PSG Portsmouth Point Winter 2023

PORTSMOUTH POINT

RE-

Editorial Team (Magazine and Blog)

Nia Agbaje-Johnson * Lucy Aldridge * Megan Ampim * Diarmuid Bailey * Henry Ball * Sawsene Belaiche * Thomas Biddle * Alec Bradpiece

Annika Bright * Archie Brown * Wilf Brown * Matthew Chedgey * Maya Choudhury * Alice Clarke * Flixy Coote * Nora Copeland * Ben Courdavault

James Curwood * George Cuthbert * Attish Das * Alexandra Dempster * Ashnah Elanchcheliyan * Lily Eldrid * Isobel Firth * Isabel Fisher

Juliette Franks * Grace Gamblin * Ruthie Gawley * Abriti Ghimire * Honor Gillies * Mackenzie Gilmore * Nathaniel Gingell * Jude Gunner

Elliot Hartridge * Sophie Haworth * Jamie Head * Jiali Hicks * Jack Holt * Siha Hoque * Lissiana Jakaj * Kavin Kajendran * Navi Kamalendrarajah

Sam Kalra * Evie Kell * Thomas Kroll * Fraser Langley * Sam Lewis * Anna Medina * Oscar Mellers * Natalie Moras * James Mullen * Sidra Nouyan

Tishe Osunlana * Isobella Palmer-Ward * Nikhil Patel * Iona Perkins * Marinela Pervataj * Amelia Rahman * Rowan Reddy * Tabitha Richardson * Sabiha Sabikunnaher * Dawn Sands * Steven

This is the first issue of Portsmouth Point to be predicated on a prefix.

Re- suggests that cyclicality lies at the heart of existence. From earliest history – whether through the Egyptian symbol, Ouroboros, the Hindu belief in reincarnation or the Christian faith in resurrection – human beings have sensed that the physical death of each individual is not a metaphysical reality. Even in our more secular era, the language of rebirth and redemption pervades our culture, from Beckham to Beyoncé

However, although humans seem designed to seek meaning, we live in a universe which often seems to evade it. This is the condition that Albert Camus labelled ‘the Absurd’ in his philosophical essay, ‘The Myth of Sisyphus.’ It is through myth, art and literature that we have sought to create meaning for thousands of years, in a continuous cycle of intertextual interpretation and reinterpretation: from Virgilian epic to mediaeval romance, Shakespearean tragedy to dystopian novel.

Writer Walter Benjamin personified History as a winged angel, its face permanently turned toward the past as its wings propel it irresistibly into the future, blown by the storm of progress. It is said that those who fail to learn from history are condemned to repeat its mistakes. However, ‘black swan’ events suggest that, in a world of increasing complexity, much remains unpredictable and perhaps unrepeatable. Indeed, the modern era has been characterised by revolution: religious, political and technological.

In the wake of the disruption that revolution brings, how do we find justice? Do we choose the path of revenge or of reconciliation? One of the greatest disruptions we face right now is climate change. This has led to an increasing focus on regeneration, rather than revolution, with reforesting and rewilding that benefit from the latest biotechnology but also return to traditional methods of conservation dating back centuries.

And for many centuries, religions and cultures have celebrated festivals at this time of year - the Winter Solstice – to mark the return of the Light, as days slowly begin to lengthen for the first time since midsummer. It is a period in which we look to the future and reflect on the past. This Re- issue of Portsmouth Point offers much to reflect on during this cyclical season, and the editors wish all of our readers a recreational and revivifying break.

The Editors

December, 2023

Front and back covers: Anna Medina and Lily Eldrid (YEAR 12)

OUROBOROS

ETERNAL SYMBOL OF CYCLICALITY

Lily Eldrid YEAR 12

Asymbol of rebirth, regeneration and renewal, the ouroboros is one of the most highly recognised symbols, adapted throughout time by many cultures and belief systems. It might seem odd, on first reflection, to connect a snake eating itself to the human experience, but human art and religion has been drawn to this symbolism again and again. The ouroboros holds many meanings, the interpretations varying from spiritual to metaphorical, from monster to god.

The oldest known use of the symbol dates to the Ancient Egyptians, specifically the tomb of Tutankhamun, showing its prominence in their society to be deemed important enough to feature in such an influential figure’s burial site. There is a myth that goes along with the symbol’s meaning; Ancient Egyptians believed that the god, Ra, who would be born again each morning, would travel across the sky in a boat and, as the sun set, he would die and join Osiris in the underworld. He was challenged by the god of chaos, Apep, who would create storms and thunder to try and stop his journey, but thankfully Ra was accompanied by “the enveloper” Mehen. This snake protected Ra through his journey across the sky and into the underworld each day. This natural aetiological myth explains the rising and setting of the sun, weather and the way in which Ancient Egyptians would measure time. Instead of time being something linear, the Ancient Egyptians believed that it was instead something cyclical and the ouroboros was the perfect symbol of that renewal and repetition that they believed every day brought with it. As the

myth also implies, the ouroboros could be seen as a guardian or protector, like Mehen to Ra, and this would make its appearance in Tutankhamun’s tomb understandable, relying on the symbol for safety in his trip to the underworld.

'ONE IS ALL AND THROUGH IT IS ALL, AND BY IT IS ALL, AND IF YOU HAVE NOT ALL, ALL IS NOTHING.' (From ‘Chrysopoeia Of Cleopatra’ , 1st Century CE).

The Greeks first gave the ouroboros its name, translatable as ‘tail-devourer’. The Greek school of thought, Hermeticism, thinks of it as a symbol of death and rebirth, the snake’s head destroying and consuming itself and the tail regrowing, in an endless cycle. The philosophers of Ancient Greece approached it from different angles, however. For Plato it meant self-reliance, the snake being all it needed to keep living, the joined nature of the tail and the head meaning it was alone in itself. He also talked of the more sinister side to the symbol - self destruction - and the potential it had to consume itself whole. Plato related the snake to the human condition, and so did the dramatist, Sophocles, when he suggested that the symbol was the opposite to human experience; unlike the ouroboros, we can stray from the circular path that is its life and instead explore different directions. He sees this as a more dangerous way of being compared to the snake’s fixed nature, as human beings have chances of succeeding and moving forward, but also of failing and falling backwards. The image also correlates with the Greek myth of Sisyphus, in which he must roll a boulder up a hill only for him to let it fall back down again and repeat the process. This continuation and repetition ties into the infinite devouring and renewal of the snake.

The symbol was also adopted by alchemists who, among other metaphysical considerations, sought to transform base metals into gold. In a broader sense, they wanted to push the boundaries of transmutation and take something to make it something else. They saw the ouroboros as a representation of unity of all matter, material and spiritual, that cannot be destroyed but can be changed. This essential insight relating to the conservation of matter in science is taught to this day, furthering how timeless and influential the ouroboros symbol was in shaping and reflecting how we understand the world.

Gnostic philosophers took a completely different approach to deciphering the ouroboros symbol, their belief in the close relationship between themselves and the divine being the fuel for their interpretation. They saw the head of the snake as God and the tail as humans. They believed they would reach this unity with the divine by becoming enlightened to religious truth. The head devouring the tail shows the spiritual world and the physical world in constant battle, but also in peace. This equilibrium is seen as necessary for the unity of the universe. In the sense of the ouroboros symbolising balance, it is often compared to the yin and yang of Chinese philosophy. They both convey the idea that contrary forces can exist together in harmony. Gnosticism became an influential branch of Christianity in the second and third centuries CE, with many Gnostic Christians seeing the ouroboros as God (the head) giving rebirth to humans (the tail) through resurrection.

In the early twentieth century, pioneering psychologist Carl Jung, presented the ouroboros as a symbol for the human psyche.

The ouroboros is a state you need to attain to achieve wholeness, when your unconscious mind and your conscious personality live together. He believed this could be achieved through self-reflection. In the modern era, the symbol has also been reinterpreted to represent infinity, conceptually used to create art like the Droste effect and Mobius strips. In Victorian times, people would wear it as jewellery to signify their mourning for someone who had passed and the eternal love they held for that person. The fact that the ouroboros symbol is still being used in the twenty-first century brings home how fluid its meaning can be, but also how connected the human experience is that we can all in some way relate to it.

In my own interpretation, I see the ouroboros as a symbol of rebirth, but also of self-destruction. There are two parts to the process of the ouroborus’ existence; the continuation of the tail, but also the snake eating itself in the first place. I see it more as a transaction, where one can’t exist without the other. There must be dark to have light, there must be evil to have good, and there must be death to have life. The ouroboros sums up the balance of existence itself, and so it is neither a negative or positive symbol, but, instead, a truthful one. I feel this is why, when used in any interpretation, the ‘tail-devourer’ always seems to fit. This snake has survived generations, and I believe it will survive many more.

First known representation of the ouroboros, on one of the shrines enclosing the sarcophagus of Tutankhamun (Wiki Commons).

Attish Das YEAR 10

A KARMIC JOURNAEY

Forty-six per cent of human beings, in our beloved world, are thought to have faith in an experience of life after death: through their soul, in many forms. This concept has been shaped by ancient religions and faiths - from Hinduism and Buddhism to Christianity - but also, increasingly, through scientific theories and practical investigations. In the modern era, many people have discussed and debated the events that occur subsequent to human demise, with other people and with themselves. However, the truth is not physically explainable to the conscious mind.

Researchers at New York University’s Langone Health Centre have investigated short-term events immediately after the final moments of life. It has been stated that death is when the body’s

BOTH HINDUISM AND BUDDHISM DEFINE 'KARMA' AS THE SUM OF A PERSON'S ACTIONS IN THIS AND PREVIOUS STATES OF EXISTENCE AND AS SHAPING THEIR FATE IN FUTURE EXISTENCES.

Karmic energy.

heart stops, but not all the cells instantly disappear; instead, they go through a dim, decaying process. A human being will not be able to do anything following the stopping of the heart; however, the entity inside the human being is still conscious for a given amount of time. Recently, doctors in Canada placed an 87-yearold man into a brain-wave scanner, which, unfortunately, induced a fatal heart attack. However, throughout the process, the patient was still being scanned by the machine. When the doctors checked the results, they observed unusual factors; for example, during the thirty seconds before and after his heart stopped, the man’s brain waves increased sharply, something which only happens during occasions like memory recovery, meditation, and lucid dreaming. This has led to the conclusion that the brain has time to perform a final act, which may be a moment where the whole life can be replayed in his imagination one final time.

However, such scientific insights are only tentative at present. For now, religion, faith and philosophy, continue to be the main frameworks for reflecting on life after death. For example, traditional Christian belief suggests that death is not the end, and that God will decide whether a human being will spend eternity in Heaven or in Hell. Heaven is presented as an indescribably exquisite place presided over by God, who wipes away every tear (symbolising that there is no pain, suffering or mourning in heaven); Hell is presented as presided over by Satan, existing as the place for punishment for the unrighteous. While some traditional theologians argue that Hell is literal, many theologians and believers, in the modern era, see Hell as symbolic of the frustration of not being able to be in the presence of God.

The Hindu faith is centred around reincarnation, the belief that, when someone goes through death, the soul of their body is recycled and reborn as a different form. Hindus believe that the soul continues in a cycle, depending on their actions throughout their previous life until it settles upon its true nature, which may take many lifetimes, but the aim is to strive closer to Brahma, the God of creation. This belief had a profound influence on Buddhism. Both Hinduism and Buddhism define ‘karma’ as the sum of a person's actions in this and previous states of existence and as shaping their fate in future existences. The concept of "karmic energy" derives from the idea of karma, which holds that our deeds, intentions, and thoughts produce an energy field that shapes the experiences we have in the future. It is like the law of balance: good deeds generate good energy, and bad deeds

generate bad energy. Throughout multiple lifetimes, this general energy moulds our present and future conditions as well as our spiritual development.

Enlightenment is the primary goal for those who practise Buddhism. Classic, traditional scriptures teach that, for those who are not yet perfect in wisdom and compassion, more lives are available to keep making progress, through rebirth, an equivalent of reincarnation. The transfer of consciousness from different physical beings would last over a period of hours or days, depending on karma and the state of mind when dying, including meditative practice, which brings peacefulness and tranquillity to the mind, increasing the karmic energy obtained.

The subject, as a field of study, is not supported by science. It is considered a belief or a philosophical concept rather than a scientifically proven phenomenon. Science takes a systematic and empirical approach to studying given events and objects, relying on experimentation and reasoning, based on evidence, to explain observable phenomena to the inquiring mind. Philosophy is a broader discipline, which explores fundamental questions about existence and the nature of reality, using critical thinking, logic and abstract concepts, often exploring moral questions. Both fields contribute to our understanding of the world, but they approach immersed knowledge and inquiry from different angles and perspectives. Reincarnation, at present, remains a philosophical, rather than scientific, area of study and debate.

It is worth reflecting on why forty-six per cent of human beings continue to have confidence in some sort of life after death, including reincarnation. There is no clear truth about our individual futures after death, so it is a source of constant speculation, from the Christian view of a soul journeying on after death to the Hindu and Buddhist perspective of reincarnation and rebirth decided upon by the quantity of karmic energy gained throughout an individual’s lifetime. From metaphysics to ethics, from the foundation of the vast universe to the completion of reality, the concept of the journey of a soul through different lifetimes has to be a source of great gratitude.

RESURRECTION

CAN SCIENCE BRING US BACK FROM THE DEAD?

Siha Hoque YEAR 11

To resurrect a being is to restore their life after they have died - something generally dismissed as impossible. For centuries, humans have been intrigued by the eternal nature of death and how, perhaps, it may not hold such finality. Beliefs of rebirth, Gothic tales depicting supernatural beings reanimated, and even certain advances in science suggest that there are at least possibilities where one can, in rare cases, return from the dead.

Generally, when we state someone has died, we are referring to biological death. This means that all organs of the body are no longer working.

This however can be further simplifiedbiological death is the result after cortical death, when there is no more electrical activity in the cells of the brain, and clinical death, where the heart beating or breathing stops for over 4-6 minutes. Without the heartbeat, oxygen is not supplied to the organs vital for survival; yet, despite this, there is such a thing as reversible clinical death. Many organs can be restored even when left without blood circulation for hours, with the exception of the brain (usually using 15-20% of the entire body’s blood supply) that after only three minutes can sustain enough damage to lose some of its functions. After ten, some cells in the hippocampus - the part of the brain that stores memories - would begin a delayed death, not

actually doing so until as much as hours after resuscitation.

In many situations where the equipment is available, death is very closely prevented. An example of clinical death being reversed is defibrillation. Defibrillators used within five minutes of cardiac arrest (where the heart abruptly stops pumping blood) can revive someone. They work by delivering an electric current to the heart which either restarts the heart or restores its normal rhythm.

Some people who have been revived from reversible clinical death, and other life-threatening events in which their bodies were pushed to the very limits, have had unique experiences during them; survivors of near-death experiences claim that they have experienced what it is to die for a short period of time. What they describe to have occurred during these brief moments of passing are a mixture of interactions. Near-death experiences, or NDEs, are each unique; however, they all share several characteristics which many expect of death: a detachment from the physical body (out of body experiences), the awareness of being dead, ‘tunnel vision’ and intense emotions, often of peace and euphoria, though distress is possible too. A few of these can be explained by the knowledge we have of the human body in a more straightforward way; for instance, tunnel vision is caused by a lowering blood flow in the retina that in turn reduces peripheral vision.

The crew of the Nostromo awake from cryogenic sleep in the film, Alien (1979).

In 1994, orthopaedic surgeon Tony Cicoria had a neardeath experience after being struck by lightning. He had been at a family gathering and was using a payphone during a storm when he was struck by a bolt of lightning. He recounts seeing his family interact with his body, performing CPR and calling an ambulance, however from an out of body perspective. Cicoria was surprised that he could hear and see as well as having the ability to think normally even when seemingly detached from his body; he even tried speaking to them, despite them not hearing him. Cicoria also remembers the moment he thought that this meant he was dead. He continued walking around, stating he could pass through solid objects and that he was immersed in bright light, feeling a strong feeling of peace, before waking up, in his body, on the ground. Cicoria was initially in pain and confused, however after doctors examined him they stated he was in good condition, and he returned to normal life two weeks after the incident.

There are many theories as to what causes this strange variety of experiences people have during NDEs. Some think it is the result of a loss of blood flow (ischemia) and oxygen (anoxia) causing parts of the brain to ‘shut down’ due to the usually consistent electrical activity in the brain being disrupted. The human mind often fills in gaps in memory, and, with the altered lack of input from a decrease in fully functional regions of the brain, it is likely that during an NDE that is what is happening. As well as this, past memories and beliefs may therefore heavily influence what is experienced, and, if remaining conscious, the person will find all of it feels real. Scientists have experimented with consciousness on highly trained pilots and astronauts with centrifuges. Five times the force of gravity results in blood not being delivered to the brain - such forces are difficult for the heart to pump blood against. The pilot would then faint, and they described that they went through events similar to those depicted by people who had had near-death experiences, including: out of body perspectives, senses of euphoria, tunnel vision, bright flashes of light and even dreams. It is likely, during an NDE, that the remaining functions of the brain unaffected by the ischemia paired with the mind compensating using the memory results in the variety of events present. If too much of the brain is affected, whatever remains of their consciousness will cease as well.

some continue to believe cryonics remains potentially viable in the future, as technology develops. As long as the structure of the brain is preserved well enough, its information should be recoverable and data restorable, even after long periods of time without activity; future nanotechnology may enable repair of any damage that the cryoprotectants could not account for. There are, however, significant obstacles, not least the damage caused by the formation of ice; thawing large organs can result in them splitting, ice fragments interfering with the connections between tissues and cells, the latter often shrinking with the concentrations of salt changing, negatively impacting their ability to function after restoration. The technology needed to repair the ice-damage, the effects of oxygen-deprivation, and the toxic damage from all of the chemicals (such as cryoprotectants) would have to be far more advanced than any we have at the moment. The expense of preparing and maintaining the conditions for the bodies are extremely high, making it unlikely that companies involved in cryogenics would last very long; many of the pioneering companies from the 1970s have gone out of business, in the process thawing and disposing of the stored bodies.

THE NEARERST WE ARE, CURRENTLY, TO A PHYSICAL RESURRECTION IS THE FIELD OF CRYONICS.

In 2016, a rabbit’s brain was nearly perfectly preserved by Robert L McIntyre and Gregory Fahy. It was kept in these ideal conditions at -135 degrees Celsius, and many of the microscopic details, such as the cell membranes, were also preserved by the method they used. This involved first suspending the neurons and synapses in the brain before cooling it. Furthermore, a chemical called glutaraldehyde was used, which is unfortunately toxic, and it would fix the proteins within the brain’s blood vessels in place as well as prevent decay, overall resulting in structurally stable tissue that could last hundreds of years. McIntyre called this technique the “Aldehyde-Stabilised Cryopreservation”. Fahy had experimented with this method in 2010 to try and preserve kidneys. However, this almost flawless preservation is yet to be perfected on larger mammals, which some cryobiologists see as their next goal.

The nearest we are, currently, to a physical resurrection is the field of cryonics, whereby the bodies of recently deceased human beings are stored at incredibly low temperatures (-196 degrees Celsius) in order to preserve them for decades, in the hope (on the part of the individual who has paid for their body to be frozen) that they can then be resurrected at a later date, when or if the technology to do so is developed. Freezing humans was an idea put forward by Professor Robert Ettinger in 1962. The first person to be preserved with cryonics was James Bedford in 1967; since then, over 200 people have been frozen in a similar way. The process for cryonic preservation must start immediately after clinical death. It involves applying cryoprotectants to the body; these prevent freeze damage to the cells and tissues. None of it has been successful so far, and it is regarded as pseudoscience. However,

There are many reasons as to why people may want to undergo cryonic preservation. Some who have severe, currently untreatable illnesses hope that they can be cured in the future, but will not live long enough to reach it, and so wish to be preserved instead. Others may want to be resurrected in the future and to get the chance to experience it. Complete resurrection is currently impossible with cryonics; therefore, for the moment, some scientists are instead aiming to preserve the neurons and synaptic connections, and potentially the memories too - synapses develop in size as we learn and make memories. It is possible that if kept in good condition, in the future the memories’ information could be ‘uploaded’ from them, therefore resurrecting someone's experiences rather than their body and consciousness.

In conclusion, although the complete resurrection of a longdead being remains fiction for now, our advances in science and technology enable us to survive pushing our bodies to the very edges of life, even into fleeting moments of death and perhaps into the future, where it is likely that more will be possible.

THE COMEBACK IS ALWAYS STRONGER THAN THE SETBACK

REDEMPTION WELDS TOGETHER THE TEXTS OF THE BIBLE AS A THEMATIC WHOLE.

RREDEMPTION REDEMPTION R

edemption is at the heart of Christian belief and thought. In the Gospels and in the letters of Paul, Christ is presented as purchasing our freedom by paying a ransom, giving his own life in payment. In doing so, he secures our deliverance from sin in an act of salvation. The word comes from the Latin “redemptio”, meaning “to buy back”; it was often used to describe the process whereby someone could buy a slave’s freedom so that the slave became a free man or woman. Indeed, the Bible, as a whole text, can be seen as a narrative of redemption. The first Book, Genesis, begins with the story of humanity’s fall, through the story of Adam and Eve and the taking of the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, breaking the human relationship with God, the Creator, Himself. The Christian interpretation of the Old Testament, and the Christian New Testament, suggest that God has a plan for reconciliation, which involves redeeming us from the Original Sin of Adam and Eve’s disobedience. Within the larger Christian narrative arc of Christ being sent by God, his Father, to sacrifice His life in redemptive payment, there are other, individual narratives - smaller sections of salvation - that, pieced together, paint a whole picture of redemption. Significant figures in Jewish scripture, including Abraham, Jacob, Moses and David, each commits sin and then comes to a state of repentance before being forgiven by God. We see how this welds together the texts of the Bible as a thematic whole; in order for this idea to work in the bigger picture, it must operate on an individual

basis, too. For instance, in Ephesians 1:7-8a Paul states: ‘In him we have redemption through his blood, the forgiveness of sins, in accordance with the riches of God’s grace that he lavished on us.’ Paul’s use of the word ‘redemption’, referring to the paying of a price or ransom, presents Christ’s blood as the price paid for us, for our redemption. This forgiveness of our sins is part of our redemption from that human frailty originally symbolised by Adam and Eve’s act of transgression that led to physical mortality and spiritual bondage. That bondage is now redeemed by Christ’s blood. Thus, we are not only freed from the consequences of our sins, but liberated from the penalties that human life itself puts on the table.

Despite, or because of, the origins of this notion in Christian belief, the idea of redemption remains central to our contemporary culture, from film narratives to tales of famous figures transformed into more convalescent beings. It is a concept that continues to shape many of the lives on this planet, for better or worse. The recent Beckham documentary, centring on the former England footballer David Beckham, is a prime example of redemption placed in a more contemporary context. With the fame that sporting stars already hold when they advance through their journey of athletic stardom, they are often seen to fall from their former grace - whether over a period of days, weeks, months or years. For the reputation Beckham had built for himself to break into pieces and fly in front of his eyes, all it took was a secondand an unnecessary flick of his right boot. In the timeframe of moments, the face, the fame, and darling of the nation became Public Enemy Number One, as England faltered out of the 1998 World Cup following his red card against Argentina. Not only

Indie Stone YEAR 10

was the shame of letting his country down put upon the young man’s shoulders, his whole life suddenly became a burden; effigies of Beckham were hanged and burned outside pubs all across England, and his face was plastered on dartboards situated on the front cover of a national newspaper. Death threats were issued. Although he was experiencing this severe mental trauma at the time, the footballer, incredibly, continued to maintain a sound performance for his team, Manchester United, with Beckham still being a treble winner after his moment of horror for England. At the heart of the idea of redemption is the belief that ‘the comeback is always stronger than the setback’. This is certainly true of Beckham’s redemption. His deliverance mirrored his downfall, happening in a matter of seconds. A free kick awarded with only seconds remaining, Beckham stepped up to the mark and sent a beautiful ball curling into Greece’s goal, driving England through to the 2002 World Cup. With a quick swing of his boot, the footballer regained his reputation and his honourall by one action. ‘The kick was about drawing a line under four years of abuse, four years of bitterness,’ said Beckham; he had completed his own redemption story.

Redemption is at the heart of so many of our most popular stories, in fiction as much as in real life. It knits a narrative into a garment of depth and texture, allowing the layers of a character to be slowly peeled back to unearth a psychological and moral depth that resonates with the reader long after they have finished reading the story. Severus Snape is perhaps the most complex character in the entire Harry Potter series, and one of the most beloved, because of his redemptive arc. The narrative keeps us guessing, until the very end of the final novel, as to whether Snape is on the side of good or evil. He is presented as mercilessly bullying young Harry in every book, seeming to conform to the stereotype of a villain. However, for the reader, patience is key to discovering Snape’s

true intentions, which reminds us that patience and forgiveness are at the heart of the idea of redemption. Snape is certainly a flawed character; pretending to serve Voldemort while having his true loyalty lie with Dumbledore, Snape is driven by a sense of guilt. Not least, he is haunted by having told Voldemort of a prophecy that then sealed the fate of Harry’s mother Lily, who was the love of Snape’s life. Snape sacrifices his own life, in the final novel, in an act of atonement.

Atonement, like redemption, is a Christian theological term. Atonement is a key part of the act of redemption, a making of amends for an injury or wrong caused to another. Salvation can only be achieved following atonement. Snape shows atonement by devoting his life to defeating Voldemort, which necessitates having to pretend to be a Death-Eater. His willingness to be completely misunderstood, and even hated, by others (with the sole exception of Dumbledore) is what gives Snape’s character such moral power and what makes him so memorable to readers. This is why he is ultimately loved by readers of the novels - and admired by Harry himself. This is what makes Snape’s redemptive arc, his character development, so impactful. He exemplifies the central idea that we can be delivered from our sins, saved from our own setbacks, through an act of atonement and redemption.

Thus, whether biblical, biographical or fictional, this redemptive belief remains a central human narrative, whether describing how Christ ransoms and restores us as human beings on this earth, how a flawed sporting hero comes back from professional disaster, or a complex character evolves within a novel to evoke intrigue and awe. Redemption pieces all of this together. Redemption drives us forward, although it comes from a place that draws us back.

Alan Rickman as Severus Snape, in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows (Wiki Commons).

ASBURY AND JESUS FREAKS

HOW RELIGIOUS REVIVAL SHAPED THE LAST CENTURY

Oscar Mellers YEAR 12

Christian religious revival has been surging through the United States in the last year, with the Asbury Revival being placed front and centre, as one of the largest movements in young people that the Church has seen in a long time. The significance of religious revival is a topic that is considerably important to many believers within the Church today, but primarily the Pentecostal sect (who believe in Baptism by the Holy Spirit, receiving gifts such as prophecy, or the speaking or interpretation of tongues), who think that the Kingdom of God is able to move, or expand, to a greater degree with an uptake of faith. They further believe that the growth in believers is a sign of the end times described in the Book of Revelation (see Matthew 24:42-44, which announces that the Gospel will be preached in all nations before the end times, hinting at an increase in belief). Therefore, it can be argued that religious revival is one of the most significant events that could take place within the global Church.

