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PROOEMIUM
The aim of thistreatiseis to commentupon the book of Aristotle entitledthe Physics since no complete commentary,word for on thisbook has reachedus.' word,by any of the commentators has us As forwhat reached of the commentary of Alexander[of the second, Aphrodisias]on thisbook, part of the first[treatise], the fifth, the sixth,the seventh,and partof the eighth the fourth, Before[we begin]we shouldmenare notthewordsofAlexander.2 the commentators, some of the the custom of tion, following matterswith which they begin [their commentarieson] his Averroes on thePosterior similarly beginshis Long Commentary Analytthathis aim in thatbook is to commentuponthePosterior ics byexplaining of it fromanyofthosewhointerpreted since"no longcommentary Analytics Averroes' MiddleComit has comedownto us." See CharlesE. Butterworth, and De Interpretatione Princementaries on Aristotle's (Princeton: Categories ton University Press,1983),pp. 4-5. 2 Averroes'meaningis not clear.He seemsto be sayingthatmostof the is spurious. Yet whichhas comedownin thenameofAlexander commentary to as well)refers in thesecondtreatise treatises he himself (and in following Alexander'sversionof the Physics(see above, n. 16) and also citesAlexf. 83b). According to the ander'sinterpretation (see,e.g.,Long Commentary, therewas indeeda commentary medievalArabicbibliographers, (tafsir)by thatthecommentary was extantin full Ibn Abi Usaibi'areported Alexander. al-atibba' al-anba' I, [Cairo, 1882], pp. 69-70). Ibn fi tabaqat (see 'Uyun the al-Nadimand al-Qiftiafterhim reportedthatpartof the firsttreatise, and a very thefifth, second,partofthefourth, partof thesixth,theseventh, smallpartof theeighthwereextant(see Fihrist[Leipzig,1871],p. 250, and comTa'rikhal-hukama'[Leipzig,1903],p. 38). Ibn Bajjah citesAlexander's In addition, in thefourth ofhis owncommentary. and sixthtreatises mentary in theunique are preserved fromAlexander's severalstatements commentary of thePhysics.Theseoccurin TreatisesII, IV, V, MS of Ishaq'stranslation see the printededition,vol. II, p. 957. See and VII. For page references, is not excommentary Arabus,p. 34. Alexander's further, Peters,Aristoteles tanttodayin any language,althoughit is oftencitedby Simpliciusin his commentary.
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[Aristotle's]books.3 These [matters]are in general eight [in number]:[1] theaim of thebook, [2] itsutility,[3] itsrank,[4] its used in it, division,[5] its relation,[6] the methodof instruction [7] what its name indicatesabout it, and [8] who wroteit.4 [We 3 Or accordingto some readings(see apparatus):"... some of the things withwhichtheybegintheirbooks."The meaningis, however, the same. 4 This is curiously Averroes' onlyaccountof theseeightmatters, although he does beginsome of his commentaries a numberof them. by mentioning on thePosterior See, forexample,his Prooemiumto his Long Commentary (in Juntasedition,Vol. I, 2a, ff.la-9b), his EpitomeoftheMetaAnalytics des Averroes, Germantrans.by S. physics(in Die EpitomederMetaphysik Van Den Bergh[Leiden,1924],pp. 1-7), his Middle Commentary on the Topics(ed. by CharlesE. Butterworth [Cairo:The AmericanResearchCenter in Egypt,1979],pp. 29-34), and his Long Commentary on the De Anima Mass.: The Mediaeval (Latin trans.,ed. by F. StuartCrawford [Cambridge, enumerates and explainsthese AcademyofAmerica,1953],pp. 3-6). Alfarabi in his Kitab al-alfdzal-musta'malah eightmatters fi al-mantiq,sec. 51, pp. 94-95. He also refers to thecustom('ddah) ofthecommentators ofmentionat thebeginning oftheirbooks(see ibid.,sec. 51, p. 94, and ingthesematters sec. 58, p. 104). He himself discussesthesematters, perhapsas a prefaceto his commentary on