded a number of monasteries in Ireland including the monasteries at Derry and Durrow. He moved to Scotland where he founded a monastery in 563 AD at Iona, off the west coast of Mull, Strathclyde, which became one of the most famous monasteries in Western Europe. He was reputed to have had an encounter with the Loch Ness monster, which disappeared at the saint’s command. The Christian names Calum (Scottish), Colin (English) and Colum/Colm (Irish) are forms of his name. The followers of Saint Columcille spread the new religion of Christianity in England. St Aidan asked King Oswald of Northumbria for the island of Lindisfarne so that he could establish a Christian monastery there. The monks at Lindisfarne created illuminated manuscripts, such as the Lindisfarne gospels around 698 AD. At the monastery at Jarrow, also in Northumbria, a scholar called the Venerable Bede wrote The ecclesiastical history of the English people, finishing it in 731 AD. In it he described the history of the English people and may have been the first person to use the word ‘English’ to describe the people living there. The Celts wrote very little down, preferring knowledge to be transmitted orally. There is, however, some evidence of the beginnings of a writing system in ogham script. Ogham was the earliest form of writing in Irish, in which the Latin alphabet was adapted to a series of 20 letters, consisting of straight lines and notches carved on the edge of a piece of stone or wood. Ogham inscriptions on standing stones date from the 4th century to the 8th century AD and can be found particularly in the south of Ireland and also in Wales, Scotland, England and the Isle of Man. Historians believe that many standing stones with ogham inscriptions may have been memorials to the dead or markers to show the borders between two areas of land. Much of the knowledge that modern historians possess about the Celts comes from the early Christian period in Ireland. With the introduction of Christianity came the introduction of Latin, learning and writing. Ireland became a haven of learning and scholarship and produced some of

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Literacy and history – The Celts

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Teachers notes the most important written manuscripts of the early medieval period in Western Europe. There was a tradition in the monasteries of copying manuscripts, which began in the scriptoria (writing rooms) of the first Egyptian monasteries. The growth of the monasteries coincided with what historians used to refer to as the Dark Ages, which used to be the name given to the historical period from 450 to 800 AD. The period was given this name because there was very little written evidence about it. However, modern archaeologists can now use many different methods to find out more about the people of this time. Celtic culture, as far as can be verified from the sources left by the Celts, survived in probably its purest form in Ireland by virtue of its isolation as an island on the edge of Europe, cut off and not invaded by the Romans. This isolation also allowed early Irish Christianity to flourish. In the early monasteries, monks painstakingly worked on illuminated manuscripts and produced rich and detailed works of art such as the Book of Durrow and the Book of Kells. During this time, the monks also produced beautiful chalices such as the Ardagh Chalice, which were masterpieces of ornament and continued the ancient Celtic tradition of great metalworking skills. Ireland during this period is sometimes referred to as ‘the island of saints and scholars’.

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Worksheet information:

Students may find it useful to look at illustrations of illuminated manuscripts when completing this unit. Students may find it helpful to look at an atlas in order to find the locations of the monastic sites mentioned in this unit.

Answers:

Exercise B...............................page 93 1. Meabh is attending a baptism ceremony. 2. She says that Christianity was first brought to Ireland by a shepherd boy from Wales called Patrick. Evidence shows that others had come before Patrick to preach the Christian gospel but he was the most popular and successful. 3. Teacher check 4. (a) St Brigid’s monastery in County Kildare welcomed monks as well as nuns to join the religious community there. (b) The monastery at Kildare became one of the leading monasteries in Ireland and a centre for learning, writing, art and education. 5. Meabh suggests that worshipping only one god will seem very strange to the Irish as they are used to worshipping many Celtic gods. 6. Teacher check.