The 2023 Asbury Revival began on 8th February, in Asbury

University, Kentucky, when some students spontaneously remained in the chapel after one of their regular scheduled services. The president of the university promptly sent out an email, inviting students to join the worship session. This became a global phenomenon, as it was shared on social media, with people praising God for the things they had witnessed, with particular popularity among Generation Z, the group most present on social media. Gen Z’s distinctive priorities are reportedly a desire for more authenticity in their Christian worship, as opposed to production (meaning lighting, sound and pre-planned worship sets). In the last two decades, we have seen a growth in so-called ‘mega churches’ in the United States, some with congregations in the thousands attending stadium-like church buildings. In these meg-churches, capital is pumped into lighting sound (and, sometimes, smoke machines). They feature bands who have become famous and released their music worldwide, for example Bethel Music (of Bethel Church, CA) and Hillsong Worship (of Hillsong Church, Sydney). Preachers and pastors in these churches have gained significant online presence, such as Bill and Beni Johnson (the latter recently deceased) as well as Kris Vallotton. Gen Z desires a move away from such productionheavy mega churches towards spontaneous, ‘spirit-led’ worship sessions such as the one at Asbury. People have come across the world in huge numbers to witness what has been occurring within Asbury University; eventually, doors had to be shut to anyone but students.

Religious revival is marked by upheaval within the Church, which many believers tend to describe as a ‘shaking,’ or, most recently, ‘the end of the hallway’. This metaphor was introduced by modern-day prophet, Craig Cooney, who explains ‘God doesn’t close one door without opening another’ and notes that the hallway in the middle is not discussed. The Church globally has been described as in a time of waiting for the last few years, in that many senior leaders, prophets and preachers do not know where God might be taking the Church. They have seen that, as a whole, pre-Covid styles of worship no longer exist, but they are not sure what does exist now. However, they are certain a time of revival is present, and that the ‘end of the hallway’ has been reached, or that the Church is undergoing a ‘shaking’. In England, their evidence for this is the 2023 February General

The Asbury Revival taking place at Hughes Auditorium at Asbury University, Wilmore, Kentucky.

Synod, where there was disagreement whether or not to bless same-sex marriage within the Anglican Church. Since then, many Church leaders have discussed the possibility of splitting from the Church of England if such a blessing is to pass, forming a Southern Anglican administration under its own control rather than that of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, or that of local bishops and deans. This potentially dramatic change in the English Church is seen as further evidence of the church’s shaking. In America, the death of Beni Johnson, and the stepping down, or the removal from power, of many church leaders, including Mike Pilavachi, after recent investigations and revelations, have also been identified as marks of revival.

There are some echoes, here, of the Jesus Movement, which gained traction in the 1970s, particularly among the ‘Hippy’ community, having begun in California in the late 1960s and quickly spread across the globe. Members of the movement were branded ‘Jesus people’ or even ‘Jesus freaks'. It was born out of the Charismatic Movement, which had begun a decade earlier, focused on a return to a ‘more Biblical Christianity’, where the Church revisited the often-forgotten things in the Bible, primarily Baptism in the Holy Spirit or Baptism in Fire (metaphorically), through which people would begin to gain spiritual gifts which allowed for a new way of spreading the Gospel message across the globe. Spiritual gifts, or Charismata (from the Greek) included speaking in tongues, the interpretation of tongues, the giving of prophecy, words of wisdom or of knowledge, and even boldness of faith. In biblical tradition, these traits are first seen on the Day of Pentecost, fifty days after the ascension of Jesus Christ (see Acts 2:1-13). In the past, Roman Catholic and Anglican churches had often ignored this episode, seeing such spiritual gifts as performative, not part of mainstream Christianity, despite their presence in Biblical scripture. In the 1960s, the Charismatic Movement aimed to reintroduce charismata to churches which had forgotten them, fundamentally changing the way many people worshipped.

The Old Testament prophet, Ezekiel, recalls his experience of revival in the Valley of Dry Bones. God tells Ezekiel to prophesy life over the bones, and that they will be brought to life. Ezekiel does so, and the bones form bodies, which gain muscle and become regular living creatures. At the end of the account, God tells Ezekiel that his people Israel have gone astray, that they lack hope and a future, but God will breathe life back into them. This story is one of revival: the dead, and decomposing bones are brought from a state of nothingness to life. Many Christians seek to apply this story to the revival in the Church today, and the events

that took place in the valley are representative of how revival shapes the Earth. Many in the Church see upholding the same forms of worship as important, and that maintaining biblically accurate tradition is a duty. However, a growing proportion of the Church recognises that, in many places, the fullness and variety of worship that the Bible describes is not often expressed. Many churches ignore dance as a form of worship (see 2 Samuel 6:14), and until the Charismatic Movement, many ignored the gifts of the spirit. Therefore, the Church views revival as crucial: it is a way for Christians to discover new aspects of their faith, so that the Kingdom of God can grow.

With worship being placed front and centre during times of revival, it is important to consider its main purposes in the Christian faith: to give glory to God for his work (including healing, freedom, rescue from dark places) and his unchanging nature whilst recognising His difference from the world, and also to receive sanctification. Christians aim to be more like Jesus, living a life like his; and sanctification is simply that. Therefore, whilst worship is an opportunity to give thanks to God, it also allows Christians to get to know their God, understanding him so they can grow in likeness to Christ. Therefore, during times of revival, as the ways in which Christians worship change, so too do their results of worship. Many followers of Christ report that finding new ways to bring glory to God also changes the way in which they experience God, leading to new messages from him. Therefore, in times of revival, it can be argued that God reveals new things, leading to further dramatic changes within the Church as a whole, based on individual encounters. This therefore proves the significance of religious revival in the Church today, as it allows a more current experience of God as different people begin to speak of their new experiences with God.

GEN Z'S DISTINCTIVE PRIORITIES ARE REPORTEDLY A DESIRE FOR MORE AUTHENTICITY IN THEIR CHRISTIAN WORSHIP.

Therefore, it is clear to see that religious revival continues to be the driving force of the Christian faith. As long as new people claim to experience God, and the Gospel message is accepted in different ways, the Church across the globe will continue to grow, despite the periodic ‘shaking’ which it undergoes. Overall, the significance of religious revival will always be extremely high.

Bethel Church: playing 'Forever' by Kari Jobe and Cody Carnes.

Reading , REVOLUTION AND Religion

THE TEMPESTUOUS IMPACT OF THE PRINTING PRESS

Nora Rechel ORGAN SCHOLAR

THE 1455 GUTENBERG BIBLE, THE FIRST SIGNIFICANT BOOK PRODUCED USING MOVEABLE TYPE, WAS THE BEGINNING OF THE 'INFORMATION REVOLUTION'.

One could argue with the utmost panache that the Renaissance symbolised the paragon of human development, finally moving Europe away from the outdated ideas and beliefs of the Mediaeval era, and coaxing in the beginning of modernity - stimulated by the rapid development of art, literature, science, and music. As outlined by historians like Diarmaid MacCulloch and T. M. Lindsay, the Renaissance (and accompanying Reformation) symbolised the beginning of an age of rapid social evolution and transfer of ideas that had not been

observed in Europe since Classical times. Having emerged in the Mediterranean region, with Florence as the authoritative central hub of cultural progress and learning, the ‘Northern Renaissance’ in 15th to 18th century Western Europe formed a multitude of national and regional variations of original Renaissance ideas.

In England, the Elizabethan era denoted the height of the English Renaissance movement, although seeds of cultural advances and educational pursuits (such as the founding of Eton College and King’s College Chapel by Henry VI during the Wars of the Roses) could be observed from the early 15th century. Fundamentally, the Renaissance encompassed a return to classical ideas and original biblical texts; the stability and longlasting influence of Ancient Rome was sought after by modern scholars, following centuries of mediaeval warfare and perpetual

religious turbulence. The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg by 1450 was arguably the most critical factor in making new scientific hypotheses accessible to the literate, and facilitating the easy spread of political and theological ideas. Libraries began to open to the public, and extensive collections of new books were displayed to foreign visitors in palaces across Europe.

The 1455 Gutenberg Bible itself - the first significant book produced using moveable type - is recognised as the essential stimulant for the beginning of the ‘information revolution’ that occurred during the Reformation. The acceleration of the production of printed books directly contributed to the foundation of new universities such as Mainz in 1477, helping to dismantle the convention of reading being a discipline reserved for the educated elite. Despite access to books being primarily urban in nature, and most early books being of a religious quality, the Reformation observed a strong correlation between literacy and education, with the price of books falling by 2/3rds just between the years 1450 and 1500. In England, William Caxton (sponsored by self-made magnate and bibliophile Anthony Woodville) was responsible for introducing the printing press in Westminster in 1476; among his first publications were a copy of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales and a translation of Aesop’s Fables. Caxton’s printing press was especially influential, as it catered for the standardisation of the English language by officially adopting the London dialect in ‘Chancery Standard’, and establishing directives for standard English spelling. As historian Marilyn Gilmore asserted in 1952, ‘printing drove the most radical transformation in the conditions of intellectual life in the history of western civilisation’. Perhaps most importantly, the metal moveable-type printing press secured the triumph of the vernacular over Latin - something that would prove fundamental during the propaganda-

rife religious turmoil unleashed by the Reformation.

However, despite the seemingly unanimous acceptance of Renaissance advancements in the form of the popularity of new plays by William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, the traction of compositions by composers like William Byrd and Thomas Tallis, and the tentative beginnings of the Age of Discovery, new reformist philosophies surrounding theology and social order remained controversial and offensive to many. As described by historian Stefania Tutina, the Renaissance and Reformation were ‘parallel but intertwined’ movements, with both threatening the authority of the Vatican - already in decline since the fiasco of the Western Schism from 1378 to 1417. Ultimately, the extent of divisive religious and social outlooks culminated in the beginning of the Counter-Reformation by the early 16th century, constituting a furious Catholic backlash reaction to the progressive ideals propagated by Protestantism. It is undoubtedly the case that the theological war was fuelled and escalated by Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press, with both Protestant and Catholic propagandists making use of the new medium to spread their beliefs and win support.

In this way, the printing press was fundamental to the early development of Renaissance humanism; this philosophy forming the basis of reformist thought that resulted in Martin Luther’s nailing of his 95 theses to the doors of the University of Wittenberg in 1517. Gutenberg’s invention allowed for the spread of Reformation literature and humanist ideas throughout the latter 15th century, allowing for the musings of the likes of

A portrait of William Tyndale (c.1494-1536) who translated the Bible from the original Hebrew and Greek into English (Wiki Commons).

Poggio Bracciolini and Lorenzo Valla to become accessible to a greater European audience. Desiderius Erasmus - the famous Dutch humanist who died in 1536 - profited sincerely from the printing press, establishing a close relationship with Swiss publisher Johann Froben in Basel. This allowed for the publication of over 200 works of his, resulting in the circulation of modern Reformation theory across the continent. Similarly, in England, William Tyndale used Gutenberg’s technology in order to complete an English translation of the Bible, one decade after Martin Luther’s 1522 German version. Whilst English reformists welcomed the new translation, it was still met with unease and conservative outcry - particularly due to Tyndale being heavily influenced by Lollard ideas, especially strong in his home county of Gloucestershire.

Originally, ‘Lollard’ was used as a derogatory term for members of the ‘proto-Protestant’ Lollard movement that emerged during the late 14th century in England, influenced by the writings of John Wycliffe. Lollards made a number of early demands that were to form the basis of Reformist principles: widespread reform of the clergy, eliminating corruption within the Catholic Church, producing a translation of the Bible into the ‘Middle English’ vernacular, extinguishing superstitious practices, and an ‘ad fontes’ return to the original biblical scriptures. Wycliffe himself swiftly amassed a following for preaching outspoken critiques of Catholicism at Oxford University, but was soon targeted by the authorities for his implied involvement in the 1381 Peasants’ Revolt. Similar persecution of Lollards could be observed in a 1401 Act under Henry IV equating Lollardy with sedition, and the 1410 burning of John Badby for denying the existence of transubstantiation. With the invention of the printing press in 1450, persecution of Lollards accelerated as new theological ideas spread faster than ever before: in 1461, Welsh priest Reginald Pecock was exiled in Thorney Abbey and saw his books being burned in front of him. Furthermore, the Lollard movement was driven literally underground, with the formation of ‘underground reading parties’, and reformists becoming even keener to access forbidden books - like an East Anglian Lollard who paid 4 marks 40 pence for a New Testament. By the 1520s, Lollardy had been absorbed into early Protestantism, with Lollard publications forming the basis for the reformist school of thought.

cities had printing centres, meaning the novelty and controversy of Luther’s actions could spread promptly across the continent. The discipline of printing itself also linked conveniently to the beginnings of market capitalism, with printmaking becoming a standardised call of work for many living in cities. Radical reformist actions such as the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII were deftly met with Catholic propaganda and protest. In response, the Catholic Church accelerated the publication of literature surrounding church doctrines and correct practiceintending to draw more people to services. The printing press also permitted the manufacture of new guidance manuals for Catholic ministers and the production of satirical woodcuts; a particularly famous 1529 example portraying Luther as the antichrist. However, Catholic propaganda relied primarily on preaching in order to convey ideas orally - something that arguably disadvantaged them in the propaganda war. Meanwhile, reformists used the distribution of printed pamphlets as the principal method of gathering supporters, with Luther himself completing over 2200 printings in total. Despite literacy remaining low throughout the 15th and early 16th century, it has been argued that the Catholic cause suffered significantly due to the church not being able to keep up with the sheer volume of reformist printing during the Reformation.

It is an accepted fact that access to knowledge and books is enlightening, and is seen by some as an attack on their superiority. Reading challenges individuals’ worldview and blind obedience to authority; it offers new perspectives on difficult issues, and in the case of the Reformation, it changed the course of European history forever. Particularly in the 21st century, with the rise of social media facilitating the rapid spread of ideas across borders, knowledge is power. Perhaps this is a reason why (as of 2022), 7 countries ban Facebook, among them 4 suspected nuclear weapon states and 2 members of the United Nations Security Council. The continued controversial use of social media in the form of ‘fake news’, cyberhacking, and censorship also emphasises how radical the influence of mass media remains today, over 550 years later.

By the year of Luther’s 95 theses in 1517, 200 European

Gutenberg’s fundamental contribution to civilisation is perhaps best summarised by American author Mark Twain: "What the world is today, good and bad, it owes to Gutenberg. Everything can be traced to this source, but we are bound to bring him homage, … for the bad that his colossal invention has brought about is overshadowed a thousand times by the good with which mankind has been favoured."

An early wooden printing press, depicted in 1568.

Honor Gillies

“History Has Its EyesOn You”

THE LASTING LEGACY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

For many, the American Revolution is either a distant, forgotten history lesson or the topic of a modern musical, Hamilton. And yet, its legacy on the history of the world has been monumental, whether we realise it in our everyday lives or not.

The American Revolution’s most immediate impact was on the French Revolution; together, these seminal, eighteenth-century events set a precedent for political leadership and governmental morals the world over. Furthermore, the American Revolution had an enormous effect on the international relations between the newly-formed United States of America and other countries, not least Great Britain, its antagonist in the War of Revolution; as individual Americans changed status, from colonists to citizens, their sense of themselves was transformed, shaping modern American identity. The relationship between the two nations, USA and UK, improved quite swiftly and they became strong allies, that partnership essential during two World Wars, particularly the relationship between Franklin D Roosevelt and Winston Churchill in

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION LEFT A POWERFUL BLUEPRINT FOR THE CREATION OF A MODERN, DEMOCRATIC NATION-STATE.

defeating the Axis nations. At the same time, the severing of ties between America and Britain allowed Americans to prosper and eventually create a global superpower that superseded Britain, and, by the end of the Second World War, held the future of the world in its hands as it faced a new antagonist in the form of the USSR (the Soviet Union). The Cold War, lasting from the late 1940s to the late 1980s, could have been catastrophic, dominated by two nuclear powers, but ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1988, leaving the USA the sole global superpower.

The American Revolution was seen by leaders such as Thomas Jefferson as an example of a successful uprising against an authoritarian style of government. Jefferson was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, in 1776, a successful example of a new set of governing morals which later inspired the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in France. Jefferson himself was later America’s ambassador to France, which

had been the first ally of the American revolutionaries, sending vital supplies and troops, as well as offering crucial naval support. This also gave French soldiers, such as Lafayette, first-hand experience of revolutionary warfare, which later proved invaluable in their own overthrow of the French monarchy and the aristocratic elite. America’s experiences showed the French revolutionary thinkers and leaders that previously impossible-seeming ideas, such as elected representatives, the separation of governmental powers and accountable leaders, were attainable. The French Revolution, and its Napoleonic aftermath, had a significant influence across Europe and the world, which, along with the American model, left a powerful legacy and blueprint for the creation of a modern, democratic nation-state.

The birth of the United States of America gave Americans a renewed sense of national character and reputation within international relationships. In the mid-18th century, before the revolution, Americans were colonists, with a relative sense of inferiority in comparison to those people living in Britain, the mother country. Increasingly, those living in America felt misjudged, misgoverned and exploited. As they were an ocean away from British society and politics, the two populations gradually branched into two very separate, different societies, so that ultimately a clash over political representation and governmental power became inevitable, resulting first in military

repression by the British government and then a violent backlash from American colonists, under the military leadership of George Washington. Military victory over the most powerful nation in the world, Britain, gave the Americans, now citizens of their own country rather than colonists subservient to another country, pride in their achievements. Eloquent writers such as Jefferson and British-born Tom Paine helped Americans see themselves as trailblazers in valuing liberty and democracy over monarchy and empire. However, some English writers of the time, such as Samuel Johnson, saw these values of freedom as hypocritical, as many of the leaders of the American Revolution were slaveowners; Johnson noted, “The slaves should be set free, an act which surely the lovers of liberty cannot but recommend.” Slavery was not abolished in the USA until 1865. Today, many people still quite reasonably question why men such as Washington and Jefferson continue to be portrayed as innovators of freedom when slavery remained a major part of the American social and economic structure for nearly a century after the Revolution they led, at complete contrast with the principles of liberty they advocated in such documents as the Declaration of Independence

H owever, America’s role in both the First and Second World Wars helped cement its image as an upholder of freedom and democracy. In 1917, America entered the First World War, three years after it had begun, on the side of Britain and France, partly influenced by German plans for an attack on the USA via

Scene from Lin-Manuel Miranda's musical, 'Hamilton'.

Mexico. By the end of the war in 1918, four million Americans had crossed the Atlantic as soldiers; there were 116,708 American casualties by the end of the war. In 1941, American troops once again crossed the Atlantic (and this time the Pacific) in support of the Allied powers, including Britain; America’s military and economic might contributed significantly to the eventual victory over the Axis powers led by Germany. One reason that the United States was relatively late in entering both world wars was the power of the Isolationist movement in America, with many citizens and politicians reluctant to involve American resources and personnel in what were perceived as European problems. However, President Woodrow Wilson, in 1917, and President Franklin D Roosevelt, in 1941, were influential in persuading ordinary Americans to abandon isolationist policies and neutrality in favour of siding with the Allies. Roosevelt’s close personal relationship with Churchill seemed to symbolise a particularly friendly relationship between America and Great Britain, which has been in effect since the early nineteenth century and has proved beneficial for both nations, rooted in Britain’s original development of 13 colonies along the eastern American seaboard in the 1600s and 1700s.

THE IDEOLOGICAL RIFT BETWEEN THE CAPITALIST UNITED STATES AND COMMUNIST SOVIET UNION LED ALLIES TO BECOME ANTAGONISTS FOLLOWING THE DEFEAT OF HITLER.

The other important alliance America formed during the Second World War was with the Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin, which was its main military partner in defeating Nazi Germany. However, the ideological rift between the capitalist United States and communist Soviet Union, led allies to become antagonists following the defeat of Hitler. The two nations, and ideological systems, were in contention for the role of global superpower, particularly following Britain’s decline from that status by the 1940s. The tension between the USA and USSR, lasting forty

years, was termed the Cold War, because it never became ‘hot’ (a term to describe two opposing sides directly fighting each other on the battlefield). Instead, it took the form of a series of proxy wars, in spheres from Cuba to Vietnam. Perhaps the factor that most contributed to the war remaining cold was that each superpower, USA and USSR, was a nuclear power, which meant that war would lead to “Mutually Assured Destruction” (MAD). The leaders of both nations were desperate to avoid descending into nuclear war, which forced the USA to remain engaged in international relations, in contrast to the isolationist policies of the early twentieth century. America now saw itself as having a duty to lead the Western sphere of influence and to act as a broker of power and peace across the globe.

America’s ‘soft power’ (cultural influence) has been as important as its ‘hard power’ (military and economic) over the past century. Just one recent example is the global success of the groundbreaking hit musical Hamilton, in 2015, which has renewed the global appeal of the story of the American Revolution by revolutionising (pun intended!) musicals as an art form. Lin-Manuel Miranda's radical mix of rap, R&B, jazz and classic musical theatre has shown audiences the story of the ‘Founding Fathers’ in a new way. An estimated 7.8 million people have watched a production of the musical (including its unprecedented streaming on Disney+), with the further effect of shaping how the American Revolution is now taught in schools across the world. Thus, the American Revolution has had a historical legacy that perhaps even Thomas Jefferson could not have predicted, from political structures to military alliances and musical theatre, cementing itself as one of the most transformative events in the Earth’s 4.5 billion years of history.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

https://www.history.com/news/how-did-the-american-revolution-influence-the-french-revolution

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/french-alliance#:~:text=Between%201778%20and%201782%20the,protected%20 Washington's%20forces%20in%20Virginia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)

https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2017/summer/feature/world-war-i-changed-america-and-transformed-its-role-in-internationalrelations#:~:text=The%20American%20Expeditionary%20Forces%20arrived,116%2C708%20had%20lost%20their%20lives.

https://hamiltonmusical.com.au/about/#:~:text=Featuring%20a%20score%20that%20blends,on%20culture%2C%20politics%20 and%20education.

https://www.nexttv.com/news/disney-plus-hamilton-viewership-exceeds-those-whove-seen-it-live-research-company-says https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-age-earth/

https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-united-kingdom/#:~:text=The%20United%20States%20has%20no,two%20countries%20 established%20diplomatic%20relations

“SOMETIMES, HISTORY NEEDS A PUSH”

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS

Abriti Ghimire

YEAR 10

Two nations dominated the twentieth century: the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. They were, briefly, allies in defeating Hitler’s Nazi regime in the 1940s. However, for the most part the USA and USSR were antagonists, divided in terms of geography but also of ideology: capitalism versus communism. Two tumultuous revolutions, in 1905 and, even more consequentially, in 1917, marked significant turning points not only in Russian history but in global history, leading to profound political, social, and economic changes that shaped international relations for decades. This article provides a comparison of how these revolutions transformed Russia and the world, examining causes and consequences.

The Russian Revolution of 1905

The Russian Revolution of 1905, often referred to as the "First Russian Revolution," was a precursor to the more famous 1917 Revolution, laying the groundwork for later revolutionary movements and serving as a catalyst for political change in the Russian Empire.

of political freedoms. The Tsar's government disregarded calls for political reform, further fuelling dissent.

The social pressures at home were exacerbated by Russia’s defeat by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, a consequence of Russia's imperial ambitions coming into conflict with those of Japan. The humiliation of military defeat and the resulting economic strain helped intensify discontent as citizens saw their government's inability to protect their interests.

TWO TUMULTUOUS REVOLUTIONS,

IN 1905 AND 1917. MARKED SIGNIFICANT TURNING POINTS NOT ONLY IN RUSSIAN BUT IN GLOBAL HISTORY,

Economic disparity and social injustice were prevalent in the Russian Empire. A majority of the population, especially peasants and industrial workers, lived in abject poverty while the nobility and bourgeoisie enjoyed significant privileges and wealth. The autocratic rule of Tsar Nicholas II was characterised by political repression, censorship, and a lack

On 9 January, 1905, thousands of protestors, led by Father Gapon, marched to present a petition to the Tsar. Hundreds were killed or wounded, when the Tsar’s troops opened fire. This was a turning point, galvanising public anger and fuelling revolutionary fervour. Soon, major cities like St Petersburg saw widespread labour strikes and protests, with workers demanding better wages and working conditions, as well as political reforms. Some workers formed workers’ councils, known as "soviets"; the St. Petersburg Soviet became a particularly important centre for revolutionary activity.

Fearful of revolution, Tsar Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto in 1905 in order to satisfy some of the demands being made by the soviets. Firstly, it announced the establishment of a State Duma, a parliamentary body that granted some political representation; however, it had limited powers. The Tsarist government also enacted land reforms, allowing peasants to gain land from the nobility; it marked a step towards change, but did not fully resolve agrarian issues. Therefore, the 1905 Revolution and Tsarist manifesto resulted neither in substantial political nor in economic reform, but did temporarily ease tensions, allowing the regime to regain control. Discontent among the masses only continued to grow, as the 1905 Revolution had raised expectations without fulfilling them. As it turned out, 1905 was a mere prelude; the main act would take place 12 years later.

The Russian Revolution of 1917

What is now called “The Russian Revolution of 1917” is better understood as two separate revolutions: the “February

Revolution" and the "October Revolution". The latter event, in particular, represented a watershed in world history.

Again, war was a key factor in shaping revolution. Tsarist Russia was fighting in alliance with France and Britain against Germany, and the badly-led, ill-equipped Russian army sustained huge casualties on the Eastern Front, causing discontent in Russia. In addition, the war imposed economic hardship on ordinary Russians, including food shortages and crippling inflation. However, attempts to protest by ordinary people were met by political and military repression on the part of the Tsarist government, along with censorship.

In February, 1917, discontent spilled over into large-scale protests and strikes, particularly in St Petersburg. The Tsarist government lost control of the situation, leading to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the resignation of his government. Democratic Opposition politicians, led by Alexander Kerensky, formed what became known as the ‘Provisional Government’, designed to take care of governing the country while formal, democratic elections, under a new constitution, took place. Kerensky and others envisaged modelling Russia along the lines of European democracies such as France.