theCategories, at theend of Kitabal-alfaz,secs. 58-65, also beginsa numberof his Aristotelian commentaries pp. 104-111.Alfarabi withan accountof mostof theseeightmatters. CommenSee, e.g.,Alfarabi's De Interpretatione, ed. by WilhelmKutschand Stanley taryon Aristotle's Morrow(Beirut:Imprimerie Catholique,1960),pp. 17-23,and his Introductionto his Commentary on theNicomachean Ethics,Hebrewtrans.ed. and trans.by LawrenceV. Berman,"Ibn Rushd'sMiddle Commentary on the NicomacheanEthicsin MedievalHebrewLiterature," in MultipleAverroes in ibid., (Paris:Les BellesLettres,1978),pp. 303-311.See also thereferences wrotea smalltreatise, Risdlahfi md p. 299, notes3-4. In addition,Alfarabi yanbaghian yuqaddamqabl ta'allumal-falsafah [Treatiseon whatone ought to knowbeforestudying (ed. and Germantrans.by Fr. Dieterici philosophy] in his Alfarabi's philosophische Abhandlungen [Leiden,1890 (text)and 1892 devotedto theninematters thatone mustknowbeforestudy(translation)]), Professor MuhsinMahdiinformed me thatAbf ing Aristotelian philosophy. al-Faraj'AbdullahIbn al-Tayyib(d. 1043) also refersto the customof the commentators of mentioning these mattersat the ('ddat al mufassirin) of theircommentaries. Ibn al-Tayyib writesin his Commentary beginning on theCategories, MS No. 1962,f. la: "It was Cairo,Dar al-kutubal-misriyah the customof the commentators beforeinquiryinto the book of Aristotle
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will mentionthem] even thoughmost of these mattersare inin the beginningof his book, as we will explain cluded implicitly whenwe get there,God willing. We say thatthe aim of naturalscience [physics]in general,of whichthe aim of thisbook is a part,is to knowthe causes of the sensiblespeciesand the causes of the accidentsthatexistin them. lb The subject,then,of thisartintowhichwe are inquiringis things thatare recognizableto the sensesand thatchangeby themselves, i.e. thai have withinthemselvesthe principleof motionand rest.5 [1] The aim of thisbook is to giveknowledgeof thecauses that are common to all naturalthings,i.e. the material,formal,final, and agent [causes],and to give knowledgeof the firstcauses,i.e. those [causes]thatit is possibleto make knownthroughthisscience, like primematterand the Prime Mover. As forfirstform and the firstend, it is the studentof divinescience[metaphysics] who inquires into them.6 Speculation [here] is also into the concomitants thatare commonto all naturalthings,such as time, the and like. place, [2] The utility[of thisbook] is partof the utilityof theoretical science.It has alreadybeen explainedin thevoluntaryscience,i.e. actions,thattheexistence [thescience]thatinquiresintovoluntary of man in his ultimateperfection and in his perfectessenceis his knownas theCategories to inquireintotenprinciples [mabddi']."Now none of the extantcommentaries on the Physicsin Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca followthispractice.Ammonius,the son of Hermias,however,discussesten suchmatters in his Prefaceto his Commentary on theCategories. See now Les Attributions. Le texte aristotelicien et les prolegomenes d'Ammonios d'Hermeias,Frenchtrans.by Y. Pelletier (Paris:Les BellesLetwho begin theircommentaries on tres, 1983). Otherearlycommentators in a similarfashionincludeAlexanderof AphrodiAristotle's logicalwritings JohnPhiloponus, and Elias. See Edsias,Proclus,Simplicius, Olympiodorus, winA. Quain,"The MedievalAccessusad auctores," Traditio,III (1945),pp. 215-264,esp. pp. 247-252. 5 In his MiddleCommentary on thePhysics(in Juntasedition,Vol. IV, f. describes thesubjectof naturalsciencesimplyas "beingsthat 434a) Averroes VI 1025b 18-21,IX 1059b 17, 1061b5-6 move."Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysics and 29-30, and 1064a 15-16.
