Instructor's solution manuals to physics principles with applications 7e part 2 by thealexsun

16-18

46.

Chapter 16

Calculate the total charge on all electrons in 3.0 g of copper and compare 32 μ C to that value. The molecular weight of copper is 63.5 g, and its atomic number is 29. ⎛ 1 mole ⎞ ⎛ 6.02 × 1023 atoms ⎞ ⎛ 29 e ⎞ ⎛ 1.602 × 10−19 C ⎞ 5 Total electron charge = 3.0 g ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1.32 × 10 C ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ mole 1e ⎝ 63.5 g ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ atoms ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ Fraction lost =

47.

32 × 10−6 C 1.32 × 105 C

= 2.4 × 10−10

Use Eq. 16–4a to calculate the magnitude of the electric charge on the Earth. We use the radius of the Earth as the distance. E=k

Q r2

→ Q=

Er 2 (150 N/C)(6.38 × 106 m) 2 = = 6.8 × 105 C k 8.988 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2

Since the electric field is pointing toward the Earth’s center, the charge must be negative. 48.

(a)

From Problem 47, we know that the electric field is pointed toward the Earth’s center. Thus an electron in such a field would experience an upward force of magnitude FE = eE. The force of gravity on the electron will be negligible compared to the electric force. FE = eE = ma → a=

(b)

eE (1.602 × 10−19 C)(150 N/C) = = 2.638 × 1013 m/s 2 ≈ 2.6 × 1013 m/s 2 , up − 31 m (9.11 × 10 kg)

A proton in the field would experience a downward force of magnitude FE = eE. The force of gravity on the proton will be negligible compared to the electric force. FE = eE = ma → a=

(c)

49.

eE (1.602 × 10−19 C)(150 N/C) = = 1.439 × 1010 m/s 2 ≈ 1.4 × 1010 m/s 2 , down −27 m (1.67 × 10 kg)

For the electron:

a 2.638 × 1013 m/s 2 = ≈ 2.7 × 1012 2 g 9.80 m/s

For the proton:

a 1.439 × 1010 m/s 2 = ≈ 1.5 × 109 2 g 9.80 m/s

For the droplet to remain stationary, the magnitude of the electric force on the droplet must be the same as the weight of the droplet. The mass of the droplet is found from its volume times the density of water. Let n be the number of excess electrons on the water droplet. FE = |q|E = mg n=

→ neE = 34 π r 3 ρ g

→

4π r 3 ρ g 4π (1.8 × 10−5 m)3 (1.00 × 103 kg/m3 )(9.80 m/s 2 ) = = 9.96 × 106 ≈ 1.0 × 107 electrons 3eE 3(1.602 × 10−19 C)(150 N/C)

© Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Electric Charge and Electric Field

50.

16-19

There are four forces to calculate. Call the rightward direction the positive direction. The value of k is 8.988 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 and the value of e is 1.602 × 10−19 C. Fnet = FCH + FCN + FOH + FON =

k (0.40e)(0.20e) ⎡ 1 1 1 1 ⎤ − + + − ⎥ 2 ⎢ 2 2 2 −9 (1 × 10 m) ⎢⎣ (0.30) (0.40) (0.18) (0.28) 2 ⎥⎦

= 2.445 × 10−10 N ≈ 2.4 × 10−10 N

51.

The electric force must be a radial force in order for the electron to move in a circular orbit. FE = Fradial rorbit = k

52.

→ k

Q2 mυ

Q2 2 rorbit

mυ 2 rorbit

→

= (8.988 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )

(1.602 × 10−19 C) 2 (9.109 × 10

−31

kg)(2.2 × 10 m/s)

= 5.2 × 10−11 m

If all of the angles to the vertical (in both cases) are assumed G G to be small, then the spheres only have horizontal FT1 FT2 θ1 displacement, and the electric force of repulsion is always θ2 horizontal. Likewise, the small-angle condition leads to G G tan θ ≈ sin θ ≈ θ for all small angles. See the free-body G FE1 m gG FE2 m g diagram for each sphere, showing the three forces of gravity, 1 2 tension, and the electrostatic force on each charge. Take the right to be the positive horizontal direction and up to be the positive vertical direction. Since the spheres are in equilibrium, the net force in each direction is zero.

(a)

∑ F1x = FT1 sin θ1 − FE1 = 0

∑ F1y = FT1 cos θ1 − m1 g

→ FE1 = FT1 sin θ1

m1 g cos θ1

→ FT1 =

→ FE1 =

m1 g sin θ1 = m1 g tan θ1 = m1 gθ1 cos θ1

A completely parallel analysis would give FE2 = m2 gθ 2 . Since the electric forces are a Newton’s third law pair, they can be set equal to each other in magnitude. Note that the explicit form of Coulomb’s law was not necessary for this analysis. FE1 = FE2

(b)

→ m1 gθ1 = m2 gθ 2

The horizontal distance from one sphere to the other, represented by d, is found by the small-angle approximation. See the diagram. Use the relationship derived above that FE = mgθ to solve for the distance. d = A(θ1 + θ 2 ) = 2Aθ1 → θ1 = m1 gθ1 = FE1 =

53.

→ θ1 /θ 2 = m2 /m1 = 1

kQ(2Q) d

= mg

d 2A

d 2A 1/3

→

⎛ 4AkQ 2 ⎞ d =⎜ ⎜ mg ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠

l θ1 θ2 l

l sin θ 1

l sin θ 2

Because of the inverse square nature of the electric Q1 Q2 field, any location where the field is zero must be closer to the weaker charge (Q2 ). Also, in between the two l d charges, the fields due to the two charges are in the same direction and cannot cancel. Thus the only

16-20

Chapter 16

place where the field can be zero is closer to the weaker charge, but not between them. In the diagram, this means that A must be positive. Evaluate the net field at that location. E = −k

Q1 −

Q1 (A + d ) 2 d=

=0 →

Q2 (A + d ) 2 = Q1A 2

5.0 × 10−6 C 2.5 × 10

−5

C − 5.0 × 10

−6

→

(2.4 m) =

1.9 m from Q2 , 4.3 m from Q1

The electric field at the surface of the pea is given by Eq. 16–4a. Solve that equation for the charge. E=k

55.

54.

→ Q=

Er 2 (3 × 106 N/C)(3.75 × 10−3 m) 2 = = 5 × 10−9 C (≈ 3 × 109 electrons) k 8.988 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C 2

There will be a rightward force on Q1 due to Q2 , given by Coulomb’s law. There will be a leftward force on Q1 due to the electric field created by the parallel plates. Let right be the positive direction.

∑F = k

Q1Q2 x2

− Q1 E

= (8.988 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )

(6.7 × 10−6 C)(1.8 × 10−6 C) (0.47 m) 2

− (6.7 × 10−6 C)(5.3 × 104 N/C)

= 0.14 N, right

56.

The weight of the sphere is the density times the volume. The electric force is given by Eq. 16–1, with both spheres having the same charge, and the separation distance equal to their diameter. mg = k Q=

57.

Q2 (d ) 2

→ ρ 34 π r 3 g =

kQ 2 (2r ) 2

→

16 ρπ gr 5 16(35 kg/m3 )π (9.80 m/s 2 )(1.0 × 10−2 m)5 = = 8.0 × 10−9 C 3k 3(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )

Since the electric field exerts a force on the charge in the same direction as the electric field, the charge is positive. Use the free-body diagram to write the equilibrium equations for both the horizontal and vertical directions and use those equations to find the magnitude of the charge.

G FT

G mg

G FE

43cm

l = 55cm

43 = 38.6° 55 ∑ Fx = FE − FT sin θ = 0 → FE = FT sin θ = QE

θ = cos −1

∑ Fy = FT cos θ − mg = 0 Q=

→ FT =

mg cos θ

→ QE = mg tan θ

mg tan θ (1.0 × 10−3 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) tan 38.6° = = 8.2 × 10−7 C E (9500 N/C)

Electric Charge and Electric Field

58.

(a)

The force of sphere B on sphere A is given by Coulomb’s law. kQ 2

FAB =

(b)

(a)

kQ 2

2R2

, away from B

(3Q /4)(Q /2) R

3kQ 2 8R 2

, away from B

Outside of a sphere, the electric field of a uniformly charged sphere is the same as if all the charge were at the center of the sphere. Thus we can use Eq. 16–4a. According to Example 16–6, each toner particle has the same charge as 20 electrons. Let N represent the number of toner particles. E=k N=

(b)

QQ /2

The result of touching sphere A to sphere C is that the charge on the two spheres is shared, so the charge on A is reduced to 3Q /4. Again use Coulomb’s law. FAB = k

59.

, away from B

The result of touching sphere B to uncharged sphere C is that the charge on B is shared between the two spheres, so the charge on B is reduced to Q /2. Again use Coulomb’s law.

FAB = k

(c)

16-21

Q r

NQ0 r2

→

Er 2 (5000N/C)(0.50 m) 2 = = 4.346 × 1010 ≈ 4 × 1010 particles − 9 2 2 19 kQ0 (8.988 × 10 N ⋅ m /C )(20)(1.6 × 10 C)

According to Example 16–6, each toner particle has a mass of 9.0 × 10−16 kg. m = Nm0 = (4.346 × 1010 )(9.0 × 10−16 kg) = 3.911 × 10−5 ≈ 4 × 10−5 kg

60.

Since the gravity force is downward, the electric force must be upward. Since the charge is positive, the electric field must also be upward. Equate the magnitudes of the two forces and solve for the electric field.

Felectric = Fgravitational

61.

→ qE = mg

→ E=

mg (1.67 × 10−27 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) = = 1.02 × 10−7 N/C, up q (1.602 × 10−19 C)

The weight of the mass is only about 2 N. Since the tension in the string is more than that, there must be a downward electric force on the positive charge, which means that the electric field must be pointed down. Use the free-body diagram to write an expression for the magnitude of the electric field.

∑ F = FT − mg − FE = 0 → FE = QE = FT − mg E=

→

G FT

G mg

G FE

FT − mg 5.18 N − (0.185 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) = = 9.90 × 106 N/C Q 3.40 × 10−7 C

16-22

62.

Chapter 16

(a)

Since the field is uniform, the electron will experience a constant force in the direction opposite to its velocity, so the acceleration is constant and negative. Use Eq. 2–11c with a final velocity of 0. F = ma = qE = −eE → a = −

Δx = −

(b)

υ 02 2a

=−

υ02 ⎛ eE ⎞ 2⎜ − ⎟ ⎝ m⎠

eE 2 ; υ = υ02 + 2aΔx = 0 → m

mυ02 (9.11 × 10−31 kg)(5.32 × 106 m/s) 2 = = 8.53 × 10−3 m 2eE 2(1.60 × 10−19 C)(9.45 × 103 N/C)

Find the elapsed time from constant-acceleration relationships. Upon returning to the original position, the final velocity will be the opposite of the initial velocity. Use Eq. 2–11a.

υ = υ0 + at → t=

63.

υ − υ0 a

2mυ0 2(9.11 × 10−31 kg)(5.32 × 106 m/s) −2υ0 = = = 6.41 × 10−9 s 3 −19 eE ⎛ eE ⎞ × × (1.60 10 C)(9.45 10 N/C) ⎜− ⎟ ⎝ m⎠

On the x axis, the electric field can only be zero at a location closer to the smaller magnitude charge. The field will never be zero to the left of the midpoint between the two charges. In between the two charges, the field due to both charges will point to the left. Thus the total field cannot be zero there. So the only place on the x axis where the field can be zero is to the right of the negative charge, and x must be positive. Calculate the field at point P and set it equal to zero. E=k

(−Q /2) x2

(x + d ) 2

= 0 → 2 x 2 = (x + d ) 2

→ x=

2 −1

(

)

2 + 1 ≈ 2.41 d

The field cannot be zero at any points off the x axis. For any point off the x axis, the electric fields due to the two charges will not be along the same line, so they can never combine to give 0. 64.

To find the number of electrons, convert the mass to moles and the moles to atoms and then multiply by the number of electrons in an atom to find the total electrons. Then convert to charge. ⎛ 1 mole Al ⎞ ⎛ 6.02 × 1023 atoms ⎞ ⎛ 13 electrons ⎞ ⎛ −1.602 × 10−19 C ⎞ 25 kg Al = (25 kg Al) ⎜ ⎜ 2.7 × 10−2 kg ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 1 molecule ⎟⎠ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 1 mole electron ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

= −1.2 × 109 C

65.

The electric field will put a force of magnitude FE = QE on each charge. The distance of each charge from the pivot point is A /2, so the torque caused by each force is τ = FE r⊥ = QE

( ) 1A 2

Both torques will tend to make the rod rotate counterclockwise ⎛ QE A ⎞ in the diagram. The net torque is τ net = 2 ⎜ ⎟ = QE A , and it ⎝ 2 ⎠ is counterclockwise. However, if the charges were switched, the torque would be clockwise.

G FE

−Q

G FE

G E

Electric Charge and Electric Field

66.

Enet = 2 E sin θ = 2 = =

67.

From the diagram, we see that the x components of the two fields will cancel each other at the point P. Thus the net electric field will be in the negative y direction and will be twice the y component of either electric field vector.

2kQ

kQ x2 + a2 a

sin θ

x + a 2 (x 2 + a 2 )1/2 2kQa

G E− Q

G EQ

−Q

(x 2 + a 2 )3/2

16-23

in the negative y direction

One sphere will have a positive charge, and the other sphere will have the same amount of negative charge. First solve for that charge by equating the electric force to the gravitational force. Then compare that charge to the total charge. N represents the number of electrons moved from one sphere to the other. Felectric = Fgravitational N=

→ k

(Ne) 2

( 0.12 kg ) m G = e k 1.602 × 10219 C

fraction =

(

)

6.453 × 106 electrons 24

7.22 × 10 electrons

m2 r2

6.67 × 10211 8.988 × 109

→ = 6.453 × 106 electrons

= 8.94 × 10219

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

(a)

(b)

When the leaves are charged by induction, no additional charge is added to the leaves. As the charged rod is near the top of the electroscope, it repels the charge onto the leaves, causing them to separate. When the rod is removed, the charge returns to its initial equilibrium position and the leaves come back together. When the leaves are charged by conduction, positive charge is placed onto the electroscope from the rod, causing the leaves to separate. When the rod is removed, the charge remains on the electroscope and the leaves remain separated. Yes. The electroscope has a negative charge on the top sphere and on the leaves. Therefore, the electroscope has a total net negative charge, so it must have been charged by conduction. In Fig. 16–11a the electroscope is charged by induction, so the net charge is zero. Electric field lines leaving the positive end of the electroscope end on the negative end. In Fig. 16–11b the electroscope has a net positive charge. Electric field lines originate on the electroscope and point away from it.