7. (a) Meabh says that she was curious about Christianity because her friends had told her of the strange practices of its followers. (b) Teacher check 8. (a), (c), (e), (f) and (g) should be ticked Exercise C...............................page 94 also, story, eastern, associated, worship, fire, produced, love, century, young, convent, called, monks, legend, feast, moved, member, captured, animals, messenger, calling patron, monastery, famous

B A

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Q S

A C C X E

F D B

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Students may need to use a dictionary to complete Question 3 in Exercise E. A glossary of keywords and terms relating to the ancient Celts in this particular unit is provided on pages viii – xi for teacher reference. Many of them appear on Question 1 in Exercise E. Students will find it beneficial to check the glossary as they work through the unit. Detailed footnotes for the text in Exercise A have also been provided to assist in comprehension of Celtic terms. R Y M M Q H S P G Z B P E U

S C

U T N L N L O G

N H R V I

V O G

X C R R A V A Q L N A A T U K T O O

M W U O

H A

L U F

R N V

L H H O C R

N D W T M D W N O R O O X R A O G Q H T E

S D A K O U R C P N L

E N S Q R N T O E J

Q P

A A R

L O T D B S R O I

E N W I

Q S

B C D A H D A A R R A W A

E C

I M S R

L M

Y O Q D T

R A U T S

L H T

R H D M T N

T I

E C H R Y

P L

T W G T D G P Q E

R M H P T G S U G A

I W L

H S

F D S D L

N V B A D N L H S

G H N U E

L D W Z

A U X

A T

A A W S A H Y

R A R U N Y

R W

E N E

J M B

A M T A T L D

A T C L O A K S P O C R D V O R W C D A

N L G E H L D A B

K V Q S

E O L

L O P A R A W

F G Y H O A R D F C D L O G F

P S

Exercise E.....................................................................................................................pages 96–97 1. Teacher check 2. (a) v, (b) iv, (c) i, (d) ii, (e) iii 3. 1. finest. 2. consists. 3. decorations. 4. thought. 5.monastery. 6. raiders. 7. complete. 8. contains. 9. styles. 10. different. 11. forms. 12. actually. 13. safekeeping. 14. presented. 15. exhibited. 16. key. 17. initials. 18. single. 19. conserve 4. (a) i, (b) iii, (c) ii, (d) ii, (e) i, (f) iii

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Exercise D.............................. page 95 1. Teacher check word search 2. (a) vi, (b) x, (c) ix, (d) viii, (e) iii, (f) ii, (g) i, (h) v, (i) iv, (j) vii

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Cross-curricular activities:

Students can design their own Celtic alphabet, using colours, designs and shapes inspired by illuminated manuscripts such as the Book of Durrow and the Book of Kells. Students can research images of these books by accessing the Internet. The Book of Kells is housed and displayed in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. Information about the Book of Kells is available at the library’s website at <http://ww.tcd.ie/Library/heritage/kells.php>. Images of the Book of Kells and further information on it can be found at <http://www.stone-circles.org.uk/celtic/christian1.htm>.

Curriculum links State

Society and Environment

English

ICP 4.1, ICP 4.2, ICP 4.3, PS 4.2, R 4.2, C 4.1, C 4.2, C 4.3, TCC 4.1, TCC 4.2, TCC 4.3

R 4.1, R 4.2, R 4.4, W 4.1, W 4.2

NSW

CUS 3.4, ENS 3.6

RS 3.5, RS 3.6, RS 3.8, WS 3.10, WS 3.11

Vic.

SOHI 0501, SOHI 0502, SOHI 0503, SOHI 0504

ENRE 0404, ENWR 0403

Qld

TCC 5.1, TCC 5.3, TCC 5.5, CI 5.1

Refer to website <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

4.1, 4.4

4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.11

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise A: Reading Meabh describes a Christian baptism at Saint Brigid’s monastery in County Kildare – 513 AD

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You’re joining me here in the monastery in County Kildare1, just as the ceremony is about to begin. I’m sitting in the aisles of the chapel as yet more converts are due to be baptised today by the nun they are already calling Saint Brigid. They are being baptised into the new religion of Christianity that is sweeping through this country of ours. As you are aware, this religion has come across from Britain, brought, they say, by a shepherd boy from Cumbria called Patrick. Now it seems that everyone in Ireland is converting to it, just as the High King did recently. They say that its followers only worship one god. That, surely, will be very strange for us here, as we have always worshipped so many gods in the past, such as Dagda, Lugh and all of our gods and goddesses of the rivers, lakes, streams and trees. The news from the continent is that many people have given up their worship of the old gods2 and are now Christian.