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being perfectin [the knowledgeof] the theoreticalsciences.His havingachievedthisstateis theultimatehappinessand [thecause of] eternallife.One sees fromthis science thatthe term"man" in thetheoretical thatis predicated[both]oftheone who is perfect sciencesand of the one who is not perfectin themor who is such thathe willnot becomeperfectin them,is predicatedequivocally, just as the term"man" thatis predicatedof [both]the livingman and the dead man, and similarlyalso the term"man" thatis predicated of the rational[being] and of the [being] carved from stone.7 Now in additionto whatfollowsfroma knowledgeof thetheoreticalsciences,thereis [theacquisition]of important qualities,for when the studentsof these sciencesattainto what is naturalfor in all thattheywillbe distinguished them,it willfollownecessarily 6 Averroesexplainsin the Middle Commentary on the Physics,f. 434a, in naturalsciencefromwhichwe can arrive thattheredo not existpremises of the firstformand thefirstend. See also his Epitomeof the at knowledge Physicsin Rasd'il ibn Rushd(Hyderabad,1947),p. 7, and Epitomeof the p. 3. Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysics, PhysicsII 194b 15. 7 On "man"as an equivocalterm,see "The AmphiboHarryA. Wolfson, lous Termsin Aristotle, ArabicPhilosophy and Maimonides," HarvardTheologicalReview,XXXI (1938),pp. 163-171.Wolfsonclaimsthattheexample of "man" as an illustration of an equivocaltermis infrequent in Arabic Wolfsonprovidesis Maimophilosophy (p. 167). Amongthe fewreferences nides'use of"man"as an exampleofan amphibolous termin his Treatiseon Logic. Maimonidesexplainsin ch. 13 of the Treatisethat"man" is applied to the rationalanimal,to the man who is dead, and to the amphibolousy imagecarvedin wood.Wolfsondoes notreferin thisarticleto Maimonides' shortchapterin theGuideofthePerplexed(I, 14) on theequivocality of the word"man"(adam), whichmaybe comparedto Averroes' statement striking that"man" is predicatedequivocallyof the one perfectin the theoretical sciencesand of theone imperfect in them.For an exposition of thischapter, see WarrenHarvey,"HasdaiCrescas'sCritiqueoftheTheoryof theAcquired Intellect"(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, ColumbiaUniversity, 1973),pp., 205-217.HarveyconcludesthatforMaimonides"man"is appliedequivocally to theperfect man and thevulgarman.They"are completely different kinds of beings;thefirstis immortal theseconddoomedand brutish" intellect, (p. 217).
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the kinds of importantvirtues,which are justice, temperance, truth,faith,humility,and the generosity, courage,magnanimity, otherhuman virtues.Alexanderhas alreadyexplainedin his fore- 2a wordto thisbook how the existenceof thesevirtuesfollowsfrom a knowledgeof the theoreticalsciences.When the scholarknows the scantinessof his lifein relationto thiseternalexistenceand to the continuousmotion [of the heavens],and thatthe relationof his lifeto eternaltime is as thatof the pointto the line, and in he will general,as thatof the smallestfinitethingto the infinite, not be overlydevotedto lifeand will necessarilybe courageous. whenhe knowsthatdeathis fromthe necessityof hyle, Similarly, he willnotbe and in particularwhenhe attainshumanperfection, will that he will be deprived fear of death afraid and, indeed, only it is not unliWhen he attains[humanperfection] of perfection.8 kelythatat some timehe willsee thatdeathis betterforhimthan life,just as Socratesdid [in his dealings]withthe Athenians9(alforthe many thoughit is thoughtthatthe methodsof instruction and forthe fewwerenot clearto Socratesbecause he triedto fol8 Averroes definesthecourageousindividualas theone "whoalwayspreordersand commandshim" even in "timesof fears serveswhatcogitation and anxietiesand desires."See Averroeson Plato's "Republic",trans.by Press,1974),p. 55. On RalphLerner(Ithaca,New York:Corell University towardlifeand death, individual to hisattitude therelationofthecourageous see ibid.,p. 21. 