16-24

Chapter 16

A negative charge must be placed at the center of the square. Let Q = 6.4 μ C be the charge at each corner, let −q be the magnitude of negative charge in the center, and let d = 9.2 cm be the side length of the square. By the symmetry of the problem, if we make the net force on one of the corner charges be zero, then the net force on each other corner charge will also be zero. The force on the charge in the center is also zero, from the symmetry of the problem. F41 = k F42 = k F43 = k F4q = k

→ F41x = k

d2 Q2

Q2 d2

→ F42 x = k

2d 2 Q2 qQ d 2 /2

G F4q

G F41

−q

, F41 y = 0

Q2 2d 2

→ F4 qx = −k

cos 45° = k

→ F43 x = 0, F43 y = k

G F42

G F43 Q4

2qQ d2

2Q 2 4d 2

, F42 y = k

2Q 2 4d 2

Q2 d2

cos 45° = −k

2qQ d2

= F4 qy

The net force in each direction should be zero. Q2

∑ Fx = k d 2 + k

2Q 2 4d

+0−k

⎛ 1 1⎞ q = Q⎜ + ⎟ = (6.4 × 10−6 ⎝ 2 4⎠

2qQ

=0 → d2 ⎛ 1 1⎞ C) ⎜ + ⎟ = 6.1 × 10−6 C ⎝ 2 4⎠

So the charge to be placed is −q = −6.1 × 10−6 C . Note that the length of the sides of the square does not enter into the calculation. This is an unstable equilibrium. If the center charge were slightly displaced, say toward the right, then it would be closer to the right charges than the left and would be attracted more to the right. Likewise, the positive charges on the right side of the square would be closer to it and would be attracted more to it, moving from their corner positions. The system would not have a tendency to return to the symmetric shape; rather, it would have a tendency to move away from it if disturbed. 3.

This is a constant-acceleration situation, similar to projectile motion in a uniform gravitational field. Let the width of the plates be A, the vertical gap between the plates be h, and the initial velocity be υ0 . Notice that the vertical motion has a maximum displacement of h/2. Let upward be the positive vertical direction. We calculate the vertical acceleration produced by the electric field as the electron crosses the region. Fy = ma y = qE = −eE → a y = −

eE m

Since the electron has constant horizontal velocity in the region, we use the horizontal component of the velocity and the length of the region to solve for the time of flight across the region. A = υ0 cos θ 0 (t ) → t =

υ0 cos θ0

Electric Charge and Electric Field

16-25

In half this time, the electron will travel vertically from the middle of the region to the highest point. At the highest point the vertical velocity must be zero. Using Eq. 2–11a with the known acceleration and time to reach the highest point, we can solve for the square of the initial speed of the electron.

υ y = υ0 y + a y ttop top

⎞ ⎞ A eE ⎛ A ⎛ eE ⎞ ⎛ 2 → 0 = υ0 sin θ 0 + ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ 12 ⎟ → υ0 = ⎜ ⎟ 2m ⎝ sin θ 0 cos θ 0 ⎠ ⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ υ0 cos θ 0 ⎠

Finally, using Eq. 2–11a we solve for the initial angle. ytop = y0 + υ0 y ttop + 12 a y t 2 h = A tan θ 0 −

eE A 2

→ 1

1 2

⎛ A h = υ0 sin θ 0 ⎜ 12 ⎝ υ0 cos θ 0

= A tan θ 0 −

eE A 2

⎞ 1 eE ⎛ 1 ⎞ A ⎟− 2 ⎜2 ⎟ m ⎝ υ0 cos θ 0 ⎠ ⎠ 1

⎞ A 4m cos θ 0 υ 4m cos θ 0 eE ⎛ ⎜ ⎟ 2m ⎝ sin θ 0 cos θ 0 ⎠ 2h 2(1.0 cm) h = 12 A tan θ 0 → θ 0 = tan −1 = tan −1 = 15.52° ≈ 16° A 7.2 cm 2

2 0

→

= A tan θ 0 − 12 A tan θ 0

Coulomb observed experimentally that the force between two charged objects is directly proportional to the charge on each one. For example, if the charge on either object is tripled, then the force is tripled. This is not in agreement with a force that is proportional to the sum of the charges instead of to the product of the charges. Also, a charged object is not attracted to or repelled from a neutral insulating object. But if the numerator in Coulomb’s law were proportional to the sum of the charges, then there would be a force between a neutral object and a charged object, because their sum would not be 0.

Two forces act on the mass: gravity and the electric force. Since the acceleration is smaller than the acceleration of gravity, the electric force must be upward, opposite the direction of the electric field. The charge on the object is therefore negative. Using Newton’s second law, with down as the positive direction, we can calculate the magnitude of the charge on the object. G

∑ F = ma q=

→ mg + qE = ma →

m(a − g ) (1.0 kg)(8.0 m/s 2 − 9.8 m/s 2 ) = = −1.2 × 10−2 C 150 N/C E

The magnitude of the electric field at the third vertex is the vector sum of the electric fields from each of the two charges. If we place the two charges at the lower two vertices, then the electric field at the top vertex will be vertically downward. By symmetry, the horizontal components of the electric field will cancel, leaving only the vertical components for the net field. E = Ey =

ke A

sin 30° +

ke A

sin 30° =

ke A2

The electric force on a third negative charge would be upward (opposite the direction of the electric field) and equal to the product of the electric field magnitude and the magnitude of the charge.

16-26

Chapter 16

F = eE =

ke2 A2

, upward

Set the Coulomb electrical force equal to the Newtonian gravitational force on the Moon. FE = FG Q=

→ k

Q2 2 rorbit

M Moon M Earth 2 rorbit

→

GM Moon M Earth (6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(7.35 × 1022 kg)(5.98 × 1024 kg) = = 5.71 × 1013 C 9 2 2 k (8.988 × 10 N ⋅ m /C )

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Responses to Questions 1.

If two points are at the same potential, then no NET work is done in moving a test charge from one point to the other. Along some segments of the path, some positive work might be done, but along other segments of the path, negative work would be done. And if the object is moved strictly along an equipotential line, then no work would be done along any segment of the path. Along any segment of the path where positive or negative work is done, a force would have to be exerted. If the object is moved along an equipotential line, then no force would be exerted along that segment of the path. This is analogous to climbing up and then back down a flight of stairs to get from one point to another point on the same floor of a building. Gravitational potential increased while going up the stairs, and decreased while going down the stairs. A force was required both to go up the stairs and to go down the stairs. If instead you walked on the level from one point to another, then the gravitational potential was constant, and no force was needed to change gravitational potential.

A negative charge will move toward a region of higher potential. A positive charge will move toward a region of lower potential. The potential energy of both charges decreases as they move, because they gain kinetic energy.

(a) (b)

Electric potential, a scalar, is the electric potential energy per unit charge at a point in space. Electric field, a vector, is the electric force per unit charge at a point in space. Electric potential energy is the work done against the electric force in moving a charge from a specified location of zero potential energy to some other location. Electric potential is the electric potential energy per unit charge.

The potential energy of the electron is proportional to the voltage used to accelerate it. Thus, if the voltage is multiplied by a factor of 4, then the potential energy is increased by a factor of 4 also. Then, by energy conservation, we assume that all of the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy during the acceleration process. Thus the kinetic energy has increased by a factor of 4 also. Finally, since the speed is proportional to the square root of kinetic energy, the speed must increase by a factor of 2.

ÂŠ Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

17-1

17-2

Chapter 17

The electric field is zero at the midpoint of the line segment joining the two equal positive charges. The electric field due to each charge is of the same magnitude at that location, because the location is equidistant from both charges, but the two fields are in the opposite direction. Thus the net electric field is zero there. The electric potential is never zero along that line, except at infinity. The electric potential due to each charge is positive, so the total potential, which is the algebraic sum of the two potentials, is always positive.

A negative particle will have its electric potential energy decrease if it moves from a region of low electric potential to one of high potential. By Eq. 17–3, if the charge is negative and the potential difference is positive, then the change in potential energy will be negative and therefore decrease.

G There is no general relationship between the value of V and the value of E. Instead, the magnitude of G E is equal to the rate at which V decreases over a short distance. Consider the point midway between G two positive charges. E is 0 there, but V is high. Or consider the point midway between two negative G charges. E is also 0 there, but V is low, because it is negative. Finally, consider the point midway G between positive and negative charges of equal magnitude. There E is not 0, because it points toward the negative charge, but V is zero.

Two equipotential lines cannot cross. That would indicate that a region in space had two different values for the potential. For example, if a 40-V line and a 50-V line crossed, then the potential at the point of crossing would be both 40 V and 50 V, which is impossible. As an analogy, imagine contour lines on a topographic map. They also never cross because one point on the surface of the Earth cannot have two different values for elevation above sea level. Likewise, the electric field is perpendicular to the equipotential lines. If two lines crossed, then the electric field at that point would point in two different directions simultaneously, which is not possible.

The equipotential lines (in black) are perpendicular to the electric field lines (in red).

10.

Any imbalance of charge that exists would quickly be resolved. Suppose the positive plate, connected to the positive terminal of the battery, had more charge than the negative plate. Then negative charges from the negative battery terminal would be attracted to the negative plate by the more charged positive plate. This would continue only until the negative plate had the same magnitude of charge as the positive plate. If the negative plate became “overcharged,” then the opposite transfer of charge would take place, again until equilibrium was reached. Another way to explain the balance of charge is that neither the battery nor the capacitor can create or destroy charge. Since they were neutral before they were connected, they must be neutral after they are connected. The charge removed from one plate appears as excess charge on the other plate. This is true regardless of the conductor size or shape.

11.

(a)

Once the two spheres are placed in contact with each other, they effectively become one larger conductor. They will have the same potential because the potential everywhere on a conducting surface is constant.

(b)

Because the spheres are identical in size, an amount of charge Q /2 will flow from the initially charged sphere to the initially neutral sphere so that they will have equal charges.

Electric Potential

17-3

12.

A force is required to increase the separation of the plates of an isolated capacitor because you are pulling a positive plate away from a negative plate. Since unlike charges attract, it takes a force to move the oppositely charged plates apart. The work done in increasing the separation goes into increasing the electric potential energy stored between the plates. The capacitance decreases, and the potential between the plates increases since the charge has to remain the same.

13.

If the electric field in a region of space is uniform, then you can infer that the electric potential is increasing or decreasing uniformly in that region. For example, if the electric field is 10 V/m in a region of space, then you can infer that the potential difference between two points 1 meter apart (measured parallel to the direction of the field) is 10 V. If the electric potential in a region of space is uniform, then you can infer that the electric field there is zero.

14.

The electric potential energy of two unlike charges is negative if we take the 0 location for potential energy to be when the charges are infinitely far apart. The electric potential energy of two like charges is positive. In the case of unlike charges, work must be done to separate the charges. In the case of like charges, work must be done to move the charges together.

15.

(c)

If the voltage across a capacitor is doubled, then the amount of energy it can store is quadrupled: PE

16.

(a)

= 12 CV 2 .

If the capacitor is isolated, then Q remains constant, and

1 2

Q2 becomes C

PE′

1 2

Q2 and KC

the stored energy decreases. (b)

If the capacitor remains connected to a battery so V does not change, then PE′

17.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

18.

= 12 CV 2 becomes

= 12 KCV 2 and the stored energy increases.

When the dielectric is removed, the capacitance decreases by a factor of K. The charge decreases since Q = CV and the capacitance decreases while the potential difference remains constant. The “lost” charge returns to the battery. The potential difference stays the same because it is equal to the battery voltage. If the potential difference remains the same and the capacitance decreases, then the energy stored in the capacitor must also decrease, since

(e)

= 12 CV 2 .

The electric field between the plates will stay the same because the potential difference across the plates and the distance between the plates remain constant.

We meant that the capacitance did not depend on the amount of charge stored or on the potential difference between the capacitor plates. Changing the amount of charge stored or the potential difference will not change the capacitance.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(b)

The two different concepts, electric potential and electric potential energy, are often confused, since their names are so similar. The electric potential is determined by the electric field and is independent of the charge placed in the field. Therefore, doubling the charge will not affect the electric potential. The electric potential energy is the product of the electric potential and the electric charge. Doubling the charge will double the electric potential energy.

17-4

Chapter 17

(a)

It is very important to realize that the electric field is a vector, while the electric potential is a scalar. The electric field at the point halfway between the two charges is the sum of the electric fields from each charge. The magnitudes of the fields will be the same, but they will point in opposite directions. Their sum is therefore zero. The electric potential from each charge is positive. Since the potential is a scalar, the net potential at the midpoint is the sum of the two potentials, which will also be positive.

(b)

The net electric field at the center is the vector sum of the electric fields due to each charge. The fields will have equal magnitudes at the center, but the fields from the charges at opposite corners point in opposite directions, so the net field will be zero. The electric potential from each charge is a nonzero scalar. At the center the magnitudes of the four potentials are equal and sum to a nonzero value.

(d)

A common misconception is that the electric field and electric potential are proportional to each other. However, the electric field is proportional to the change in the electric potential. If the electric potential is constant (no change), then the electric field must be zero. The electric potential midway between equal but opposite charges is zero, but the electric field is not zero at that point, so (a) is incorrect. The electric field midway between two equal positive charges is zero, but the electric potential is not zero at that point, so (b) is incorrect. The electric field between two oppositely charged parallel plates is constant, but the electric potential decreases as one moves from the positive plate toward the negative plate, so (c) is incorrect.

(b)

It is commonly thought that it only takes 2W to bring together the three charges. However, it takes W to bring two charges together. When the third charge is brought in, it is repelled by both of the other charges. It therefore takes an additional 2W to bring in the third charge. Adding the initial work to bring the first two charges together gives a total work of 3W.

(e)

A common misconception is that the electron feels the greater force because it experiences the greater acceleration. However, the magnitude of the force is the product of the electric field and the charge. Since both objects have the same magnitude of charge and are in the same electric field, they will experience the same magnitude force (but in opposite directions). Since the electron is lighter, it will experience a greater acceleration.

(c)

It is often thought that the electron, with its greater acceleration and greater final speed, will have the greater final kinetic energy. However, the increase in kinetic energy is equal to the decrease in potential energy, which is the product of the objectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s charge and the change in potential. However, in this situation, the increase in kinetic energy is equal to the decrease in electric potential energy, which is the product of the objectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s charge and the change in electric potential through which it passes. The change in potential for each object has the same magnitude, but they have opposite signs since they move in opposite directions in the field. The magnitude of the charge of each object is the same, but they have opposite signs; thus they experience the same change in electric potential energy and therefore they have the same final kinetic energy.

(d), (e) The capacitance is determined by the shape of the capacitor (area of plates and separation distance) and the material between the plates (dielectric). The capacitance is the constant ratio of the charge on the plates to the potential difference between them. Changing the charge will change the potential difference but not the capacitance, so (d) is one correct answer. Changing the energy stored in a capacitor will change the charge on the plates and the potential difference between them, but will not change the capacitance, so (e) is also correct.

Electric Potential

17-5

(b)

When the plates were connected to the battery, a charge was established on the plates. As the battery is disconnected, this charge remains constant on the plates. The capacitance decreases as the plates are pulled apart, since the capacitance is inversely proportional to the separation distance. For the charge to remain constant with smaller capacitance, the voltage between the plates increases.

10.

(c)

A vector has both direction and magnitude. Electric potential, electric potential energy, and capacitance all have magnitudes but not direction. Electric field lines have a direction at every point in space, and the density of the electric field lines gives us information about the magnitude of the electric field in that region of space.

11.

(b)

The similarity in the names of these concepts can lead to confusion. The electric potential is determined by the electric field and is independent of the charge placed in the field. Therefore, changing the charge will not affect the electric potential. The electric potential energy is the product of the electric potential and the electric charge. Changing the sign of the charge will change the sign of the electric potential energy.

Solutions to Problems 1.