H owever, Kerensky’s government was unable to improve either the war situation or the state of the Russian economy. In addition, the unelected Provisional Government was seen by many people as illegitimate. Eight months after its formation, it lost control, just as the Tsarist government had before; Kerensky was forced to flee the country. A relatively small group, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, took advantage of the chaos to seize power, establishing a communist government, which very quickly initiated a radical transformation of Russian society. “Sometimes”, wrote Lenin, “History needs a push.”

had achieved complete political control within Russia, through a combination of economic reform, political manoeuvring, and violent repression. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was formed, which remained in existence until its formal dissolution in 1991. Lenin and his successor, Stalin, transformed Russia into a modern, industrialised state, and a global superpower. However, the human cost was astronomical, with an estimated 6-9 million Russians dying as a direct result of Stalin’s repressive policies from the 1920s to his death in 1953.

A Comparison of the Revolutions of 1905 and 1917: Both revolutions were rooted in economic hardship, political repression, and social inequality, exacerbated by military failure: the defeat of Russia by Japan in 1905 and the stalemate on the Eastern Front in 1917.

The Tsar and most of his family were arrested and imprisoned; within a year, they were executed, marking the end of the Romanov dynasty. The Bolsheviks negotiated a swift armistice and peace with Germany, ending Russia’s involvement in the unpopular war. However, very soon, a brutal civil war erupted within Russia, as the Bolshevik-led Red Army faced off what became known as the White Army led by former Tsarist officers, supported by Western, capitalist countries such as Britain and the United States who feared the establishment of a communist state in Russia. After a protracted civil war, the Red Army triumphed militarily. Meanwhile, the Bolsheviks

However, whereas there was a lack of unified and organised revolutionary leadership in 1905, in October 1917, the Bolsheviks, under Lenin, provided an organised leadership structure, focused agenda, clear ideology and ruthless readiness to repress opposition. Whereas the Duma, established in 1905, gave very limited powers to those opposed to the Tsarist government, the Bolshevik movement in 1917 quickly seized the levers of government themselves, gaining total control very swiftly and purposefully, enabling Lenin and Stalin to enact a profound socio-economic transformation and the Soviet Union to shape global politics and ideology throughout for the 20th century, including playing a decisive role in defeating Hitler, again on the Eastern Front, in the 1940s. However, as noted, the human cost of Stalin’s regime, in particular, was brutal. Although the 1905 Revolution ultimately failed, it did shape the more successful revolution that took place 12 years later, in October 1917. These two revolutions, each driven by unique circumstances, serve as crucial chapters in the complex, multifaceted and ongoing story, not just of Russian, but of global history.

Lenin speaking to a crowd in Moscow.

RETALIATION, RETRIBUTION or REVENGE?

NAVIGATING THE DIFFICULTIES IN ISRAEL AND GAZA

Diarmuid Bailey

YEAR 13

On October 7, 2023, Hamas, a militant terrorist group based in Gaza, launched a surprise and unprovoked brutal attack against Israel killing 1,300 people, injuring 3,300, and taking 200 hostages, many still to be released. This is not the first time that Israel has been a victim of this group and so their reaction to this event was expected by many. The attack caused a full-scale bombardment of the 25-mile long, 7-mile-wide area of land known as the Gaza Strip, home to 2 million Palestinian people and the place where Hamas is based. In this article, I will attempt to explain some of the background to current events in Israel Palestine. As a student of history, I believe we cannot begin to understand the present without some grasp of the past. My intention is not to act as a moral judge, or to cast blame, but rather to explain why both Hamas and Israel have acted how they have in recent days and weeks.

THE HISTORY OF THE REGION IS COMPLEX, ROOTED IN THE HISTORY OF COLONIALISM.

There are many questions not only to the legality of Israel’s response but also concerning the impact of Israel’s 16-year long blockade on Gaza since 2008 when Hamas took control in Gaza.

Since 2008, up to and including the current situation in Israel and Gaza, over 15,000 Palestinians have been killed and 1,600 Israelis have been killed. Since 7th October, over 8,000 Palestinians are confirmed dead (at this time of writing on 23rd November), with hundreds of thousands unable to escape the onslaught as hospitals and refugee camps are targeted by air strikes, leading

many people, globally, to question the morality of Israel’s actions. In order to attempt to understand the current situation better, some historical context is vital. The history of the region is complex, rooted in the history of colonialism. In 1947, during Britain's exit from what was known as Historic Palestine, the newly-formed United Nations was put in charge of what the country would become. They decided to split the land into a Jewish State and Arab State. The idea of the two religions living in harmony, however, didn't last long. In the summer of 1947, Zionist forces from the Jewish State expelled Palestinians south into what is now known as the Gaza Strip and contained Palestinians east of Jerusalem forming the West Bank. This created millions of migrants, many of whom were forced to emigrate to neighbouring countries: Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Jordan. This caused an outbreak of conflict in 1948 resulting in Egypt taking control of the Gaza Strip and Jordan the West Bank. The occupation of these areas was contested by Israel but didn't change until 1967, when Israel launched a full-scale attack on Egypt, Jordan and Syria, capturing the West Bank, Gaza Strip and Golan Heights. Israel started its consolidation of control over Gaza quickly by establishing border crossing points and controlling the flow of goods into and out of Gaza, Palestinians were able to move between Gaza strip and the West Bank. From 1967, Israel began colonising Palestine by at first removing its connection to the world and secondly by placing Israeli settlements into Gaza. They founded an agricultural industry to cater for Israel and the West Bank demands, taking advantage of the low salaries for the inhabitants of the Gaza strip. The control Israel was exhibiting in Gaza led to the foundation of a prominent charity called Mujama Al-Islamiya, part-sponsored by the Israeli government; they provided schools, mosques, hospitals and food for the people of Gaza. However, on 10th December, 1987, Israeli troops caused a traffic accident, killing 4 Palestinians. This spark inflamed what was already a tense atmosphere, after twenty years of Israeli occupation, and helped lead to what became known as The First Intifada, which resulted in the killing of 1,024 Palestinians and 118 Israelis. One consequence of this was the formation

of Hamas, from the Mujama Al-Islamiya group, a militant organisation intent on returning Gaza to the nation of Palestine. The Oslo Peace Accords, the formal treaty between Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Opposition (PLO), gave the PLO control in Gaza and The West Bank forming a system of government with elected representatives in these zones. It also promised a plan to independence from Israel over the next 5 years. However, Hamas disagreed with these clauses and voiced their opposition to the treaties. A year after the Oslo Peace Accords were signed the Israeli Prime Minister called for the construction of a fence around Gaza, which was shortly destroyed in The Second Intifada. Israel broke the agreement drawn up after the second Intifada, which caused more unrest and was a significant factor in Hamas winning the popular vote in Gazan political elections in 2006, as Hamas opposed the status quo that so many Gazans had been forced to live with. With the rise of Hamas, Israel closed Gaza off from the world completely placing it under a blockade which lasts to this day.

Israel has continued its campaign of attrition against Hamas for the past 16 years catching the people of Palestine in the middle of the conflict. Israel controls all the points into and out of the Gaza strip, particularly through the Erez Crossing in the North of the district. This means that they dictate when Palestinians are receiving essentials such as food, water, medical aid and electricity, and when they don’t. In 2011 Israel calculated the calories required to live for each person in Gaza, only allowing the minimum amount of food to enter the strip for people to survive. Journalist Yousef Aljamal said, ‘Palestinians are slowly starving.’ highlighting the effectiveness of Israel’s blocks, a form of collective punishment against a community which does not support the people who govern them. The effect of the 16-year blockade has made 78% of water undrinkable; 62% of the population need food assistance and there are 11-hour power cuts per day.

Israel went further following the 7th October attack by calling a formal siege of Gaza with Yoav Gallant, Israeli Defence Minister, saying ‘We are putting a complete siege on Gaza. No food, no electricity, no water, no gas. It is all closed.” Israel shows a complete disregard for basic human rights when it comes to Gaza and this has been highlighted by organisations such as Amnesty International. Israel’s attempt to slowly starve and demoralise the people of Gaza, has so far has failed as a method to move them.

However, the locked resources are not the only way Israel has retaliated against the existence of Hamas. There has been increasing military presence over Gaza with more drones being launched, which Israeli government spokespeople have argued are there to ‘safeguard’ the people who live in Gaza. These new drones continue to strike targets in Gaza and continue to perform observation over the closed airspace. Recently, the Israeli military have deployed drone gunboats to watch over the seas around Gaza ensuring nothing goes in without proper clearance, whilst protecting the vast oil reserves that sit off the coast of Gaza. Israel continues to extract resources from an ever-starved population whilst constricting their population more with every month that passes. The Israeli Defence Force (IDF) doesn't stop at controlling features; they continue to bomb Palestinian land, particularly following the 7th October attack when they struck a refugee camp. This action has been labelled as a war crime by a range of international institutions, Amnesty International and United Nations. Some nations, such as Bolivia, have condemned such actions, and there have been hundreds of thousands of people involved in protests across the globe, taking to the streets, including thousands of protesters in Israel itself.

Israel is not alone in its fight against Hamas. Alongside it stand over 84 countries, from the United States to India, all providing political support as well as further air cover around Israel’s borders. In reaction to the 7th October attack, the United States, along with

other NATO allies, deployed the Fifth Fleet from Norfolk Virginia to the Mediterranean and redeployed the Second Fleet. This military move by America, supported by NATO, has expanded Israel’s air defence capabilities allowing missiles, for example from Yemen, to be intercepted and protect Israel’s homes. Less than three weeks after the attack, 15 US surface ships are in the region with over 15,000 sailors and aviators onboard in order to support any Israeli offensives, particularly against Iran. Politically Israel has been supported by all 84 nations who have vocalised their view that Israel is legitimately utilising its right to self-defence. However, this is a minefield of diplomacy, as countries carefully navigate the international law surrounding conflict.

Whilst Israel is, at this time of writing, still supported by a substantial number of countries, 8 countries assist Hamas in its war against Israel, funding its military and also providing aid to the already starving Palestinian communities of Gaza and The West Bank. There is concern that groups such as Hezbollah, closely associated with Iran, may attack Israel from Lebanon on its northern border, further escalating the situation in an attempt to break through the ‘Iron Dome’ system. Militants in Gaza have been firing rockets toward Israel every year since 2005, but the intensity of the Hamas attack in recent days has been astounding. Israel counted more than 2,200 incoming rockets on Saturday 4th November alone, with the total exceeding 2,500 by the day’s end. Whilst more and more of these rockets are home-made some are still supplied by

Hamas’s allies, most notably Iran, which has allowed them to enhance their methods of attack from Gaza. There are increasing signs of unrest in the West Bank, although IEDs have been a more common form of weaponry than rockets. There is unease that other groups and countries in the region may be drawn into the situation, risking further conflict. Significant concern has been expressed that the United States might be drawn into war with Iran.

There is an economic dimension. Currently, despite the bombings, business continues as usual for the six countries to which Israel granted permits to drill for oil. It is estimated that the total amount of oil in Gaza’s waters equates to $524 billion; the war has been used as a rationale and justification for the bed to be breached and for the oil to start flowing. The drilling itself is seen by many as a war crime, a view supported by a UN report published in 2019. Geopolitics and geology map similar courses. In the EU, demand for ally-approved gas is higher than ever. This has led to awkward questions concerning continued EU defence of Israel’s actions in Gaze and simultaneous condemnation of Russia’s actions in Ukraine, when a case can be made that both Russian and Israeli forces are committing war crimes.

I titled this article ‘Retaliation, Retribution or Revenge?’, reflecting different ways in which Israel’s actions have been described since the 7th October attack by Hamas. Some support Israel’s attacks on Gaza as justified retaliation in self-defence. Others argue that Israel’s readiness to risk such a high number of civilian lives in attacking Hamas military targets is retribution. However, others accuse Israel of seeking revenge, inflicting collective punishment on the people of Gaza. Many other countries, including the United Kingdom, now find themselves at a political, ethical, and moral crossroads. War is a means of peace, not destruction; how far Israel has stuck to this sentiment is the question the international community must ask themselves.

References:

1. Gaza Explained, Vox studios, Oct 28, 2023, (www.youtube. com/lv1SpwwJEW8)

2. Everybody Wants Gaza’s Gas, Planet: Critical, Oct 31, 2023 (www.planetcritical.com)

3. The US wants to create a Naval Bubble round Israel, Le Monde, Oct 08, 2023 (lemonde.com)

4. What happens if Israel strikes Iran? , AEI, Oct 24, 2023 (AEI. com)

5. List of Countries supporting Israel, Oct 25, 2023 (currentaffairs. adda247.com)

6. How Hamas flooded Israel, Fortune, Oct 9, 2023 (fortune.com)

7. Gaza Strip, Brittanica, Nov 7, 2023 (https://www.britannica. com/place/Gaza-Strip)

BLIND JUSTICE

THE MORALITY OF REVENGE

Grace Gamblin YEAR 12

Is revenge ever justified? Many continue to believe that, if an injustice is committed, the only way to restore the balance in the moral universe is if the wrongdoer pays for what they have done, that justice is unable to prevail until those who have caused suffering have suffered themselves. The saying ‘an eye for an eye’ is often used as a justification for acts of revenge. It appears in the Old Testament, but its origins have been traced back to the 18th century BCE, among the 282 laws of the Babylonian king Hammurabi.

Nearly 4,000 years later, Mahatma Gandhi famously observed that ‘An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind’. However, some believe that Gandhi, and others, have misunderstood the intention of ‘An eye for an eye’, arguing that it is not a cry for revenge, but, rather, is creating a limit to revenge, ensuring that the punishment is proportionate and equal to the crime committed. The victim can take an eye for an eye, but not any more than this. It is when we start taking two eyes that the world begins to go blind. Indeed, there was disagreement over the morality of revenge in the Ancient World, just as there is now. In the New Testament, 1 Peter 3:9 discusses how one should ‘pay evil with blessing’, suggesting that seeking revenge and attempting to settle the score after an act of wrongdoing merely creates more victims than it ends up avenging.

There is a certain paradox in contemporary society’s attitude towards revenge. Simultaneously, we condemn actions of revenge and look askance at vengeful characters and believe the classification of an act as ‘revenge’ provides a rational and justified ground for the action, finding ourselves overlooking acts due to sympathy. I think of Gillian Flynn’s novel, Gone Girl, the character, Amy Dunne, seeks revenge against her husband, Nick, who has cheated on her. Revenge isn’t something that is merely casually contemplated; she believes in going big or going home, attempting to frame her husband for murder. The novel explores her motives for revenge: not just Nick’s infidelity, but the fact he has ruined what she perceived to be her perfect, fairy-tale life. Gone Girl also portrays revenge to be contagious; once Nick realises what

‘AN EYE FOR AN EYE' IS SEEN BY SOME SCHOLARS NOT AS A CRY FOR REVENGE BUT, RATHER, AS CREATING A LIMIT TO REVENGE.

Detail from the Code of Hammurabi, 18th century BCE.

Amy is attempting to do, he begins playing the same game; Flynn shows revenge to be an ongoing cycle. In the end, both characters must confront the consequences of their actions, the novel demonstrating that revenge ultimately leads to the imprisonment of both the practitioner and the recipient.

Questions over revenge lie at the heart of the justice system, for example retributive punishment. How justice and revenge are defined and how they relate to each other has been a matter of debate for centuries. Personally, I find the two to be so intertwined that the difference is practically indistinguishable. It can be said that the difference lies in who is owed. In criminal cases, it is society that seeks justice, through the Crown Prosecution Service, with our system based upon Ancient Roman structures and traditions. Yet surely this disregards the actual victim as an individual, making them merely a means to an end - the accurate persecution of this criminal - meaning that justice is fuelled by the need to commit suffering upon the perpetrator in societal retribution. However, is this not the same as revenge?

I believe that revenge, although a universal pattern of our behaviour, can never be ethically justified, whether minor or severe, due to the fact that two wrongs do not make a right. As the seventeenth century philosopher, Francis Bacon, noted, “In taking revenge, a man is but even with his enemy; but in passing it over, he is superior; for it is a prince’s part to pardon.”

ARECONCILIATION AND REBUILDING

LESSONS FROM POST-CONFLICT POLITICS

Alec Bradpiece YEAR 13

t critical junctures throughout history, reconciliation between belligerents and effective rebuilding of institutions can provide long term peace. Indeed, throughout the course of human history, the repercussions of unresolved conflicts and inadequate institutional restoration have been evident- despite Neville Chamberlain's assertion that he had 'peace in our time' following the Munich Conference in 1938, the aftermath of World War I, characterised by punitive reparations and the weakened state of Germany, undeniably provided conditions that catalysed the violent yet rapid ascension of the Nazi regime and subsequently precipitated the cataclysm of the Second World War.

The significance of reconciliation cannot be understated; reconciliation serves as the vital foundation for sustainable peace ensuring that reconstruction and subsequent societal development is inclusive and effective. Creating a climate, through social cohesiveness, wherein peace can prosper, subsequently ensures that the macroeconomic climate in post conflict society lends itself to higher employment, greater trade and economic opportunity, all factors that quell tensions.

Reconciliation has proven to be the cornerstone of longterm peace in post-conflict Mozambique. The 1992 Peace Agreement, following a harrowing civil war, not only marked the end of societal, economic and political turmoil but also laid the groundwork for a multi-party democratic system. This historic accord facilitated (among other things) the integration of former rebels into government, symbolising a pivotal shift towards unity after a period of devastating conflict that claimed over a million lives. The integration of the Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO) into government came with immense challenges. The inherent difficulties of incorporating individuals formerly in opposition—individuals often bearing divergent ideologies, traumatic pasts, and varying levels of public trust— were evident

"IF YOU WANT TO MAKE PEACE WITH YOUR ENEMY, YOU HAVE TO WORK WITH YOUR ENEMY. THEN HE BECOMES YOUR PARTNER."

Nelson Mandela

Nelson Mandela and F W de Klerk, 1992, negotiating the end of apartheid in South Africa (Wiki Commons).

with the coalition that was, in the short term, seeming perpetually at risk of collapse. The effects of amnesty programmes as part of the reconciliation process overcame the enduring challenges. Indeed, the necessity of integration transcends the challenges it poses.

The imperative to stifle tension and foster the inclusion of erstwhile rebels into the governmental framework is paramount for a multitude of reasons. Firstly, it serves as a pathway to heal the deep wounds of a fractured society; one ponders whether the gradual integration of the Taliban into the Afghan government would have helped avoid the group turning into the entity it has become. By involving former rebels in governance, it signals a commitment to acknowledging their grievances, providing them with legitimate avenues to seek a peaceful redress of grievances, and offering them a stake in the system they once fought against. In doing so, it presents a tangible opportunity for restorative justice and societal reintegration. Excluding these individuals from the political sphere can, and very often does, create an undercurrent of disenfranchisement and disillusionment, potentially seeding future strife- one only has to look at how willingly the Shia sections of society sided with the US during the second Gulf War to evaluate the significance of this statement. By incorporating rebels and minority groups in the wake of war, the government can mitigate the risk of a return to arms, offering a peaceful resolution that provides former combatants with the prospect of influencing change through non-violent means. Indeed, the Global Peace Index suggests that post conflict societies are up to 50 times less likely to suffer from subsequent conflict if coalitions are the norm and effective reconciliation programmes between belligerents are evident.

The restoration of societal frameworks, the re-establishment of functional institutions, and the mending of social fabrics are indispensable for the sustenance of long-term peace. This crucial endeavour is not just a matter of ethical obligation but is substantiated by empirical evidence and historical precedents. As societies grapple with the aftermath of war, the reconstruction and fortification of institutions serve as the other “twin pillar” upon which sustainable peace can be fostered. The adage, "Peace without justice is fragile" encapsulates the essence of postconflict reconstruction. In the aftermath of devastating strife, the restoration of trust in governance, justice systems, and societal norms is paramount. History attests to the pivotal role institutions play in the resilience and stability of societies after conflict. Take the case of post-World War II Europe, where the establishment of robust institutions like the European Union has been fundamental in maintaining peace among nations that were once embroiled in fierce conflict- indeed, it is easy to ask whether Russia would have chosen to invade Ukraine had it been a member of an institution like the EU.

Kofi Annan, former Secretary-General of the United Nations, noted that "Good governance is perhaps the single most important factor in eradicating poverty and promoting development". Whilst not explicitly mentioning post conflict institution building,

the words of Annan cast light on the vital role that institutions play in preserving peace. A study conducted by the World Bank reveals that countries emerging from conflict and investing in institution-building witness a substantial reduction in the risk of relapse into violence.

Institutions, both political and socioeconomic, serve as the conduit for societal healing and progress. Transparent institutions provide citizens with a sense of security and inclusion, essential components for fostering trust and cooperation. Furthermore, effective justice systems that hold perpetrators accountable and provide redress for victims play a crucial role in the restoration of societal order. A study by the United States Institute of Peace found that countries successful in transitioning from conflict to peace invested substantially in reforming their justice systems, leading to greater social cohesion and reduced risks of renewed violence. In fact, the overwhelming lack of investment in Afghan institutions under the 20 years of occupation arguably hastened the Taliban resurgence.

Moreover, economic institutions play an equally vital role in post-conflict environments. As nations emerge from strife, the resurrection of economic structures is imperative. A report from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) emphasises that sustainable peace is closely tied to economic recovery and development, pointing to the necessity of rebuilding economic institutions to provide stability and create opportunities for the populace. However, the process of rebuilding institutions post-conflict is fraught with challenges. It requires a delicate balance between immediate needs and long-term goals, all while grappling with the complexities of power dynamics and deep-seated grievances. In this vein, Rwanda's post-genocide journey serves as a pertinent case study. The country's deliberate focus on institution-building, particularly in the justice sector, played a pivotal role in its recovery. By establishing grassroots reconciliation programs and a robust justice system, Rwanda has made strides in fostering social cohesion and preventing the resurgence of violence. The Rwanda Development Board (RDB) exemplifies how robust economic institutions can foster long-term peace. By managing and conserving ecosystems, the RDB ensures environmental sustainability, bolsters tourism and fosters job creation- the latter being a vital component of peace. Employment engenders economic stability, which mitigates social tensions that could otherwise escalate into conflict. Thus, the RDB's role in Rwanda's economic growth illustrates the profound impact of well-structured economic institutions on peacebuilding. Their work underscores the importance of investing in such institutions, particularly in post-conflict societies, to ensure sustainable peace.

Reflecting on the lessons offered by our past, it is possible to etch a profound narrative: the union of reconciliation and societal reconstruction stands as the cornerstone upon which a lasting peace can be sculpted.

COMING OFFLINE

REBUILDING EDUCATION AFTER COVID

The pandemic many believed would only last two weeks ended up disrupting our lives for over two years - furthermore, we are still living with the consequences. It is doubtful whether those who lived through the lockdowns and social distancing will ever have a complete understanding of the full impact of those two years of domestic confinement, school closure

EVEN NOW, THINGS HAVE NOT GONE BACK TO THE WAY THEY WERE; ON THE CONTRARY, WE LIVE IN A TRANSFORMED WORLD.

A school in the UK closed during Lockdown, 2020 (Wiki Commons).

12 were provided with schoolwork, but 42% of parents with children in Year 11 and 49% with children in Year 13 reported that their schools did not provide them with any remote learning. An argument has been made, in defence, that this was due to cancellation of their exams. However, the extensive period of the lockdown meant that there was a significant amount of time before starting the next academic year (Year 12 or university) during which they had not done any academic work. This meant that their start to Sixth Form or university was particularly difficult and challenging for some of those students.

and the death of so many loved ones. Even now, things have not gone back to the way they were; on the contrary, we live in a transformed world.

The closing of schools and the transfer of teaching online has meant that, even after Covid, we are continuing to use technology much more. There are many positives, due to the fact accessing the internet and work can be easier, which is arguably more suited to the world we live in. However, I think we also understood that online was not going to be a suitable source of learning in the long term. In fact, many schools now understand that ‘real life teaching’ can’t be replaced. As someone who was in education at the time this hit us, I believe the systems that were put in place were not a suitable substitute. Not only were GCSE and A-level results impacted, but we can also see the characteristics and attitude has changed. This meant that going back to school was a difficult time for many, as they were not used to that environment after being at home with complete independence for so long.

The fact that as many students made as much educational progress as they did during the pandemic is due to the adjustments made by parents, teachers and students to help maintain a steady education even through some of the hardest times. Many took on additional responsibilities that went above and beyond their usual roles and duties, making sure that others did not fall too far behind. This exceeding of responsibilities in relation to caring for others, and looking after each other, was one of the more inspiring aspects of the pandemic. This helped when going back into education, as some children did not feel as alone as they might otherwise have done. However, we do have to note that this sort of support was not available to everybody; and, even with help, some students were greatly challenged by learning online. As a result, far too many children were left behind, struggling to pick up education after the disruption.

WE WON'T HAVE A COMPLETE UNDERSTANDING OF THE FULL SIGNIFICANCE UNTIL MANY YEARS, PERHAPS MANY DECADES, LATER.

The impact of these profound experiences and extended situations on the mental health of young people has, therefore, been significant. 34% of young people reported that their mental health got much worse during the pandemic. 59% said they would enjoy school, college or university more once restrictions eased. Lack of opportunities to socialise was a significant factor in mental health issues; many young people struggled with being alone and felt it hard to reach out to people just online. 87% of respondents agreed that they had felt lonely or isolated during the lockdown period, even though 71% had been able to stay in touch with friends. The duration of the lockdowns and restrictions increased the levels of anxiety relating both to isolation but also to reconnecting with people when the restrictions ended. Furthermore, many struggled to complete work or keep up with education during the lockdowns so their mental health deteriorated because they felt an obligation to excel in exams. They struggled with motivation and with coping mechanisms. One positive has been a growing awareness of mental health issues in broader society, because of the numbers affected, and an increase in support as a result and a development in better understanding of young people’s mental health.

In conclusion, Covid pandemic has had a detrimental and long-term impact on education and mental health in England. We won't have a complete understanding of the full significance until many years, perhaps many decades, later. However, what we can see is that there are many people who helped others get through it. In addition, many of us feel grateful for the small things in school and also have a better understanding and appreciation of the role and purpose of education. Although the educational impact of Covid was preponderantly negative, we are able to take positives from the process through reflecting and learning. I think that a positive mindset is what our society needed and still needs to help gain the enthusiasm to start life up again, after what many will call a harmful, difficult and dark time for us as human beings.

Thus, it is clear that everybody experienced online schooling differently. Some schools provided very little (for various reasons, such as lack of staff) and others had little engagement from the students (often because of lack of technological resources, such as access to devices or internet). The fact that everybody was in a different position upon returning to school made it all the harder to get back to normal ways of school. There were also different issues facing different year groups. The Department of Education, during the first lockdown, prioritised exam students over other pupils. Studies suggest students in Years 10 and Year

A ROBOTIC REVOLUTION

THE TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION OF SURGERY

Lissiana Jakaj YEAR 12

While political revolutions often dominate news headlines and history books, it is revolutions in fields such as technology and medicine that perhaps shape human lives more fundamentally. An example of such a revolution is the use of robotics in surgery.