9 See Plato,Apology40c-42a, 37d-38a,and Phaedo 62a-68c, 82e-85b. See also Alfarabi, of Plato and of Plato in Alfarabi'sPhilosophy Philosophy trans.by MuhsinMahdi(revisededition,Ithaca,New York:Cornell Aristotle, of Press,1969), sec. 30, pp. 63-64; and Averroes,Commentary University 6n thePhysics,f. 445a, Plato'sRepublic,p. 32. In theMiddleCommentary Averroes givesas an exampleof the finalcause replyto thequestion,"Why does theman die?""becauseit is betterforhimthathe die." An anonymous to the Middle Commentary medievalcommentator (New York,The Jewish f. No. MS of America 2457, 14a) explainsthat"after TheologicalSeminary whathe possiblycan of them, and apprehends man acquirestheintelligibles so thatonlythe it is betterforhimto die and his matterto be corrupted are knowntogether for the will intellect only remain, intelligibles acquired frommatter." whentheyare abstracted
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when low themethodfortheelitewiththemultitude).'1 Similarly, thatperfection is deprivedhim,thereis he [thescholar]determines no difference [forhim]betweenhis deathand his life,exceptthat This is clearsincehis worhis deathis forhim morepraiseworthy. to is about the indeed inaccessibility him of thisperfection. ry It is further clear thatthe studentsof thissciencemustbe just and temperate.[Theymustbe] just because whentheyknowthe natureof the justice whichexistsin the substanceof the beings, theywillwantto likenthemselvesto the same natureand acquire the same form.11[They must be] temperatebecause when they 2b knowthe baseness12of desiresand thattheyare not amongthose of man,muchless for thingsthatare necessaryfortheimmortality his perfections, but are thingsthatappertainto thembecause of the necessityof the natureof hyle,theywill cast themfaraside and utterly detestthem,and theywill become temperate, clinging to the divinelaws and followingthe naturalnomoi. It is further clear thattheywill be betterand more generousthan others;for theydespisetheacquisitionof moneyand theyknowthebaseness 10 See Alfarabi, of Plato, sec. 36, p. 66. Philosophy 11 Whatis this"justicewhichexistsin thesubstancse of thebeings?"The phrase,"in the substance[or perhaps:essence]of the beings,"is a literal of the Hebrewbe-'esemha-nimsa'ot translation (Latin: in substantiarerun; if probableArabic:bi-jauharal-maujudat).The passagebecomesintelligible we recallthatAverroes defines on Plato'sRepublic justicein his Commentary (pp. 8-9 and 54) as "everyone of thepartsdoingonlywhatit has to do in theappropriate measureand at theappropriate time."It is in thissensethat thereis justicein thesubstanceof thebeings.Averroes adds in his Commenoccursin the partsof the soul taryon theRepublicthatjusticenecessarily rulesoverthem."The intellectlearnsto governjustly "onlywhenintellect fromits observation of thejusticein nature. 12 The termI translate as "baseness"is "pehitut." This termoccursin medievalHebrewphilosophical textsas a translation of the Arabicterm "radhilah"("vice")(see,e.g. SamuelIbn Tibbon'stranslation of Maimonides' EightChapters, chs.,2, 4, and 8). Thistermoccursfivetimesin thepresent in our text.The sixteenth-century Latintranslation translates this paragraph termas "imperfectio" The corresponding and, in one instance,"iqnobilitas." Arabic-to-Latin translation is "vilitas"or "indignitas." thirteenth-century
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of its existence,and thatdevotionto it is one of the desiresthat deviatefromnature.Similarly,it is clearthattheywillbe magnanimous,loversof truthin theirspeech and in theiractions,and traitsand humanvirtueswhich [possessors]of theotherimportant by naturetheywill necessarilyhave. Now if one wereto arguethatexistencedoes not testify to the truthof thisstatement[ofAlexanderthatknowledgeof thetheoretical sciencesleads to virtuouscharacter],and thatratherwe see thatformostof thosewho glorify themselvesin thesesciencesin theseour timesthe oppositeis true,13 you shouldknowthatthey became this because of an unnatural dispositionwhich way only broughtthemto thisinclination.'4This [unnatural]dispositionis clearto whoeverhas studiedand accustomedhimselfa bitto pracinto it a little.What we findfrom tical science and investigated Alexanderand othersshould indicateto you thatwhat has happened [to the latter-day scholars]is a matteroutsidenature.