Now, at last, the ceremony begins. The five converts are lining up at the back of the chapel, looking very pale and serious in white tunics and with their heads covered. I had an opportunity earlier this morning to speak to them. One of them is a man called Cathal, a farmer from Galway. Another man is Fionn, a metalworker from Wexford. Maire and Una are sisters from Cork. Finally, Muireann is from Donegal. She is also the daughter of a chieftain, as Brigid is3, and her family are completely against her conversion to Christianity. They have told her that she must never return home to Donegal if she insists on going through with the ceremony of baptism today. However, she told me that she is determined to become a Christian and even wants to become a nun here in St Brigid’s monastery, even if it means that she must forget about her blood family for the rest of her life. ‘I have a new family now’, she told me this morning, ‘and I am happy to stay here and serve the Lord’.

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Here comes Brigid, attended by a group of nuns and monks who are carrying candles and bells. You have all heard about the stories of miracles that she is supposed to have performed4. Only today a local man was telling me about her latest miracle. There was an old man at the monastery yesterday who was almost dying of thirst and hunger, having travelled all the way here from Kerry, which is many miles away to the south. As he arrived through the gates, he collapsed on the ground. Brigid poured him a drink of water from the well and when she handed it to him, it had turned into the creamiest milk, mixed with the sweetest yellow honey. The man was immediately refreshed and praised the kindness of the saint as he stood up and walked with the gait of a young man again.

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Brigid is now walking slowly towards the altar of the church. She is dressed very simply in a white tunic with a gold cross around her neck. She is beautiful, with long flowing hair, covered by a veil of the palest blue, and she has bright, intelligent eyes. As she walks, she is smiling at everybody. She is being followed by a procession of nuns and novices who carry lit candles. A choir is singing softly. She is beckoning to the converts to come forward and kneel before her at the altar. She is handed a golden bowl filled with blessed water and sprinkles it over the heads of the five converts, praying silently as she does so. She still has a smile on her lips as she tells them to stand up and join in the singing as the ceremony ends. It has been raining all morning but now the sun has suddenly burst through the clouds and has turned the scene inside the chapel golden with light. There is an atmosphere of peace and gentleness here. It contrasts sharply with the fear, sacrifice and bloodshed that accompany the ceremonies of our old religion. Saint Brigid’s followers have great affection and love for her and show absolutely no fear of her, unlike our druids, who terrify us so much. I was curious about this new religion because my friends had told me of the strange practices of its followers but now that I have come here and seen Brigid and her followers, I am even more curious and I am determined to find out much more about this religion. 1. Saint Brigid’s convent in County Westmeath was the first convent in Ireland. Around 470 AD, Brigid also founded a monastery at Cill-Dara which means ‘The Church of the Oak’, now called Kildare. Both men and women joined her monastery and it became a famous centre of learning, writing, art and education. The monastic movement began in Ireland and soon spread to Britain. The idea of living in a community dedicated to prayer originally came from Egypt. The monks dedicated themselves to intellectual, artistic and spiritual development. Monasteries thrived in Ireland and they became very important protectors of Celtic civilisation. 92

Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise B: Comprehension questions Note that answers may be found in the footnotes as well as the text. 1.

What kind of religious ceremony is Meabh attending and where is it being held?

How did Christianity first came to Ireland, according to Meabh? Is she correct?

Describe, in your own words, the latest miracle attributed to the saint.

(b) What kind of religious community existed at Kildare?

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(a) Why are there monks as well as nuns following Saint Brigid in the procession in the chapel?

What aspect of the new religion does Meabh suggest will be very strange for the Irish? Why?

Muireann tells Meabh of her rejection by her family because of her conversion to Christianity. Do you think that this may have been a common reaction to this new religion? Why?

(b) What effect do you think her visit has had on her?

Read the following statements and tick those that are correct.

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(a) Saint Brigid founded the first convent in Ireland in County Westmeath.......................................... (b) The parents of Saint Brigid were both slaves from Wales......................................................... (c) Many historians have found links between the Celtic goddess Brigit and Saint Brigid................... (d) Monks were forbidden to join Saint Brigid’s monastery at Kildare...........................................

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(e) The Celtic goddess Brigit was associated with water, streams, lakes and rivers........................... (f) St Brigid’s monastery became a famous centre of learning, writing, art and education.................. (g) According to legend, an inextinguishable fire burned in honour of Brigid for 500 years.............. (h) St.Brigid is sometimes referred to as ‘Cliodhna of the Waves’.....................................................