For years, surgeons have been operating using large incisions to gain access to the interior of the body cavity and fully view the organ which they needed to treat. But these taxing procedures require prolonged recovery times and have risks of postoperative complications such as infection or nerve damage. However, with increased development of robotic assisted surgery, the surgeries are becoming minimally invasive, less painful whilst reducing haemorrhage, infection and patient recovery time, therefore, making surgery a more efficient process for the benefit of patients and delivering higher quality of care by surgeons.

ROBOTIC ASSISTED SURGERY IS TRANSFORMING THE FIELD OF MEDICINE.

Robotic-assisted surgery is designed to enhance the capabilities of surgeons, aiding the surgeon to ensure that all the surgical tools are inserted in exact positions with the intention of securing the best possible outcome in the surgery. They are simply a means of accurately placing instruments at desired locations and increasing precision, minimising the physical strain on the surgeon such as hand tremors or fatigue and improving patient outcome. With an advancement of technology, the robots not only manually assist the surgeon but also provide high resolution cameras with 3D visualisation allowing the surgeon to perform complex operations with improved precision and are able to gain more knowledge of the conditions of the operative area during surgery.

Laparoscopy has revolutionised surgical interventions as it's a minimally invasive procedure which uses a robotic system to look inside the abdomen of a patient, completely controlled by the surgeon. However, when performing a laparoscopy, direction is inverted. Up becomes down and right becomes left; therefore, the

surgeons lose their dexterity which is vital in surgery. Additionally, the surgeon must continuously look away from the instruments and up at the screen to view the image of the target organ which can prove to be tiresome. But in robotic surgery, such as the da Vinci System, the surgeon is able to sit comfortably at the control console with their eyes and hands in position with the instruments. Not only does this mean that the surgeons retain their control and dexterity, it actually improves. The surgeons are able to accurately manipulate the robotic arms to carry out procedures more effectively than using two hands. The robot arms are able to move in more directions than human arms can which makes it easier to access the patient's anatomy and so operations are performed in a more diligent manner. Since the start of the century, more than 10 million procedures for a wide range of specialities such as cardiac, paediatric, gynaecologic and urologic have been completed worldwide using the da Vinci System. Robotics is now becoming more prevalent in orthopaedic surgery as it reduces the challenge of implant positioning and plans out the procedure pathway based on the condition of the patient. The Stryker Mako surgical robot is used for the most common procedures in orthopaedics: knee and hip replacements. Using CT or MRI scans of the interested area, a computer attached to the robot creates a virtual model of the patient's anatomy and allows the surgeons to plan ahead and discuss the operation with the patient. This means that when it comes to the operation, the surgeons are able to make those decisions on the computer and know exactly what the outcome will be prior to operating. Additionally, the robotic tools ensure that each screw is inserted at exactly the right angle and depth which is unfeasible by hand, enhancing the accuracy of the surgery.

Furthermore, in the field of ophthalmology, the popular procedure of cataract surgery was once done manually but is now completed through the use of surgical robots. The surgery centres around a Femtosecond laser which is an independently working robot that completes pre-programed steps with extreme

precision. In addition, robotic laser positioning systems are used for a range of other eye surgeries such as treating vascular lesions. The system uses infrared light to pinpoint the blood vessels and calculates the distance of the laser's trajectory. All the surgeon has to do is mark the ends of the lesion and the robot begins the laser treatment on the targeted area. Prior to the use of robots, surgeons would manoeuvre the laser by hand and move up the lesion precisely, whilst ensuring that the distance between the vein and the laser is correct in order for the procedure to be successful. The conventional process is repetitive and tedious for the surgeons which can possibly lead to an increased chance of mistakes therefore making the robotic laser advantageous. Also, the system takes the patient's movement into account, ensuring that the laser remains on its path. This system is beneficial for the treatment of delicate and intricate micro-vessels for which handheld instruments are not precise enough.

Despite its merits, robotic-assisted surgery also has some limitations which are important to consider. To start with, these robotic systems are human-made, so there is potential for malfunctions, although very rare. Possible haemorrhage during the procedure is better controlled when surgery is performed by humans. The lack of haptic feedback is a difficulty faced by surgeons when in the control console. They are unable to directly feel tissue texture, tension and other physical sensations with only a visual image, which affects their ability to make decisions and possibly compromises the outcome of the patient. All major surgeries face a range of possible surgical complications during the procedure and, whilst robotic surgery reduces the chance of infections post procedure, it does not eliminate these surgical risks. In addition, in some cases the robot may need to be adjusted to the patient properly which could lead to possible chance of infection or some systems may need more means of securing the robot to the patient which may lead to increased blood loss. Moreover,

another problem with these systems is their prohibitive cost (the da Vinci which is the most widely used system costs $2 million). Improvements in technology means that these robotic systems will gain more capable and complex software but that brings up the question of how much hospitals and healthcare facilities will have to pay for the upgrades. The expansive size of these robots also proves to be a problem as today's operation rooms are already overcrowded with the surgical team, so adding a bulky robotic system is a challenge. However, most of the disadvantages identified will be remedied with time and advancements in technology.

With time, existing platforms such as knee and hip replacements will see a growth in usage and many more surgeons are learning how to operate these robots for a variety of specialities. There is an expectation that technological improvements will overcome procedural complexity in time. For instance, soft robotics has the potential to solve navigation and access difficulties in endovascular surgery and for procedures in the foot and ankle the development of smaller robotic solutions means that high costs and long time set ups will no longer be a problem for patients. On the contrary, areas such as cardiology and vascular surgery will increase at a slower rate as the procedural complexity and technology limitations will make it difficult to install viable robotic solutions in the near-future. As the costs come down and the equipment size is reduced, the system will become more readily available to hospitals so more remote hospitals will be able to offer robotic surgery.

Overall, robotic assisted surgery has revolutionised the conventional methods of operating, making once-strenuous procedures efficient. It has allowed surgeons to increase their dexterity, flexibility and visualisation whilst operating in an ergonomic manner. The enhancements of these innovative systems is transformative and has undeniably changed the field of medicine.

A da Vinci Surgical System at Addenbrooke's Treatment Centre, 2015 (Wiki Commons).

Revolution and Revelation

A HISTORY OF HEART SURGERY

Isobella Palmer-Ward YEAR 12

The heart, one of the most vital organs in our body, is now being operated on via open-heart surgery for more than two million people per year1. This figure is astonishing considering the fact that in 1896, Stephen Paget, who was the author of the most widely read British textbook on chest surgery, wrote ‘Surgery of the heart has probably reached the limits set by Nature to all surgery: no new method, and no new discovery, can overcome the natural difficulties that attend a wound of the heart.’2 Another leading surgeon at the time, Theodore Billroth from Germany declared, ‘The surgeon who operated on the heart will lose the respect of his colleagues’.3 By 1890, detailed surgical textbooks were available for the ear4, eye5, the kidney6,the intestines7, mouth and jaw8, reproductive organs9, rectum10, skeleton and muscles11 and the urinary system12, but not the heart. Moreover in 1884, in London a surgeon named Rickam Godlee successfully removed a tumour from inside the skull of a twenty-five-year-old man, proving that not even the brain was out of bounds for discovery.

However, on 4th September, 1895, the first surgery on the heart itself was performed. In Oslo, Axel Cappelen ligated a bleeding coronary artery in a 24-year-old man who had been stabbed. Unfortunately, the patient became ill with a fever and died three days after the surgery from infection13. Not long after this, in 1912, surgery on the aortic valve took place in Paris by Theodore Tuffier. However, the First World War brought about daring surgeons willing to risk losing the respect of their colleagues to try and break this huge mystery that surrounded the heart, which was thought to be the chamber of all emotions. In the 1920s, a couple of surgeons tried to stretch mitral valves that had been narrowed by the after-effects of rheumatic fever. Recent information has just revealed that during the First World War, a patient had a bullet removed from the right ventricle and survived until the Second World War twenty years later. In 1923, in Boston, just after the War, Elliot Cutter performed surgery on the mitral valve.

However, it was the Second World War that brought about major advancements, which took place in the heart of the Cotswolds. A young Iowan surgeon called Dwight Harken successfully removed bullets and shell fragments from the chests of 134 soldiers without experiencing a single fatality14. This drove early heart surgery which would then go on to be supported by anaesthesia, transfusion, antibiotics, imaging, intensive care units and many more medical improvements. Just as the Second World War was ending, Alfred Blalock performed the first successful systemic pulmonary shunt for blue babies. Before this, these babies had no hope for a cure and died as a consequence of their heart condition. Blalock managed to create a connection between oxygen-rich and oxygen-deprived blood vessels, which went on to be known as the Blalock-Taussig shunt. This took place in John Hopkins Hospital on 29th November, 1944. In September 1952, in Minnesota, Dr F. John Lewis performed the first successful open heart precedent for the direct closure on an atrial septal defect. He accomplished this by reducing the patient's body temperature to 26 degrees Celsius, which meant that the patient's circulation stopped for 15 minutes, enough time for the direct repair of an atrial septal defect whilst fully protecting the brain.15 In 1952, Paul Zoll introduced the temporary transcutaneous cardiac pacing, which would go on to be modified and prove very useful.16 On 22nd March, 1955, Dr. Kirklin performed the first open-heart operation on a child at Rochester Methodist Hospital. The MayoGibbon heart-lung machine took over cardiorespiratory function while the surgical team closed a heart defect on a 5-year-old girl.17

Following Paul Zoll’s introduction of pacemakers in 1952, on 8th October 1958, the first definitive electronic pacemaker was implanted by Senning and Elmqvist in Sweden.18 In 1960, US surgeon Albert Starr implanted a mechanical valve that he had invented into a 52-year-old man, who went on to live for another 10 years. Then in 1967, Rene Favaloro in Brazil, developed coronary artery bypass surgery, which diverts blood around narrowed or clogged sections of the major arteries. Furthermore, in December, 1967, in South Africa, Christiaan Barnard, performed the first heart transplant.19

Cardiac surgical procedure at Gemelli Hospital in Rome (Wiki Commons).

The heart was no longer such a mystery; however, there was a long way still to go until the heart was able to be operated on. In 1979, the first successful UK heart transplant was formed20. Then in 1984 the heart transplant program was established in the US21 Although many advancements have already been made regarding heart surgery, more minor, but useful ones are still to come. In 1996, Toby Cosgrove, MD, performed the first minimally invasive heart valve surgery.22In 1997, in the US alone, surgeons performed 197,000 cardiovascular procedures, including 2,300 heart transplant operations23. One last major advancement that took place before the 21st century was the first robot-assisted mitral valve repair, which took place at Broussais Hôpital Paris on the 7th of May 1998.24 The further development of robotics in our own century probably heralds even more transformative changes in surgery over the next few decades, continuing to enhance and extend the lives of millions of people.

References:

1. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, What Is Heart Surgery? (United States: Government, 2022)

2. Stephen Paget, The Surgery of the Chest (Bristol: Wright & Co, 1896),121

3. Mount Sinai, Recent discovery: World War 1 and the Origins of Heart Surgery (Mount Sinai, 2022)

4. H. Macnaughton-Jones, A treatise on Aural surgery (London: J.&A.Churchill, 1881)

5. Robert B. Carter and William A. Frost, Ophthalmic surgery (London: Cassell, 1889)

6. Henry Morris, Surgical Diseases of the Kidney (London, 1885)

7. Nicholas Senn, Intestinal Surgery (Chicago: W.T Keener, 1889)

8. James E. Garretson, A system of Oral Surgery (London: J.B. Lippincott, 1884)

9. Henry Savage, The Surgery, Surgical Pathology and Surgical Anatomy of the Female Pelvic Organs (London: J.&A. Churchill, 1882)

10. Henry Smith, The Surgery of the Rectum (London: J.&A. Churchill, 1882)

11. J.W. Haward, A Treatise on Orthopaedic Surgery (London: Longmans, Green, 1881)

12. Reginald Harrison, On Some Points in the Surgery of the Urinary Organs (London: J.&A. Churchill, 1888)

13. Westaby, Stephen;Bosher, Cecil Landmarks in Cardiac Medicine (Taylor&Francis, 1998)

14. D.E.Harken, Foreign bodies in, and in relation to, the thoracic blood vessels and heart: Techniques for approaching and removing foreign bodies from the chambers of the heart’,Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 83 (1946)

15. Richard A.DeWall, MD, The origins of open heart surgery at the university on Minnesota 1951 to 1956 (The American Association for Thoracic Surgery, 2011)

16. Neth Heart J., 8 October 1958, D Day for the implantable pacemaker (National Library of Medicine, 2008)

17. Fou,A.1997. John H.Gibbon. The first 20 years of the heartlung machine.Texas Heart Institute Journal. Vol. 24:1, pp. 1-8

18. Neth Heart J., 8 October 1958, D Day for the implantable pacemaker (National Library of Medicine, 2008)

19. Mr Babulal Sethia, The history of cardiac surgery (RBHH 2018)

20. Sarah Brealey, A history of UK heart transplant (British Heart Foundation)

21. Cleveland Clinic, Reputation Drives Growth (Cleveland Clinic)

22. Cleveland Clinic, Integration & Specialization(Cleveland Clinic)

23. Denton A.Cooley and O.H. Frazier, The Past 50 Years of Cardiovascular Surgery (American Heart Association, 2000)

24. Carpentier A, Loulmet D, Aupècle B, Computer assisted open heart surgery. First case operated on with success (C R Acad Sci III, 1998)

REGENERATION

FROM MEDICINE TO MEDITATION

Natalie Moras YEAR 12

The word ‘Regeneration’ dates back to the mid-14th century: regeneracioun, "act of regenerating or producing anew” (originally in a spiritual context), the Resurrection (from Old French regeneracion) and directly from Late Latin regenerationem (nominative regeneratio) "a being born again” - the past participle stem of regenerare "make over, generate again," is from re- "again” and generare "bring forth, beget, produce,”, derived itself from genus "race, kind". Hence, the Oxford English Dictionary sensibly states that to be regenerated is to be “re-born; brought again into existence; formed anew”. However, it is arguably too narrow. More befitting is, also suggested by the OED, “restored to a better state”. Described as a “religious use”, regeneration is of wider relevance to many different contexts. Most of these have been driven by concern of ageing and the desire to reverse or, at least, modify perceived ill-effects.

The drive has existed over many centuries as certain people have always taken an interest in “old-age” and whether it could be discontinued, slowed or reversed. This concern can be exemplified by 60 years being the lower boundary of age, even by Ancient Greek and Roman standards as this was the age men were no longer called in for military service. The modern fascination with age is easily attributed to ageing populations. Over the past century, people have lived longer than ever before in the UK. In 1881 4.6% of the UK population was aged over 65 whereas in 2018 they formed around 18% of the population. This is not only limited to the UK. For example, Japan has one of the highest proportions of older people, with 65,000 centenarians in 2016, more than double the value in 2007, and 28.2% of people in 2019 being 65+. However, this is more likely to be caused by lower birth rates. Of course, socioeconomic status creates the largest divide in life expectancy, with the higher your socioeconomic status the more likely you are to live longer.

The concept of physical regeneration has existed for thousands of years, as in the 8th century BC the theory was acknowledged, though not fully understood. In Greek mythology, the Titan Prometheus was punished for stealing fire from Olympus to help mankind and so was banished to the Mount Caucasus. Here he

was left chained to a rock to be eternally tortured by the eagle, Ethos, feeding on his liver. To extend his punishment to eternity, his liver would regenerate each day. The Ancient Greeks even named the liver hepar, after hēpaomai “to repair oneself”. This aligns with modern information that the liver is the only organ in the body that regenerates itself spontaneously post-injury.

It is also significant to note the fact that all species have regenerative capabilities, and that this is not exclusive to humans. It is particularly developed in lower organisms such as protists and plants and even invertebrates. In fact, regeneration is restricted in higher organisms due to incompatibility with evolved characteristics in complex animals. In Amoeba, if part of the cytoplasm is removed it is readily replaced. This is similar to other protozoans where in each case regeneration only occurs in the fragment of the cell containing the nucleus, whereas amputated parts lacking a nucleus cannot survive. Also, bisected protozoans with fragments that both contain part of the nucleus regenerate almost identically to how it reproduces ordinarily, even if the fragment itself is very small.

The negative stereotyping of old age, presented as a period of decrepitude, has persuaded some people, since the late nineteenth century, that they should hide their ageing artificially, including through cosmetics and cosmetic surgery. Often, they are encouraged by those making money from the procedures and treatments, sometimes leading to damage and deterioration instead. Thus, the ideal of regeneration is popularised and profitable for those working in cosmetics. This concept of ‘antiageing’ has always been more targeted towards women and is apparent today by the greater range of skincare marketed towards women that target ‘fine lines and wrinkles’, the prevalence of females in plastic surgery advertisement and the focus of makeup to enhance feminine characteristics almost exclusively with women in mind as the users.

Hence, people are living longer and are being convinced that ageing is a detriment to them. This creates an appeal for the ideal

of regeneration. The fact that people are living longer does prove that there is an avoidance of the earlier deterioration experienced by previous generations. Still, few people don’t experience a time of dependent disability before death, with some experiencing it at earlier ages than others. The ONS suggests that main factors of increased life expectancy in the UK have been “improved medical treatments, housing and living standards, nutrition and changes in people's smoking habits”, but it is not suggested that medical treatments have been more important than the other factors. Additionally, the decline in manual labour since the 1980s has lessened the discrepancy of life expectancy between men and women. It is also important to acknowledge that it may not stay this way, for example due to the obesity epidemic if it continues (affecting people of lower incomes more) to lower the average life and health expectancy.

Medicine is not suggested to be the only or most effective route to regeneration. Moreover, medicine is a broad field so if medical intervention is vital, which forms of it are? It is difficult to isolate medicine as the main driver of human regeneration, measured by elongated lifespans, as it is higher income countries which have the longer life expectancies. This is because improvement of general living conditions and advancements in medicine have occurred simultaneously due to increased funding of both at the same time. This brings up the poignant query of whether income redistribution, social intervention and improved social services for those of lower incomes, to narrow the socioeconomic gaps between those in a population, would cause as great an impact as medical intervention to improve healthy life expectancy. This could potentially avoid the need for regenerative interventions for more people, but this has not been tested in the UK to a degree that this question could be proven or discredited.

While medical care can be effective it is not always optimally employed. Those of older ages can be subject to neglect and discrimination, despite The Equality Act, 2010, implemented in 2012, making any discrimination in health and social care illegal. A 2009 survey for the Department of Health reported that those 65 years old and older who suffered strokes received lower care than younger people and even poorer mental health care, their problems being under/mis-diagnosed. Also, women are called regularly to screen for breast cancer up to the age of 70, despite the fact that breast cancer is more prevalent in women over this age. Even cuts in funding have affected the older portion of the populations, with reductions in treatments to conditions that affect older people more (for example joint replacements) due them not being life-threatening. This has the knock-on effect of perpetuating social inequality by a minority of people with higher economic status paying for their procedures privately. Beds in the NHS are also being occupied by dischargeable older people due to community services being unable to provide for them anymore. Even if various treatments (stem cell therapy, viscosupplementation, platelet-rich plasma and prolotherapy) do elongate the lifespan of a person, they may not be regenerated as their period of fragility may merely be extended - this not constituting regeneration as aforementioned the restoration “to a better state”, not a longer lasting one.

A non-medical method of regenerating is meditation. Correlating to the etymology of regeneration, meditation is perceived to be a spiritual experience, clearing the mind and cleansing the soul. It has certain health benefits, according to Forbes: stress reduction, anxiety management, lower blood pressure, strengthening the immune system (reducing the body’s stress response, resulting in less inflammation and decreased risk of conditions such as chronic pain, fatigue and heart disease) and improved sleep. These health benefits reduce the effects of ageing and more so do not accelerate it.

In relation to traditional Vedic texts, meditation involves an expansive mental state that can be reached effortlessly, absolutely silencing the mind and transcending the realms of time and space. The texts describe various instances wherein meditation has led to the regeneration of an organ of the body and even cure diseases present since birth. It has been shown that meditative states slow metabolic processes in the body (suspended animation) - including a reduced breathing rate, ECG and EEG activities and blood flow. Tissue oxygenation is thus reduced and hypoxia is promoted (and mediated by (HIF-1)) to potentially enhance stem cell activity. Melatonin is also released in meditation, possessing anti-inflammatory, immune-stimulating, anti-oxidant and regeneration-enhancing properties. Also, there are hormonal factors that may promote telomere (protects the terminal regions of DNA from degradation) maintenance and thereby slow down the rate of cellular ageing.

Biogerontologists are exploring the biological processes underlying ageing to intervene in them and increase healthy lifespan. However, the Briefing Note by the Nuffield Council on Bioethics (The Search for a Treatment for Ageing, (London, 2018)), expresses concern over the potential side-effects of experimental drugs and how some unproven treatments (like stem-cell therapy) are too easily inducted by private clinics, stating that “as research in this field progresses, reducing harm to consumers from the use of unscrupulous clinics and retailers will become an increasing challenge”. It even highlights that effective and non-damaging treatments “are likely to be available only through the private sector initially…leading to an exacerbation of existing health inequalities according to income, socio-economic standing and geography”. Thus, they assert that while there are positive aspects to development into these medical interventions, that ageing shouldn’t be portrayed as needing fixing - supporting the WHO which aims for the “creation of an age-friendly world”.

Thus, it is valuable to understand the nuance of medical intervention in enabling regeneration due to the social aspects surrounding advancement in the field. A lengthy life should be encouraged; however, it should complement the social values of decreasing discrimination and negative perceptions about ageing. In addition, it is beneficial to research into non-medical interventions to restore older people to fitter states. It will be interesting to consider whether increasing human regeneration will be beneficial in the future, when factoring overpopulation of the world and that resources for facilitating human life, let alone for providing treatments are limited, and instead a stagnancy to advancement in this concept should be implemented instead - in order to better the lives of the highest number of people.

REINTRODUCTION BIOLOGY

THE ART OF RESCUING AND REWILDING

Hannah Watts YEAR 13

Reintroduction biology is a relatively young and dynamic field of conservation science which seeks to reverse the impact of human activity on organism populations which have nearly disappeared or been removed from their natural habitats and landscapes. Like much of ecology- related biology, it aims to restore ecological balance, reestablish lost species, and safeguard biodiversity.

REINTRODUCTION BIOLOGY AIMS TO RESTORE ECOLOGICAL BALANCE, REESTABLISH LOST SPECIES AND SAFEGUARD BIODIVERSITY.

UK land is managed for agriculture, and 8% of land is built on.15% of the 8,431 species are threatened with extinction and 2% are already extinct. This biodiversity decline put the UK in the bottom 10% of countries and last among G7 nations according to the Biodiversity Intactness Index, a tool to assess how effective nations are at keeping their natural diversity of animals and plants as well as estimating the percentage of natural biodiversity that remains. Therefore, the future of our planet's biodiversity may depend on our ability to master the complex art of reintroducing animals into their native habitats.

The Capercaillie bird

Over the last 500 years, humans have caused a global wave of biodiversity loss, including extinctions and population declines, on a similar trajectory to the previous five mass extinction events. When it comes to the UK, human activities and the effects of climate change have meant that we have lost almost half of our biodiversity since the 1970s, with much of this caused by loss of habitat to commercial farming and construction. 72% of

One of the earliest documented reintroduction efforts in the UK involved Capercaillie birds being brought back to Scotland from Sweden. Capercaillies, resembling turkeys in size, are native to Scotland, with colonies ranging from Russia to Scandinavia and across Europe from the Black Forest to the Pyrenees. They are renowned for their elaborate courtship display, known as a lek, where males strut, fan their tails, and produce distinctive gurgling,

wheezing, and popping sounds. In the UK, Capercaillies are exclusive to Scotland, with 85% of the population residing in the Cairngorms National Park.

During the 18th century, overhunting and deforestation led to the extinction of Capercaillies. However, in the 19th century, successful reintroduction initiatives from Sweden aimed to stabilise forest habitats, spurred by a newfound interest in native wildlife. By the early 1970s, it was estimated that there were approximately 20,000 birds. Yet, when formal surveys commenced in the early 1990s, the population had dwindled to around 2,000. The last national estimate counted just over 1,000 birds, and it was projected that they would vanish from Scotland by the end of the decade if no action was taken. The initial reintroduction's failure is attributed to several factors, identified by scientists in four main areas:

1. lack of suitable habitat

2. low productivity

3. predation

4. issues related to unmarked fences and human disturbances

Capercaillie are specialist species, thriving only in extensive areas of Scots Pine-dominated woodland, a habitat unique to Scotland. Due to habitat fragmentation and unfavourable forest management practices, Capercaillie populations have become isolated. Thus, reintroduction biologists are striving to address the genetic bottleneck caused by isolated groups interbreeding. A genetic bottleneck is when the genetic diversity in a population is low. This results in a reduction in the robustness of the population and in its ability to adapt to and survive selecting environmental changes, such as climate change or a shift in available resources. The genetic drift caused by a population bottleneck can change the

proportional random distribution of alleles and even lead to loss of alleles. The chances of inbreeding and genetic homogeneity can increase, possibly leading to inbreeding depression. To combat this potentially causing even more population instability, scientists have meticulously analysed over 1,000 Capercaillie feathers to map the genetic diversity of these populations. By comparing DNA from Scottish Capercaillies to larger populations in countries like Sweden, researchers have identified genetic similarities, enabling the construction of phylogenetic trees. This valuable information is now being utilised by reintroduction biologists to strategically relocate isolated populations within Scotland, thereby enhancing population diversity and biodiversity of Scottish woodlands.

Hazel Dormice

Hazel Dormice are a native species to Europe and tend to live in woody vegetation that arises after woodland management such as coppicing, ride widening, thinning or glade creation. In the UK, they tend to favour old coppice woodland but they’re also found in scrubland, old hedgerows and sometimes conifer plantations. Because of the removal of these habitats for construction and road building, they are now only found predominantly in southern England and Wales with a few scattered populations in the Midlands and Lake District. The hazel dormouse is protected in the UK under the Wildlife and Countryside Act, 1981. It's a Priority Species under the UK Post-2010 Biodiversity Framework and is listed as a European Protected Species under Annex IV of the European Habitats Directive. Hazel Dormice are an important species because they act as a barometer of a woodland's health, indicating that the diversity of plants and animals is high, in particular if a region of woodland has hazel dormice you are more likely to find voles, bats and tawny owls.

So, how is reintroduction biology attempting to increase their

Hibernating hazel dormouse.

numbers? The reintroduction of Hazel Dormice commenced 30 years ago in 1993 in Cambridgeshire. Having not been sighted in Cambridgeshire for nearly 90 years, the dormice were equipped with radio tags, and their population has been monitored by volunteers ever since. Despite efforts at initial reintroduction in the 1990s it is thought that since 2000 the population has fallen by half and are considered extinct in 17 English counties. However, new attempts at reintroduction with a higher focus on releasing breeding pairs and ensuring woodland management means that in 2021 1,000 Hazel Dormice have been released with the 1,000th release being a part of 5 breeding pairs or trios released in a woodland in Arnside and Silverdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (a nationally protected landscape covering parts of north Lancashire and south Cumbria).