[Our 13 See Maimonides, trans.by ShlomoPines(ChiGuideofthePerplexed, ofChicagoPress,1963),II, 36, p. 371: "For mostofthe cago:The University amongthe men of knowledgeare thoughtsof thosewho are outstanding of this sense with the pleasures [i.e. thesenseof touch,and] are preoccupied desirousof them."Cf. Alfarabi,The Attainment of Happinessin Alfarabi's secs.,60-61, pp. 48-49. An exampleof an Philosophy ofPlatoand Aristotle, in the worldly knownforhis want of temperance outstanding philosopher in his Introhim remarks about Ibn Tufail's is Ibn See, e.g., Bajjah. pleasures ductionto Hayyibn Yaqzdn,and Fath Ibn Khaqan's no doubtembellished accountin his Qala'id al-'iqydn(Paris,n.d.),pp. 346-353. biographical 14 "Inclination" oftheHebrewha-haskamah is a translation in thissentence of haThis translation c. Latin: 16th c. Latin: consensus; deliberatio). (13th ofthetermin his Crescas,p. 401, discussion haskamahis basedon Wolfson's thatmakesthesemen n. 8. Averroes'pointhereis thatit is not philosophy in Fasl the Averroes unvirtuous. al-maqal(trans.byGeorge explains similarly ontheHarmony HouraniinAverroes [London:Luzac ofReligionandPhilosophy and Co., 1961],pp. 48-49) thatthestudentofphilosophy maystumblein his orhis"beingdominated in hisnaturalcapacity" by studyowingto a "deficiency that"someofthemostviciouspeoplemay hispassions."He evenacknowledges theirstudyofthebooksofphilosophy," to havegoneastray be thought through is notto blame.See also and philosophy butthisis accidentalto philosophy, 77-78. Plato's on Averroes' Republic,pp. Commentary
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readingof Alexander]arguesforthe existenceof scholarsas men forthe men of sciencewere of such a of virtueand distinction, characterin his day.Whenthismatteris investigated, you willfind scholars of our which but that the perfection they[the nothing of and habit is in its to because essence surrender upbringing day] And15thisis not all thathas hapfarfromthe [true]perfection. penedto them,but theywerebroughtup on thebeliefin thebaseand the basenessof thosewho attain ness of this[true]perfection it. This happenedto themnot because of the Law, but because of 3a it. It happensto thisspeciesof man, thosewho despiseand distrust whentheybeginin speculation,thattheydespisethis[true]species to whichtheyhave begunto submit,fortheyremain of perfection withthaton whichtheywere broughtup, and theyhave hardly eversubmittedto thisperfection. They imaginebasenessin themselvesbecause men denouncethemand considerthemuncivilized and among thosewithwhom the least of themshould not associate. When theydespairof attainingthis perfection, theythink thatwhat is said about it is not farfrombeinglike what is said about the firstperfection whichtheycast aside afterhavingbeen 15 The
Averroes does not passagethatfollowsis unclearand verydifficult. not to he is and it is when what about easy distinguish perfections talking explain and whenthe assumedperfection. The he has in mindthe trueperfection is significantly in a few translation different Arabic-to-Latin thirteenth-century places,butis of somehelp.It readsas follows: as a result ofthecustom Butthisis notallthathappenstothem.In addition, inwhichtheyarereared, is quiteworthless. theybelievethatthisperfection Thisdoesnothappentothembecauseofthelaw,butbecauseofthosewho it.Thus,thisis whathappensto thesemenwhen corrupt [corrumpentibus] to thiskindof perfection to whichtheyused to into inquire theybegin andwhen submit. whentheydespairofachieving thisperfection Moreover, itandbelieving thatthosewhoyearnforitought theyseeall menbelittling notto be a partofthecity,or whentheybelievethateverything whichis said of thisperfection is similarto whatis said of thefirstperfection in whichtheyarerearedandwhichtheycastout- andthesearethemajority - thenthey at thistime,i.e. amongthosewhoengagea bitin speculation incline to the and completely appetite therebefalls[read"accidit"]thema so unnatural thattheyoughtnotto be calleda partofthecity disposition at all .... All theiractions are forthemselves.