The work done by the electric field can be found from Eq. 17–2b. W Vba = − ba → Wba = − qVba = −(−7.7 × 10−6 C)(+65 V) = 5.0 × 10−4 J q

The work done by the electric field can be found from Eq. 17–2b. W Vba = − ba → Wba = −qVba = −(1.60 × 10−19 C)(−45 V − 125 V) = 2.72 × 10−17 J q = −(1 e)(−170 V) = 1.70 × 102 eV

Energy is conserved, so the change in potential energy is the opposite of the change in kinetic energy. The change in potential energy is related to the change in potential. ΔPE = qΔV = −ΔKE → ΔV =

−ΔKE KEinitial − KE final mυ 2 (9.11×10−31 kg)(6.0 ×105 m/s)2 = = = = −1.025 V ≈ −1.0 V q q 2q 2(−1.60 ×10−19 C)

The final potential should be lower than the initial potential in order to stop the electron. 4.

The kinetic energy gained is equal to the work done on the electron by the electric field. The potential difference must be positive for the electron to gain potential energy. Use Eq. 17–2b. W Vba = − ba → Wba = −qVba = −(−1.60 × 10−19 C)(1.85 × 104 V) = 2.96 × 10−15 J q = −(−1 e)(1.85 × 104 V) = 1.85 × 104 eV

The kinetic energy gained by the electron is the work done by the electric force. Use Eq. 17–2b to calculate the potential difference. Vba = −

Wba 6.45 × 10−16 J =− = 4030 V q (−1.60 × 10−19 C)

The electron moves from low potential to high potential, so plate B is at the higher potential.

17-6

Chapter 17

We assume that the electric field is uniform. Use Eq. 17–4b, using the magnitude of the electric field. E=

The magnitude of the voltage can be found from Eq. 17–4b, using the magnitude of the electric field.

E= 8.

Vba d

→ Vba = Ed = (525 V/m)(11.0 × 10−3 m) = 5.78 V

The distance between the plates is found from Eq. 17–4b, using the magnitude of the electric field. E=

Vba 220 V = = 3.2 × 104 V/m d 6.8 × 10−3 m

Vba d

→ d=

Vba 45 V = = 2.4 × 10−2 m E 1900 V/m

The gain of kinetic energy comes from a loss of potential energy due to conservation of energy, and the magnitude of the potential difference is the energy per unit charge. The helium nucleus has a charge of 2e. ΔV =

ΔPE ΔKE 85.0 × 103 eV =− =− = −4.25 × 104 V q q 2e

The negative sign indicates that the helium nucleus had to go from a higher potential to a lower potential. 10.

Find the distance corresponding to the maximum electric field, using Eq. 17–4b for the magnitude of the electric field. E=

11.

Vba d

→ d=

Vba 45 V = = 1.5 × 10−5 m ≈ 2 × 10−5 m E 3 ×106 V/m

By the work-energy theorem, the total work done, by the external force and the electric field together, is the change in kinetic energy. The work done by the electric field is given by Eq. 17–2b. Wexternal + Welectric = KE final − KEinitial (VB − VA ) =

→ Wexternal − q(VB − VA ) = KE final −4

Wexternal − KE final 15.0 × 10 J − 4.82 ×10 = q −6.50 × 10−6 C

−4

→

= −157 V

Since the potential difference is negative, we see that Va > Vb . 12.

13.

The kinetic energy of the electron is given in each case. Use the kinetic energy to find the speed. (a)

1 mυ 2 2

= KE → υ =

2KE = m

2(850 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

(b)

1 mυ 2 2

= KE → υ =

2KE = m

2(0.50 × 103 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

9.11× 10

−31

9.11× 10

kg −31

= 1.7 × 107 m/s = 1.3 × 107 m/s

The kinetic energy of the proton is given. Use the kinetic energy to find the speed. 1 mυ 2 2

= KE → υ =

2KE 2(4.2 × 103 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) = = 9.0 × 105 m/s m 1.67 × 10−27 kg

Electric Potential

14.

The kinetic energy of the alpha particle is given. Use the kinetic energy to find the speed. 1 mυ 2 2

15.

17-7

2KE = m

= KE → υ =

2(5.53 × 106 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) 6.64 × 10−27 kg

= 1.63 × 107 m/s

Use Eq. 17–4b without the negative sign in order to find the magnitude of the voltage difference. E=

ΔV Δx

→ ΔV = E Δx = (3 × 106 V/m)(1× 10−3 m) = 3000 V

No harm is done because very little charge is transferred between you and the doorknob. 16.

(a)

The electron was accelerated through a potential difference of 4.8 kV (moving from low potential to high potential) in gaining 4.8 keV of kinetic energy. The proton is accelerated through the opposite potential difference as the electron and has the exact opposite charge. Thus the proton gains the same kinetic energy, 4.8 keV .

(b)

Both the proton and the electron have the same kinetic energy. Use that fact to find the ratio of the speeds. 1 m υ2 2 p p

= 12 meυe2

→

mp υe 1.67 × 10−27 kg = = = 42.8 υp me 9.11× 10−31 kg

The electron will be moving 42.8 times as fast as the proton. 17.

18.

Use Eq. 17–5 to find the potential. V=

19.

Use Eq. 17–5 to find the charge. V=

20.

Q 3.00 ×10−6 C = (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) = 1.80 ×105 V −1 4πε 0 r 1.50 × 10 m 1

1 Q 4πε 0 r

⎛ 1 → Q = (4πε 0 )rV = ⎜ ⎜ 8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ⎝

⎞ −9 ⎟⎟ (0.15 m)(165 V) = 2.8 × 10 C ⎠

The work required is the difference in potential energy between the two locations. The test charge has QQ potential energy due to each of the other charges, given in Conceptual Example 17–7 as PE = k 1 2 . r So to find the work, calculate the difference in potential energy between the two locations. Let Q represent the 35 μ C charge, let q represent the 0.50 μ C test charge, and let d represent the 46-cm distance. PEinitial =

kQq kQq + d /2 d /2

PE final =

kQq kQq + [d /2 − 0.12 m] [d /2 + 0.12 m]

17-8

Chapter 17

Work = PE final − PEinitial =

kQq kQq ⎛ kQq ⎞ + − 2⎜ ⎟ [d /2 − 0.12 m] [d /2 + 0.12 m] ⎝ d /2 ⎠

⎡ 1 1 2 ⎤ = kQq ⎢ + − ⎥ − + [0.23 m 0.12 m] [0.23 m 0.12 m] 0.23 m⎦ ⎣ = (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C 2 )(35 × 10−6 C)(0.50 × 10−6 C)(3.25 m −1 ) = 0.5117 J ≈ 0.51 J

An external force needs to do positive work to move the charge. 21.

(a)

The electric potential is given by Eq. 17–5. V=

(b)

Q 1.60 × 10−19 C = (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) = 5.754 × 105 V ≈ 5.8 × 105 V −15 4πε 0 r 2.5 × 10 m 1

The potential energy of a pair of charges is derived in Conceptual Example 17.7. QQ (1.60 × 10 PE = k 1 2 = (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) r

22.

C) 2 m

= 9.2 × 10−14 J = 0.58 MeV

The potential at the corner is the sum of the potentials due to each of the charges, found using Eq. 17–5. V=

23.

2.5 × 10

−19 −15

k (3Q ) kQ k (−2Q) kQ ⎛ 1 ⎞ kQ (2 + 2) + + = ⎜1 + ⎟= A A A ⎝ 2A 2 ⎠ 2A

By energy conservation, all of the initial potential energy will change to kinetic energy of the electron when the electron is far away. The other charge is fixed and has no kinetic energy. When the electron is far away, there is no potential energy. Einitial = Efinal

υ=

→ PEinitial = KE final

2k (−e)(Q) = mr

→

k (−e)(Q) 1 = 2 mυ 2 r

→

2(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(−1.60 × 10−19 C)(−6.50 × 10−9 C) (9.11× 10−31 kg)(0.245 m)

= 9.15 × 106 m/s

24.

By energy conservation, all of the initial potential energy of the charges will change to kinetic energy when the charges are very far away from each other. By momentum conservation, since the initial momentum is zero and the charges have identical masses, the charges will have equal speeds in opposite directions from each other as they move. Thus each charge will have the same kinetic energy. Einitial = Efinal

υ= 25.

(a)

→ PEinitial = KE final

→

kQ 2 = 2( 12 mυ 2 ) → r

kQ 2 (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C 2 )(9.5 × 10−6 C) 2 = = 3.9 × 103 m/s −6 mr (1.0 × 10 kg)(0.053 m)

Because of the inverse square nature of the electric field, any location where the field is zero must be closer to the weaker charge (q2 ). Also, in between the two charges, the fields due to the two charges

q2 < 0

q1 > 0

Electric Potential

17-9

are parallel to each other (both to the left) and cannot cancel. Thus the only places where the field can be zero are closer to the weaker charge, but not between them. In the diagram, they are labeled x. Take the positive direction to the right. q q1 E = k 22 − k = 0 → q2 (d + x) 2 = q1 x 2 → 2 x (d + x) x=

(b)

q2 q1 −

2.0 × 10−6 C 3.0 × 10−6 C − 2.0 × 10−6 C

(4.0 cm) = 18 cm left of q2

d The potential due to the positive charge is positive x1 x2 everywhere, and the potential due to the negative charge is negative everywhere. Since the negative q2 < 0 q1 > 0 charge is smaller in magnitude than the positive charge, any point where the potential is zero must be closer to the negative charge. So consider locations between the charges (position x1 ) and to the left of the negative charge (position x2 ) as shown in the diagram. Vlocation 1 =

kq1 kq q2 d (−2.0 × 10−6 C)(4.0 cm) + 2 = 0 → x1 = = (d − x1 ) x1 (q2 − q1 ) (−5.0 × 10−6 C)

Vlocation 2 =

kq1 kq q2 d (−2.0 × 10−6 C)(4.0 cm) + 2 = 0 → x2 = − =− = 8.0 cm (d + x2 ) x2 (q1 + q2 ) (1.0 × 10−6 C)

So the two locations where the potential is zero are 1.6 cm from the negative charge toward the positive charge and 8.0 cm from the negative charge away from the positive charge. 26.

A Let the side length of the equilateral triangle be A. Imagine bringing the −e electrons in from infinity one at a time. It takes no work to bring the first A A electron to its final location, because there are no other charges present. Thus W1 = 0. The work done in bringing in the second electron to its final location is equal to the charge on the electron times the potential −e (due to the first electron) at the final location of the second electron. ⎛ 1 e⎞ 1 e2 . The work done in bringing the third electron to its final Thus W2 = (−e) ⎜ − ⎟= ⎝ 4πε 0 A ⎠ 4πε 0 L

−e

location is equal to the charge on the electron times the potential (due to the first two electrons). Thus ⎛ 1 e 1 e⎞ 1 2e 2 W3 = (−e) ⎜ − . The total work done is the sum W1 + W2 + W3 . − ⎟= ⎝ 4πε 0 A 4πε 0 A ⎠ 4πε 0 A W = W1 + W2 + W3 = 0 +

e2 1 2e 2 1 3e2 3(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 + = = 4πε 0 A 4πε 0 A 4πε 0 A (1.0 × 10−10 m) 1

⎛ 1 eV = 6.9 × 10−18 J = 6.9 × 10−18 J ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝

27.

(a)

⎞ ⎟ = 43 eV J ⎟⎠

The potential due to a point charge is given by Eq. 17–5. Vba = Vb − Va =

⎛1 1⎞ kq kq − = kq ⎜ − ⎟ rb ra ⎝ rb ra ⎠

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 4 = (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(−3.8 × 10−6 C) ⎜ − ⎟ = 1.6 ×10 V ⎝ 0.88 m 0.62 m ⎠ © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

17-10

Chapter 17

(b)

The magnitude of the electric field due to a point charge is given by Eq. 16–4a. The direction of the electric field due to a negative charge is toward the charge, so the field at point a will point downward, and the field at point b will point to the right. See the vector diagram.

G Eb

G Ea

G G E b − Ea

θ G Eb

G kq (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(3.8 × 10−6 C) Eb = 2 right = right = 4.4114 × 104 V/m, right rb (0.88 m) 2 G kq (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(3.8 × 10−6 C) Ea = 2 down = down = 8.8871 × 104 V/m, down rb (0.62 m)2 G G Eb − Ea = Ea2 + Eb2 = (4.4114 × 104 V/M) 2 (8.8871 × 104 V/m)2 = 9.9 × 104 V/m

θ = tan −1 28.

Ea 88871 = tan −1 = 64° Eb 44114

The potential energy of the two-charge configuration (assuming they are both point charges) is given in Conceptual Example 17–7. Note that the charges have equal but opposite charge. QQ e2 PE = k 1 2 = − k r

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ΔPE = PE final − PE initial = ke2 ⎜ − ⎟ r r ⎝ initial final ⎠ ⎛ ⎞⎛ 1 1 1 eV = (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 ⎜ − ⎜ 0.110 × 10−9 m 0.100 × 10−9 m ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝ ⎠⎝ = −1.31 eV

⎞ ⎟ J ⎟⎠

Thus 1.3 eV of potential energy was lost. 29.

We assume that all of the energy the proton gains in being accelerated by the voltage is changed to potential energy just as the proton’s outer edge reaches the outer radius of the silicon nucleus. e(14e) → r 14e (14)(1.60 × 10−19 C) =k = (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) = 4.2 ×106 V r (1.2 + 3.6) × 10−15 m

PEinitial = PE final

Vinitial

30.

→ eVinitial = k

Use Eq. 17–5. k (− q) ⎞ ⎛ kq k (− q) ⎞ 1 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ kq ⎛ 1 VBA = VB − VA = ⎜ + − − + ⎟−⎜ + ⎟ = kq ⎜ ⎟ b ⎠ ⎝ b d −b ⎠ ⎝ d −b ⎝ d −b b b d −b⎠ 1 ⎞ 2kq(2b − d ) ⎛ 1 = 2kq ⎜ − ⎟= b( d − b) ⎝ d −b b ⎠

31.

(a)

The electric potential is found from Eq. 17–5. Vinitial = k

qp ratom

= (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )

(1.60 × 10−19 C) 0.53 × 10−10 m

≈ 27 V

G Ea

Electric Potential

(b)

The kinetic energy can be found from the fact that the magnitude of the net force on the electron, which is the attraction by the proton, is causing circular motion. qp qe m υ2 e2 e2 Fnet = e = k 2 → meυ 2 = k → KE = 12 meυ 2 = 12 k ratom ratom raton ratom = 12 (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) = 2.171 × 10−18 J ×

(c)

17-11

(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 (0.53 × 10

−10

= 2.171 × 10−18 J ≈ 2.2 × 10−18 J

1 eV

13.57 eV ≈ 14 eV 1.60 × 10−19 J The total energy of the electron is the sum of its KE and PE. The PE is found from Eq. 17–2a and is negative since the electron’s charge is negative.

Etotal = PE + KE = −eV + 12 meυ 2 = −k

+ 12 k

ratom

e2 ratom

= − 12 k

e2 ratom

= −2.171× 10−18 J ≈ −2.2 × 10−18 J ≈ −14 eV

(d)

If the electron is taken to infinity at rest, then both its PE and KE would be 0. The amount of energy needed by the electron to have a total energy of 0 is just the opposite of the answer to part (c), 2.2 × 10−18 J or 14 eV .

32.

The dipole moment is the product of the magnitude of one of the charges and the separation distance. p = QA = (1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.53 × 10−10 m) = 8.5 × 10−30 C ⋅ m

33.

The potential due to the dipole is given by Eq. 17–6b. (a)

kp cos θ r

(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(4.2 × 10−30 C ⋅ m) cos 0 (2.4 × 10

−9

−Q

= 6.6 × 10−3 V

(b)

kp cos θ r2

(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(4.2 × 10−30 C ⋅ m) cos 45°

= 4.6 × 10−3 V

(c)

kp cos θ r

θ −Q

(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(4.2 × 10−30 C ⋅ m) cos 135° (2.4 × 10

−9

θ −Q

= −4.6 × 10−3 V 34.