While the population still teeters on the brink of extinction, it is hoped that careful reintroduction and ongoing population monitoring efforts will eventually establish the Hazel Dormouse as a common presence in British woodlands.

The English Wood-Cat Archaeological and written records show Wildcats as previously widespread throughout England and Wales. Associated primarily with broadleaved woodland, its old English name translates as ‘wood-cat’. Having a reputation in mediaeval society as capable of killing a knight single handedly, stories like this highlight the fierce reputation wildcats held and it was this that led to the vilification of the wildcat and made them a target to anyone keeping livestock or game birds. The persecution inflicted on wildcats was so intense that by the turn of the 19th century they were exterminated across Britain from everywhere except the Scottish Highlands. Moreover, the rise of grouse and deer estates created a spree of targeted killing that is thought to have nearly removed the entire population if it were not for the outbreak of World War One which led to gamekeepers being called up and unable to manage estates.

Forest and mid-Wales have large blocks of coniferous forest with grassy edges and clear-fell full of field voles. But many European populations of wildcats prefer mature broadleaved woodland with a complex structure, connected by hedgerows, copses and meadows rich in their dominant prey of rabbits and voles and thus areas such as the Mendip Hills, the Forest of Dean, Selwood and the Weald could be suitable.

Factors affecting site suitability are proximity to major roads and urban centres, prey availability, habitat fragmentation and the density of game-shooting interests. While wildcats generally eat a low number of birds, including those reared for shooting, the perceived risk of another predator can still increase the chances of persecution.

This case study highlights the complexities of reintroduction biology especially in an island nation such as the UK where habitats are often unique and thus vulnerable to change.

But without significant intervention, it is thought that the wildcat is facing an end similar to the only other native felid, the Eurasian lynx, in becoming extinct. Therefore, reintroduction seems the only solution and it is hoped that if given the go ahead it could become a leading example in range recovery for felids and other ‘complex’ species. While its UK status is perilous, globally the wildcat is considered ‘Least Concern’ by the IUCN. Therefore, success with this species would be an excellent template for future reintroduction of small carnivores that may be at greater risk of total extinction. Whilst reintroduction is never free from risk the rewards of restoring another member of Britain’s carnivores would be hugely beneficial not only for ecology, as we become far more aware of the beneficial impacts of high-level predators but also in extending the level of reintroduction possible.

Today, best estimates for wildcats in Britain indicate there are few genetically high-quality animals distributed among a population north of Scotland’s central belt that is almost entirely hybridised, with crosses from wildcat to feral to hybrid and back persisting for well over a century. Interbreeding of wildcats has been common and there is now a drive to relocate some to England and Wales in hope that the correct environments could be found here. Across England and Wales numerous regions could provide viable habitat for wildcat reintroductions. Kielder

Thus, reintroduction biology offers a potential solution to the ongoing biodiversity crisis. The stories of the Capercaillie bird and the Hazel Dormouse exemplify the challenges and successes of these efforts whilst the story of the English Wood-Cat, or wildcat, sheds light on the complexities of reintroduction biology in a nation characterised by unique and vulnerable habitats. In the broader context, these examples of reintroduction biology not only hold the potential to save threatened species but also set a precedent for future conservation endeavours. While not without risks, the rewards of restoring biodiversity and expanding reintroduction possibilities are profound. It is through such concerted efforts that we may hope to reverse the tide of biodiversity loss, protect our ecosystems, and ensure a more sustainable future for all living creatures on our planet.

Scottish wildcat, Felis sylvestris sylvestris.

Image by Florence Banfield YEAR 7

REFORESTING THE AMAZON

A GLOBAL SOLUTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Camila Seoane Argudin YEAR 12

The Amazon hosts the largest continuous rainforest on Earth, so much so it’s often referred to as the "lungs of the Earth,". It provides around 16% of the Earth's oxygen supply, emitting 32 gigatons of oxygen a year.

We have already destroyed 20% of this forest. If we do the maths, that means it’s producing around 25 gigatons a year instead of the 32 gigatons it’s meant to produce. Its extensive tree cover, spanning over 5.5 million square kilometres, is crucial for maintaining global biodiversity, human wellbeing, and is intricately linked to climate change. However, the Amazon is at risk of reaching an irreversible tipping point. Between 1985 and 2021, the region lost an area of rainforest equivalent to three times the size of the UK.

This article explores the potential of reforestation as a powerful tool to mitigate global anthropogenic climate change and examines the wider local benefits that reforestation efforts in the Amazon can have on biodiversity and human wellbeing.

The Loss of Forest Cover in the Amazon Rainforest and Its Effects

The Amazon is one of the most biologically diverse places on Earth. Its tropical forests are home to numerous species of plants and animals, many of which are of economic and cultural value for humans. The loss of forest cover in the Amazon threatens these species with extinction, jeopardising the intricate web of life in the region.

activities, the stored carbon is released into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. This link between deforestation in the Amazon and global climate change makes it a global concern that demands urgent attention.

Reforestation and Its Benefits in the Amazon Rainforest

The noun restoration comes from the ancient French word 'restoration' and the late Latin word ‘restoratio’. 'Restore' is a verb that means "to give back," to build up again, repair and renew, therefore bringing back something to a former and better state. Reforestation is the process of replanting and restoring areas that have been deforested or degraded. In the Amazon, reforestation efforts involve planting native tree species to restore the forest's original character. Reforestation offers a multitude of benefits for the Amazon and the world at large, which include:

THE AMAZON IS AT RISK OF REACHING AN IRREVERSIBLE TIPPING POINT.

Deforestation in the Amazon also has significant consequences for human wellbeing at a local and global scale. Indigenous and local communities depended on the rainforest’s resources for subsistence and/or their traditional way of life, which includes hunting, fishing, and gathering for food and cultural practices. The loss of their ancestral lands and the disruption of these practices can lead to severe consequences for their physical and cultural wellbeing.

At a larger scale, the Amazon rainforest plays a vital role in providing oxygen and regulating the Earth's climate, among other ecosystem services. Its lush vegetation absorbs large amounts of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas responsible for global warming. When trees are felled and the land is cleared for human

• Restoration of Biodiversity: One of the primary benefits of reforestation is the restoration of biodiversity. By planting native tree species and recreating a natural habitat, reforestation helps to provide habitat for the native plant and animal species. This, in turn, supports a balanced and healthy ecosystem.

• Preservation of Human Wellbeing: Reforestation efforts also have positive effects on human wellbeing. Indigenous communities depend on the forest for their livelihoods, and reforestation projects can provide employment and economic opportunities for these communities. Additionally, reforested areas can serve as a sustainable source of food, medicine, and other resources.

• Mitigation of Climate Change: Reforestation is a powerful tool for mitigating climate change. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from

the atmosphere during photosynthesis and store it as biomass. By increasing forest cover through reforestation, we can remove substantial amounts of carbon from the atmosphere, reducing the concentration of greenhouse gases responsible for global warming.

Reforestation and Its Role in Mitigating Global Climate Change

The links between reforestation in the Amazon and global climate change mitigation are intrinsic. Here are some key aspects of how and why reforestation can help combat climate change:

1. Carbon Sequestration: Trees are essential for carbon sequestration, the process of removing and storing carbon from the atmosphere. The Amazon rainforest alone is estimated to store around 90-140 billion metric tons of carbon. When trees are cut down, this carbon is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas. Reforestation acts as a counterbalance by absorbing carbon dioxide, which is vital in the fight against climate change.

2. Albedo Effect: The Amazon rainforest also has a significant impact on the planet's albedo effect, the reflectivity of the Earth's surface. Trees reflect sunlight and absorb less heat than barren land or pasture, helping to cool the planet. As we lose forest cover, the Earth's surface becomes less reflective, leading to increased heat absorption and higher global temperatures. Reforestation can reverse this trend by restoring the forest's cooling effect.

3. Climate Feedback Loops: Deforestation in the Amazon can disrupt local and global climate patterns, potentially leading to feedback loops that exacerbate climate change. For instance, reduced rainfall in the region can lead to more forest fires, releasing additional carbon into the atmosphere. Reforestation

helps break these feedback loops by restoring natural water and weather cycles.

4. Preservation of Ecosystem Services: The Amazon rainforest provides a wide range of ecosystem services that are critical for climate regulation, including moisture transport, rainfall generation, and heat dispersion. Reforestation helps preserve these services and ensure the stability of the global climate system.

Benefits of Reforestation in the Amazon at a Local Scale

Reforestation in the Amazon not only holds global significance but also delivers a host of local benefits. Reforestation initiatives provide short- and long-term benefits for local communities. In the short-term, reforestation projects can generate income for local communities through activities like tree planting, maintenance, and the sustainable harvesting of forest products. In the long-term, local communities will benefit from the provision of diverse ecosystem services, including the provision of food, water, and medicines, pollination of crops and soil regulation, and recreational and cultural, among others.

Restoring the Amazon also provides protection against natural disasters. Its rainforest acts as a natural buffer against natural disasters such as floods and landslides. Reforestation efforts help reinforce this protective function and reduce the vulnerability of nearby communities.

Reforestation can complement and promote sustainable agricultural practices. Agroforestry, for example, combines tree planting with food crops, providing both environmental and economic benefits for local farmers.

In conclusion, reforestation in the Amazon is a multifaceted solution with profound implications for global climate change mitigation, the preservation of biodiversity, and the wellbeing of local communities. As students in a rapidly changing world, we must recognize the importance of protecting the Amazon and supporting reforestation efforts. By doing so, we can contribute to the collective effort to address the climate crisis and secure a more sustainable and harmonious future for our planet and all its inhabitants.

Aerial view of the Amazon Rainforest, near Manaus, Brazil.

SYMBIOSIS:

TRELATIONSHIPS IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM UNDER THE SEA ANIMALS DEVELOP RELATIONSHIPS AND DEPEND ON ONE ANOTHER JUST LIKE WE DO.

Estella Sum-Campbell YEAR 12

he ocean is home to many different types of animals - from miniature fishes to enormous whales, from vibrant corals and sponges to slithery sea snakes. The rich diversity of life in the water is incredible, containing both the strange and stunning. Sometimes it leaves you wondering: how do millions of creatures manage to inhabit the same space and still flourish?

The reason for this is that animals develop relationships and depend on one another just like we do. In the animal kingdom, these relationships that last a lifetime are called symbiotic relationships or symbiosis. The environment is in equilibrium as a result of these interactions. But even while it promotes balance, these partnerships between species don’t always benefit each one of them equally, rather they can actually end up harming one of the creatures - like a toxic relationship. See how humans and animals are more similar than we think?

Now, imagine you’re a diver exploring the wonders hidden beneath the ocean’s surface. If we were in the warm waters of the Pacific or Indian Oceans, we could observe a great illustration of mutualism: the relationship between clownfish and sea anemones. Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship where both species living closely together benefit equally from their partnership. Marine creatures in a mutualistic relationship rely and interact on each other for food, protection, or other life functions. The relationship between sea anemones and clownfishes is a perfect example of

mutualism. These adorable fish, also known as Nemo by many snorkelers and divers, are frequently found amid sea anemones. Sea anemones live adhered to coral reefs surfaces. In order to catch their prey, they use stinging cells on their tentacles, called Nematocysts. When a small animal comes into contact with the anemone’s tentacle, nematocysts release toxins so that the animal is paralysed, making it easier for the anemone to eat it.

While other fish perish from these toxic stings, clownfish have evolved to secrete a chemical in the mucus covering their bodies that essentially makes them immune to the deadly sting of the anemone. This makes it possible for the clownfish to swim comfortably between the anemones’ tentacles, forming a safe haven where stings from the anemones drive away would-be predators. In addition to providing the clownfish with protection, the anemone also leaves food scraps for it to eat. Clownfish stand to gain greatly from this, but what about sea anemones?

In return, the clownfish removes parasites from the anemones and even gives it some of the food scraps that inadvertently fall by the wayside as the clownfish eats! The brightly coloured clownfish can also lure other fish looking for a meal so unsuspecting predators are caught and eaten by the anemones. Furthermore, the continuous aeration produced by the clownfish’s movement keeps anemones lively as well.

As we proceed with our imaginary deep-sea expedition, we may exhibit the commensalistic relationship that exists between barnacles and humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae). Commensalism partnerships arise when one species coexists with, on, or in another species, referred to as the host. The host species

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neither benefits nor is harmed from the relationship. In our imagined scenario, it appears barnacles have gotten a good deal out of the whales, primarily humpbacks, reaping great rewards from attaching themselves to the backs or bellies of the whales. As filter-feeders, they use feather-like appendages that extend through holes in their shells to filter plankton. So by hitching a ride on a whale’s body, they are carried like royalty from meal to meal as the whale swims through waters rich in plankton. Protection from predators is an additional advantage, since only the most fearless of predators are likely to attack a whale. For the most part, the whale is largely unaffected by the barnacles adhering to its body; it does not reap any rewards from them, but it also does not suffer any negative consequences. The humpback whale is capable of supporting thousands of barnacles at once.

Naturally, there are some symbiotic relationships that are harmful. The final form of symbiosis we will discover on our imaginary dive is parasitism. In this symbiotic relationship, one species (the parasite) lives with, on, or in a host species, even if it is smaller in size it takes advantage of the host species. Unlike in predation, the host is not immediately killed by the parasite, though it may sicken and die over time. Even though parasitism is essential to the health of the ocean, infestations by parasites can grow alarmingly and have negative effects on the water. Some hosts of parasites may die from them, or they may become more susceptible to other parasites. This impacts the population and ecosystem, leading to an imbalance. Nematodes, leeches, and barnacles are a few common parasites found in water. That’s correct - barnacles are parasites of swimming crabs, even if they coexist with whales. A barnacle may take root throughout a crab’s entire body, the crab will no longer be able to grow, digest food

or breed. It directs every ounce of energy towards nurturing its swollen, slug-like guest. The parasite eats away at the host’s life by moving via the stomach, genital area, and nerve centre. It settles on the belly, the usual hiding place for a female crab’s eggs. The crab then raises the parasitic sac with the same zeal as if it were its own offspring. Not content with infecting female crabs, the barnacle can render its host infertile if it manages to infect a male crab. Male crabs undergo endocrine changes and begin acting more like females, providing the same care for their parasite.

The symbiosis between two species is a most important part of the ocean ecosystem. One simply cannot survive without the other. The relationships from the ocean can teach us a thing or two. From small to large, colourful to crusty, charming to eerie, we live in a world full of intrinsic diversity. Every day of our lives, we encounter both the amazing and weird. Along the road, we make relationships with all kinds of people. If you examine closely enough, you will see that we are no different to the creatures of the sea. Or rather, they are not all that dissimilar from us. Someone could be stripping you of your life. Or maybe it’s you who is taking advantage of someone else. Not all friendships, or partnerships are made equal; some have advantages while others have none at all. If you’re fortunate enough, you might discover your impossible match while exploring this big blue world - the Nemo to your anemone.

Clownfish and sea anenomes.

RECONSTRUCTING DINOSAURS

HOW OUR PERCEPTION OF PREHISTORIC FAUNA HAS CHANGED

IN GREEK,'DEINOS' MEANS 'FEARFULLY GREAT' AND 'SAUROS' MEANS 'LIZARD': HOWEVER, DINOSAURS ARE MUCH MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO AVIANS THAN THEY ARE REPTILES.

The capital city of the Austrian province of Carinthia is called Klagenfurt. It is set in an idyllic landscape, surrounded by forested hills and crags, sitting on the sandy shores of the Wörthersee. However, this city isn’t just famous for its beauty: it has the honour of owning the first ever reconstruction of an extinct animal.

In the city square, the Neue Platz, there is a large, ornate fountain built in the sixteenth century, bearing a statue of a lindworm atop it - the city’s emblem. Lindworms are mythical creatures similar to dragons, but generally agreed to be longer and more serpentlike.

However, this particular lindworm has a decidedly strange head. It looks more mammalian than reptilian, with a stubby snout, blunt teeth, and little fluffy ears. In fact, this statue, which was carved from a single block of slate and weighed roughly six tons, was based on what the sculptors firmly believed to be the skull of a real lindworm - found in the aptly named Dragon’s Grave quarry in the nearby hills.

This skull did not belong to a lindworm, of course, but rather to an equally formidable beast: the woolly rhino, a massive animal with a wiry covering of hair and two huge horns on its nose. The skull was discovered in 1335, immediately put on display in the town hall, and three hundred years later it was used as a reference to carve the face of the lindworm.

Since then, many, many more fossils have been discovered, and our perception of the prehistoric past has become ever more precise. We know so much more, and have found the footprints,

coprolites, and petrified remains of creatures utterly beyond those sixteenth-century sculptors’ understanding. However, we still have much to learn.

The word ‘dinosaur’ was coined in 1842 by the famed palaeontologist Sir Richard Owen, from a compound of the Ancient Greek words ‘deinos’ (δεινός), meaning 'terrible, potent or fearfully great', and ‘sauros’ (σαῦρος), meaning ‘lizard or reptile’. This is a good example of how drastically palaeontology has changed in such a short time - this name is already known to be inaccurate, as, unlike the common perception when Sir Richard Owen coined the name, dinosaurs are much more closely related to avians than they are reptiles. However, most dinosaurs’ names end with the -saur suffix even now, barring a few clearly very birdlike exceptions like Confuciusornis and its cousin Eoconfuciusornis, the oldest bird to ever have a beak.

The most famous example of bad dinosaur restoration may be the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs, a group of sculptures representing fifteen genera of extinct prehistoric animals - despite the name, only three of these were actually dinosaurs, the others being various other species such as ichthyosaurs which were then thought of as dinosaurs. They were unveiled to the world in 1854, and described as the first-ever sculptures of dinosaurs. They were sculpted under close instruction from Sir Richard Owen, in accordance with the most up-to-date knowledge of how dinosaurs were thought to look at the time. Despite this scrupulous scientific direction, however, the sculptures are subject to a plethora of glaring errors. The most significant of these errors were likely

Rowan Reddy YEAR 12

made in the reconstruction of Iguanodon as a sprawling, scaly, four-legged beast, with its famous thumb-claw being situated, instead, on its nose.

The Iguanodon had not, in fact, been discovered by Owen, although he had sole direction of its reconstruction. It had been discovered by a man named Gideon Mantell, who, although he was an obstetrician by trade, managed to single-handedly kickstart the study of palaeontology with his discovery of several fossilised Iguanodon teeth in 1822.

After he had discovered the teeth, he showed them to several eminent scientists to try and gauge their opinion on what the teeth belonged to. It was Mantell's opinion that the teeth belonged to some sort of large lizard, but the teeth were dismissed as belonging to a herbivorous mammal or large fish. When Mantell presented the teeth to Georges Cuvier, he identified them as being those of a rhinoceros, and when Mantell returned to England after this he was mocked for having ever dared to think they belonged to a lizard. However, he still held fast in his belief that the teeth were not mammalian in nature, and in fact belonged to some kind of previously unknown Mesozoic organism.

When his views on the fossil teeth were finally proved right, three years after their discovery, Mantell decided to christen his newly-discovered creature Iguanodon (iguana-tooth) after its iguana-like teeth. He also realised that, extrapolating from the large size of the remains, the animal must have been very large - around sixty feet in length. This was, much later, proved to be inaccurate, and the size of the Iguanodon more accurately estimated to be around half that size.

to try and fit the newly-discovered dinosaurs into this framework of belief. He opposed the burgeoning versions of evolutionary science being developed by palaeontologists like Mantell.

Owen put forth his opinions on dinosaurs in the form of papers on the subject determining that they were mammalian in nature, as well, crucially, as having the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs sculpted in accordance with his beliefs. This greatly shaped the public view of how dinosaurs looked for many years to come - especially the Iguanodon sculptures, based on Mantell's fossilised specimen, but completely disregarding the hypotheses which he had later developed.

In fact, Mantell had successfully managed to challenge Owen's erroneous conclusions some years before, proving that Iguanodon's body plan was not mammalian in nature, with its hind legs being significantly longer than its front legs - thus disproving Owen's creationist theories, as well as becoming a preeminent authority on the newly formed science of palaeontology.

However, his final realisation came too late for him to share his knowledge with the world. A few years before his death at the age of sixty-two, Mantell discovered that Iguanodon and its fellow iguanodonts were not heavily-built, mammalian animals as Owen had proposed, but had slender limbs and a long tail. However, before he could bring his realisation to public attention, he became sick with scoliosis (likely brought on by a previous carriage accident) and, despite his persistence and determination to share his views on southern England's prehistoric past, he eventually died. Mantell's early death left Sir Richard Owen to become the most trusted palaeontologists of that time, and to perpetuate his incorrect reconstruction of dinosaurs for many more years before they were challenged again.

Even at the time, however, many scientists rebelled against Mantell's reconstruction of dinosaurs as massive lizard-like creatures. Sir Richard Owen, backed by much more financial and societal support than was afforded to Mantell, directly contradicted his view of dinosaurs, and instead believed that they were smaller, mammalian, and more similar to elephants or rhinoceri, with heavy limbs and thick skin. He held this view as a result of his strong subscription to creationism, which led him

Our current view of Iguanodon - and of dinosaurs as a whole - has changed massively since the days of these early palaeontologists. Despite their often conflicting, incorrect views, Mantell and Owen hold a key role in the history of palaeontology: they were the first people to imagine what these great prehistoric beasts might have looked like, and how they acted. They were the first scientists ever to truly attempt to reconstruct the dinosaurs.

Illustration of fossil Iguanodon teeth with a modern iguana jaw shown beneath them, from Mantell's 1825 paper (Wiki Commons).

AGAINST OUR NATURE

DEATH AND REGENERATION IN SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT

James Burkinshaw EDITOR OF PORTSMOUTH POINT

Much of the magic of Christmas lies in the interplay between its Christian forms and its pagan roots. What connects them is the idea of rebirth and regeneration. Christmas takes place a few days after the Winter Solstice - 21st December - which, in the northern hemisphere, is the shortest day of the year. For the first time since midsummer, days are beginning to lengthen, and people, as they have for centuries, celebrate light and life amidst darkness and death. With families gathered for warmth and light around Yule fires, Christmas has always been a time for telling stories - particularly ghost stories, a tradition that long predated Dickens’ Christmas Carol or the haunting tales of M R James. In the midwinter darkness, minds were particularly attuned to the presence of spirits and ghosts. And, as the year grew to a close, with its bare, wintry landscapes, it was perhaps only natural for people to think about times past and about friends and family no longer with them. There has

THE MEDIEVAL POEM'S MESSAGE OF REGENERATION IS EVEN MORE URGENT, IN OUR ERA OF ECOLOGICAL CRISIS, THAN IT WAS SIX CENTURIES AGO.

always been a sense of mortality and melancholy underlying the Christmas merriment.

One of the greatest Christmas stories of all was written six centuries ago, somewhere in the Peak District, by a poet whose name has been lost to us. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight opens, as many good ghost stories do, with a supernatural figure disrupting a Christmas celebration. The mysterious Green Knight rides into King Arthur’s Camelot in the midst of their feasting and gift-exchanging: “a fearful form appeared, framed in the door:/a mountain of a man . . . the bristles of his bushy green brows . . . /And the horse: every hair was green, from hoof to mane.” In one hand, he holds a bunch of holly, in the other a huge axe. The Green Knight issues a challenge, which is accepted by one of Arthur’s youngest knights, Gawain. The Green Knight kneels down and hands his axe to Gawain, instructing him to cut off his head. Surprised, Gawain does so, using considerable force: “The cleanness of the strike cleaved the spinal cord/and parted the fat and the flesh so far/that the bright steel blade took a bite from the floor.” To everyone’s shock, the Knight’s headless body stands up, crosses the banqueting chamber and picks up its own head, which has rolled across the floor. The head “opened its eyelids, stared straight

Illustration from the original manuscript of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, late 14th century.

ahead” and tells Gawain to meet at the Green Chapel in one year and one day, so that the Green Knight can return the blow.

Even though he knows he faces certain death, Gawain sets out for the Green Chapel on a journey that takes him out of the civilisation of Camelot and into the wilderness. Simon Armitage, who has written a modern translation of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, capturing the northern dialect of the fourteenth century original, believes the poet “had an actual landscape in mind when he conceived the poem . . .he made good use of the surrounding geography.” Gawain traverses a recognisable Peaks setting of “bare rocks/where melt-water streamed from the snowcapped summits . . . Hazel and hawthorn are interwoven,/decked and draped in damp, shaggy moss,/and bedraggled birds on bare, black branches/pipe pitifully into the piercing cold”. He is threatened not only by “snarling wolves” but by the climate itself: “the wars were one thing, but winter was worse.”

Cold and exhausted, Gawain seeks shelter at an isolated castle, where the Lord and Lady invite him to stay for three days and nights, as they live not far from the Green Chapel. Like the Green Knight, the Lord proposes an Exchange: each day he will give Gawain whatever he kills during his hunt; in return, Gawain, remaining at the castle to rest, will give the Lord anything he receives during the same day. On the first day, the Lord returns from the hunt with a deer, on the second a wild boar, and on the third a fox, each of which he gives to Gawain.

Gawain seems glad to spend the three days resting in the comfort of the bedchamber, a soft, fur-lined mantle replacing his metallic suit of armour. However, far from being safe, he is as much the quarry as deer, boar or fox. Each day, he is visited in his chamber by the Lady, who expresses her desire for Gawain using masculine, even military, language (“I’ll besiege you in your bed”) that places her in assertive control of her own sexuality. Gawain has reciprocal feelings (“a passionate heat takes hold in his heart”), but, determined to behave in what he believes to be a civilised, moral manner, he accepts only a kiss, on each occasion, which he passes on to the Lord in exchange for the gifts of the deer, boar and fox.

The poet elegantly interweaves the three hunting scenes (death) and the three seduction scenes (sexuality) - “through a limeleaf border the lord led the hunt,/while snug in his sheets lay slumbering Gawain,/dozing as the daylight dappled the walls” - to suggest that, not only are human beings challenged by the nature that surrounds them but by their own natural instincts. The paired events - the hunt in the forest and the hunt in the bedroom - subvert the religious and chivalric concept of humans as a unique category of being apart from nature. Gawain has ridden out from Camelot into the natural world, only to find that it is already inescapably within him.

Gawain’s lust for life is inextricable from his fear of death. On the third day of the hunt, the fox - in contrast to the deer or boar - uses cunning and duplicity, making it very hard for the Lord to catch him. On the same day, the Lady offers Gawain not only a kiss but a magic green belt which, she says, will protect him from physical harm when he meets the Green Knight. Gawain accepts the belt, but does not tell the Lord. Like the fox, he is resorting to trickery to save his own life; they share the same instinctive sense of self-preservation. Next day, Gawain meets the Green Knight at the Green Chapel, wearing the green belt for protection. Even so, he flinches as the Knight brings down the

axe (“sensing its sharpness, Gawain shrank at the shoulders”), the language deliberately echoing the description of the way the fox “shirks from the sharpness” of the Lord’s sword during the hunt.