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broughtup on it. They are the majorityat thistimeamongthose who are drawnto logic as an inclinationto the desires.Something happensto them which is so much outside of naturethat they shouldnot be called a partof the cityat all since no politicalact at all is realizedfromthemand no humanlove comes fromthem nor anythingof benefitto anyoneelse. But theyconsiderall their in thefancyoftheirminds.For thisreason,science actsimportant at this time has become a disgraceto its possessorand a huge blemishon whoeverattainsit.'6 But we have alreadystrayedtoo farfromour path,so we will now returnto it. [3] As forthe rankof thisbook, it is thebook thatis called the firstof the books thatare writtenby Aristotleon naturalscience. The meaning of this is [as follows]:When natural thingsare divided into different natures,these naturesdifferaccordingto whatis particular to each one ofthem,but theystillsharein things thatare common[to them].It followsthatspeculationintothisart shouldbe dividedfirstinto two parts:one partthatinquiresinto generalthingsthatare common to all naturalthings;the second 3b part that inquiresinto those thingsthat are particularto each naturalthings,and thispartis genusof thegeneraof the different dividedalso intoa numberof different genera.For thisreasonthe books authored[by Aristotle]on thisscienceare more than one. Whathappensto themhereis likewhathappensin theartof logic and in otherarts.Now the commonpartin theseartsis priorin instruction to the particularparts,[and this is so] forthreereasons.17One of themis thatthecommonis betterknownby nature 16
on Plato's"Republic", Cf.Averroes pp. 77-78:"As forthosegivenoverto without thesequalitieshavingbeeencompleted in them,... notonly philosophy does one receiveno advantagefrom themin cities,buttheyare also themost harmful ofthings forwisdom.... Theyhaveno virtuein and ofthemselves that wouldrestrain themfromtheseactions[sc.violenceandthelike];norwillthey in thetaleswithwhichtheyfrighten thecitizens whilebringing about speaktruly thesethings[sc. violenceand thelike].Theywillbe a disgraceto wisdomand a causeof muchharm... as is thecase in thistimeofours." 17 Averroes onthe givesthesesamethreereasonsintheMiddleCommentary Physics,f.434b.Cf.theEpitomeofthePhysics,pp. 5-6.
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to us thantheparticular. The secondis thatrepetition oughtnot thatis, mentioning occurin instruction, thesamecommonthing thatareemployed here manytimes.Thethirdis thattheprinciples arefirst and particular ones.Forexample, whenonedemonstrates thattheanglesofan absolute areequaltotworight triangle angles, he demonstrates thisfromfirstprinciples. However,one who demonstrates this[specifically] forscaleneor equilateral triangles does so fromprinciples thatare necessarily notfirst principles.18 Likewiseis thecase withone whodemonstrates theexistence of primematterin a man or animalor otherparticular thing.In thesecases,thecommonand general partmustprecedetheparticular as the Prior Analyticsand On Interpretation precede the PosteriorAnalyticsand the Topics and the restof the [last] five
books[oftheOrganon]. madeit intoeight [4] As forthepartsof thisbook,Aristotle treatises. Each one ofthesetreatises is dividedintolargesections, and thelargesections aredividedintosmallsections. In someinstancesthesmallsections aredividedintoyetsmaller sections. At timesthefirst willnotbe divided, sections and at othertimesthe divisionprocesswilltakeplacemorethanthreetimes.All thisis to the natureof whatis beingdiscussed.Sometimes according somethings willcallforbeingdividedforthesakeoftheorderof instruction. We willenumerate at thebegin[all] thesedivisions ningofeachtreatise. 4a of naturalsci[5] The relation[ofthisbook],i.e. therelation 18
Thegeneral is demonstrated proposition byEuclidin TheoremI, 32 ofthe Elements.Heathpointsoutin hisnotesto thistheorem Booksof (The Thirteen Euclid'sElements, trans.bySirThomasL. Heath[2nded.,3 vols.;NewYork: DoverPublications, intheveryearly 1956],vol.I, p. 317)thatit"wasdiscovered Eucliddoesnothavespecialtheorems forthepropostagesofGreekgeometry." sitionforequilateral, or scalenetriangles. someoftheancieisosceles, However, ntsarereported to haveinvestigated thistheorem ofthetworight anglesin each individualspeciesof triangle (see Heath,pp. 317-320).See further, Aristotle, Posterior I 74a25-74b4,andAverroes, MiddleCommentary onAristAnalytics, otle'sPosterior ed. byCharlesE. Butterworth Analytics, (Cairo:The American ResearchCenterin Egypt,1982),pp. 51-57.