(2.4 × 10−9 m) 2

G G G We assume that p1 and p 2 are equal in magnitude and that each makes a 52° angle with p. The G magnitude of p1 is also given by p1 = qd , where q is the charge on the hydrogen atom and d is the distance between the H and the O.

p = 2 p1 cos 52° → q=

p1 =

p = qd 2 cos 52°

→

p 6.1× 10−30 C ⋅ m = = 5.2 × 10−20 C , about 3.2 × electron’s charge 2d cos 52° 2(0.96 × 10−10 m) cos 52°

17-12

35.

Chapter 17

The capacitance is found from Eq. 17–7. Q = CV

36.

→ C=

The voltage is found from Eq. 17–7. Q = CV

37.

Q 2.5 × 10−3 C = = 2.6 × 10−6 F V 960 V

→ V=

Q 16.5 × 10−8 C = = 19 V C 8.5 × 10−9 F

We assume the capacitor is fully charged, according to Eq. 17–7. Q = CV = (5.00 × 10−6 F)(12.0 V) = 6.00 × 10−5 C

38.

The area can be found from Eq. 17–8. C=

ε0 A d

→

ε0

(0.20 F)(3.2 × 10−3 m) (8.85 × 10

−12

C /N ⋅ m )

= 7.2 × 107 m 2

Note that this is not very realistic—if it were square, each side would be about 8500 m. 39.

Let Q1 and V1 be the initial charge and voltage on the capacitor, and let Q2 and V2 be the final charge and voltage on the capacitor. Use Eq. 17–7 to relate the charges and voltages to the capacitance. Q1 = CV1 Q2 = CV2 C=

40.

Q2 − Q1 = CV2 − CV1 = C (V2 − V1 ) →

Q2 − Q1 15 × 10−6 C = = 6.3 × 10−7 F 24 V V2 − V1

The desired electric field is the value of V /d for the capacitor. Combine Eq. 17–7 and Eq. 17–8 to find the charge. Q = CV =

ε 0 AV d

= ε 0 AE = (8.85 ×10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(45.0 × 10−4 m 2 )(8.50 × 105 V/m)

= 3.39 × 10−8 C

41.

Combine Eq. 17–7 and Eq. 17–8 to find the area. Q = CV =

42.

ε 0 AV d

= ε 0 AE →

Q = ε0E

(4.2 × 10−6 C) ⎛ 2000 V ⎞ (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) ⎜ −3 ⎟ ⎜ 10 m ⎟ ⎝ ⎠

= 0.24 m 2

The work to move the charge between the capacitor plates is W = qV , where V is the voltage difference between the plates, assuming that q << Q so that the charge on the capacitor does not change appreciably. The charge is then found from Eq. 17–7. CW (15 × 10−6 F)(18 J) ⎛Q⎞ = = 0.90 C W = qV = q ⎜ ⎟ → Q = q ⎝C⎠ 0.30 × 10−3 C

The assumption that q << Q is justified.

Electric Potential

43.

17-13

Use Eq. 17–8 for the capacitance. C=

ε0 A

→ d=

ε0 A

(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(1.0 × 10−4 m 2 ) = 9 × 10−16 m (1 F)

No, this is not practically achievable. The gap would have to be smaller than the radius of a proton. 44.

From Eq. 17–4a, the voltage across the capacitor is the magnitude of the electric field times the separation distance of the plates. Use that with Eq. 17–7. Q = CV = CEd

45.

→ E=

(62 × 10−6 C) Q = = 3.9 × 104 V/m Cd (0.80 × 10−6 F)(2.0 × 10−3 m)

The total charge on the combination of capacitors is the sum of the charges on the two individual capacitors, since there is no battery connected to them to supply additional charge, and there is no neutralization of charge by combining positive and negative charges. The voltage across each capacitor must be the same after they are connected, since each capacitor plate is connected to a corresponding plate on the other capacitor by a constant-potential connecting wire. Use the total charge and the fact of equal potentials to find the charge on each capacitor and the common potential difference. Q1

initial

= C1V1

initial

QTotal = Q1

initial

+ Q2

C1V1

initial

Vfinal =

initial

= C2V2

= Q1

final

+ C2V2

initial

C1 + C2

initial

final

+ Q2

final

= C1Vfinal

= C1V1

initial

final

+ C2V2

initial

= C2Vfinal

= C1Vfinal + C2Vfinal

→

(2.50 × 10−6 F)(746 V) + (6.80 ×10−6 F)(562 V) (9.30 × 10−6 F)

= 611.46 V ≈ 611 V = V1 = V2 Q1

final

= C1Vfinal = (2.50 × 10−6 F)(611.46) = 1.53 × 10−3 C

Q2 = C2Vfinal = (6.80 × 10−6 F)(611.46) = 4.16 × 10−3 C

46.

After the first capacitor is disconnected from the battery, the total charge must remain constant. The voltage across each capacitor must be the same when they are connected, since each capacitor plate is connected to a corresponding plate on the other capacitor by a constant-potential connecting wire. Use the total charge and the final potential difference to find the value of the second capacitor. QTotal = C1V1

initial

QTotal = Q1

final

+ Q2

final

= C1Vfinal

= (C1 + C2 )Vfinal

final

= C2Vfinal

→ C1V1

initial

= (C1 + C2 )Vfinal

→

⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛ 165 V ⎞ ⎜ initial ⎟ C 2 = C1⎜ − 1⎟ = (7.7 × 10−6 F) ⎜ − 1⎟ = 7.7 × 10−5 F V 15 V ⎝ ⎠ final ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠

47.

Use Eq. 17–9 to calculate the capacitance with a dielectric. C = Kε0

A (6.6 × 10−2 m) 2 = (2.2)(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) = 4.7 × 10−11 F d (1.8 × 10−3 m)

17-14

48.

Chapter 17

Use Eq. 17–9 to calculate the capacitance with a dielectric. C = Kε0

49.

A π (5.0 × 10−2 m) 2 = (7)(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) = 1.7 × 10−10 F −3 d (2.8 × 10 m)

Since the capacitor is disconnected from the battery, the charge on it cannot change. The capacitance of the capacitor is increased by a factor of K, the dielectric constant. Q = CinitialVinitial = CfinalVfinal

50.

→ Vfinal = Vinitial

Cinitial C 1 = Vinitial initial = (21.0 V) = 9.5 V Cfinal KCinitial 2.2

The initial charge on the capacitor is Qinitial = CinitialV . When the mica is inserted, the capacitance changes to Cfinal = KCinitial , and the voltage is unchanged since the capacitor is connected to the same battery. The final charge on the capacitor is Qfinal = CfinalV . ΔQ = Qfinal − Qinitial = CfinalV − CinitialV = ( K − 1)CinitialV = (7 − 1)(3.5 × 10−9 F)(32 V) = 6.7 ×10−7 C

51.

The capacitance is found from Eq. 17–7, with the voltage given by Eq. 17–4 (ignoring the sign). Q = CV = C ( Ed ) → C =

Q 0.675 × 10−6 C = = 4.20 × 10−9 F 4 3 − Ed (8.24 × 10 V/m)(1.95 × 10 m)

The plate area is found from Eq. 17–9. C = Kε0

52.

A → d

Cd (4.20 × 10−9 F)(1.95 ×10−3 m) = = 0.247 m 2 K ε 0 (3.75)(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )

The stored energy is given by Eq. 17–10. PE = 12 CV 2 = 12 (2.8 × 10−9 F)(650 V) 2 = 5.9 × 10−4 J

53.

The capacitance can be found from the stored energy using Eq. 17–10. 2 PE = 12 CV

54.

2( PE ) V

2(1200 J) (5.0 × 103 V) 2

= 9.6 × 10−5 F

The two charged plates form a capacitor. Use Eq. 17–8 to calculate the capacitance and Eq. 17–10 for the energy stored in the capacitor. C=

55.

→

(a)

ε0 A d

1 2

Q2 1 Q2d 1 (3.7 × 10−4 C)2 (1.5 × 10−3 m) =2 =2 = 1.8 × 103 J ε0 A C (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(8.0 × 10−2 m) 2

Use Eq. 17–8 to estimate the capacitance. C=

(b)

PE =

ε0 A d

(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )π (4.5 in. × 0.0254 m/in.) 2 (4 × 10−2 m)

= 9.081× 10−12 F ≈ 9 × 10−12 F

Use Eq. 17–7 to estimate the charge on each plate. Q = CV = (9.081× 10−12 F)(9 V) = 8.173 × 10−11 C ≈ 8 × 10−11 C

Electric Potential

(c)

Use Eq. 17–4b to estimate the (assumed uniform) electric field between the plates. The actual location of the field measurement is not critical in this approximation. E=

(d)

17-15

V 9V = = 225 V/m ≈ 200 V/m d 4 × 10−2 m

By energy conservation, the work done by the battery to charge the plates is the potential energy stored in the capacitor, given by Eq. 17–10. PE = 12 QV = 12 (8.173 × 10−11 C)(9 V) = 3.678 × 10−10 J ≈ 4 × 10−10 J

56.

(e)

If a dielectric is inserted, then the capacitance changes. Thus the charge on the capacitor and the work done by the battery also change. The electric field does not change because it only depends on the battery voltage and the plate separation.

(a)

From Eq. 17–8 for the capacitance, C = ε 0

A , since the separation of the plates is halved, the d

Q2 , since the charge is C constant and the capacitance is doubled, the energy is halved. So the energy stored changes by a

capacitance is doubled. Then from Eq. 17–10 for the energy, PE = factor of (b)

1 2

The work done to move the plates together will be negative work, since the plates will naturally attract each other. The work is the change in the stored energy. ⎛ Q2 ⎞

Q2 d

PE final − PE initial = 12 PE initial − PE initial = − 12 PE initial = − 12 ⎜ 12 = − 14 = − ⎜ C ⎟⎟ A 4ε 0 A ⎝ ⎠ ε0

57.

The energy density is given by Eq. 17–11. Energy density = 12 ε 0 E 2 = 12 (8.85 ×10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(150 V/m)2 = 1.0 × 10−7 J/m3

58.

(a)

Before the two capacitors are connected, all of the stored energy is in the first capacitor. Use Eq. 17–10. PE = 12 CV 2 = 12 (3.70 × 10−6 F)(12.0 V) 2 = 2.664 × 10−4 J ≈ 2.66 × 10−4 J

(b)

After the first capacitor is disconnected from the battery, the total charge must remain constant, and the voltage across each capacitor must be the same, since each capacitor plate is connected to a corresponding plate on the other capacitor by a connecting wire which always has a constant potential. Use the total charge and the fact of equal potentials to find the charge on each capacitor and then calculate the stored energy. Qtotal = C1Vinitial = (3.70 × 10−6 F)(12.0 V) = 4.44 × 10−5 C Q1 Q2 Qtotal − Q1 = = C1 C2 C2

Q1 = C1V

Q2 = C2V

→

Q1 = Qtotal

C1 (3.70 × 10−6 F) = (4.44 × 10−5 C) = 1.888 × 10−5 C −6 C1 + C2 (8.70 × 10 F)

Q2 = Qtotal − Q1 = 4.44 × 10−5 C − 1.888 × 10−5 C = 2.552 × 10−5 C

17-16

Chapter 17

⎡ (1.888 × 10−5 C) 2

(2.552 × 10−5 C) 2 ⎤

PE total = PE1 + PE 2 = 12 1 + 12 2 = 12 ⎢ + ⎥ −6 C1 C2 (5.00 × 10−6 F) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ (3.70 × 10 F)

= 1.133 × 10−4 J ≈ 1.13 × 10−4 J

(c)

Subtract the two energies to find the change. ΔPE = PE final − PEinitial = 1.133 × 10−4 J − 2.664 × 10−4 J = −1.53 × 10−4 J

59.

To turn decimal into binary, we need to use the largest power of 2 that is smaller than the decimal number with which we start. That would be 26 = 64, so there is a “1” in the 64’s place. Subtracting 64 from 116 leaves 52. The next power of 2 is 25 = 32, so there is a “1” in the 32’s place. Subtracting 32 from 52 leaves 20. The next power of 2 is 24 = 16, so there is a “1” in the 16’s place. Subtracting 16 from 20 leaves 4, so there is a “0” in the 8’s place, a “1” in the 4’s place, a “0” in the 2’s place, and a “0” in the 1’s place. 64 + 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 0 = 116, so 116 decimal = 1110100 binary.

60.

The given binary number has a “1” in the 1’s place, the 4’s place, the 16’s place, and the 64’s place, so we have 1 + 4 + 16 + 64 = 85, and 01010101 binary = 85 decimal . Another way to calculate it is that 01010101 = 20 + 22 + 24 + 26 = 1 + 4 + 16 + 64 = 85.

61.

Each “1” in the given binary contributes a certain power of 2 to the total value. 1010101010101010 = 21 + 23 + 25 + 27 + 29 + 211 + 213 + 215 = 2 + 8 + 32 + 128 + 512 + 2048 + 8192 + 32768 = 43,690 decimal

62.

(a)

A 4-bit number can represent 16 different values, from 0 to 15. Thus if 5.0 volts is to be the maximum value, then each binary number would represent 5.0 V/15 = 1/3 V. Since 1011 binary = 1 + 2 + 8 = 11 decimal, 1011 binary = 11( 13 V) = 3 32 V .

63.

(b)

2.0 volts is 6 units of 1/3 volt each, so the binary representation is 0110, which is equal to 6 in the decimal system.

(a)

A 16-bit sampling would be able to represent 216 = 65,536 different voltages.

(b)

A 24-bit sampling would be able to represent 224 = 16,777,216 different voltages.

(c)

For 3 subpixels each with an 8-bit value, 24 bits are needed. This is the same as part (b), so 224 = 16,777,216 different colors are possible.

64.

We see that they have a base 4 counting system, because the decimal number 5 is represented as 11, which would be a “1” in the 1’s place and a “1” in the 4’s place. Making an analogy to humans, we have 5 digits on each hand and use base 10. Since the extraterrestrials use base 4, they must have 2 fingers on each hand, for a total of 4 fingers.

65.

(a)

The monitor screen is redrawn at regular intervals. Even though the mouse cursor moves in a continuous motion, its location is only drawn at those regular intervals. It is somewhat like a strobe light effect.

Electric Potential

(b)

17-17

Let the interval between images be “T” and construct a table. Position #1 Time = 0 Position #2 Time = T Position #3 Time = 2T Position #4 Time = 3T Position #15 Time = 14T = 0.25 seconds

Thus there are 15 images in 0.25 seconds. The refresh time would be T = 0.25/14 = 0.018 second. The refresh rate is the reciprocal of this, which is 56 Hz. 66.