Again, the Knight brings the axe down; this time “Gawain was motionless, never moved a muscle”. However, the Knight skilfully prevents the axe from doing any more than “finely snicking the fat of the flesh” so that a few drops of Gawain’s blood spatter on to the snow. The Green Knight reveals himself to be the Lord of the Castle; he has spared Gawain’s life in recognition of his courage and virtue. However, the small cut to Gawain’s neck reflects his lapse in failing to reveal the gift of the belt. The scar will be an indelible reminder of Gawain’s flawed nature. He is a man - a good man - not a god or a machine. Mirroring the red blood on the snow, Gawain flushes (“Blood flowed towards his face/and showed his smarting shame”), feeling a sense of moral failure (“As I feared, I am found to be flawed and false.”). He returns to a hero’s welcome at Camelot, but announces he will always wear the green belt as a badge of shame: “I was tainted by untruth

Kinder Scout, Peak District.

and this, its token/I will drape across my chest till the day I die.” In solidarity, Arthur and Gawain’s fellow-knights all wear a green belt like Gawain’s, representing their own flawed, human nature.

The three tests - Bedroom, Beheading and Exchangesymbolise the human confrontation with sexuality, death and the regeneration that connects sexuality and death within the cycle of nature. As he rides into Arthur’s court, at the beginning of the poem, the Green Knight bears, in one hand, the, holly, “of all the evergreens, the greenest ever”, ancient symbol of the continuity of life in the depth of winter. In the other, he wields “the mother of all axes,/a cruel piece of kit”, which certainly suggests violent death. However, after the axe is used to decapitate the Knight, his head and body are reunited; at the Green Chapel “again he was green, like a year ago,/with green hair and flesh and a fully green face.” As ecological historian Oliver Rackham explains, mediaeval communities were very much aware that they needed to keep their natural resources renewable and therefore sustainable. Wood was the essential fuel and building material. They knew that felled trees needed to be replaced by new growth; to this purpose, fourteenth century writers noted the importance

of using an axe, rather than a saw. The Green Knight’s axe is a symbol of not just violence but regeneration. It is notable that the poem is framed, at the beginning and end, by descriptions of the destruction of the civilisation of Troy (“the city a smoke-heap of cinders and ash”), which in turn foreshadows the fall of Arthur’s Camelot. It is human culture that is ephemeral, suggests the poet, and nature that is regenerative. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight remains one of the most haunting and evocative Christmas stories ever written, its message of regeneration even more urgent, in our era of ecological crisis, than it was when first written six centuries ago.

Bibliography

Simon Armitage, translation, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (Faber, 2007)

Oliver Rackham, Trees and Woodland in the British Landscape (Dent, 1976)

Gillian Rudd, ‘Wilderness in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight’ (Arthuriana, 2013)

William F Woods, 'Nature and the Inner Man in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ('Chaucer Review, 2002)

‘THE BEST OF BOOKS AND THE WORST OF BOOKS’

REINTERPRETING VIRGIL’S AENEID BOOK VI

Florence Yearsley

YEAR 13

Translating Virgil's Aeneid from Latin is not an easy task. Through a combination of epic similes and endless epithets, the majestic portrayal of Aeneas' journey to Italy proves a radiant beacon of classical literature. Virgil's vivid and evocative descriptions weave a tapestry of heroic travels, mysticism and, ultimately, a timeless exploration of human nature. From Gavin Douglas' 1513 rendition of Virgil's epic into Middle Scots ('Eneados'), to John Dryden's 1697 translation, the task has been endeavoured by myriads of writers. Yet the work I wish to explore is Seamus Heaney's mellifluous rendition of Book VI, published posthumously in 2016. Book VI of the Aeneid narrates Aeneas' journey to the underworld to reconcile with his father, Anchises. It has been argued that Book VI is the most noteworthy of all since Aeneas begins to forsake his Trojan past and instead adopt a determined focus on his god-given fate: to form the civilisation that will become Rome.

Seamus Heaney's gravitas as a writer is undisputed, with each exquisite volume of his work making him widely recognised as one of the major poets of the 20th century. When reading a poem by Heaney, one can't help but notice his dexterity regarding the meticulous craftsmanship of language. His diction is invariably evocative, addressing myriads of universal themes such as love, conflict, and a yearning for peace and reconciliation. It doesn't come as a surprise that Heaney won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1995 for 'works of lyrical beauty and ethical depth, which exalt everyday miracles and the living past', which manifest in his beauteous tale of Aeneas' chthonic descent.

Heaney's interest in Book VI was ignited during his Latin studies at A Level, with his translation, as proposed by himself in the preface to his work, as 'more like classics homework, the result of a lifelong desire to honour the memory of my teacher at St Columb's College, Father Michael McGlinchey'. Yet, alongside his lifelong gravitation towards Book VI, Heaney notes

Anchises reunited with Aeneas in the Underworld.

that the death of his father, Patrick [Paddy] Heaney, revealed to him a profound poignancy that he hadn't grasped before. Thus, through his poetical euphony, Heaney pays tribute to his father through his take on the touching reunion between Aeneas and Anchises. Through producing such an allegorical eulogy, Heaney's translation of Book VI carries undertones of his own desire to reconnect with his late father.

One could argue that the style of Heaney mirrors that of Virgil, with both poets focusing on an infusion of lyrical beauty, with the personal and political. The powerful lexis used by both writers adopts an unparalleled descriptive quality, focusing on striking imagery and sensory language in creating a microcosm of majestic serenity for the reader. Heaney astutely imitates Virgil's use of vivid imagery when depicting the saddening encounter between the protagonist and his former lover, Dido. Heaney flawlessly interprets Virgil's emotive description:

talibus Aeneas ardentem et torva tuentem lenibat dictis animum lacrimasque ciebat. illa solo fixos oculos aversa tenebat nec magis incepto vultum sermone movetur quam si dura silex aut stet Marpesia cautes.

Virgil, Aeneid Book VI

'Pleading like this, Tears welling up inside him, Aeneas tried

To placate her fiery spirit and soften Her fierce gaze; but she, averting her face, Her eyes fixed steadily on the ground, turned And showed no sign of having heard, no more

Than if her features had been carved in flint

Or Parian marble.'

Seamus Heaney, Aeneid Book VI

However, Heaney doesn't solely conform to the structures of Virgil's epic poem. Contrary to the dactylic 'heroic' hexameter of the original, Heaney enforces the Old English alliterative rhythms of iambic pentameter, thus implementing a shift in effect regarding stresses on specific words. Furthermore, the speed at which the poem is read differs through the change in metre, enabling the

THROUGH HIS POETICAL EUPHONY, HEANEY PAYS TRIBUTE TO HIS FATHER THROUGH HIS TAKE ON THE TOUCHING REUNION BETWEEN AENEAS AND ANCHISES.

reader to recognise the expressions Heaney wishes to focus on. As proposed by James J. O'Hara in the Cambridge Companion to Virgil, a contemporary Roman audience would have listened to Virgil's magnum opus and 'paid more attention to the sound and beauty of the language than to what was being said'. However, the didactic lessons interwoven with Virgil's harmonious heroic hexameter combine to form the epitome of great literature. The characterisation of Aeneas proves the quintessence of a Roman hero through his grandeur in battle and his empathetic devotion in protecting his family. As a reader, we are engaged to recognise Aeneas' piety, therefore being urged by Virgil to mirror his hero's reverence to the gods in our own lives. Heaney, too, conforms to the balance between societal pedagogic poetry and the layering of literary techniques to conceal the reader in a microcosm of symphonious beauty.

Though the reunion between Aeneas and Anchises is relatively fleeting, its touching brevity allows the moment to resonate blissfully through centuries:

ter conatus ibi collo dare bracchia circum; ter frustra comprensa manus effugit imago, par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno.

Virgil, Aeneid Book VI

'Three times he tried to reach arms round that neck. Three times the form, reached for in vain, escaped Like a breeze between his hands, a dream on wings.'

Seamus Heaney, Aeneid Book VI

Heaney's poetry frequently explores the relationship between father and son, with the emotional intensity of such a bond articulated through his emotive interpretation of the above simile. One could propose that through translating Book VI, Heaney seeks to reconcile with his father through his work, similar to the effort in vain made by Aeneas to embrace the spirit of his father. The enjambed line enforced by Heaney further supports the idea of the endless yearning to reunite with his father, alongside an echoing of Aeneas' arms grasping for the body of Anchises.

Book VI stands alone as a perfect excerpt to translate from the 9,896 lines of Virgil's original Latin. The opening sentiment of the book sees Aeneas having arrived on Italian shores dishevelled and questioning his future. Yet, the closing image sees the protagonist venturing through the ivory gate to his future, aligned with the promise of forthcoming glory. Heaney's translation of the Aeneid seems to honour the end of a lifelong fascination with the Latin epic, and through his own experiences, Heaney's personal touch permeates through the enchantment of Virgil's literary masterpiece.

To close on words that Heaney wrote in what he may have intended to serve as an afterword to the Aeneid Book VI, 'For the contemporary reader, it is the best of books and the worst of books. Best because of its mythopoetic visions, the twilit fetch of its language, the pathos of the many encounters it allows the living Aeneas with his familiar dead. Worst because of its imperial certitude, its celebration of Rome's manifest destiny and the catalogue of Roman heroes...'. Seamus Heaney will forever be remembered as one of the most impressive writers of the 20th century, with his splendiferous translation of Virgil's epic sitting comfortably towards the pinnacle of his immense oeuvre.

The FIRST FOLIO at 400

RE-EVALUATING THE ROLE OF SHAKESPEARE IN SOCIETY

FDawn Sands YEAR 12

our hundred years ago this year, in 1623, a book was published that would come to rest at the centre of English literature for centuries. William Shakespeare’s First Folio, a collection of thirty-six of Shakespeare’s plays, compiled by John Heminges and Henry Condell following the playwright’s death. Of these thirty-six plays, eighteen had never been published before, including texts which are now among the widestknown of Shakespeare’s plays, such as Macbeth, Twelfth Night and Julius Caesar

The publication of this collection was significant for many reasons: folio copies were incredibly expensive to produce (unlike cheaper quarto copies, the format in which texts such as plays tended to be presented), and the format was almost solely reserved for religious texts. Contemporary playwright Ben Jonson had published his own works in folio a few years previously, and had received backlash for presuming to raise his own writing to the level of texts such as these. The fact that, seven years after Shakespeare’s death in 1616, Heminges and Condell saw fit to create a more lasting archive of his plays speaks to the immense impact he had on the society he lived in at the time, and it is clear that this sense of social significance has persisted to the modern day.

WRITERS

AND

DIRECTORS HAVE FOUND MORE AND MORE WAYS IN WHICH SHAKESPEARE'S WRITING CAN BE INTERPRETED.

Is Shakespeare’s reputation substantiated, however? Many would argue that it is not, and that his worldwide fame forms part of a legacy of literary elitism and prejudice which preserves the words of white males while letting others drift into obscurity. Personally, I would maintain that Shakespeare does deserve his reputation as one of English literature’s greatest known writers — however, it is important to view his works in alignment with social

biases of both his time and ours, and interpret them accordingly. Shakespeare’s plays were originally written for the benefit of citizens from every rung of society: they would be presented to the monarch (and it is believed that some, such as The Merry Wives of Windsor, were specifically commissioned to be performed at Queen Elizabeth’s court), but they would also be performed in front of groundlings — usually lower-class, working citizens — who would pay to see a play for only a penny. William Shakespeare was a part of the lower-middle class himself, and is likely only to have received education until the ages of 14-15; it is known that he did not go to university. Despite the inclusivity of Shakespeare’s early audiences, however, after the passage of a hundred years, he was already beginning to be deified and lifted above the rank of ordinary folk — the legacy of Shakespeare as a distant, archaic playwright reserved only for the intellectual upper classes was beginning. Literary critic James Shapiro’s 2010 book Contested Will explores in great detail the transformation of Shakespeare from a universal entertainer to a collection of antiquated plays guarded by elitist pretensions, describing pilgrimages to Shakespeare’s hometown, unveilings of statues in his honour, and growing discourse as to whether a man of so little social standing could have even written such venerated plays himself — all taking place within the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Already, Shakespeare was a figure far removed from society, and it didn’t help that other suggested candidates for Shakespearean authorship — such as Francis Bacon or Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford — were either Oxbridge-educated or members of the nobility.

In recent years, however, as we have become more aware as a society of the prejudices which have impacted our consumption of literature for so long, there have been changes with regards

to how Shakespeare’s plays are adapted on stage. Writers and directors have found more and more ways in which Shakespeare’s writing, far from being the archaic, impenetrable literary code society is perhaps used to, can be interpreted as exploring themes which were highly progressive for his time and are still incredibly relevant today. Recent productions by the Royal Shakespeare Company include: Macbeth set in a future plagued by the effects of climate change, with the infamous Porter scene adapted for modern times; a Julius Caesar to reflect the turbulent political atmosphere of our current society, gender and pronoun changes creating a sense of anti-feminist dystopia reminiscent of Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale; a gender-bent production of The Tempest, shining a particular light on parent-child relationships and the effects of colonialism on cultures; and a Richard III featuring the first-ever disabled actor ever to play Richard for the RSC — which, despite retaining the frequent references to ‘deformity’, actually served to detract from the image of Richard as one whose immorality is linked to his disability, and allowed his evil deeds to stand alone. In none of these productions was the language greatly altered — new meaning was conveyed only through set, casting, and acting choices, bringing transformational relevance to 400-year-old words.

It is clear, therefore, given the success of these productions, that without having to change the language, Shakespeare’s writing can quickly be made relevant to 21st century society: despite the language barrier created by the archaic lexis of the time, Shakespeare remains a very modern writer, and it is this, combined with the poeticism and sensibility with which he approaches some of humanity’s most tender emotions, which gives me reason to believe his plays remain worthy of being read and watched today.

This, however, is a line of argument which relies largely on the fact that these works were written for the stage — a fact which is frequently forgotten when taught in schools. It is no secret that students tend to harbour a certain amount of resentment towards Shakespeare having studied him at school: in researching for this article, I asked a group of young people how school has impacted their opinion on Shakespeare, and while some said that it has increased their appreciation of the quality of his writing, most admitted that they have not enjoyed it particularly, and the phrase ‘forced to read [Shakespeare]’ was often used. Some specifically pointed to the difference between Shakespeare viewed on stage and Shakespeare studied in preparation for an exam, stating that the latter ‘sucked the fun out of it’ somewhat. This tends to be not the fault of English teachers themselves, who as far as the syllabus allows will put emphasis on the fact that Shakespeare was primarily meant to be watched; however, while a sense of Shakespeare’s technical skill can be brought across in a classroom setting, without the dramatic transformation that occurs when these words are carried from

the page to the stage, it begs the question of why texts of similar merit written in more accessible language are not being studied instead. This is not to say that Shakespeare should not be studied in schools — but if he is to be, it should not be to the detriment of thousands of students’ enjoyment purely for the sake of an exam, and re-evaluations need to be made so the pupils studying the plays do not feel as though they are being ‘forced’ to read them. Ultimately, Shakespeare taught in the way that it is now, especially at GCSE level, will only serve to breed the sense of intellectual distance which has followed Shakespeare ever since the eighteenth century, regardless of the advancements being made in the theatre industry, which will mainly attract those who already have a certain interest in literature and drama — further distancing theatre and the powerful impact it can have from others in society.

I believe that there are practical ways in which progress can be achieved, if the curriculum is made less restrictive: whole plays need not be studied, for example; personally, the biggest alteration in my appreciation of Shakespeare came from studying a single soliloquy set apart from the rest of the play, including evaluating different performances of the extract and the various interpretations they made of the character in question. Furthermore, while there is merit in teaching Shakespeare in schools, making this a requirement seems to be a stretch, and appreciation of different eras of literature can be encouraged without forcing the rhetoric that Shakespeare must be viewed as the single greatest writer of all time.

400 years on from the production of the First Folio and it is safe to say that Shakespeare’s plays have remained a cultural staple, permeating language, theatre, and even schools. Public perceptions of his work have shifted continuously since their publication: originally the entertainment of every rung of society, the crowd of Shakespeare’s fans grew more centred around the highly educated as the centuries progressed; the plays have now made their way to the centre of the English literature curriculum, and our position currently appears to be a need to unite the progressive aims of the theatre with those of the national syllabus, which at present only seems to drain the enjoyment of the majority of students. Shakespeare maintains an enormous amount of cultural significance, but potentially less widespread appreciation, and I believe that in order to decrease the sense of resentment many have towards his plays, Shakespeare must be brought back down to our level again: he began as a writer of the people, and it is in this position that he should — and can — remain.

William Shakespeare’s First Folio, 1623.

HOLDING ON TO OUR HUMANITY

Timely Warnings from Three Dystopian Classics

Ruthie Gawley YEAR 10

All dystopias are born out of fear. Horrifying visions of future societies twisted by their ‘success’, alien in their moral standards. Each one tells a cautionary tale of grief and havoc left behind in humanity’s quest for power and influence. If you read enough of them, you start to notice patterns: the tragic stories, the slavelike citizens and, most striking, the fears of the authors. I want to focus on three of the most acclaimed dystopian novels of all time, and ask what the writers were really afraid of. Weaved into each story is a desperate plea to readers: don’t let this vision become a brutal reality. What are these timeless classics still imploring us to remember, how relevant is that today, and are they all asking the same thing?

THE RELEVANCE OF ALL THREE BOOKS TODAY IS STARTLING, GIVEN THEIR AGE: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, FAKE NEWS, GENETIC ENGINEERING . . .

The most famous dystopia of all, Nineteen EightyFour, was written by George Orwell in 1948. A grim prediction of the future, it envisions a completely controlled, constantly surveyed society living under the omnipresent dictator Big Brother. All citizens are required to see Big Brother and his ideals as perfect, and regard him as their greatest idol. Winston, the protagonist, is somehow able to see everything that is wrong with their world, and reveals it in the form of desperate diary entries. From these, it is clear there are so many horrible aspects of life under Big Brother that it is difficult to see what the fundamental message is. What is this bleak book trying to tell us?

The first clue to this intended message is the essential concept of double-think. This is the ability to know one thing, and at the same time to also believe a completely contradictory thing, and use the correct one in the correct circumstances. It is almost willful ignorance of fact, and is essential to getting by in Nineteen

Eighty-Four’s society. For example, when the chocolate ration was reduced from 30 to 20 grams by the Government, the next day it was announced that Big Brother was raising the ration up to 20 grams. Everyone simply took this in their stride, removing the prior knowledge that it was reduced and replacing that with the knowledge that it had increased. More than that, they did this without even mentally recording doing it - because to doublethink, you have to use doublethink to persuade yourself you aren’t doing anything. You hold the useful fact and the orthodox lie in your head - that you are using doublethink and that you are not - and you use the fact first, to do the doublethink, before replacing the fact with the lie. However, if the fact is ever needed again, it is retrievable; but it is buried somewhere deep, and will simply be erased again if it is surfaced to be used once more. Due to the way it functions, doublethink is fundamental to this civilization. Inhabitants must believe that they are living the most perfect life, and anything else is ‘thoughtcrime’ (blasphemous feelings towards Big Brother or the life he provides for you which are far worse than material crime). However, they really do lead terrible lives: fed too little, living in tiny flats, and with no true friends who wouldn’t turn them in at the slightest hesitation to worship Big Brother. In this dual life, you have to be able to live with contradictions, and deal with them with doublethink. Because all of Nineteen Eighty-Four’s inhabitants can exercise doublethink, it moulds lies into genuine truth. The idea is that if everyone believes something, it is therefore true. If each individual holds in their heart that the chocolate ration is going up, if everyone thinks this is right, then is it? If it is, then the authorities have total control over everything and everyone,

because anything that they say is ultimately the truth. This bends reality, but allows Big Brother to rule without contradiction or fear of a mistake. At any given moment, doublethink can be used to transform the public’s perception of the world.

Another key part of Nineteen Eighty-Four is altering the past. Winston works in the Ministry of Truth, where he goes through old copies of the Times, and using the principle of doublethink he removes old statements, truths, and replaces them with new lies issued by the Government. For example, if a man is made to disappear by the thought police because he has voiced something against Big Brother, all records of him must be erased and replaced from the old newspapers. Alternatively, fewer boots could have been produced in the factories than was forecast, and the old forecasts needed changing so that the figures match. The editing of past truths is the final step in completely burying them. With no written evidence of Doublethink ever taking place, it’s even harder to argue that it exists. Old texts, such as Shakespeare, are completely removed from circulation or edited to make them comply with Big Brother’s values. Entire teams of people rewrite old poems and books. The end result is a world built on a lie, but a world where there is no way to deny or argue against these lies. The lies have become genuine truths

I believe this is Orwell’s deepest fear - fear that we will lose the concept of truth, the past will become fluid, and lies will become statements. The iconic line ‘Oceania was always at war with Eastasia’ represents this - even though the country Oceania had only just been at war with Eurasia, and in alliance with Eastasia, all records were changed and doublethink rendered the entire war, lasting years, nonexistent. Orwell demonstrates the extreme power that this hands authority in the all encompassing might of Big Brother and the weakness of those who live under him. Ultimately, Orwell argues that those who control the truth control

the power. In this modern age, misinformation and fake news are examples of Orwell’s fears realised. Nineteen Eighty-Four's bleak story is a reminder that lies like these have more influence than it might seem, and must be tackled. As soon as a lie becomes a truth, you are in danger - and there is danger that Orwell’s issue could grow beyond just the examples we see today.

Arguably the first great dystopian novel, We, was written during the repressive 1920s of the Soviet Union, by Yevgeby Zamyatin. The book envisions a dark future where, after an apocalyptic war, humanity rebuilds under the command of the mysterious “Benefactor”, forming a new civilization known as the “One State”. The inhabitants of this One State believe that they have achieved complete happiness, but their methods result in a society that looks nightmarishly controlling from a modern perspective.

The architecture of the One State offers some evidence for what Zamyatin’s fear is. It’s completely repetitive, built out of cubic glass boxes of perfect proportions. The pristine flawlessness of the glass, and its total transparency, uphold the ideals of the One State; D-503, the book’s protagonist, writes that when the sky is as clear as the flawless, glittering material, everything looks mathematically pure. This purity and perfection epitomises what their society strives to achieve. The clean lines and faultless geometry of the architecture add to the impression of an immaculately pre-planned system. Every glass box is occupied by a person, and within it the same routine takes place, visible to all. Cubic boxes come together to form looming cubic structures, completely monotonous. As a result, it is almost impossible for citizens to visualise an alternative to this faultless order. The natural world - full of chaos, colour and spontaneity- is completely barred off by the “Green Wall''. No law-abiding inhabitant of the One State has ever seen it. There are parallels to this presentation of the material world and the language Orwell composed for Nineteen

Nineteen Eighty-Four (directed by Michael Radford, 1984)

Eighty-Four, Newspeak. When thinking in Newspeak, you are so restricted there is no way to even contemplate orthodox thoughts.

In We, the way the world is experienced by citizens prevents them from considering any alternative to the One State and its order; they simply don’t have the concepts to mentally battle it. During a moving scene in the book, D-503 is totally overwhelmed when experiencing the outside for the first time. It is as if a part of his humanity has been returned, and for the first time he understands what is wrong with the society he lives in. It is so incredibly different from what he has been conditioned to believe is normal that I think it tips him into resisting the One State.

The final and most damning clue to Zamyatin’s deepest

message is the “Great Operation”, revealed by the authorities at the climax of the book. The result of the operation is surgical removal of the imagination. When the first load of operated citizens appear, their behaviour isn’t human at all; they are described as less like people, more ‘person-like tractors'. It is hard to reconcile the authorities’ promise that the operation would produce 100% happy people, and the almost brain-dead, robotlike creatures. With their imaginations removed, they epitomise efficiency and reason, but not joy. Essential to Zamyatin’s message is the idea that as soon as you remove the imagination and soul of a person, they lose their humanity. However, the authorities promise to leave the patient perfect- “machine-

equal”. Members of the One State have been manipulated into believing that being essentially unhuman is perfect - soul-less is ideal.

From these clues, I believe Zamyatin’s deepest fear is that cold-hearted logic, and mathematical reasoning will overtake the quirks of human individuality. He fears that one day, humankind will realise that it is possible to achieve more if all of society is reorganised in a totally mechanical way. Those who command would face no resistance, hold ultimate power, and meanwhile everything that it meant to be human would be stripped from us. These fears are realised in the One State. He controls and ultimately eradicates the unpredictable, intricate, unique human mind; first through the censoring of imperfect real world, and next through the operation. Everything crumbles into order and purity. Now, at a time of computing, robotics and the first glimmers of artificial intelligence, I think Zamyatin’s message to remember what is truly valuable about humanity is an important one. It is no coincidence that the book ends on these chilling cautionary lines, from the perspective of total logic, regarding those who resist it: “I know that we will win. Because reason should win.”

Brave New World was written in 1932 by Aldous Huxley, after We but in the same inter-war period. Huxley envisions a future where society is commanded by a superior upper class, the Alphas, and descends in a strict hierarchy. The caste system is revered and allpowerful, restricting all aspects of life. However, painstaking work is done to enforce the system and ensure that all people believe “everybody’s happy now” - with methods that seem beyond unorthodox.

Probably the most striking of these methods is the “Hatchery” system, a revolutionary new way to synthesise human reproduction. Eggs are harvested from surgically removed ovaries, then fertilised and incubated in bottles. Embryos set aside to be the future upper classes would subsequently be treated with great care, immunised against diseases and heated to just the right temperature. On the other hand, lower classes - the Gammas, Deltas and Epsilonswould undergo Bokanovsky’s process. A single embryo would be split in half, effectively cloned. The two halves would then be split again, and again, until you have up to 96 identical embryos where you once had only one. The result, it is claimed, is social stability. It’s possible to staff entire shops, production lines, or labs with the same person “uniform batches” of men and women, working in unison. In a way, these lower classes lose some of their humanity, in a way not unlike Zamyatin’s surgery. This created completely uniform minds, whereas the Bokanovsky process creates uniform people; people who lose some of their value; people who are just one in 96; people who know their place in the world. Of course, this only applies to the lowest in the societal hierarchy - the Alphas and Betas are hatched as single individuals, who are able to develop the way we can today, seeing themselves as unique and special. A stark contrast which accentuates the way science is used to enforce and empower the caste system.