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2. The Roman emperor, Constantine, allowed Christian worship in 313 AD, having become a Christian himself. Christianity became the official religion of Rome and spread to Gaul and to Britain. Evidence suggests that the Irish had some contact with Christianity around 431 AD when Palladius, a deacon of Auxerre, was appointed by Pope Celestine I to bring Christianity to Ireland. He was followed shortly afterwards by Saint Patrick, who became the most important saint in Ireland. His feast day is celebrated on 17 March and the symbol of the shamrock is associated with him because he used the shamrock to illustrate the Holy Trinity. 3. Brigid was from a noble family. An Irish chieftain called Dubhthach fell in love and married one of his own slave girls, Brocca. Their daughter, Brigid, was born in the mid-fifth century AD near Dundalk in County Louth. Many historians believe that there are strong links between the worship of the Celtic goddess, Brigit, and the veneration of Saint Brigid. 4. Men as well as women followed Saint Brigid and lived in her monastery in Kildare. Many miracles were associated with her, especially those concerned with fire as she had links to Brigit, the Celtic goddess of art, poetry, healing and fire. There are many legends about Saint Brigid relating to fire, one concerning an inextinguishable fire that burned for 500 years in her honour. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise C: Cloze exercise Use the words from the word bank to complete the sentences.

Word bank love century messenger moved

member young eastern captured

animals convent associated calling

also called feast monastery

story patron produced famous

worship monks legend fire

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Saint Brigid is one of the three patron saints of Ireland and is often referred to as ‘Mary of the Gael’. Saint Brigid was venerated in Scotland, Wales, the Isle of Man and England. The other two saints are Saint Patrick

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and Saint Columcille, sometimes called Saint Columba. The

of Brigid is a link between the pagan

world and the Christian world. The early Celts in

Gaul worshipped a goddess called Brigindo. Later,

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the Celts in Britain worshipped the goddess Brigantia, who was

with water and gave her name to

rivers such as the Braint in Wales and the Brent in England. There is evidence that the veneration of Saint Brigid was linked to the of the Celtic goddess Brigit, the tutelary (guardian) goddess of Leinster. Brigit was associated with

the arts, poetry, healing and

. Many of the legends associated with Saint Brigid have strong links with

the goddess Brigit. One legend concerned an inextinguishable fire that burned in Brigid’s honour at Kildare in Leinster and which

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons and married one of his Brigid was from a noble family. An Irish chieftain called Dubhthach fell in • f o r r e v i e w p u r p o s e s o n l y• AD near own slave girls, a girl named Brocca. Their daughter, Brigid, was born in the mid-fifth no ash. Men were not allowed near it and it was believed to have burned for 500 years.

Dundalk in County Louth, and at a

age she became a Christian. She left home when she was 18

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founded the first

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accompanied by seven other girls who also wished to be nuns. They lived near Croghan Hill in County Westmeath, where Brigid in Ireland. Around 470 AD, Brigid also founded a religious community at Cill Dara,

which means ‘The Church of the Oak’, now of both

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Kildare. Brigid became the abbess and led a community

and nuns in a monastery that was a centre of learning, writing, art and education. According to

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, she died on 1 February 525 AD, on the day associated with the Celtic goddess Brigit and the festival of

Imbolc. Her was

day is still celebrated on 1 February each year. When the Vikings invaded Ireland, her body

to Downpatrick in County Down where she is buried with St Patrick.

Patrick was the son of Calpurnius, a Christian deacon and a

been Carlisle in Wales. When Patrick was 16 years of age, he was Ireland as a slave. He herded

of a town council. The town may have by Irish raiders and brought to

for six years until he managed to make his escape to France and then

return to his family. Patrick decided to return to Ireland when he dreamed that a letter in which Patrick heard the voice of the Irish people

came to him with a to him and begging him to return. The other

saint of Ireland is Saint Colmcille, sometimes known as Saint Columba, who was born in Donegal around 521 AD and died around 597 AD. He moved to Scotland, where he founded a off the west coast of Mull, Strathclyde. It became one of the most 94

Literacy and history – The Celts

in 563 AD at Iona, monasteries in western Europe. R.I.C. Publications® – www.ricpublications.com.au

Exercise D: Word study exercises 1.