Consider three parts to the electron’s motion. First, during the horizontal acceleration phase, energy will be conserved. The horizontal speed of the electron υ x can be found from the accelerating potential V . Next, during the deflection phase, a vertical force will be applied by the uniform electric field which gives the electron an upward velocity, υ y . We assume that there

G E

→ eV = 12 mυ 2x

11cm

30o

Δxscreen

is very little upward displacement during this time. Finally, after the electron leaves the region of electric field, it travels in a straight line to the top of the screen, moving at an angle of approximately 30°. Acceleration: PE initial = KE final

22 cm

Δxfield

→ υ x = 2e V /m

Deflection: Time in field: Δxfield = υ x tfield Fy = eE = ma y

→ ay =

→ tfield =

Δxfield

υx

eE Δxfield eE υ y = υ y 0 + a y tfield = 0 + m mυ x

Screen: Δxscreen = υ x tscreen Δyscreen υ y = = Δxscreen υ x

→ tscreen =

eE Δxfield mυ x

υx

Δxscreen

υx

eE Δxfield mυ x2

Δyscreen = υ y tscreen = υ y

Δxscreen

υx

→

2eV Δyscreen m 3 Δyscreen mυ x2 m = 2V Δyscreen = 2(9.0 × 10 V)(0.11 m) E= = Δxscreen eΔxfield Δxscreen eΔxfield Δxscreen Δxfield [(0.22 m)cos 30°](0.028 m) = 3.712 × 105 V/m ≈ 3.7 × 105 V/m

As a check on our assumptions, we calculate the upward distance that the electron would move while in the electric field.

17-18

Chapter 17 2

⎞ eE (Δxfield ) 2 E (Δxfield ) 2 ⎛ eE ⎞ ⎛ Δx 2 Δy = υ y 0tfield + 12 a y tfield = 0 + 12 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ field ⎟ = = 4V ⎛ 2eV ⎞ ⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ υx ⎠ 2m ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ m ⎠ =

(3.712 × 105 V/m)(2.8 × 10−2 m) 2 = 8.1× 10−3 m 4(9000 V)

This is about 7% of the total 11-cm vertical deflection. For an estimation, our approximation is acceptable. 67.

If there were no deflecting field, then the electrons would hit the center of the screen. If an electric field of a certain direction moves the electrons toward one G Δyscreen = 15cm E extreme of the screen, then the opposite field will move the electrons to the opposite extreme of the vx screen. So we solve for the field to move the electrons to one extreme of the screen. Consider three parts to Δxscreen = 34 cm the electron’s motion and see the diagram, which is a Δ x field = 2.6 cm top view. First, during the horizontal acceleration phase, energy will be conserved. The horizontal speed of the electron υ x can be found from the accelerating potential V . Next, during the deflection phase, a vertical force will be applied by the uniform electric field which gives the electron a leftward velocity, υ y . We assume that there is very little leftward displacement during this time. Finally, after the electron leaves the region of electric field, it travels in a straight line to the left edge of the screen. Acceleration: → eV = 12 mυ 2x

PE initial = KE final

→ υ x = 2e V /m

Deflection: time in field: Δxfield = υ x tfield Fy = eE = ma y

→ ay =

→ tfield =

eE m

Δxfield

υx

υ y = υ y 0 + a y tfield = 0 +

eE Δxfield mυ x

Screen: Δxscreen = υ x tscreen

υy

Δyscreen = = Δxscreen υ x

→ tscreen =

eE Δxfield mυ x

υx

Δxscreen

υx

eE Δxfield mυ x2

Δyscreen = υ y tscreen = υ y

Δxscreen

υx

→

2eV Δyscreen m 3 Δyscreen mυ x2 m = 2V Δyscreen = 2(6.0 × 10 V)(0.15 m) E= = (0.34 m)(0.026 m) Δxscreen eΔxfield Δxscreen eΔxfield Δxscreen Δxfield = 2.04 × 105 V/m ≈ 2.0 ×105 V/m

As a check on our assumptions, we calculate the upward distance that the electron would move while in the electric field.

Electric Potential

17-19

⎞ eE (Δxfield ) 2 E (Δxfield ) 2 ⎛ eE ⎞ ⎛ Δx 2 Δy = υ0tfield + 12 a y tfield = 0 + 12 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ field ⎟ = = 4V ⎛ 2eV ⎞ ⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ υx ⎠ 2m ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ m ⎠ =

(2.04 × 105 V/m)(2.6 × 10−2 m) 2 = 6 × 10−3 m 4(6000 V)

This is about 4% of the total 15-cm vertical deflection. Thus for an estimation, our approximation is acceptable. The field must vary from +2.0 × 105 V/m to − 2.0 × 105 V/m . 68.

(a)

The energy is related to the charge and the potential difference by Eq. 17–3. ΔPE = qΔV

(b)

→ ΔV =

The energy (as heat energy) is used to raise the temperature of the water and boil it. Assume that room temperature is 20°C. Use Eq. 14–2 and Eq. 14–4. Q = mcΔT + mLF m=

69.

ΔPE 5.2 × 106 J = = 1.3 × 106 V q 4.0 C

→

Q 5.2 × 106 J = = 2.0 kg cΔT + LF ⎛ ⎛ J ⎞ 5 J ⎞ ⎜ 4186 ⎟ (80 C°) + ⎜ 22.6 × 10 ⎟ kg ⋅°C ⎠ kg ⎠ ⎝ ⎝

The electric force on the electron must be the same magnitude as the weight of the electron. The magnitude of the electric force is the charge on the electron times the magnitude of the electric field. The electric field is the potential difference per meter: E = V /d . FE = mg ; FE = q E = eV /d V=

→ eV /d = mg

→

mgd (9.11× 10−31 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )(0.024 m) = = 1.3 × 10−12 V −19 e 1.60 × 10 C

Since it takes such a tiny voltage to balance gravity, the thousands of volts in a television set are more than enough (by many orders of magnitude) to move electrons upward against the force of gravity. 70.

The energy stored in the capacitor is given by Eq. 17–10, PE = 12 CV 2 . As the plates are separated, the voltage is held constant by the battery. Since the separation distance has doubled, the capacitance has been multiplied by ½, using Eq. 17–8. Thus the stored energy has been multiplied by ½.

71.

The capacitor is charged and isolated, so the amount of charge on the capacitor cannot change. (a)

The stored energy is given by Eq. 17–10, PE = 12 QV . The charge does not change, and the potential difference is doubled, so the stored energy is multiplied by 2.

(b)

Q2 . The charge does not change. The C capacitance would be reduced by a factor of 2 if the plate separation were doubled, according to Eq. 17–8, so the stored energy is multiplied by 2.

The stored energy can also be given by PE =

1 2

17-20

72.

Chapter 17

The energy in the capacitor, given by Eq. 17–10, is the heat energy absorbed by the water, given by Eq. 14–2. PE = Qheat

1 CV 2 2

→

= mcΔT

→

⎛ J ⎞ 2(2.8 kg) ⎜ 4186 ⎟ (95°C − 21°C) kg ⋅°C ⎠ ⎝ = 658 V ≈ 660 V 4.0 F

2mcΔT = C

73.

The proton would gain half the kinetic energy as compared to the alpha particle. The alpha particle has twice the charge of the proton, so it will have twice the potential energy for the same voltage. Thus the alpha will have twice the kinetic energy of the proton after acceleration.

74.

We assume there is a uniform electric field between the capacitor plates, so that V = Ed . Combine Eq. 17–7 with Eq. 17–8 and Eq. 17–4. Q = CV =

ε0 A d

V = ε0 A

V = ε 0 AE = (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(65 × 10−4 m 2 )(3.0 × 106 V/m) d

= 1.7 × 10−7 C

75.

76.

Use Eq. 17–5 to find the potential due to each charge. Since the triangle is equilateral, the 30-60-90 triangle relationship says that the distance from a corner to the midpoint of the opposite side is 3A /2. VA =

k (−Q) k (−3Q) k (Q) 2kQ ⎛ 1 ⎞ kQ + + = ⎜ −4 + ⎟ = −6.85 A /2 A /2 A ⎝ A 3A /2 3⎠

VB =

k (−Q) k (Q) k (−3Q) kQ kQ + + = −2 3 = −3.46 A /2 A /2 A A 3A /2

VC =

k (Q) k (−3Q) k (−Q) kQ 2kQ ⎛ 1 ⎞ + + =− ⎜2+ ⎟ = −5.15 A /2 A /2 A ⎝ A 3A /2 3⎠

−Q A

+Q C

−3Q

The energy is given by Eq. 17–10. Calculate the energy difference for the two different amounts of charge and then solve for the difference. Q PE = 12

→ ΔPE =

1 2

(Q + ΔQ) 2 1 Q 2 1 ΔQ −2 = [(Q + ΔQ) 2 − Q 2 ] = [2Q + ΔQ] → C C 2C 2C

C (ΔPE) 1 (17.0 × 10−6 F)(15.2 J) 1 − 2 ΔQ = − 2 (13.0 × 10−3 C) = 13.4 × 10−2 C −3 ΔQ (13.0 × 10 C) Because of the inverse square nature of the electric x d field, any location where the field is zero must be closer to the weaker charge (q2 ). Also, in between q2 < 0 q1 > 0 the two charges, the fields due to the two charges are parallel to each other (both to the left) and cannot cancel. Thus the only places where the field can be zero are closer to the weaker charge, but not between them. In the diagram, they are labeled x. Q=

77.

(a)

E=k

q2 x

−k

q1 (d + x) 2

=0 →

q2 (d + x)2 = q1 x 2

→

Electric Potential

(b)

q2 q1 −

2.6 × 10−6 C 3.4 × 10−6 C − 2.6 × 10−6 C

17-21

(2.5 cm) = 17.42 cm ≈ 17 cm left of q2

The potential due to the positive charge is positive d x1 x2 everywhere, and the potential due to the negative charge is negative everywhere. Since the negative q2 < 0 q1 > 0 charge is smaller in magnitude than the positive charge, any point where the potential is zero must be closer to the negative charge. Consider locations between the charges ( x1 ) and to the left of the negative charge ( x2 ) as shown in the diagram. Vlocation 1 =

kq1 kq q2 d (−2.6 × 10−6 C)(2.5 cm) + 2 = 0 → x1 = = = 1.1 cm (d − x1 ) x1 (q2 − q1 ) (−6.0 × 10−6 C)

Vlocation 2 =

kq1 kq q2 d (−2.6 × 10−6 C)(2.5 cm) + 2 = 0 → x2 = − = = 8.1 cm (d + x2 ) x2 (q1 − q2 ) (0.8 × 10−6 C)

So the two locations where the potential is zero are 1.1 cm from the negative charge toward the positive charge and 8.1 cm from the negative charge away from the positive charge. 78.

Since the electric field points downward, the surface of the Earth is at a lower potential than above the surface. Call the potential of the surface of the Earth 0. Then a height of 2.00 m has a potential of 300 V. We also call the surface of the Earth the 0 location for gravitational PE. Write conservation of energy relating the charged spheres at 2.00 m (where their speed is 0) and at ground level (where their electrical and gravitational potential energies are 0). qV ⎞ ⎛ Einitial = Efinal → mgh + qV = 12 mυ 2 → υ = 2 ⎜ gh + ⎟ m ⎠ ⎝ ⎡

υ + = 2 ⎢ (9.80 m/s 2 )(2.00 m) + ⎣⎢

⎡

υ− = 2 ⎢(9.80 m/s 2 )(2.00 m) + ⎢⎣

(6.5 × 10−4 C)(300 V) ⎤ ⎥ = 6.3073 m/s (0.670 kg) ⎦⎥ (−6.5 × 10−4 C)(300 V) ⎤ ⎥ = 6.2143 m/s (0.670 kg) ⎥⎦

υ + − υ− = 6.3073 m/s − 6.2143 m/s = 0.093 m/s ≈ 0.09 m/s 79.

(a)

Use Eq. 17–10 to calculate the stored energy. PE = 12 CV 2 = 12 (5.0 × 10−8 F)(3.5 × 104 V) 2 = 30.625 J ≈ 31 J

(b)

80.

The power is the energy converted per unit time. Energy 0.12(30.625 J) P= = = 5.9 × 105 W −6 time 6.2 × 10 s

The kinetic energy of the electrons (provided by the UV light) is converted completely to potential energy at the plate since they are stopped. Use energy conservation to find the emitted speed, taking the 0 of PE to be at the surface of the barium. KEinitial = PE final

υ=

2qV = m

→

1 mυ 2 2

= qV

→

2(−1.60 × 10−19 C)(−3.02 V) 9.11× 10−31 kg

= 1.03 × 106 m/s

17-22

81.

Chapter 17

Let d1 represent the distance from the left charge to point B, and let d 2 represent the distance from the right charge to point B. Let Q represent the positive charges, and let q represent the negative charge that moves. The change in potential energy is given by Eq. 17–3. PE B − PE A = qVBA = q (VB − VA )

d1 = 122 + 142 cm = 18.44 cm d 2 = 142 + 242 cm = 27.78 cm ⎡⎛

kQ kQ ⎞ ⎛ kQ kQ ⎞ ⎤ + + ⎟−⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎣⎝ 0.1844 m 0.2778 m ⎠ ⎝ 0.12 m 0.24 m ⎠ ⎦

PE B − PE A = q (VB − VA ) = q ⎢⎜

⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 1 1 ⎞⎤ = kQq ⎢⎜ + + ⎟−⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎣⎝ 0.1844 m 0.2778 m ⎠ ⎝ 0.12 m 0.24 m ⎠ ⎦ = (8.99 × 109 )( −1.5 × 10−6 C)(38 × 10−6 C)(−3.477 m −1 ) = 1.782 J ≈ 1.8 J

82.

(a) The initial capacitance is obtained directly from Eq. 17–9. K ε 0 A 3.7(8.85 × 10−12 F/m)(0.21 m)(0.14 m) C0 = = = 8.752 × 10−9 F ≈ 8.8 nF −3 d 0.11× 10 m (b)

Maximum charge will occur when the electric field between the plates is equal to the dielectric strength. The charge will be equal to the capacitance multiplied by the maximum voltage, where the maximum voltage is the electric field times the separation distance of the plates. Qmax = C0V = C0 Ed = (8.752 × 10−9 F)(15 × 106 V/m)(0.11× 10−3 m) = 1.444 × 10−5 C ≈ 14 μ C

83.

Use Eq. 17–7 with Eq. 17–9 to find the charge. A π (0.55 × 10−2 m) 2 Q = CV = K ε 0 V = (3.7)(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) (12 V) = 3.7 × 10−10 C −3 d (0.10 × 10 m)

84.

(a)

Use Eq. 17–5 to calculate the potential due to the charges. Let the distance between the charges be d. kQ1 kQ2 2k 2(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) Vmid = + = (Q1 + Q2 ) = (3.5 × 10−6 C − 7.2 ×10−6 C) (d /2) (d /2) d (0.23 m) = −2.9 × 105 V

(b)

Use Eq. 16–4a to calculate the electric field. Note that the field due to each of the two charges will point to the left, away from the positive charge and toward the negative charge. Find the magnitude of the field using the absolute value of the charges. Emid = =

85.

(a)

kQ1 (d /2)

k Q2 (d /2)

4k d2

(Q1 + Q2 )

4(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) (0.23 m) 2

(3.5 × 10−6 C + 7.2 × 10−6 C) = 7.3 × 106 V/m, left

Use Eq. 17–7 and Eq. 17–8 to calculate the charge. Q = CV =

ε0 A d

(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(3.0 × 10−4 m 2 ) (5.0 × 10−4 m)

(12 V) = 6.372 × 10−11 C

≈ 6.4 × 10−11 C © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Electric Potential

(b)

17-23

The charge does not change. Since the capacitor is not connected to a battery, no charge can flow to it or from it. Thus Q = 6.372 × 10−11 C ≈ 6.4 × 10−11 C .