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ofthepartto sciencesis therelation ence,to theothertheoretical sciencesare oftwokinds:one kindis thewhole.The theoretical ofthe and it consists forthemostpartas propaedeutic reckoned fortheperfecmathematical sciences;theotherkindis reckoned of sciencesexist,and it consists tionsforwhichthepropaedeutic ofthisbookwithin scienceanddivinescience.Therelation natural of a thingto the naturalscienceis therelationof theelements and thataretheprinciples thing.Thisbookincludesthosethings ofthisscience thestudent roots,whichare commonto whatever wishesto discuss. usedin thisbookis ofthetypes [6] The methodofinstruction ofall andthesearethemethods usedin thisscience, ofinstruction demonstrathethreetypesofdemonstrations: disciplines, namely, ofcauses,and absolutedemonstrationsofbeing,demonstrations of beingand [demonstrademonstrations tions.19 Now,although whichare tionsof] causesare those[typesof demonstrations] forthemostpartin thisart,absolutedemonstrations employed fromthatin is different maybe usedon occasion.Thissituation demonabsolute almost where mathematics alwaysemploy they The typesof instruction strations.20 [in thisscience]also include 19 Demonstrations ofbeing(Arabic:dalilorburhanwujud;Hebrew:re'ayah; thatproceedfromthe Latin:signior demonstratio quod est) are arguments (orwhatis moreknownto us) to theprior(orwhatis moreknownby posterior to theircauses.Demonfromthefactsin theworld(thatis,theeffects) nature), Hebrew: burhan of causes asbdb; strations mofetha-sibbot;Latin: (Arabic: causaeordemonstratio demonstratio quid)proceedfromthepriortothe propter Absolutedemonstrations fromthe causesto theireffects. (Arabic: posterior, also simpliciter) burhanmutlaq;Hebrew:mofetmuhlat;Latin:demonstratio demonin but absolute to causes from to effects, from prior posterior, proceed Thisthreefold is alsopriorinexistence. whatis priortous in knowledge strations on laterChristian had a markedinfluence thought. divisionofdemonstrations Methodin the ofScientific See JohnHermanRandall,Jr.,"The Development SchoolofPadua,"JournaloftheHistoryofIdeas, I (1940),esp. pp. 187-197. onthePhysics,ff.434a-b,Epito20 See also,Averroes, MiddleCommentary ed. by on theMetaphysics, meofthePhysics,pp. 3-4, and LongCommentary Beirut:Imprimerie Catholique, MauriceBouyges(3 vols. and Introduction; 1938-1952),vol. I, pp. 50-51.
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thatbydivision, thatbyenthymeme,21 thatwhichis bydefinition, arts andthatbyexample;forthedemonstrative thatbyinduction, mentioned in thePostemayuseall thesefivetypesinthemanner is in a manner Theuseofexampleandinduction riorAnalytics.22 andtheartof otherthanthemannerin whichtheartofdialectic and therhetorical induction use them,i.e. thedialectical rhetoric example. aboutit, he 4b [7] As forwhatthe nameof thisbook indicates on a a Akroasis meant [i.e. hearing nature] byPhysical [Aristotle] washeard,he emon nature, butbecausethediscourse discourse in placeof"discourse." The purpose ployed[theterm]"hearing" in theRhetoric, is and change,as is explained ofsuchmetaphor He words.23 whicharein thechanged andstrangeness thepleasure it [thename]refers setitapartbythis[name],although [Aristotle] forthisbookis therootof to thiswholeart[ofnaturalscience],
21 Mantinus'Latintranslation adds"thatbyenthymeme" between"thatby The Hebrewmanuscripts all speakoffive division"and "thatby induction." typesofinstruction. 22 of thePosterior See Posterior I, 1-2. The beginning Analytics Analytics deals withthe natureand conditions of demonstration. Thereis no specific in thePosterior statement of thewayin whichthesefivetypesof Analytics arts. instruction maybe usedin thedemonstrative 23 Scholars agreethattheancientGreektitle,Phusikeakroatodaygenerally a courseoflectures" thatitwasoriginally sis,ofthePhysics "implies (W.D. Ross, Aristotle's OxfordUniversity also Press,1936],p. 9). Averroes Physics[Oxford: understands thatthePhysics,likeperhapsotherofAristotle's washeard, works, buthe wishesto explainwhyit wascalleda "hearing" (Latin:auditus)instead of the moreusual term"discourse," thatis, a speaking(Latin:sermo).His is basedon Aristotle's in theRhetoric statements explanation (III, 2, esp. 1405a ofmetaphor and change,and thatmetaphor, 5ff.)oftherhetorical importance aboveall else,givesthedesiredpleasure(Greek:edos;Latin:delectatio; Hebrew: Hebrew:zarut)to 'arevut)and strangeness (Greek:xenikon;Latin:extraneitas; areindeedheard,theunexpected akroasisis a legitimate speech.Sincediscourses or "speech,"and servestherhetorical function changefortheusual"discourse" ofinteresting and delighting thelistener.