Complete this word search on the Celts, using the words underneath. H

M M Q

M W U

D W

D W N

N W

W G

Apollo Austria Boudicca brooch castro Celts cereals clan cloaks Delphi England Epona farmers fibula France

Galatia Galicia gold Greece Hallstatt High King hill fort hoard Imbolc Ireland jewellery La Téne Lugh Mediolanum metalworkers

D W

W C

Niamh northern Italy Queen Meabh raid Samhain Scotland shields silversmith Spain swords torque Urnfield Wales warriors

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Suggested words:

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Match the following explanations of Irish names with their meanings and their mythological backgrounds. There are clues to help you if you read the names and the meanings carefully.

©R . I . C.Publ i cat i ons (i) This name means ‘she who inspires terror’ and belonged to the High King’s daughter. She ran away with Diarmuid, leaving behind the man she was supposed to marry, Fionn Mac •f orr ev i ew ppursued ur p o seofs n y • Cumhaill, and was by the warriors the o Fianna forl 16 years.

(a) Niamh , the goldenhaired princess

(ii) This name, which means ‘fair or light-haired’, was inspired by Fionn Mac Cumhaill, the hero of the Fenian Cycle of mythological sagas. He was a hunter and a warrior and could see into the future.

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(b) Patrick, the slave who became a saint

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(c) Meabh, the queen who (iii) This name means ‘the exalted one’ and is the name of the saint who founded the first was also a warrior convent in Ireland and a famous monastery in County Kildare, a centre of learning and prayer. She is thought to have been worshipped also by the Irish Celts as ‘Brigit’, by the British Celts as ‘Brigantia’ and the Celts of Gaul as ‘Brigando’.

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(d) Colum, first saint of Scotland (e) Brigid, goddess and saint

(iv) This name means 'jealousy' and was the name of a princess, the daughter of the king of Ulster, who was known for her great beauty throughout Ireland.

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(v) This name, sometimes spelled ‘Conchobar’, means ‘lover of hounds and wolves’ and was the name of a king who ruled Ulster.

(f) Fionn, hunter, warrior and seer

(vi) In Irish legend this name means ‘radiance’ and belonged to the golden-haired princess who took Oisín away to Tír na ng, the Land of the Ever-Young, for 300 hundred years.

(g) Grinne, who ran away with her lover

(vii) This name means ‘manly’ and was the name of a warrior who was the tutor of the hero Cúchulainn and played an important part in the Ulster Cycle of mythological tales.

(h) Conor, ruler of Ulster

(viii) This name has several other forms, such as Colm, Collum and Callum, and means ‘dove’. ‘Cill’ means ‘church or cell’ and when added to Colum, this was the name of the most important early Christian saint in Scotland, whose monastery at Iona was known throughout Europe as a place of great learning.

(i) Taín, known for her beauty

(ix) This name means ‘she who intoxicates with her beauty’ and belonged to the warriorqueen of Connacht, the leading figure in the Ulster Cycle of mythological tales.

(j) Fergus, tutor of Cúchulainn

(x) This name means ‘well born’ and is the name of the national saint of Ireland who was a native of Roman Britain and was sold into slavery to work for six years as a shepherd.

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Literacy and history – The Celts

Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 1.

Read these keywords which occur throughout the unit and use them in sentences.

(a) baptism: A Christian religious rite in which the subject is sprinkled with water to symbolise that they are cleansed from sin.

(b) Christianity: Name given to the religion that follows the teachings of Jesus Christ.

(d) illuminated: Sacred manuscripts decorated by hand in colours of gold or silver.

(e) manuscript: A book written by hand.

(f) miracle: An event that is attributed to a supernatural cause

(g) monastery: A residence of a religious community living apart from society and bound by religious vows.

(h) monk: A male member of a religious community bound by vows of poverty, chastity and obedience.

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(i)

(j) procession: A group of people moving forwards in a ceremonial manner.