(c)

The separation distance was multiplied by a factor of 1.5. The capacitance is inversely proportional to the separation distance, so the capacitance was divided by a factor of 1.5. Since Q = CV , if the charge does not change and the capacitance is divided by a factor of 1.5, then the voltage must have increased by a factor of 1.5. Vfinal = 1.5Vinitial = 1.5(12 V) = 18 V

(d)

The work done is the change in energy stored in the capacitor. W = PE final − PEinitial = 12 QVfinal − 12 QVinitial = 12 Q(Vfinal − Vinitial ) = 12 (6.372 × 10−11 C)(18 V − 12 V) = 1.912 × 10−10 J ≈ 2 × 10−10 J

86.

The energy stored in the capacitor is given by Eq. 17–10. The final energy is half the initial energy. Find the final charge and then subtract the final charge from the initial charge to find the charge lost. Efinal = 12 Einitial

1 2

→

2 Qfinal Q2 = 12 12 initial C C

→ Qfinal =

Qinitial

1 ⎞ 1 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ −6 Qlost = Qinitial − Qfinal = Qinitial ⎜ 1 − ⎟ = CV ⎜ 1 − ⎟ = (2.1× 10 F)(6.0 V)(0.2929) 2⎠ 2⎠ ⎝ ⎝

= 3.7 × 10−6 C

87.

(a)

We assume that Q2 is held at rest. The energy of the system will then be conserved, with the initial potential energy of the system all being changed to kinetic energy after a very long time. Einitial = Efinal

υ1 = (b)

→ PEinitial = KE final

→

kQ1Q2 1 = 2 m1υ12 r

2(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(6.5 × 10−6 C) 2

2kQ1Q2 = m1r

(1.5 × 10−6 kg)(4.0 × 10−2 m)

→

= 3.6 × 103 m/s

In this case, both the energy and the momentum of the system will be conserved. Since the initial momentum is zero, the magnitudes of the momenta of the two charges will be equal. 0 = m1υ1 + m2υ2

pinitial = pfinal

→

Einitial = Efinal

→ PEinitial = KE final

→ υ2 = −υ1 →

⎡ ⎛ kQ1Q2 1 m = 2 m1υ12 + 12 m2υ22 = 12 ⎢ m1υ12 + m2 ⎜ −υ1 1 r m 2 ⎝ ⎣⎢

υ1 =

2kQ1Q2 m2 = m1 (m1 + m2 )r

m1 m2

⎞⎤ ⎟⎥ = ⎠ ⎦⎥

1 2

m1 (m1 + m2 )υ12 m2

2(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(6.5 × 10−6 C) 2 (2.5 × 10−6 kg) (1.5 × 10−6 kg)(4.0 × 10−6 m)(4.0 × 10−2 m)

= 2.8 × 103 m/s

17-24

88.

Chapter 17

Calculate VAB = VA − VB . Represent the 0.10-m distance by the variable d. kq ⎞ ⎛ kq kq ⎞ k 1 ⎞ ⎛ kq ⎛ VAB = VA − VB = ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 + 1 ⎟ = (q1 − q2 ) ⎜1 − ⎟ 2d ⎠ ⎝ d 2d ⎠ d 2⎠ ⎝ d ⎝ =

89.

(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) 1 ⎞ ⎛ 5 (4.5 × 10−6 C) ⎜ 1 − ⎟ = 1.2 × 10 V 0.1 m 2⎠ ⎝

The potential of the Earth will increase because the “neutral” Earth will now be charged by the removing of the electrons. The excess charge will be the elementary charge times the number of electrons removed. We approximate this change in potential by using a spherical Earth with all the excess charge at the surface. ⎛ 1.602 × 10−19 C ⎞⎛ ⎞⎛ 6.02 × 1023 molecules ⎞ ⎛ 1000 kg ⎞ 4 10 e − 3 Q=⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 3 π (0.00175 m) − 3 ⎜ ⎟⎜ H O molecule ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ . 0 018 kg ⎝ ⎠ e m ⎝ ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ ⎠ = 1203 C V=

90.

4πε 0 REarth

= (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )

1203 C 6

6.38 × 10 m

= 1.7 × 106 V

As an estimate, the length of the bolt would be the voltage difference of the bolt divided by the breakdown electric field of air. 5 × 107 V 3 × 106 V/m

= 16.7 m ≈ 20 m

If the lightning strikes from a height of 750 m (roughly a half-mile), then 40 or more steps might be involved. 91.

If we assume that the electric field is uniform, then we can use Eq. 17–4a to estimate the magnitude of the electric field. From Eq. 16–10 we have an expression for the electric field due to a pair of oppositely charged planes. We approximate the area of a shoe as 30 cm × 8 cm. Answers will vary with the shoe size approximation. E= Q=

92.

V σ Q = = → d ε0 ε0 A

ε 0 AV d

(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(0.024 m 2 )(6.0 × 103 V) m

= 1.3 × 10−6 C

Use Eq. 17–7. ΔQ = C ΔV ; Δt =

93.

1.0 × 10

−3

ΔQ C ΔV (1200 F)(6.0 V) = = = 7.2 × 106 ΔQ /Δt ΔQ /Δt 1.0 × 10−3 C/s

⎛ 1d ⎞ s⎜ ⎟ = 83 d ⎝ 86,400 s ⎠

To find the angle, the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity are needed. The horizontal component can be found using conservation of energy for the initial acceleration of the electron. That component is not changed as the electron passes through the plates. The vertical component can be found using the vertical acceleration due to the potential difference of the plates and the time the electron spends between the plates. Horizontal: PEinital = KE final

→ qV = 12 mυ 2x

Δx

υx

Electric Potential

17-25

Vertical: FE = qE y = ma = m

(υ y − υ0 y ) t

→

qE y t m

qE y Δx mυ x

Combined:

tan θ =

υy υx

qE y Δx =

mυ x

υx

qE y Δx mυ x2

⎛ 250 V ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ( 0.065 m ) 0.013 m ⎠ = = =⎝ = 0.284 2qV 2V 2(2200 V) qE y Δx

E y Δx

θ = tan21 0.284 = 16° 94.

(a)

The absolute value of the charge on each plate is given by Eq. 17–7. The plate with electrons has a net negative charge. Q = CV N=

(b)

(a)

→

CV (35 × 10−15 F)(1.5 V) = = 3.281× 105 ≈ 3.3 × 105 electrons −19 e 1.60 × 10 C

Since the charge is directly proportional to the potential difference, a 2.0% decrease in potential difference corresponds to a 2.0% decrease in charge. ΔQ = 0.020Q Δt =

95.

→ N (−e) = −CV

ΔQ 0.020Q 0.020CV 0.020(35 × 10−15 F)(1.5 V) = = = = 3.5 s ΔQ /Δt ΔQ /Δt ΔQ /Δt 0.30 × 10−15 C/s

From Problem 94, we have C = 35 × 10−15 F. Use Eq. 17–9 to calculate the area. A C = Kε0 → d

6 Cd (35 × 10−15 F)(2.0 × 10−9 m) 2 ⎛ 10 μ m ⎞ −13 A= = = 3 . 164 × 10 m ⎜ ⎜ 1 m ⎟⎟ K ε 0 (25)(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) ⎝ ⎠

= 0.3164 μ m 2 ≈ 0.32 μ m 2

(b)

Half of the area of the cell is used for capacitance, so 1.5 cm 2 is available for capacitance. Each capacitor is one bit. 2 ⎛ 10

μm ⎞ ⎛

1 bit 1.5 cm ⎜ 2 ⎜ 10 cm ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 0.32μ m 2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝

96.

(a)

⎞ ⎛ 1 byte ⎞ 7 ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 5.86 × 10 bytes ≈ 59 Mbytes 8 bits ⎝ ⎠ ⎠

Use Eq. 17–8 to calculate the capacitance. C0 =

ε0 A d

(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(2.0 m 2 ) (3.0 × 10−3 m)

= 5.9 × 10−9 F

Use Eq. 17–7 to calculate the charge. Q0 = C0V0 = (5.9 × 10−9 F)(35 V) = 2.065 × 10−7 C ≈ 2.1× 10−7 C

The electric field is the potential difference divided by the plate separation.

E0 =

V0 35 V = = 11667 V/m ≈ 1.2 × 104 V/m d 3.0 × 10−3 m

17-26

Chapter 17

Use Eq. 17–10 to calculate the energy stored. PE 0 = 12 C0V02 = 12 (5.9 × 10−9 F)(35 V) 2 = 3.614 × 10−6 J ≈ 3.6 × 10−6 J

(b)

Now include the dielectric. The capacitance is multiplied by the dielectric constant. C = KC0 = 3.2(5.9 × 10−9 F) = 1.888 × 10−8 F ≈ 1.9 × 10−8 F The voltage doesn’t change. Use Eq. 17–7 to calculate the charge. Q = CV = KC0V = 3.2(5.9 × 10−9 F)(35 V) = 6.608 × 10−7 C ≈ 6.6 × 10−7 C Since the battery is still connected, the voltage is the same as before. Thus the electric field doesn’t change. E = E0 = 1.2 × 104 V/m

Use Eq. 17–10 to calculate the energy stored. PE = 12 CV 2 = 12 KC0V 2 = 12 (3.2)(5.9 × 10−9 F)(35 V) 2 = 1.2 × 10−5 J

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

(a)

An equipotential surface is one in which all points are at the same potential. An equipotential surface must be perpendicular to the electric field at any point. Equipotential lines and surfaces are always continuous. Equipotential lines and surfaces never end. The entire volume (including the surface) of a conductor is an equipotential. No work is required to move a charged particle from one point on an equipotential surface to another point on that surface. Equipotential lines and surfaces cannot cross. Electric field lines point from higher equipotential surfaces to lower equipotential surfaces. Closer spacing of equipotentials indicates a larger electric field. The contour values on the map are in feet (the mountains are about 2 miles above sea level). There are six contour lines between Iceberg Lake and Cecile Lake. Each line is to be interpreted as an 80-V difference, so the voltage difference is 480 V. The two lakes appear to be about 0.5 km apart. The magnitude of the electric field is equal to the change in voltage divided by the separation distance, Eq. 17–4a. E=

Vba 480 V = = 0.96 V/m ≈ 1 V/m 500 m d

Iceberg Lake is lower than Cecile Lake, so the direction of the electric field is basically in the +y direction. Answers may vary due to interpreting the figure. (b)

At the Minaret Mine, the higher elevations are upward and leftward. The elevation rises about 400 ft (five contour lines) in about 500 m as you move in that direction. Thus the electric field points downward and to the right. Calculate the magnitude by Eq. 17–4a. E=

Vab 400 V = = 0.8 V/m, 45° below the + x axis 500 m d

Again, answers may vary due to estimations in interpreting the figure.

Electric Potential

(a)

Use Eq. 17–8. C=

(b)

17-27

ε0 A d

(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(110 × 106 m 2 ) = 6.49 × 10−7 F ≈ 6.5 × 10−7 F = 65μ F (1500 m)

Use Eq. 17–7. Q = CV = (6.49 × 10−7 F)(3.5 × 107 V) = 22.715 C ≈ 23 C

(c)

Use Eq. 17–10. PE = 12 QV = 12 (22.715 C)(3.5 × 107 V) = 4.0 × 108 J

(a)

Both of these equations for the potential energy can be obtained from Eq. 17–10 by using Eq. 17–7 first to eliminate the charge from the equation, and second to eliminate the voltage. PE = 12 QV = 12 (CV )V = 12 CV 2

Q2 ⎛Q⎞ = 12 QV = 12 Q ⎜ ⎟ = 12 C ⎝C ⎠

(b)

(c)

The first equation ( PE = 12 CV 2 ) is used when the capacitance and voltage difference across the capacitor is known, as when the capacitor is connected to a battery. The second equation ⎛ Q2 ⎞ ⎜⎜ PE = 12 ⎟ is used when the capacitance and charge are known, as when a specific charge is C ⎟⎠ ⎝ placed on an isolated capacitor. Since the voltage is constant, we use the first equation for the potential energy, with the capacitance equal to the product of the initial capacitance and the dielectric constant of the paper. PE = 12 CV 2 = 12 ( KC0 )V 2 = K ( 12 C0V 2 ) = K ( PE 0 )

The potential energy in the capacitor will increase by a factor equal to the dielectric constant. For a paper dielectric, the potential increases by a factor of 3.7. (d)

In this case the charge is constant, so we use the second equation to determine the final energy. PE =

Q2 Q2 1 ⎛ Q2 = = ⎜ 2C 2 KC0 K ⎜⎝ 2C0

⎞ 1 ⎟⎟ = ( PE 0 ) ⎠ K

The potential energy in the capacitor decreases by a factor equal to the dielectric constant. For quartz, the potential energy decreases to 1/4.3 = 0.23, or 23% of the initial value. 5.

(a)

A horsepower is equal to 746 watts. ⎛ 1 hp ⎞ 2 P = (75 × 103 W) ⎜ ⎟ = 100.5 hp ≈ 1.0 × 10 hp 746 W ⎝ ⎠

(b)

The energy is the product of the power and time elapsed. E = Pt = (75 × 103 W)(5.0 h)(3600 s/h) = 1.35 ×109 J ≈ 1.4 × 109 J

(c)

Use Eq. 17–10, in terms of the capacitance and voltage, to solve for the capacitance. PE = 12 CV 2

→

2PE V2

2(1.35 × 109 J) (850 V) 2

= 3.737 × 103 F ≈ 3.7 × 103 F

17-28

Chapter 17

(d)

According to the text, the capacitance of 0.1 g of activated carbon is about 1 F. We again use Eq. 17–10 to find the capacitance and then convert to a mass of carbon. C=

2PE V

2(1.35 × 109 J) (10 V)

⎛ 0.1 g ⎞ 6 3 = 2.7 × 107 F ; 2.7 × 107 F ⎜ ⎟ = 2.7 × 10 g = 2.7 × 10 kg 1 F ⎝ ⎠

(e)

Cars have a mass on the order of 1000–2000 kg, so this capacitor would more than double the mass of the car. This is not practical.

(a)

If N electrons flow onto the plate, then the charge on the top plate is − Ne, and the positive charge associated with the capacitor is Q = Ne. Since Q = CV , we have Ne = CV

(b)

→

V = Ne /C , showing that V is proportional to N.

Given ΔV = 1 mV and we want ΔN = 1, solve for the capacitance. Ne eΔ N → ΔV = → C C 1 ΔN C =e = (1.60 × 10−19 C) = 1.60 × 10−16 F ≈ 2 × 10−16 F ΔV 1× 10−3 V

(c)

Use Eq. 17–9 to solve for the side length of the capacitor. C = ε0 K

A A2 = ε0 K d d

→

⎛ 106 μ m ⎞ (1.60 × 10−16 F)(100 × 10−9 m) Cd −7 = = 7 . 76 × 10 m ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.8 μ m ε0K (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(3) ⎝ 1m ⎠

ELECTRIC CURRENTS

Responses to Questions 1.

In the circuit (not in the battery), electrons flow from high potential energy (at the negative terminal) to low potential energy (at the positive terminal). Inside the battery, the chemical reaction does work on the electrons to take them from low potential energy to high potential energy (to the negative terminal). A chemical description could say that the chemical reaction taking place at the negative electrode leaves electrons behind on the terminal, and the positive ions created at the negative electrode pull electrons off the positive electrode.

Battery energy is what is being “used up.” As charges leave the battery terminal, they have a relatively high potential energy. Then as the charges move through the flashlight bulb, they lose potential energy. The battery uses a chemical reaction to replace the potential energy of the charges, by lowering the battery’s chemical potential energy. When a battery is “used up,” it is unable to give potential energy to charges.