However, this isn’t the only discrepancy in the Hatcheries. Those working class clone-like twins would also be systematically starved of oxygen or poisoned with alcohol in their bottles, creating inferior humans - physically or mentally stunted. In fact, a whole variety of things could be tweaked. As a result of these changes, humans can be essentially engineered. All lower class citizens are less intelligent, therefore less likely to rebel. They are all conditioned to do exactly the job which is most helpful to society -

ZAMYATIN'S FEAR IS THAT COLDHEARTED LOGIC AND MATHEMATICAL REASONING WILL OVERTAKE THE QUIRKS OF HUMAN INDIVIDUALITY. EVERYTHING THAT IT MEANS TO BE HUMAN WOULD BE STRIPPED FROM US.

if it’s valuable for them to emigrate to the tropics, they are cooled in their bottles so they hate to be cold. If they are destined to work on a building site, enhance their physical attributes. People can be manipulated to be perfectly suited to their pre-decided life. In some ways, they have no free will- although they believe they are making choices, everything is already chosen for them. In fact, the whole next generation is already planned, perfectly suited for the lives they will lead. The Hatchery director claims that this intense biological conditioning makes ‘people like their unescapable social destiny’. That migrant worker moving to the equator, for example, would be benefiting society and also much happier in the tropics. Whether that justifies the conditioning, and whether your social destiny should really be ‘inescapable’, is down to personal opinion.

I believe that this key element of the book demonstrates Huxley’s main message; he is desperate to avoid a future where science will allow us to genuinely create biological differences in humans - dividing their fate before they are born. More than that, he is afraid that this power will be used to divide society into castes, and allow this system to blossom. There will be no escape for the lower classes, and the elite will have the entire world handed to them on a plate. Precise, all-encompassing manipulation of social science: Huxley takes this idea and runs with it, presenting a worst-case scenario which is so horrifically different from the way we view society today. What is scary about Huxley’s vision is that it is so ahead of its time, written when biological engineering was barely existent. It begs the question - if these ethical issues were being considered before even World War II, do they deserve more of a voice today?

All of these dystopias raise valid, fear-inducing questions about the society we live in today. Their relevance to philosophical debate today is startling given their age - artificial intelligence, fake news, genetic engineering . . . but I think what links them most is what their fears look like when realised. Each one removes a vital aspect of our humanity: takes away our human individuality and replaces it with machine-like order; Brave New World removes our deepest aspects of free will and forces us to live predetermined lives; Nineteen Eighty-Four twists our mental perception of truth and fact. These are all things that oppose what we see as fundamental human rights today. I think this demonstrates that if we take anything too powerful, and twist it to our own good, or use it for power, we lose a part of who we are. We can’t manipulate the truth, or order our minds, without facing consequences. Dystopias argue that to remain strong as human beings we must be mindful of the developments we make.

RE-IMAGINING OUR WORLD (WITHOUT ART)

Iona Perkins YEAR 11

Decisions. We make roughly 35,000 of them a day, some almost subconscious and not life-altering, like turning left to get into school or if you get a cookie at break. Or some life-defining ones, for example which colleges or universities you apply to, or if you apply at all. The dilemma posed by ‘what if?’ can lead people down protracted rabbit holes. What if Shakespeare had never learnt to write? What if Leonardo da Vinci had been born blind? What if Mozart hadn’t grown up around music?

Imagine a world with no visual representation of historical events before 1816, when the camera was invented, no app icons and no Mona Lisa. Humans have been creating art for more than one hundred millennia to express ourselves, document significant events and to decorate our surrounding environment. Paint containers have been discovered in the Blombos Cave in South Africa that date back to around this time, made from a variety of mineral and organic based pigments. The first known paintings were made by Neanderthals in the prehistoric era and were often created from hand stencils and consisted of simple geometric shapes or animals. They used colours and ornaments to strengthen messages about each

other through depictions of their own bodies whilst cave art had either a symbolic or religious function. Prehistoric art provides an insight into the everyday lives of Neanderthals and early humans. Without it, we would be missing important details of that period.

ART EVOKES EMOTION; IT CAN UPLIFT, ENCOURAGE, WARN, SOOTHE, ENTERTAIN AND EDUCATE.

From there, as we developed, so did art. The Ancient Art period from 30,000 BCE – 400 CE, saw the construction of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, including The Great Pyramids of Giza (c. 2,560 BCE), the Colossus of Rhodes (280 BCE) and the Temple of Artemis (550 BCE). Ancient Greek and Roman art’s high technical standards and proportion of form are still drawn from in modern works. For example, the figure of the Minotaur often appears in Picasso’s drawings and sketches whilst Auguste Rodin, most famous for the bronze sculpture called The Thinker, imitated Parthenon sculptures and the classic beauty canons of the Belvedere Torso. Countless lives were also involved and depended on the erection of ancient monuments which were often very large: carpenters, stone masons, quarry workers and hauliers. As a result, they all relied on the income, so without it other types of work would not have flourished and been invented.

During the Tudor period, paintings heavily influenced people’s perceptions of monarchs and key figure heads. Travel was not accessible for many, unless they were in the navy or army or were extremely rich, so paintings were a way to communicate one’s wealth and status. The Tudor monarchs relied on art forms like tapestries, paintings and sculptures to legitimise their nascent dynasty. They were often part of marriage negotiations and held many symbolic items to demonstrate their political power. Previously, Henry VII invested in a range of decorative arts with commissions depicting mythological and religious scenes, demonstrating his courtly splendour. After seizing the throne in the War of the Roses, he recognised the importance of art in maintaining links to the European continent. Without the shared passion for art, it is likely his connections with Europe would have deteriorated and then he would not have had the power to suppress rebellions; the Tudor dynasty might not have been secured.

The mathematician Jerry P. King said, “the keys to mathematics are beauty and elegance”, going on to describe it as an art. Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci renders the proportions of the male body. It is an example of Renaissance fascination with the artistic representation of mathematics. There is a large cross over between biological understanding and art as demonstrated in Micrographia by Robert Hooke. His book of observations whilst experimenting and improving the microscope made science accessible to the poorer public of Restoration England through visual representation, elucidating complex, new ideas through his drawings. Without this, the public would have been very isolated and the availability of knowledge could have created an ever growing rift between people with access to education and people who did not. This would have continued to grow until the difference was too great to breach, creating a momentous divide in society.

earliest and most influential legal codes was produced in 1754 BCE, during the first dynasty of Babylon: the Code of Hammurabi It features over 300 laws, covering issues from agriculture to family and justice, a comprehensive system for resolving disputes, punishing crimes and regulating business practices. It has been hugely influential over many centuries, not only in the Ancient World but in modernity; without it, today’s legal systems would perhaps be drastically different, perhaps unrecognisable. Furthermore, the Code was presented in the form of a stele, an ornamental monument that includes an artistic representation of the king, Hammurabi, receiving his legal and political authority from the sun god Shamash. It is not only an impressive legal document but a powerful art work.

Art evokes emotion: it can uplift, encourage, warn, soothe, entertain and educate. I find it almost impossible to reimagine our world without art; its absence would be felt in every aspect of

People underestimate the influence that art can have socially and politically. Without it, assimilating new and innovative viewpoints would be much harder. Artists such as Shepard Fairey and Picasso are fabulous examples. In Picasso’s Guernica, he depicts the horror caused by Nazi-fascist troops, united with Francisco Franco’s government when they bombed the Basque town of Guernica in 1937, despite it holding no strategic military value. It was the first aerial saturation bombing of a civilian population. Picasso depicts the trauma in a politically engaged way, allowing art to be his mouthpiece to the world, speaking the truth about the brutality and suffering caused by the war. Many think that the painting was an anti-war statement and a warning for the possible brutality of the war to come. It was a brave way of presenting his views without having to explicitly write them down.

Art has been interwoven with politics for millennia. One of the

our lives. There would be no animated movies, advertising would be purely lexical; without any appreciation of aesthetic beauty, architectural development would focus on being practical rather than elegant or connecting to the location.

Creativity is a muscle; it needs exercise, discipline and habit to grow and become stronger. A primary function of the brain is to drive adaptation of the organism to its environment. For example, humans first ate a tough diet that included grass that was digested by the appendix. However, as humans have evolved, we have started to include more easily digested food in our diet, so the appendix has lost its function. 1 in 100,000 people are now born without an appendix. Similarly, without using the hippocampus, the ‘creativity muscle’ as described by Benjamin Zephaniah, is it possible that, like the appendix, the creative aspect might diminish in every generation, until finally it disappears?

Guernica by Pablo Picasso, 1937.

BEYONCÉ’S RENAISSANCE

A Personal and Cultural Reset

George Cuthbert YEAR 12

ReAct 1: RENAISSANCE

“Creating this album allowed me a place to dream and to find escape during a scary time for the world. It allowed me to feel free and adventurous in a time when little else was moving. My intention was to create a safe place, a place without judgement. A place free of perfectionism and overthinking. A place to scream, release, feel freedom” - Beyoncé on RENAISSANCE

RENAISSANCE*, Beyoncé’s seventh solo studio album, released in 2022, blends post-1970s black dance music styles, such as disco and house music. It pays homage to black and gay pioneers of those genres and has sought inspiration from club and black ball culture (not to be confused with a ballroom dance party). The inclusion of black and LGBT+ influences in a mainstream album helped empower and facilitate fans from these minority groups to feel comfortable with expressing themselves and embracing who they are openly.

To comprehensively analyse this album and its influence, it's crucial to first grasp the rationale behind its title, RENAISSANCE. To do that, the word “renaissance” should be disassociated with the European literary and artistic movement of the fifteenth 15th century and should be understood as a more general “revival or renewed interest in something” as stated in the Oxford dictionary. Beyoncé's utilisation of the aforementioned post-1970s genres throughout the album, along with the inclusion of samples from black and queer artists demonstrates and exemplifies this concept. These artists' music was initially marginalised upon release but is now being reintroduced to a new generation for their enjoyment, thus creating a renaissance for black and queer artists. Some of these samples include “Center of Thy Will” by the Clark

Sisters, an African-American gospel vocal group popular in the early 1980s, considered the pioneers of contemporary gospel. Additionally, parts of Princess Loko’s verse on Tommy Wright’s “Still Pimpin” are incorporated. Princess Loko was an AfricanAmerican rapper who is widely considered to be a pioneer of rap music in South Memphis. She also pays homage to some of her older works by referencing older songs, as if she is sampling herself, shown in the repeated line “Comfortable in my skin” from “COZY,” the second track on RENAISSANCE, which references the repeated line “Comfortable in your skin” from “Rocket,” a song Beyoncé released in 2013.

Through its use of diverse artist samples and a wide range of musical genres in one album, RENAISSANCE was able to appeal to a much larger audience, as well as standing out from more generic pop/R&B works created around the same time. An issue with creating such a diverse album like RENAISSANCE is that it can very easily sound overworked and come across as overwhelming. Despite this challenge however, RENAISSANCE maintains a remarkable level of consistency and coherence, both sonically and thematically, notably featuring nine separate, almost seamless transitions among 15 of the 16 tracks, creating an arrangement that resembles a DJ mix. This aspect underscores RENAISSANCE as a dance album, a characteristic further emphasised by its mixing and production in the alternate version used for the "RENAISSANCE World Tour" backing track. This alternate version will be explored in more detail going forward.

Shifting the focus of the album’s lyrical content, it becomes

RENAISSANCE by Beyonce, 2022: album cover.

Beyoncé performing during the RENAISSANCE World Tour.

essential to delve into the lyrics of RENAISSANCE to unravel and interpret the themes conveyed throughout the album through its lyrics. When exploring the lyrical content of RENAISSANCE, it becomes evident that Beyoncé’s songwriting and thematic statements are incredibly multifaceted. It is also important however to understand and keep in mind that RENAISSANCE is a dance album so the focus when listening is primarily on the production and themes rather than any intricate lyrical content. As a result of this, the tracks often feature surface level, playful verses rather than delving into poetic depths. An illustrative instance of this concept can be found in the opening track of the album, IM THAT GIRL which features the repeating line, “Please, m***********s ain’t stopping me” at the beginning of the track. This straightforward line serves as a means for Beyoncé to establish her dominance and set the tone for the rest of the album. She continues with the line “You know all these songs sound good ‘cause I’m on that hoe,” which demonstrates her ability to use playful language and slang to simultaneously convey a sense of aggression and good-naturedness. This song, much like many of the other tracks on RENAISSANCE, mainly focuses on Beyoncé herself and how she wants people to view her. To contrast, the sixth track on RENAISSANCE, which was also the lead single to the album, BREAK MY SOUL is a song which could be considered to be “for the people.” With lyrics such as “I just quit my job” and “Work by nine, then off past five,” it's easy to see that Beyoncé isn’t talking about herself but instead talking on behalf of her fans. Her lyrics not only serve as a vehicle for personal expression but also carry profound social and cultural messages. Beyoncé’s ability to seamlessly blend the personal and the universal in her songwriting is a testament to her artistry and makes for an album which resonates immensely with her fans.

Just as the lyrical content of RENAISSANCE conveys its themes, the album’s production also plays a vital role in this narrative. The best example of this can be found in the stark contrast between the eighth and ninth tracks of the album, namely, “Plastic off the Sofa” and “Virgo’s Groove”. Both these songs transition seamlessly into each other while displaying distinct production styles, with “Plastic Off the Sofa” adhering to a more traditional R&B sound featuring acoustic instruments like a drum kit, a bass guitar and bongo drums. Conversely, “Virgo’s Groove” embraces a contemporary R&B style, evident in its predominant use of synthesised sounds. Furthermore, “Virgo’s Groove” relies heavily on stacked vocals to form its harmonies which contrasts how “Plastic Off the Sofa” uses mostly solo vocals for its melody and employs long vocal runs to form its harmonies. These features in “Plastic Off the Sofa” and “Virgo’s Groove” correspond to the production norms of traditional R&B and contemporary R&B respectively. The incorporation of the two subgenres facilitates a renaissance of the R&B genre, effectively showcasing and appreciating its evolutionary journey.

depicts Beyoncé atop “holographic”, “crystal horse” playfully dubbed “Reneigh” by fans. This horse is crafted from small reflective tiles, reminiscent of a disco ball. Beyoncé herself dons a revealing, diamond-encrusted, “futuristic centipedeish bikini”, as described by news editor, Jordan Darville, which isn’t dissimilar to the garment she wore on the 2003 DANGEROUSLY IN LOVE cover. The presence of a “disco horse” on the cover art is a clear indication to the fact that RENAISSANCE is a dance album. Moreover, Beyoncé’s choice of provocative clothing conveys a strong sense of confidence and reflects her cavalier attitude, further accentuating the albums themes of self-expression and pridefulness.

THE INCLUSION OF BLACK AND LGBT+ INFLUENCES IN A MAINSTREAM ALBUM HELPED EMPOWER FANS FROM THESE MINORITY GROUPS TO FEEL COMFORTABLE EXPRESSING THEMSELVES.

Finally, nearly a year after the release of RENAISSANCE, Beyoncé embarked on her “Renaissance World Tour”, commencing in Stockholm, Sweden, and spanning over five months with a total 56 shows across Europe and North America. Notably, the tour featured Kevin JZ Prodigy, a revered figure in the queer ballroom scene, who assumed the role of the ballroom announcer for Beyoncé on the tour, earning the title “Voice of the Renaissance”. This association underscores the significant influence of black ballroom culture and the gay pioneers of the genres explored in RENAISSANCE on the entire show. The tour also included a 5-minute long ballroom dance break, accompanied by an edited version of “PURE/HONEY”, the fifthteenth track on RENAISSANCE and arguably the track most deeply rooted in black ball culture. The strong connection to ballroom culture reflects Beyoncé's appreciation for the pioneers who invented the genres which served as the foundation for her music and also shows off her affection and gratitude for her predominantly queer and black fanbase. Most importantly, the “Renaissance World Tour” was designed to be a “safe place” “where people could feel free” as articulated in Beyoncé’s own words. Based on my personal experience of attending her show twice during the “Renaissance World Tour”, I can confidently say that she accomplished this for not only myself but also for the people around me.

To summarise, Beyoncé’s RENAISSANCE represented a significant cultural reset, marking a departure from anything she has ever put out previously. She delved into new genres and once again showcased her ongoing evolution as an artist, even 25 years into her career. Her exploration of new genres not only demonstrated her artistic growth but also served as a means to bring niche music styles into the mainstream, which, in turn empowered her fans and gave long overdue recognition to these underappreciated genres. RENAISSANCE is just the first part of an ongoing three act project, leaving fans eagerly anticipating what Beyoncé has in store for them in the future, with only time revealing the next chapter in her artistic journey.

An often-overlooked aspect in the analysis of contemporary music is the significance of the album cover art. Album covers serve not only as promotional tools for music but to also convey a message and make a statement. In the case of RENAISSANCE, the cover art was shot by fashion photographer Carlijn Jacobs and

*The album title and the song names have been stylized in all caps, as seen in the official title of the album and tracks on Spotify. The reasoning behind this stylistic choice is unclear but it could be attributed to RENAISSANCE’s intention to make a bold cultural and political statement, hence utilising capital letters to emphasise its distinctive character.

THEY REMINISCE OVER YOU

Nostalgia in Mid90s

TJames Mullen YEAR 11

hey Reminisce Over You’, released by Pete Rock and CL Smooth in 1992, quickly became a staple of early 90s hip hop. The song features vast emotional depth, offering a reflection on the life of Troy Dixon - a close friend of Pete Rock who died in an accidental fall from a balcony. With high production quality and clever sampling, built around a recurring saxophone riff, this track has resonated with listeners since its debut. Not only is the instrumental catchy, but the song as a whole creates a strong sense of nostalgia - the sentimental feeling of looking back and appreciating a lost time, cherishing the ephemeral nature of life.

I’ve always found it interesting how we become so sentimental over such simple things, even those which we can barely attach ourselves to. How is it that so many listeners felt nostalgic when listening to this one song? How is it that even I felt connected to a song that was released 15 years prior to my birth? Particularly reflecting on the emotive power of music and the resonating effect of nostalgic melodies, the cinematic drama Mid90s comes to mind. Supported by the independent film studio A24, this drama was Jonah Hill’s first venture into directing in 2018, having been a successful actor prior to this directorial debut.

elaborate; it can be summed up in a single sentence: a young boy with a challenging home-life makes friends with some skaters in the mid 90s. Don’t be put off. For, this doesn’t make the movie simple by any means. Rather, it allows for intense character development unseen in the many contemporary action-packed movies that we so often consume.

THE SONG CREATES A STRONG SENSE OF NOSTALGIA CHERISHING THE EPHEMERAL NATURE OF LIFE.

Unlike most modern movies, which tend to be plot-driven and full of action, Mid90s is an artistically driven narrative, perhaps due to its limited budget compared to other films. The plot is not

With that said, the film stands out as one of my favourites out of the many that I have been watching recently. Its ingenuity starts from the very first scene with the colour palette. The movie opens silently in a muted, green hallway. Being a common colour for the interior decoration of walls in the 90s, the nostalgic setting was already established before any character had even entered the frame. 10 seconds after this still shot, protagonist Stevie, played by Sunny Suljic, enters the scene being beaten up by his exploitative brother. Regrettably, the 1990s saw a distressing prevalence of domestic violence across western society, with many teenagers, such as Stevie, facing violence within their homes. Alongside the dull lighting and the unsaturated, earth tones, the first 30-or-so seconds, that make up the opening scene, are fairly uncomfortable to watch. And yet, all this discomfort immediately ceases upon a cut to young Stevie’s bedroom, in which he wears a shirt with the ‘street-fighter’ game logo. This scene is littered with (mainly masculine) 90s pop culture references, showcasing Stevie’s fascination with the era’s gaming and cultural icons, allowing a moment of escape from the harsh realities portrayed earlier. It is a breath of fresh air.

And yet, it is this opening sequence that truly engages the

audience and brings them into this very typical, urban 90s atmosphere. Even the muted tones captivated viewers, eliciting familiar memories of the visual styles used in cinema in the 90s, even in those who did not directly experience it themselves. It is all these small details, such as simply reducing the vibrancy in post-production, that evokes nostalgia - that helps the viewers to reminisce.

In interviews, Jonah Hill has often talked about how his passion for this project and his strong attention to detail, especially in reference to portraying the 90s skateboarding subculture (in California), stemmed from his experiences growing up. While Hill was not a professional skater, he has often talked about skateboarding as a hobby in his adolescence. In 1995, when the film was set, he would have been about 12 - a similar age to Stevie in the movie. Hence, it is easy to see how the movie and its characters were influenced. Even the carefully-curated soundtrack seems to be influenced by Hill, featuring very topical songs such as ‘93 ‘Til Infinity’ by Souls Of Mischief and ‘Tearz’ by the WuTang Clan, further allowing reflection upon the intricacies of the skateboarding subculture in the 90s.

One of the main characters, Ray, who acts as the leader of the boy skateboarding group and also as a mentor for little Stevie, can be seen wearing the classic Adidas sambas. I found it especially interesting how these shoes have recently become a trend: I almost always see a pair when going out. And I can’t blame it; the timeless silhouette of these shoes once intended for skateboarding are now worn on the streets by everyone and anyone. I suppose they just look good. But it is important to note the relevance of this shoe to skateboarders in the mid 90s, just like those in the movie. Once, skateboarding was associated with rebellion, delinquency and nuisance. Once, skateboarders were marginalised for being associated with such stereotypes. Then, especially in America, the act was prohibited altogether in public spaces, as appreciated at various points in the movie. Now, just as the Adidas sambas have reestablished themselves to become essential to the 2023 autumn / winter fashion, skating has reestablished itself to be more widely recognised and accepted as both a sport and an art form. For, it finally became a relevant and legitimate sport in the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. Like I said, I find it interesting how such simple things change and rechange time and time again.

Likewise, as previously mentioned, the character development and change in Mid90s is astounding. Stevie starts the movie as naive, hurt and surrounded by his abusive brother and single mother. After meeting his newfound skater friends at a shop, he is driven to change. He has a strong desire to be a skater and fit in with people who would show him more care than those at home. Even his clothing changes, becoming baggier and more earth-toned as the movie progresses so that he may fit in with this group of ‘misfits’. Events change him. Those around him change him. He gains the strength to consolidate his brother after many hardships. And, Stevie ends the movie in grave pain in a hospital bed after a harsh skating incident, surrounded by his new friends. It made me ponder, what was better for him - being surrounded by a cold family or being surrounded by bad-influences who care for him?

Stevie and Ray, in Mid90s, 2018. THE ARTISTICALLY DRIVEN NARRATIVE ALLOWS FOR INTENSE CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT UNSEEN IN MANY CONTEMPORARY ACTION-PACKED MOVIES.

Just like the cyclical nature of trends, this poor boy both started and ended the movie in pain. However, he starts naive and ends assured and complete, having reestablished himself by spending time skateboarding with his friends. Because of this depth and high attention to detail, this is by far my favourite independent movie, both as a form of art and a form of entertainment. If you haven’t had the opportunity to watch this amazing film, I highly encourage you to and hope that you will not regret it: I will definitely find myself rewatching it in the future.

SPINNING THE ROULETTE WHEEL

Recasting in Global Theatre

Mackenzie Gilmore YEAR 13

Almost all professional shows go through periods of recasting (casting anyone different from the original cast) - sometimes due to low ticket sales, the need to give the show a new life, or a need to protect the actors. This is something that is often not noticed by the general public until it’s already happened. It can be crucial to a show's success or failure, and in some cases has catapulted a show to fame, or doomed it to closing. There are a couple of highprofile cases of recasting, with various levels of success, across the West End and Broadway.

One type of recasting is stunt casting. Stunt casting is usually when a famous celebrity is brought in to perform a supporting or lead role in a show in order to artificially inflate ticket sales. The idea is that the general public will come to see the celebrity in the show as opposed to the show itself, thus increasing the ticket sales and the exposure for the show. Due to a variety of factors, such as expensive contracts or tight schedules, stunt casting is often short term. Usually, it lasts a number of weeks as opposed to months. Sometimes it will be very successful, sometimes less so.

also the first time a person of colour had played the role full-time, and Fisher was quoted by PlayBill as saying, ‘For any person of colour to come into the theatre and sit down and see somebody that they can relate to on a surface level and then start to dig deep with this person and feel less alone, feel less burdened by social anxiety, feel like they belong, it’s a very powerful thing.’ His 16-week run was a huge success for the show, and whilst they didn’t exactly need the money, as one of the most successful new musicals in recent memory, there was certainly a jump in ticket sales and a new audience exposed to the show. It’s a great example of how stunt casting can be beneficial for both the performer and show - Fisher has since gone on to play Anthony in Sweeney Todd and replaces Reeve Carney as Orpheus in Hadestown, which was the first time that part has been recast, due to Carney originating the role.

One example of a stellar stunt cast was Jordan Fisher as the title role in Dear Evan Hansen in 2020. He had some musical experience, having been in Hamilton in 2016, but being a more widely recognised singer and film star it was an example of stunt casting. Reviews gushed over his performance, with one review ending with the phrase, ‘seriously, try to get tickets to see him on stage before you miss out forever.’ This recasting of Evan was

However, stunt casting has not always gone to plan. One example that immediately comes to mind is Chicago. The Broadway production has for years been guilty of stunt casting at every recasting opportunity they can find. Stars such as Sofía Vergara, Pamela Anderson, Billy Ray Cyrus and Todrick Hall have all been stunt cast in Chicago with varying success; however, one time that definitively failed was the stunt casting of Wendy Williams as the Matron. Back in 2013, this talk show host (with absolutely no background in theatre or music) was announced for a limited run. The results were not great. One review a member of the public posted on Tripadvisor was titled, ‘Ms. Wendy Williams does not deserve to be on Broadway.’ Many raised concerns about her performance,

Jordan Fisher singing in Dear Evan Hansen, 2020.

such as her complete lack of ability to sing in the right key, or act, or dance, and whilst fans of her talk show certainly did flock to see Chicago whilst she was in it, it diminished the respect it had in the wider theatre community long term - as can be seen by the fact that it’s profits are low, sometimes barely breaking even some weeks. If you want to see some of Wendy’s experience in Chicago, search ‘Wendy Williams rehearses for CHICAGO on Broadway’ on Youtube It's very funny.

Sometimes there’s a specific reason someone needs to be recast: maybe an injury, maybe just a bit of a refresh. A professional actor has to perform the show usually eight times a week, for weeks in a row. Doing a full show run is a very taxing task, which is why there is so much recasting all over the West End and Broadway. One of the most famously difficult roles to consistently perform in Musical Theatre is Elphaba in Wicked, with the originator of the role, Idina Menzel, damaging her vocal chords after taking on the role for innumerable performances. A fan of hers said, ‘I love Idina but I'll freely admit she destroyed her voice pretty hard towards the end of Wicked's run and by now her voice really has definitely aged. Her technique really caught up to her.’ As a result of this, since the show opened in 2003, there have been over 23 recastings of Elphaba after Idina.

parts of the cast to include an alternate for Alex Brightman. Differently to an understudy, an alternate is contracted to do a certain number of shows a week (usually one or two), so that the lead doesn’t have to destroy their voice by having to do it eight times a week. Dewey Finn became one of the only male roles to have an alternate, leading many to christen it as the hardest male role in musical theatre.