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Ireland was once known as the ‘Island of Saints and Scholars’ because of its saints and their important contribution to learning and art in Ireland and Europe. Can you match the locations of these monasteries with the names and descriptions of their saints? There are clues to help you if you read carefully. (a) Iona, Scotland

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(i) St Patrick was captured by Irish raiders at the age of 16 and brought from Roman Britain to Ireland to work as a shepherd. He escaped but returned to convert the Irish to Christianity. His feast day is celebrated on 17 March.

(b) Kildare, Ireland

(ii) St Kevin was the founder and abbot of his monastery at Glendalough in County Wicklow in Ireland. His feast day is 3 June.

(iii) St Ciaran founded his monastery at Clonmacnoise, in County Offaly, close to the river Shannon. His feast day is 9 September.

(d) Wicklow, Ireland

(iv) St Brigid was from County Louth and established religious communities in County Kildare. Her feast day is 1 February, traditionally the Celtic feast of Imbolc, which celebrated the coming of the season of Spring.

(e) Offaly, Ireland

(v) St Columcille was from County Donegal and founded monasteries in Durrow, Derry and Kells. He led a group of followers to Scotland to found a new monastery where he converted many people to Christianity. His feast day is 9 June. He is also known as St Columba. Literacy and history – The Celts

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Exercise E: Cross-curricular activities 3.

Read the following description of the Book of Kells and identify 19 spelling mistakes, writing them underneath. You may need to use a dictionary.

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The tradition of making manuscript copies of the gospels began in the scriptoria, which were the writing rooms of the first Egyptian monasteries. The decoration, or illumination of the manuscripts, with an elaborate first letter began in the late Roman period. The Book of Kells is one of the finnest and most important examples of this type of Celtic art. It consistes of 680 calfskin pages, featuring elaborate Celtic decarations and Latin calligraphy (handwriting). It is thaght to have been made by the monks in the monastory of St Columcille at Iona, in Scotland. It was brought by St Columcille to one of his Irish monasteries at Kells after an attack on Iona by Viking rayders, who killed 68 of the monks. There are other famous manuscripts such as the Book of Armagh and the Book of Durrow. The Book of Kells is a decorated copy of the four gospels written in Latin and may have taken the monks who created it up to 30 years to compleat. Experts believe that it contanes examples of almost all of the various forms and stiles of Celtic art known to the scribes and artists of the early 9th century. Its artists used many differant Celtic designs such as knot work, spirals, zoomorphics (animal shapes) and human formes. Historians believe that 30 of its pages may have been lost over time. It was actualee stolen in 1007 and its golden cover was never recovered. It was sent to Dublin in 1653 for safekeaping, where it was prezented to Trinity College, Dublin, by a clergyman called Henry Jones, who he became bishop of Meath in 1661. It has remained at Trinity College ever since. The Book of Kells attracts over half a million visitors each year to Trinity College Library, where it is exhibated. The script of the Book of Kells is decorated with kee words and phrases and a complex range of decorated inishials and interlinked drawings. Originally a singel volume, it was rebound in 1953 in four volumes in order to protect and consorve it. Two of the volumes are usually on display, with one opened at a page of decoration and the other at a text page.

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Read the following sentences and tick the correct ending.

(a) The early Celts worshipped (i) many gods of rivers, streams and lakes. (ii) the sun. (iii) animals such as dogs and wolves.

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(e) The druids prayed to their gods (i) in sacred oak forests. (ii) once a month. (iii) at midnight.

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(b) The Christian Celts believed that holy wells (i) were lucky places to hide their hoards of treasure. (ii) were evil places where uneasy spirits lurked. (iii) were sacred places where they could pray to their gods.

(d) The Christian Celts prayed to their god (i) at altars in their homes. (ii) in churches and the chapels of monasteries. (iii) while they were sleeping.

(f) A great number of the Irish Celts were converted by (i) Saint Kevin of Glendalough. (ii) Saint Ciaran of Clonmacnoise. (iii) Saint Patrick of Armagh.

Discussion points The art of the Celts, in earlier times and in Christian times, is a rich source of information for us today. Design a page in the style of an illuminated Discuss modern art and choose five items that you manuscript. You could use your own name as consider would tell future generations about the a starting point for the designs. You can look nature of our society in the 21st century. You may at examples of illuminated manuscripts by need to access the public library, the school library using your public library, school library and or the Internet in order to carry out research on art the Internet. before you make your choices.

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Literacy and history – The Celts