Ampere-hours measures charge. The ampere is a charge per unit time, and the hour is a time, so the product is charge. One ampere-hour of charge is 3600 coulombs of charge.

Resistance is given by the relationship R = ρ L /A. If the ratio of resistivity to area is the same for the copper wire and the aluminum wire, then the resistances will be the same. Thus if ρCu /ACu = ρ Al /AAl or AAl /ACu = ρ Al /ρCu , then the resistances will be the same. Also, resistance changes with temperature. By having the two wires at different temperatures, it might be possible to have their resistance be the same.

The terminal of the battery (usually the negative one) is connected to the metal chassis, frame, and engine block of the car. This means that all voltages used for electrical devices in the car are measured with respect to the car’s frame. Also, since the frame is a large mass of metal, it can supply charges for current without significantly changing its electric potential.

To say that P = V 2 /R indicates a decrease in power as resistance increases implies that the voltage is constant. To say that P = I 2 R indicates an increase in power as resistance increases implies that the current is constant. Only one of those can be true for any given situation in which the resistance is changing. If the resistance changes and the voltage is constant, then the current must also change. Likewise, if the resistance changes and the current is constant, then the voltage must also change.

18-1

18-2

Chapter 18

When a lightbulb burns out, its filament burns to the point of breakage. Once the filament (part of the conducting path for the electricity flowing through the bulb) is broken, current can no longer flow through the bulb. It no longer gives off any light.

We assume that the voltage is the same in both cases. If the resistance increases, then the power delivered to the heater will decrease according to P = V 2 /R. If the power decreases, then the heating process will slow down.

Resistance is given by the relationship R = ρ L /A. Thus, to minimize the resistance, you should have a small length and a large cross-sectional area. Likewise, to maximize the resistance, you should have a large length and a small cross-sectional area. (a) For the least resistance, connect the wires to the faces that have dimensions of 2a by 3a, which maximizes the area (6a 2 ) and minimizes the length (a). (b)

For the greatest resistance, connect the wires to the faces that have dimensions of a by 2a, which minimizes the area (2a 2 ) and maximizes the length (3a).

10.

When a lightbulb is first turned on, it will be cool and the filament will have a lower resistance than when it is hot. This lower resistance means that there will be more current through the bulb while it is cool. This momentary high current will make the filament quite hot. If the temperature is too high, then the filament will vaporize, and the current will no longer be able to flow in the bulb. After the light has been on for some time, the filament is at a constant high temperature, with a higher resistance and a lower current. Since the temperature is constant, there is less thermal stress on the filament than when the light is first turned on.

11.

Assuming that both lightbulbs have the same voltage, since P = IV , the higher-power bulb will draw the most current. Likewise, assuming that both lightbulbs have the same voltage, since P = V 2 /R, the higher-power bulb will have the lower resistance. So the 100-W bulb will draw the most current, and the 75-W bulb will have the higher resistance.

12.

Transmission lines have resistance and therefore will change some electrical energy to thermal energy (heat) as the electrical energy is transmitted. We assume that the resistance of the transmission lines is constant. Then the “lost” power is given by Plost = I 2 R, where I is the current carried by the transmission lines. The transmitted power is given by Ptrans = IV , where V is the voltage across the transmission lines. For a given value of Ptrans = IV , the higher the voltage is, the lower the current has to be. As the current is decreased, Plost = I 2 R is also decreased, so there is a lower amount of power lost.

13.

The 15-A fuse is blowing because the circuit is carrying more than 15 A of current. The circuit is probably designed to only carry 15 A, so there might be a “short” or some other malfunction causing the current to exceed 15 A. Replacing the 15-A fuse with a 25-A fuse will allow more current to flow and thus make the wires carrying the current get hotter. A fire or damage to certain kinds of electrical equipment might result. The blown fuse is a warning that something is wrong with the circuit.

14.

At only 10 Hz, the metal filament in the wire will go on and off 20 times per second. (It has a maximum magnitude of current at the maximum current in each direction.) The metal filament has time to cool down and get dim during the low current parts of the cycle, and your eye can detect this. At 50 or 60 Hz, the filament never cools enough to dim significantly. Also, the human eye and brain cannot distinguish the on-off cycle of lights when they are operated at the normal 60-Hz frequency. At

Electric Currents

18-3

much lower frequencies, such as 5 Hz, the eye and brain are able to process the on-off cycle of the lights, and they will appear to flicker. 15.

There are several factors which can be considered. As the voltage reverses with each cycle of AC, the potential energy of the electrons is raised again. Thus with each “pass” through the light, the electrons lose their potential energy and then get it back again. Secondly, the heating of the filament (which causes the light) does not depend on the direction of the current, but only on the fact that a current exists, so the light occurs as the electrons move in both directions. Also, at 60 Hz, the current peaks 120 times per second. The small amount of time while the magnitude of the current is small is not long enough for the hot metal filament to cool down, so it stays lit the entire cycle. Finally, the human eye sees anything more rapid than about 20 Hz as continuous, even if it is not. So even if the light was to go dim during part of the cycle, our eyes would not detect it.

16.

When the toaster is first turned on, the Nichrome wire is at room temperature. The wire starts to heat up almost immediately. Since the resistance increases with temperature, the resistance will be increasing as the wire heats. Assuming the voltage supplied is constant, the current will be decreasing as the resistance increases.

17.

Current is NOT used up in a resistor. The current that flows into the resistor is the same as the current that flows out of the resistor. If that were not the case, then there would be either an increase or decrease in the charge of the resistor, but the resistor actually stays neutral, indicating equal charge flow both in and out. What does get “used up” is potential energy. The charges that leave a resistor have lower potential energy than the charges that enter a resistor. The amount of energy decrease per unit time is given by I 2 R.

18.

If you turn on an electric appliance when you are outside with bare feet, and the appliance shorts out through you, the current has a direct path to ground through your feet, and you will receive a severe shock. If you are inside wearing socks and shoes with thick soles, and the appliance shorts out, the current will not have an easy path to ground through you and will most likely find an alternate path. You might receive a mild shock, but not a severe one.

19.

In the two wires described, the drift velocities of the electrons will be about the same, but the current density, and therefore the current, in the wire with twice as many free electrons per atom will be twice as large as in the other wire.

20.

(a)

(b) (c)

If the length of the wire doubles, then its resistance also doubles, so the current in the wire will be reduced by a factor of 2. Drift velocity is proportional to current, so the drift velocity will be halved. If the wire’s radius is doubled, then the drift velocity remains the same. (Although, since there are more charge carriers, the current will quadruple.) If the potential difference doubles while the resistance remains constant, then the drift velocity and current will also double.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(c)

It may be thought that the orientation of the battery is important for the bulb to work properly. But the lightbulb and it will glow equally bright regardless of the direction in which current flows through it.

(c)

A common misconception is that the lightbulb “uses up” the current, causing more current to flow in one portion of a loop than in another. For a single loop, the current is the same at every

18-4

Chapter 18

point in the loop. Therefore, the amount of current that flows through the lightbulb is the same as the amount that flows through the battery. 3.

(a)

Ohm’s law is an empirical law showing that for some materials the current through the material is proportional to the voltage across the material. For other materials, such as diodes, fluorescent lightbulbs, and superconductors, Ohm’s law is not valid. Since it is not valid for all objects, it cannot be a fundamental law of physics.

(e)

A common misconception is that the electrons are “used up” by the lightbulb. A good analogy would be water flowing across a water wheel in a flour mill. The water flows onto the wheel at the top (high potential) and causes the wheel to rotate as the water descends along the wheel. The amount of water that leaves the bottom of the wheel is the same as the amount that entered at the top, but it does so at a lower point (low potential). The change in potential energy goes into work in the wheel. In a lightbulb, electrons at higher potential energy enter the lightbulb and give off that energy as they pass through the bulb. As with the water on the wheel, the number of electrons exiting and entering the bulb is the same.

(e)

A misconception commonly found when dealing with electric circuits is that electrons are “used up” by the lightbulb. The current is a measure of the rate that electrons pass a given point. If the current were different at two points in the circuit, then electrons would be building up (or being depleted) between those two points. The buildup of electrons would cause the circuit to be time dependent and not a steady state system. The flow of electrons (current) must be the same at all points in a loop.

(b)

Ohm’s law requires that the ratio of voltage to current be constant. Since it is not constant in this case, the material does not obey Ohm’s law.

(d)

A common misconception is that the charge or current is “used up” in a resistor. The resistor removes energy from the system, such that the electrons exiting the resistor have less potential energy than the electrons entering, but the number of electrons (charge carriers) entering and exiting the resistor is the same. The rate of electrons entering and exiting is equal to the constant current in the circuit.

(c)

Since the unit of kilowatt-hour contains the word “watt,” it is often incorrectly thought to be a unit of power. However, the kilowatt-hour is the product of the unit of power (kilowatt) and a unit of time (hour), resulting in a unit of energy.

(b)

Each device added to the circuit is added in parallel. The voltage across the circuit does not change as the devices are added. Each new device, however, creates a path for additional current to flow, causing the current in the circuit breaker to increase. When the current becomes too high, the circuit breaker will open.

10.

(b)

For current to flow through an object it must complete a circuit. When a bird lands on a wire, the bird creates a loop in parallel with the segment of wire between its feet. The voltage drop across the bird is equal to the voltage drop across the wire between the bird’s feet. Since the wire has a small resistance, there will be very little voltage drop across the wire between the bird’s feet and very little voltage drop across the bird. The bird is a good conductor (similar to a human), but since there is little voltage drop, it will experience little current flow. When a ladder is placed between the ground and the wire, it creates a path for the current to flow from the high-voltage wire to ground (zero voltage). This large potential difference will enable a large current to flow through the ladder.

Electric Currents

11.

(b)

18-5

A common misconception is that the electrons must travel from the switch to the lightbulb for the lightbulb to turn on. This is incorrect because there are electrons throughout the circuit, not just at the switch. When the switch is turned on, the electric potential across the circuit creates an electric field in the wire that causes all of the conduction electrons in the wire to move.

Solutions to Problems 1.

Use the definition of current, Eq. 18–1. ΔQ Δt

ΔQ Δt

ΔQ (1200 ions)(1.60 × 10−19 C/ion) = = 6.2 × 10−11 A Δt 3.1 × 10−6 s

Use Eq. 18–2 for resistance. R=

→ ΔQ = I Δt = (6.7 A)(5.0 h)(3600 s/h) = 1.2 × 105 C

Use the definition of current, Eq. 18–1. I=

1.60 C 1 electron × = 1.00 × 1019 electrons/s s 1.60 × 10−19 C

Use the definition of current, Eq. 18–1.

I= 3.

→ 1.60 A =

V 120 V = = 26 Ω I 4.6 A

Use Eq. 18–2 for the voltage. V = IR = (0.25 A)(4800 Ω) = 1200 V

The ampere-hour is a unit of charge. ⎛ 1 C/s ⎞ ⎛ 3600 s ⎞ 5 (75A ⋅ h) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 2.7 × 10 C ⎝ 1 A ⎠⎝ 1 h ⎠

(a)

Use Eq. 18–2 to find the current. V = IR → I =

(b)

Use the definition of current, Eq. 18–1.

I= 8.

V 240 V = = 27.91 A ≈ 28 A R 8.6 Ω

ΔQ Δt

→ ΔQ = I Δt = (27.91 A)(50 min )(60 s/min) = 8.4 × 104 C

Find the potential difference from the resistance and the current, using Eq. 18–2. R = (2.5 × 10−5 Ω /m)(4.0 × 10−2 m) = 1.0 × 10−6 Ω V = IR = (4100 A)(1.0 × 10−6 Ω) = 4.1 × 10−3 V

18-6

Chapter 18

(a)

Use Eq. 18–2 for resistance. R=

(b)

Use the definition of current, Eq. 18–1.

I= 10.

V 120 V = = 8.889 Ω ≈ 8.9 Ω I 13.5 A

ΔQ Δt

→ ΔQ = I Δt = (13.5 A)(15 min )(60 s/min) = 1.215 × 104 C ≈ 1.2 × 104 C

Find the current from the voltage and resistance and then find the number of electrons from the current. V = IR → I = 3.462 A = 3.462

11.

(a)

V 4.5 V = = 3.462 A R 1.3 Ω

C 1 electron 60 s × × = 1.3 × 1021 electrons/min 19 − s 1.60 × 10 C 1 min

If the voltage drops by 15%, and the resistance stays the same, then by Eq. 18–2, V = IR, the current will also drop by 15%. I final = 0.85 I initial = 0.85(5.60 A) = 4.76 A ≈ 4.8 A

(b)

If the resistance drops by 15% (the same as being multiplied by 0.85), and the voltage stays the same, then by Eq. 18–2, the current must be divided by 0.85.

I final = 12.

Use Eq. 18–3 to find the diameter, with the area A = π r 2 = π d 2 /4. R=ρ

13.

A 4A =ρ A πd2

→ d=

4Aρ = πR

4(1.00 m)(5.6 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) = 4.7 × 10−4 m π (0.32 Ω)

Use Eq. 18–3 to calculate the resistance, with the area A = π r 2 = π d 2 /4. R=ρ

14.

I initial 5.60 A = = 6.588 A ≈ 6.6 A 0.85 0.85

A 4A 4(5.4 m) =ρ = (1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) = 5.1 × 10−2 Ω 2 A πd π (1.5 × 10−3 m)2

Use Eq. 18–3 to calculate the resistances, with the area A = π r 2 = π d 2 /4, so R = ρ

RAl = RCu

ρ Al ρCu

4A Al 2 π d Al

4A Cu 2 π d Cu

2 ρ Al A Al d Cu 2 ρCu A Cu d Al

(2.65 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(10.0 m)(1.8 mm) 2 (1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(24.0 m)(2.2 mm) 2

4A A . =ρ A πd2

= 0.44

Electric Currents

15.

Use Eq. 18–3 to express the resistances, with the area A = π r 2 = π d 2 /4, so R = ρ 4A

→ ρW

d W = dCu

ρW 5.6 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m = (2.2 mm) = 4.0 mm ρCu 1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m

2 π dW

= ρCu

RW = RCu

18-7

A 4A =ρ . A πd2

→

2 π d Cu

The diameter of the tungsten should be 4.0 mm. 16.

Since the resistance is directly proportional to the length, the length of the long piece must be 4.0 times the length of the short piece. A = A short + A long = A short + 4.0A short = 5.0A short

→ A short = 0.20A, A long = 0.80A

Make the cut at 20% of the length of the wire. A short = 0.20A, A long = 0.80A → Rshort = 0.2 R = 0.2(15 Ω) = 3.0 Ω , Rlong = 0.8 R = 12.0 Ω 17.

Calculate the voltage drop by combining Ohm’s law (Eq. 18–2) with the expression for resistance, Eq. 18–3. V = IR = I

18.

ρA A

20.

πd2

= (12 A)

4(1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(21 m)

π (1.628 × 10−3 m) 2

= 2.0 V

The wires have the same resistance and the same resistivity. Rlong = Rshort

19.