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theart[ofnaturalscience]and itsprinciple,24 and thepartis called the name of the whole so that it all its by mightbe in potentiality all the parts,as is thecase withan elementwhichis in potentiality thingsthatare generatedfromit. theson of Nicomachus, [8] The authorof thisbook is Aristotle, who is well knownin scienceamong the Greeks,and who is the authorof otherbooks on thisartand books on theartof logicand treatiseson thedivineart.He is theone who originated thesethree arts,i.e. the artof logic,naturalscience,and divinescience,and it is he who completedthem.Indeed he originatedthem,forwhat one findsof otherson thesethingsshouldnotbe positedas a principle of thesearts,nor [even]as a partof them.Further,whatone findsof othersshould not even be consideredas difficulties in thesearts,let alone principlesof them.This is clear fromwhathe relatesin his books of theirarguments on thesethings.This is also clear fromthe extantbooks thatare attributed to them.But these are fewsince men kept away fromthe books of those who preceded him [Aristotle]afterseeingthe books of this man. Of the books authoredbeforehim,the books thatare closestto the path of instruction in thesethingsare thoseof Plato,althoughwhatis in themis verylittlein comparisonto what is in the books of this scholar,and in some sciencesit is less than it is in others.As for Aristotle'shaving completedthem [logic, natural science, and divinescience],no one who has come afterhim to thisour time - and thisis close to fifteen-hundred yearslater- has been able to add a wordworthyof attentionto whathe said. The existence of [all] this in one man is exceedinglyunusual and extremely amazing.When thesethingsexistin some man, it is more fitting that theybe attributedto divine existencethan to human existence.It is forthisreasonthatthe ancientscalled him "divine."25 24
tothewholeartofnaturalscience,treated ornaturalsciencerefers Physics et corrupin bookssuchas thePhysics, De Caelo,De Generatione byAristotle as wellas to thesubscienceof thisart,treatedby tione,and Meteorologica, in thePhysics. Aristotle 25 of deification ofAverroes' Thispassageis one oftheclearestillustrations
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Since we have alreadyexplainedin brieftheseeightmatters wishesto understand whichareas introductions to whoever what he [Aristotle] said in thisbook,we shouldnow beginwithour word-for-word on itstreatises. commentary
Aristotle. See also hisMiddleCommentary on theMeteorologica (Hebrewtrans. ed. by I.M. Levey,"The Middle Commentary of Averroeson Aristotle's Ph.D. dissertation, HarvardUniversity, Meteorologica" [unpublished 1947],pp. ofothersin comparison withthatof 117-118):"How minuteis thespeculation Aristotle! Withthisdivinepowerwhichexistsin himhe brought scienceinto existence and perfected it .... Thereis nota thingin hiswordsthatneedsto be Forotherexplicit ofAverroes' ofAristotle, completed." examples highestimation see hisLongCommentary on theMetaphysics, vol. I, p. 7; LongCommentary on De Anima,p. 433; and thereferences in Renan,Averroes etl'averroisme, p. 60.