However, sometimes the show just wants to refresh the cast to give the show a new feel. SIX on the West End frequently changes cast, with it often being touted as a way to almost make it a new show. On average, most of the cast are replaced once a year, sometimes temporarily, sometimes permanently. There have been six almost full cast changes since 2019, showing that they recast the show quite often. It’s not always been well received by the actresses - despite the fact that it seems fairly clear what’s going to happen when you take the contract - as one said they felt like they were almost forced out of the door at the end of their contract. They do sometimes have actresses return to their parts, or some that have played the role in other places such as in tours: literally ‘re-casting’ someone in the same role. This doesn’t often happen, but it is sometimes used by other shows as a different kind of stunt casting. If the previously mentioned Idina Menzel returned for a limited run to reprise her role in Wicked, it would be likely that tickets would sell out extremely quickly and would be re-sold for extortionate prices, considering the constant online clamour for her to return even for 6 weeks.

RECASTING CAN CATAPULT A SHOW TO FAME OR DOOM IT TO CLOSING.

It is clear to see that recasting in musical theatre is something that happens frequently, in different ways and with varying levels of success. Stunt casting can be hit and miss, with many highprofile examples swinging both ways, and it can sometimes be highly influential (in both ways) or quickly forgotten about. Recasting due to injury or the duty of care the shows have to the actor is also something that happens quite commonly with the stress a show can bring to you or your voice. Sometimes, recasting just needs to happen to give the show a boost or refresh as well, it really just depends on the show. But it's clear that recasting is not going anywhere, and the actor roulette wheel will keep spinning as long as there are shows to be in.

Another similar recasting happened when Alex Brightman took on the title role of Dewey Finn in School of Rock, when it was a brand new adaptation of the famous film. Brightman described the challenges of the part in an interview with broadway.com, ‘Before this show, I was pretty sure that I was invincible, but I am thrilled to have been humbled by this monster of a role. This show/role is a full-time job. I wake up thinking about my voice and body. I go to sleep thinking about my voice and body.’ The role was demanding for a variety of reasons, for example he spends less than ten minutes offstage in the whole show. He sings over half the score. Almost all lines and songs are written to be sung in a heavy rock style. ("Mt Rock" as first written had over 40 high As) Over half the lines are Dewey's, and he drives every scene he is in (so if he forgets a line, really no one can save him.) As such, it became one of the only popular shows to have a male alternate. Essentially, they restructured the whole casting system, recasting

BLACK SWANS

The Events That Never Repeat

Black Swan events are ones that are extremely rare, but which leave devastating consequences. It also never repeats. The term was originally coined by Nassim Nicholas Taleb, a Lebanese-American, former Wall Street trader, in his 2001 book Fooled by Randomness. Originally his theory was attributed only to financial events but in his 2007 book, The Black Swan, he extended this metaphor to all manner of incidents.

The term was derived from a Latin expression, which can be located in the Roman poet Juveval’s Satire IV, the most popular of his satires: "rara avis in terris nigroque simillima cygno"; in English, it means “a rare bird in the lands and very much like a black swan”. This phrase was based on the widely held but false belief that there are no black swans. The metaphor was formerly used to describe the fragility of a school of thought; it meant that any set of conclusions on a subject is essentially null once any of its fundamental tenets are disproved. In this situation, the sight of a black swan will be the undoing of any logical system of thought as well as any reasoning that was the basis for it. Juvenal’s saying was popular in sixteenth century London, referring to improbability (it was their version of “when pigs fly”). This assumption concerning the nonexistence of black swans changed in 1697 when a group of Dutch explorers led by Willem de Vlamingh, discovered the elusive black swan in Western Australia. Instead of emphasising improbability, black swans now came to connote that perceived probability may later be disproved.

COVID-19 pandemic is a black swan event, but according to Taleb it isn’t, as it was easily predicted by him and others such as Bill Gates, and Laurie Garett. This misconception proves that there is an element of nuance and historical knowledge needed to be able to accurately label black swan events. Some prominent examples of confirmed black swan events that Taleb the originator affirms are the rise of the internet, the U.S. housing market crash of 2008, the Asian Financial crash, the September 11 attacks, and the Fall of the Berlin Wall.

INSTEAD OF EMPHASISING IMPROBABILITY, BLACK SWANS NOW CAME TO CONNOTE THAT PERCEIVED PROBABILITY MAY LATER BE DISPROVED.

The most obvious example of a black swan event is the rise of the internet; no one could have predicted it which makes sense as no one expects a whole new medium for communication to be made so quickly, the rise was unprecedented. When you see media in the twentieth century, the expert technological advancements were nothing like what we have now. Early on, they barely depicted any communication innovations, but, later on, in the late 1970s they began to think of how telephones could be built upon, but they would never imagine social media being integrated into society or online interactions of the sort at all. Now the internet is the “network of networks”; from its emergence in the 1970s to its proper development in the 1990s the internet has had an irreversible impact on our society. From transforming communication to fostering mental illness, it is uniquely important.

Taleb outlined three important qualifications for a black swan event. The first is that the event has to be a surprise to observers, and the second is that it must also have a major impact on the world as a whole. The third is the one that links back to the black swan expression, which is that the event has to be easily rationalised and afterwards it makes sense that the incident occurred.

Of course, according to this criteria, you would think the

Why is the U.S. 2008 market crash a black swan event? Don’t countries often have market crashes? It is true that recessions of this variety are common but never has it been linked to homeownership in such a way. Of course, people would lose their homes during a recession but never did it happen that the saturation of homeownership would cause a market crash itself. The housing market crash of 2008, was caused by the relaxed rules and regulations in the housing market, and the predatory practices of moneylenders. There were essentially no requirements to apply for a loan and people who couldn't afford them were still encouraged to do so. As the banks were barely making their money back, people who invested their money in these banks were gaining no interest as well; they would take

Tishe Osunlana YEAR 11

back their money from these banks which caused a domino effect with everything dropping. The reason why it was categorised as a black swan event is that the consequences of this crash had a devastating effect on the world as the U.S. is the economic centre of the world. The common man lost money as well as houses lost value so all homes were bought for less than they were now worth. The most interesting impact of the crash was its effect on the birth rates of some countries. As one would assume, the birthrate in the U.S. for 2008 dropped by 2% from the year prior. What I found astonishing was that there was a baby boom in the U.K., the opposite of what you would expect. Once the bank rates in the UK were dropped, fertility increased, unlike in America where the downward trend of offspring continued.

9/11 fits all the criteria of a black swan event. It was a surprising event that had a massive impact on the world, but when looking back we can easily pinpoint all the factors which led to it. The

9/11 attacks were led by Al Qaeda against various landmarks in America, the most well-known being the Twin Towers. This had a massive impact on the world as it led to America’s War on Terror and many changes in their national and international policies. The War on Terror led to the destabilisation of many Middle Eastern countries which we can still see the repercussions of. A change which you can notice in everyday life is that there are many more regulations for air travel; some may seem pedantic, but when you do deeper research one would realise that these reactions are to prevent terrorists from making weapons or bombs mid-flight. Last but not least “terrorism” became the new buzzword politicians used to pull people to their side, and this consequence became integral to right-wing campaigns, especially during the Afghan War and Iraq War.

There are two main tendencies which cause the Black Swan fallacy: the first is to make assumptions based on what we know has happened and the belief that history is a reliable predictor of the future. We usually try to look for evidence which will support our prior bias, ignoring all contradictions. This leaves room for these black swan events to occur; our refusal to consider the unknown leaves us in dire situations. The theory of black swan events implores us not only to gather information diligently, and with a critical eye, but to also acknowledge our biases.

Black swan, Australia.

REPETITIVE CYCLES REPETITIVE CYCLES REPETITIVE CYCLES REPETITIVEREPETITIVECYCLES

Embracing the Absurdity of Existence

Anna Medina YEAR 12

Sisyphus, a presently modernised figure in Greek mythology, arguably transcends temporal boundaries to become a persuasive allegory for the intricate and unique nature of human existence. Sisyphus, the man condemned by the gods to push a boulder up a hill for the rest of eternity, resonates both with the cyclicality of the human condition and the repetitiveness of modern existence. Sisyphus's eternal labour, the continual endeavour to push a boulder uphill only to watch it roll back down, mirrors very closely the existential struggle we face against the profound futility of our existence and the life we all must persist through. Absurdism is a philosophical and literary concept that explores the idea that human existence is fundamentally meaningless and irrational — absurd. It suggests that despite our inherent desire to find purpose and meaning in life, the universe is indifferent and does not provide any inherent value, and many argue this should be a key philosophy of our life.

The ceaseless repetition of Sisyphus’s labour is paralleled by our ceaseless repetition of waking, working, and sleeping. We expend immense efforts, arguably primarily through our work and hardships—our jobs and our pursuits of materialistic items and success—but even possibly through the act of existing in itself. We are condemned to an existence that we did not ask for, much like Sisyphus, and so the very act of existing in itself could very well be considered either a success or an incessant misery. Throughout our lives, we find ourselves asking profound questions about the purpose of our existence, the inherent meaninglessness of our entire society, the futility of human existence, and our embodiment of absurdism. Our very nature is to exist, and so through that, we

SISYPHUS RESONATES WITH THE CYCLICALITY OF THE HUMAN CONDITION AND THE REPETITIVENESS OF MODERN EXISTENCE.

are intrinsically destined to experience repetitive structures and compositions that make up the foundation of our society. Even down to our biology, our cells, and the essence of our being, repetition composes the very finest sectors of humanity. Down to the nature of our life cycle, where, as we age, life's circular nature becomes evident. The vulnerability and fragility of death mirrors closely the initial fragility of birth, and the return to a naive and delicate ‘foetal like state’, illustrates how humans do naturally regress in old age and death, an intriguing yet melancholic argument for the clear inherent cyclic nature of humanity. We all experience the fluctuations of birth and death of both those around us and ourselves; it is something that could be argued to unify us as human beings, and our cyclic and repetitive nature is shown to bring us together. In addition, the nature of breaking and repairing and hurting and healing, the intricate relationship between repetition and the human condition, is interwoven between every aspect of our composition as human beings.

Repetition is a fundamental theme in both philosophy and literature. It symbolises the eternal return of patterns in life and the perpetual cycle of existence. Repetition could be considered the very foundation of our humanity also through our communication, as language, speech, and conversations rely heavily on the nature of repetition and how easily it integrates itself into our society. Albert Camus, one of the most prominent figures in existential philosophy, grappled with this theme of repetition in his novella, The Myth of Sisyphus, in which he presents his rendition of the story of the mythical figure condemned to push a boulder up a hill for eternity, and his insights into how this mirrors our lives. Camus reimagined

REPETITIVECYCLESCYCLESREPETITIVE CYCLES REPETITIVE

Sisyphus by Titian, 1548.

REPETITIVE CYCLES REPETITIVE CYCLES REPETITIVE CYCLES REPETITIVEREPETITIVECYCLES

Sisyphus' eternal labour as a catalyst through which to explore the complexities of the human condition, and this interpretation of Sisyphus compels us to contemplate the indisputable significance of this allegory in our lives and society. Sisyphus' perpetual work, characterised by repetition and the apparent absence of ultimate purpose, evokes existential questions about the meaning of our efforts and the relentless human pursuit of significance. This repetitive act becomes seemingly the most accurate and realistic metaphor for the human condition ever produced and shamefully highlights the absurdity of life, so apparent in all of our lives yet unnoticed by the majority.

Camus suggests that life's monotony and lack of inherent meaning could lead to despair. However, he argues that embracing the absurdity of existence and choosing to continue the Sisyphean task can bring a sense of liberation. By recognising the futility of his actions, Sisyphus finds purpose in his repetitive task, defying absurdity. So the question remains: are we ourselves condemned to a Sisyphean cycle? Or perhaps within this ceaseless recurrence, we are cultivating philosophical insights that offer a unique perspective on our existence that make our existence genuinely meaningful and not something we just label as it.

People may choose to ignore the ideology of a Sisyphean task, largely due to a complacency in their situation, and this can stem from the belief that such a thing as profound as the perpetual repetition of an existence is too inevitable to try and fight against. Although it could be argued that, akin to the fact that we should imagine Sisyphus as happy, not only should we be complacent in our situation, but we should be happy also. Repetition provides a structure that many find hard to stray from and offers both consistency and reliability, as well as security and safety. This may appear to be an attractive lifestyle for some, due to the fact that it is hard to envision life without such repetition and structure, adding to the justification

of complacency within humanity. Repetition could be argued to be interwoven into both our society and biology, which is why it is so hard for humans to break old habits, to go against the tide, and to live uniquely from their cohort in society. We as a species have always had the same repetitive lifestyle through generations, although it could be considered the same for every other species on earth. If we are condemned to a Sisyphean task, isn't every other species on earth? Or are we the only beings that must face this philosophical weight due to our consciousness that we never asked for. This only strengthens the point that repetition is interwoven throughout every aspect of our entire lives. The fundamental skeleton of humanity in its entirety is repetition: how we act, how we live, and how we communicate.

CAMUS IS URGING INDIVIDUALS TO EMBRACE THE INHERENT LACK OF MEANING WITHIN OUR EXISTENCE, AND FIND OUR PURPOSE AND VALUES RATHER THAN RELYING ON EXTERNAL DOCTRINES.

Within the popular current-day renditions of Sisyphus, the concept of a Sisyphean task gained popularity amongst younger generations and its relation to their daily struggles and hardships. This insight signifies a newfound awareness among young individuals regarding the Sisyphean nature of life's challenges, where many have related their experiences to Sisyphus, portraying resilience in the face of seemingly endless struggles and using humour and creativity to convey a profound understanding of the human condition. This sophisticated reinterpretation could be viewed as a successful attempt to break out of our cyclic nature, although it could also be viewed as tragically ironic that we as a society are humouring something that is so akin to us, even if unbeknownst to most.

Perhaps we should begin to consider pitying someone condemned to this excruciating fate, as it seems fitting to do so when observing the figurative representation of a man pushing a boulder up a hill. Although we as humans view his struggles and hardships as both an incessantly futile task and a fate worse than death, we should seemingly be content and supportive of the ideology that our existence and the repetitive structures of life we persevere through are inherently miserable. Albert Camus stated that we should imagine Sisyphus as happy, and so we should subsequently be content with our own incessant lives that mirror the Sisyphean task. If we begin to pity something so akin to ourselves, it may be hard to conceptualise that we are

REPETITIVECYCLESCYCLESREPETITIVE CYCLES REPETITIVE

the very thing we look down upon. In The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus writes, ‘He stares at death with passionate attention, and this fascination liberates him’. I think this is not only profoundly philosophical but ironically allusive to our own emancipation as individuals who are riddled with stress, existential crises, and sadness. Camus explores the idea that confronting the absurdity of life can lead to a unique form of liberation and authenticity. The inherent meaninglessness of life itself can lead to the liberation of our own lives, substantially through the shedding of fear of death. By viewing death as merely another absurdity, humans could potentially live a freer and more fulfilling life. Death should not be seen as something to be feared, but as something uniquely liberating and personal to oneself and their interpretation of absurdity.

Ultimately, the integration of the Sisyphean task into our society undermines the need for introspection and philosophical contemplation, as well as self improvement. Although, as I have argued, it may be uncomfortably clear repetition is a fundamental part of humanity anyway, is it truly hopeless for us to envision a future without humans burdened by the weight of a sisyphean task? It is dangerous for a society to become so complacent that it relies solely on the repetitive nature of the humans in it to function. Through the implementation of the Sisyphean task in our society, it reduces the identity of individuals, as repetition kills both spirit and individuality, as there is never a need for anything more than the effort required to survive and persevere. It prompts no self-reflection or self-improvement and ultimately could be considered the downfall of our society. It never evokes us to reevaluate our pursuits, consider the nature of our desires, and reflect on the perennial human aspiration for meaning in a world that often appears to offer none. It produces an uncanny likeness amongst members of society and never encourages individuals to excel, fueling the complacency that comes with the ease of a repetitive and cyclic society.

Repetitivity resonates with the broader realm of philosophy, where society has contemplated the cyclic nature of life for generations, from Nietzsche's idea of the eternal recurrence to the Egyptian symbol of cyclicality, Ouroboros. Throughout all of time, humans have questioned the nature of freedom and the human condition, as well as our meaning and purpose, while being so small in a universe so busy. Its inherent unsolvability makes it attractive for us to explore, perhaps because it could

explain so much that is currently unsolved about the human condition and its relation to repetition.

‘They relieve me of the weight of my own life, and yet I must carry it.’ Within this infamous quote, Camus illustrates a central idea in his philosophy of the absurd, as this enigmatic statement reflects the unfortunate tension between the desire for meaning and the reality of the absurdity of existence within our society. Camus subtly relates ‘they’ to different forms of ideologies, belief systems, and personal faiths, and these doctrines often offer a comprehensible explanation for the meaning of life, morality, and the nature of the universe for many. ‘They’ can give individuals a sense of purpose and direction within their everyday, monotonous lives, which can feel like a relief from the existential burden of confronting the inherent meaninglessness of the world.

However, Camus suggests that while these doctrines can provide a comforting and reassuring structure, they can also be a form of evasion from other more realistic and apparent realities. ‘They’ relieve individuals of the responsibility to grapple with the absurdity and meaninglessness of life on their own terms. While they may offer people solace of mind and a sense of purpose, they may do so at the cost of intellectual and emotional authenticity. This is because, even with these belief systems and ideologies, humans unfortunately cannot escape the confrontation of the absurd. Each person must eventually contemplate the weight of their existence and what it means to them, as well as be able to make their own choices, and even if one adopts a religious or philosophical belief, they still must grapple with the fundamental questions of life, morality, and meaning. Camus is urging individuals to embrace the absurd, accept the inherent lack of meaning within our society and our individual existence, and find our purpose and values, rather than relying on external doctrines to provide answers that shield us from information we do not wish to consume. In doing so, people will take responsibility for their lives and choices, even in a universe that may seem entirely devoid of inherent meaning.

WHY DO YOU DO THE THINGS YOU DO?

Hi Alice! I remember a question you asked me a couple of weeks ago, which was, “Why do you do the things you do?” and it caught me off guard because I had planned to finish the day with a pretty little painting and left instead with an existential crisis. I’m not too sure about what I said, but I do remember the way you kept asking follow up questions to EVERY SINGLE argument I made, until I kept spinning and spinning on my own verbal merry-go-round. I’ve never needed to explain those ideas before, since every statement was already a given in my head, so when you started plucking at their roots, I realised that it was an area I’d never considered looking at. I’ve given it more thought now, and hopefully I’ll articulate better in writing.

I do what I do because I feel an obligation to do so. Where does this obligation come from? From myself, is the simple answer, but why I give myself this obligation is a whole other can of worms that I’m not sure I even have the resources to open right now (maybe when we’re further into this conversation). “A mixture of personal and societal values” would be the label on that can.

What do you think?

Well - If I’m being honest with myself when I answer my own question back, the reasons behind all of my actions are, at their core, “it makes/will make me feel good”! Even purely altruistic actions give their own kind of satisfaction. I didn’t come across this conclusion completely independently, however. The idea that we all behave this way is called “psychological egoism”, and has been proposed by philosophers from Epicurus to Jerememy Bentham to Friedrich Nietzsche.

Bentham makes a very convincing argument that reason on its own can’t motivate people to action. He deduces that only “passion”, or emotion, can do that. We can’t experience others’ emotions, let alone be motivated by them directly, so beyond those typically called “selfish”, what other motivations could anyone have? This seems like a departure from how you’ve presented things, so what do you think?

I agree with the psychological egoism idea (or “egoistic altruism” as I’ve heard people say before), but I feel like there’s a lot more influencing our motivations than purely ourselves. Even if we can only perceive the world from our individual bubbles, intersections still exist between our experience and that of others, and these interactions affect our motivations. It’s easy to explain why we help others, but other things require more thought. For example, “I study hard because I want good grades, since it means I can get into a good university, which leads to a better chance of

Alice Clarke and Jiali Hicks YEAR 12

finding a good job, something that provides financial stability and is also something I enjoy, which means I can live a comfortable and happy life.” A typical answer I think. But why? Well, that’s how our society works! Even if you say your only motivation is emotion, the fact that we live in a society means we live with a certain set of rules and responsibilities. We’ve been surrounded by them our whole lives. Of course our own values will have been influenced too, and this is how “societal values” scrawls its name on the can! Would you agree that this is an external incentive? If so, how does that fit into your ideas of motivation?

Well, I’d certainly agree that we’re influenced by our environments, and especially our upbringings! However, I’d argue that a value is just an instruction for how you should feel about something! In a society that prioritises hard work, children will be taught that if they work hard, they should feel good about themselves, and if they don’t, they should feel the opposite. There might be other mechanisms in place to reinforce those values, but ultimately they all serve to change the way you feel! I think you make an important point that our environments shape our actions, but at the end of the day however you’re conditioned to act, I still think it’d always be your own emotions motivating you in the moment. Would you agree?

Now, we’ve been on one topic a while, so if you’d like to move on, I can also ask you a second question: Since I’ve spent some time explaining bits of mine, would you say you have a “personal philosophy”?

Yeah, I’d agree, and I really like the way you explained that! But my personal philosophy? I’d say I lean the most towards nihilism; I don’t think my existence has any objective value, but I don’t view that as a negative thing. Like James Tartaglia says in his book Philosophy in a Meaningless Life, it can’t be. If reality has meaning, then the meaning for human life might be good, bad, or neither. But if there is no reason that reality, and hence humans, exist, then there is no meaning against which the meaninglessness of human life can be assessed.

the meaninglessness of reality. What’s your opinion on this?

That makes sense! I know that neither of us believe that the universe was intelligently designed, and unless that was the case, how could it have any sort of “meaning”? Nobody would ask the meaning of a spoon dropped on the ground unless they knew it had been placed there on purpose, so why ask the meaning of life or reality, unless we knew that they were created with some sort of intent?

I’m interested in how you came to believe this, so what would you say influenced your thinking? I’m also curious about your separation of “What is the meaning of life”, and “what is the meaning of my life”, when to me, they’re the same question! What’s a “social meaning”? Is it similar to the idea of choosing to give life a meaning yourself? I’ve never heard anyone talk about it in that way!

Image by Jiali Hicks and Alice Clarke

Of course, “What is the meaning of life?” is usually conflated with, “What is the meaning of my life?” even though they are completely separate questions in my opinion. I can decide that my life has a social meaning (which I think changes and should change throughout a person’s lifetime) and simultaneously accept

My biggest influence is probably growing up in a house where conversations at the dinner table were usually around existential topics. I’ve always had the notion that the universe extends far beyond human comprehension and that we shouldn’t be egotistical in thinking that the reason for its creation has anything to do with our existence. The cosmos could’ve just been a spoon dropped on the ground.

In terms of my separation of the two questions, I think the first one is impersonal, with the word “life” meaning the whole of “human existence” or even, “the thing that distinguishes animals and plants from inorganic matter”. The second is subjective. I made an earlier point about living in a society with a certain set of rules. These rules influence each individual’s “social meaning / purpose”. They are different to the ones that govern the universe, and thus my life will have a different purpose to life in general. Let’s use Tartaglia’s analogy of a game of chess. Within its set of rules, you must checkmate the other player to win; that is your purpose. But once the spell of the game is broken, you might find that that game is just a pastime. The meaning of chess within someone’s life may just be a hobby, or a career, or maybe it carries no significance at all. Likewise, your life can have meaning, even if the broader context in which it exists does not.

You said that you view the two questions as being the same. Why is that?

Firstly, That makes a lot of sense to me! I can see the difference in the two

questions, and I’d agree with your conclusion - if life wasn’t created with intention, it can’t have a meaning, but your life certainly was! It’s odd to think about, because it implies that at some point, the entire point of your life was to make your parents happy - but pretty quickly, the primary intention maintaining your life becomes your own. As we’ve discussed, how you behave is influenced by your environment, but by your logic, it makes sense that the meaning, or purpose, of your life is what you choose it to be!

I think the reason I treated the two questions the same was that in most of the discussion around the meaning of life, it was taken for granted that there was one - whether divine, as would be suggested by Descartes, or moral and inherent to our humanity as suggested by Kant. With that assumption, the second question is simple! Why would the purpose of your life be any different to the purpose of life itself? When I came to the belief that there was no meaning, I kept this line of reasoning without properly interrogating it, and I assumed that they were still the same question - you’ve helped me realise they aren’t!

Nobody in my family ever had much time for anything philosophical, and my frequent searching questions seemed to only diminish their patience for it over time. I was exposed to these kinds of ideas almost exclusively by reading - although chances are, it would be someone else summarising a philosopher's ideas rather than anything primary! (Side note: I would really recommend Nigel Waburton’s Little History of Philosophy - every philosopher I mentioned I first read about in this book, and it’s a really easy read!) It’s only recently that I’ve started to talk to anyone about these ideas, which was part of my inspiration for the format of this article! We’re coming to the end, so I won’t start asking any big new questions, but how have you felt about the discussion we’ve had here over the last week-and-a-bit?

I think it went well! I knew what philosophy I believed in from the start, but I couldn’t really explain why. Now, it feels like someone finally took the messy bundle of string in my head and untangled it. It might seem like all my ideas came into my head in the exact order you see them on the page, concisely and coherently, but that was so difficult to do! Like you said, you have to write a bunch of words so that what people read in the final version are the best words in the best order. I really enjoyed having this discussion with you and I hope we can do something like this again!

Absolutely! Just like you said, it forced me to clarify ideas that had only existed as half-formed blobs in my head, in a way that you never have to do unless you’re explaining something to someone else. I absolutely agree with how hard it is to keep things short! I know that for each of our 100-200 word entries, around triple that amount was written and deleted as we came closer and closer to the essence of what we were trying to convey. Although this article is long, it’s far shorter (and simply better!) than it would have been without all the edits and revisions, and they’ve left me a far better writer too! Jiali, I know our conversation won’t end here, but this has been such a pleasure - and to anyone reading: I hope this article has shown you how useful (and fun!) it is to talk through your ideas with someone else, and maybe given you inspiration for conversations of your own.

Books Mentioned:

Philosophy in a Meaningless Life - James Tartaglia

A Little History Of Philosophy - Nigel Warburton

I KNEW WHAT PHILOSOPHY I BELIEVED IN FROM THE START, BUT I COULDN'T REALLY EXPLAIN WHY. NOW IT FEELS LIKE SOMEONE FINALLY TOOK THE MESSY BUNDLE OF STRING IN MY HEAD AND UNTANGLED IT.

Image by Yusuf Alam, YEAR 7