4ρ A

→

ρ A long A1

ρ A short

→

(4)2A short

πd

long

4A short 2 π dshort

→

d long dshort

= 2

In each case calculate the resistance by using Eq. 18–3 for resistance. (a)

Rx =

(b)

Ry =

(c)

Rz =

ρA x Ayz

ρA y Axz

ρA z Axy

= =

(3.0 × 10−5 Ω ⋅ m)(1.0 × 10−2 m) (2.0 × 10

−2

m)(4.0 × 10

−2

(3.0 × 10−5 Ω ⋅ m)(2.0 × 10−2 m) (1.0 × 10

−2

m)(4.0 × 10

−2

(3.0 × 10−5 Ω ⋅ m)(4.0 × 10−2 m) (1.0 × 10

−2

m)(2.0 × 10

−2

= 3.75 × 10−4 Ω ≈ 3.8 × 10−4 Ω = 1.5 × 10−3 Ω

= 6.0 × 10−3 Ω

The length of the new wire is half the length of the original wire, and the cross-sectional area of the new wire is twice that of the original wire. Use Eq. 18–3. R0 = ρ

A0 A0

A = 12 A 0

A = 2 A0

R=ρ

1A A A 0 =ρ 2 = 1 ρ 0 = 1 R0 A 2 A0 4 A0 4

The new resistance is one-fourth of the original resistance. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

18-8

21.

Chapter 18

Use Eq. 18–4 multiplied by A /A so that it expresses resistance instead of resistivity. R = R0 [1 + α (T − T0 )] = 1.12 R0 T − T0 =

0.12

0.12 0.0068(C°) −1

→ 1 + α (T − T0 ) = 1.12 → = 17.6 C° ≈ 18 C°

So raise the temperature by 22 C° to a final temperature of 42°C . 22.

Use Eq. 18–4 for the resistivity.

ρTAl = ρ0Al [1 + α Al (T − T0 )] = ρ0W T = T0 +

23.

→

⎛ 5.6 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m ⎞ ⎞ 1 ⎛ ρ0W 1 − 1⎟ = 20°C + − 1 ⎜ ⎟ = 279.49°C ≈ 280°C ⎜ α Al ⎝ ρ0Al ⎠ 0.00429(C°) −1 ⎝⎜ 2.65 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m ⎠⎟

Use Eq. 18–4 multiplied by A /A so that it expresses resistances instead of resistivity. R = R0 [1 + α (T − T0 )] → T = T0 +

24.

⎞ ⎛ 140 Ω ⎞ 1⎛ R 1 − 1⎟ = 20°C + − 1⎟ = 2390°C ≈ 2400°C ⎜ ⎜ 1 − α ⎝ R0 ⎠ 0.0045(C°) ⎝ 12 Ω ⎠

The original resistance is R0 = V /I 0 , and the high-temperature resistance is R = V /I , where the two voltages are the same. The two resistances are related by Eq. 18–4, multiplied by A /A so that it expresses resistance instead of resistivity. R = R0 [1 + α (T − T0 )] → T = T0 +

⎞ ⎞ 1⎛ R 1 ⎛ V /I 1⎛I ⎞ − 1⎟ = T0 + ⎜ − 1⎟ = T0 + ⎜ 0 − 1⎟ ⎜ α α V / I I ⎝ ⎠ 0 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

α ⎝ R0

= 23.5°C +

25.

1 0.00429(C°)

−1

⎛ 0.4212 A ⎞ − 1⎟ = 47.6°C ⎜ ⎝ 0.3818 A ⎠

The total resistance is to be 3200 ohms (Rtotal ) at all temperatures. Write each resistance in terms of Eq. 18–4 (with T0 = 0°C), multiplied by A /A to express resistance instead of resistivity. Rtotal = R0C [1 + α CT ] + R0N [1 + α NT ] = R0C + R0Cα CT + R0N + R0Nα NT = R0C + R0N + (R0Cα C + R0Nα N )T

For the above to be true, the terms with a temperature dependence must cancel, and the terms without a temperature dependence must add to Rtotal . Thus we have two equations in two unknowns. 0 = (R0Cα C + R0Nα N )T Rtotal = R0C + R0N R0C = Rtotal

→ R0N = −

R0Cα C

αN R α R (α − α C ) = R0C − 0C C = 0C N → αN αN

αN 0.0004(C°) −1 = (3.20 kΩ) = 1.422 kΩ ≈ 1.42 kΩ (α N − α C ) 0.0004(C°)−1 + 0.0005(C°) −1

R0N = Rtotal − R0C = 1.78 kΩ © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Electric Currents

26.

(a)

18-9

Calculate each resistance separately using Eq. 18–3 and then add the resistances together to find the total resistance. RCu = RAl =

ρ Cu A A

ρ Al A A

= =

4 ρ Cu A

πd2 4 ρ Al A

πd2

4(1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(5.0 m)

π (1.4 × 10−3 m) 2

4(2.65 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(5.0 m)

π (1.4 × 10−3 m) 2

= 0.05457 Ω

= 0.08607 Ω

Rtotal = RCu + RAl = 0.05457 Ω + 0.08607 Ω = 0.14064 Ω ≈ 0.141 Ω

(b)

The current through the wire is the voltage divided by the total resistance. I=

(c)

V 95 × 10−3 V = = 0.6755 A ≈ 0.68 A Rtotal 0.14064 Ω

For each segment of wire, Ohm’s law is true. Both wires have the current found in (b) above. VCu = IRCu = (0.6755 A)(0.05457 Ω) ≈ 0.037 V VAl = IRAl = (0.6755 A)(0.08607 Ω) ≈ 0.058 V

Notice that the total voltage is 95 mV. 27.

Use Eq. 18–5 to find the power from the voltage and the current. P = IV = (0.24 A)(3.0 V) = 0.72 W

28.

Use Eq. 18–6b to find the resistance from the voltage and the power. P=

29.

→ R=

V 2 (240 V) 2 = = 17 Ω P 3300 W

Use Eq. 18–6b to find the voltage from the power and the resistance. P=

30.

V2 R

→ V = PR = (0.25 W)(3900 Ω) = 31 V

Use Eq. 18–6b to find the resistance and Eq. 18–5 to find the current. (a)

V2 R

P = IV

(b)

V2 R

P = IV

→ R= → I=

P 75 W = = 0.6818 A ≈ 0.68 A V 110 V

→ R= → I=

V 2 (110 V) 2 = = 161.3 Ω ≈ 160 Ω P 75 W

V 2 (110 V) 2 = = 48.4 Ω ≈ 48 Ω P 250 W

P 250 W = = 2.273 A ≈ 2.3 A V 110 V

18-10

31.

Chapter 18

The battery’s potential energy is equal to the charge that it can deliver times its voltage.

32.

= QV

The power needed is the voltage times the current, Eq. 18–5. P = IV

33.

34.

⎛ 1000 W ⎞ ⎛ 3600 s ⎞ 16 kW ⋅ h ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ PE ⎝ 1 kW ⎠ ⎝ 1 h ⎠ = 1.7 × 105 C → Q= = V 340 V

(a)

→ I=

P 45,000 W = = 132.4 A ≈ 130 A V 340 V

V2 V2 → R= says that the resistance is inversely proportional to the power for a R P constant voltage, we predict that the 950-W setting has the higher resistance.

Since P =

(b)

V 2 (120 V)2 = = 15.16 Ω ≈ 15 Ω P 950 W

(c)

V 2 (120 V) 2 = = 9.93 Ω ≈ 9.9 Ω P 1450 W

(a)

Use Eq. 18–2 to find the resistance. R=

(b)

V 12 V = = 20 Ω (2 significant figures) I 0.60 A

An amount of charge ΔQ loses a potential energy of (ΔQ)V as it passes through the resistor. The amount of charge is found from Eq. 18–1. ΔPE = (ΔQ)V = ( I Δt )V = (0.60 A)(60 s)(12 V) = 430 J

35.

(a)

Use Eq. 18–5 to find the current. P = IV

(b)

P 130 W = = 1.08 A ≈ 1.1 A V 120 V

Use Eq. 18–6b to find the resistance. P=

36.

→ I=

V2 R

→ R=

V 2 (120 V) 2 = ≈ 110.8 Ω ≈ 110 Ω P 130 W

The power (and thus the brightness) of the bulb is proportional to the square of the voltage, according V2 . Since the resistance is assumed to be constant, if the voltage is cut in half from to Eq. 18–6a, P = R 240 V to 120 V, the power will be reduced by a factor of 4. Thus in the United States the bulb will appear only about 1/4 as bright as it does in Europe.

Electric Currents

37.

18-11

To find the kWh of energy, multiply the kilowatts of power consumption by the number of hours in operation. ⎛ 1 kW ⎞ ⎛ 1h ⎞ Energy = P (in kW)t (in h) = (550 W) ⎜ ⎟ (5.0 min) ⎜ ⎟ 1000 W ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 60 min ⎠ = 0.04583 kWh ≈ 0.046 kWh

To find the cost of the energy used in a month, multiply by 4 days per week of usage, 4 weeks per month, and the cost per kWh. kWh ⎞ ⎛ 4 d ⎞ ⎛ 4 weeks ⎞ ⎛ 9.0 cents ⎞ ⎛ Cost = ⎜ 0.04583 ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ≈ 6.6 cents/month d ⎠ ⎝ 1 week ⎠ ⎝ 1 month ⎠ ⎝ kWh ⎠ ⎝ 38.

To find the cost of the energy, multiply the kilowatts of power consumption by the number of hours in operation by the cost per kWh. ⎛ 1 kW ⎞ ⎛ 24 h ⎞ ⎛ $0.095 ⎞ Cost = (25 W) ⎜ ⎟ (365 d) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ≈ $ 21 ⎝ 1000 W ⎠ ⎝ 1 d ⎠ ⎝ kWh ⎠

39.

The A ⋅ h rating is the amount of charge that the battery can deliver. The potential energy of the charge is the charge times the voltage. ⎛ 3600 s ⎞ 1 W ⋅s 1 kW 1h 6 PE = QV = (65 A ⋅ h) ⎜ × × = 0.78 kWh ⎟ (12 V) = 2.8 × 10 J × 1J 1000 W 3600 s ⎝ 1h ⎠

40.

(a)

Calculate the resistance from Eq. 18–2 and the power from Eq. 18–5. R=

(b)

41.

V 3.0 V = = 7.895 Ω ≈ 7.9 Ω I 0.38 A

P = IV = (0.38 A)(3.0 V) = 1.14 W ≈ 1.1 W

If four D-cells are used, then the voltage will double, to 6.0 V. Assuming that the resistance of the bulb stays the same (by ignoring heating effects in the filament), the power that the bulb V2 . A doubling of the voltage means the would need to dissipate is given by Eq. 18–6b, P = R power is increased by a factor of 4. This should not be tried because the bulb is probably not rated for such a high wattage. The filament in the bulb would probably burn out, and the glass bulb might even explode if the filament burns violently.

Each bulb will draw an amount of current found from Eq. 18–5. P = IV

→ I bulb =

P V

The number of bulbs to draw 15 A is the total current divided by the current per bulb. I total = nI bulb = n

42.

P V

→ n=

VI total (120 V)(15 A) = = 24 bulbs P 75 W

Find the power dissipated in the cord by Eq. 18–6a, using Eq. 18–3 for the resistance. P = I 2R = I 2ρ

2L 2(2.7 m) = (18.0 A) 2 (1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) = 22.49 W ≈ 22 W 1 A π 4 (0.129 × 10−2 m) 2

18-12

43.

Chapter 18

Use Eqs. 18–3 and 18–6b to calculate the length of the wire. R=ρ

4ρ A V2 V2 A A =ρ 2 = = = ; P 4ρ A A R πr πd2 πd2

→

V 2π d 2 (1.5 V) 2π (5.0 × 10−4 m) 2 = = 1.461 m ≈ 1.5 m 4ρ P 4(1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(18 W)

If the voltage increases by a factor of 6 without the resistance changing, then the power will increase by a factor of 36. The blanket would theoretically be able to deliver 540 W of power, which might make the material catch on fire or burn the occupant. 44.

Find the current used to deliver the power in each case and then find the power dissipated in the resistance at the given current. Pdelivered = IV Pdissipated = 12,000 V

Pdissipated = 50,000 V

45.

(a)

→ I=

Pdelivered V

(7.5 × 105 W) 2 (1.2 × 104 V) 2 (7.5 × 105 W) 2 4

(5 × 10 V)

(3.0 Ω) = 675 W

difference = 11, 719 W − 675 W = 1.1 × 104 W

By conservation of energy and the efficiency claim, 85% of the electrical power emitted by the heater must be the rate at which energy is absorbed by the water. The power emitted by the heater is given by Eq. 18–5.

heater

→ 0.85(IV ) =

by water

Qheat water mcΔT = t t

→

mcΔT (0.120 kg)(4186 J/kg)(95°C − 25°C) = = 7.182 A ≈ 7.2 A 0.85 Vt (0.85)(12 V)(480 s)

Use Ohm’s law to find the resistance of the heater. V = IR → R =

46.

2 Pdelivered

(3.0 Ω) = 11, 719 W

0.85 Pemitted by = Pabsorbed

(b)

Pdissipated = I 2 R =

V 12 V = = 1.7 Ω I 7.182 A

The water temperature rises by absorbing the heat energy that the electromagnet dissipates. Express both energies in terms of power, which is energy per unit time. We assume that 240 V has 3 significant figures. The power emitted by powering the electromagnet is given by Eq. 18–5. Pelectric = Pto heat

→ IV =

water

Qheat water mcΔT = t t

→

m IV (21.5 A)(240 V) = = = 0.1896 kg/s ≈ 0.190 kg/s t cΔT (4186 J/kg ⋅ °C)(6.50 C°)

This is 190 mL per second.

Electric Currents

47.

Use Ohm’s law, Eq. 18–2, and the relationship between peak and rms values, Eq. 18–8a. I peak = 2 I rms = 2

48.

Vpeak R

52.

I rms = I peak / 2 = (0.58065 A)/ 2 = 0.41 A

When everything electrical is turned off, no current will be flowing into the house, even though a voltage is being supplied. Since for a given voltage, the more resistance, the lower the current, a zero current corresponds to an infinite resistance.

(b)

Assuming that the voltage is 120 V, use Eq. 18–6ba to calculate the resistance. V2 R

→ R=

V 2 (120 V) 2 = = 96 Ω P 2(75 W)

The power and current can be used to find the peak voltage and then the rms voltage can be found from the peak voltage. P = I rmsVrms =

51.

180 V = 0.58065 A = 0.58 A 310 Ω

(a)

50.

Vrms 220 V = 2 = 0.12 A R 2700 Ω

Find the peak current from Ohm’s law and then find the rms current from the relationship between peak and rms values. I peak =

49.

18-13

I peak

Vrms

→ Vrms =

2P I peak

2(1500 W) = 330 V 6.4 A

Use the average power and rms voltage to calculate the peak voltage and peak current. (a)

Vpeak = 2Vrms = 2(660 V) = 933.4 V ≈ 930 V

(b)

P = I rmsVrms =

(a)

We use Eqs. 18–9c and 18–9a. P=

2 Vrms R

I rms =

(b)

I peak 2

Vrms

→ I peak =

2P Vrms

2(1800 W) = 3.9 A 660 V

→ Vrms = PR = (100 W)(8 Ω) = 28.3 V ≈ 30 V

P 100 W = = 3.54 A ≈ 4 A Vrms 28.3 V

We repeat the process using the lower power. P=

2 Vrms R

I rms =

→ Vrms = PR = (1.0 W)(8 Ω) = 2.83 V ≈ 3 V

P 1.0 W = = 0.354 A ≈ 0.4 A Vrms 2.83 V

18-14

53.

Chapter 18

(a)

We assume that the 2.2 hp is the average power, so the maximum power is twice that, or 4.4 hp, as seen in Fig. 18–22. ⎛ 746 W ⎞ 4.4 hp ⎜ ⎟ = 3282 W ≈ 3300 W ⎝ 1 hp ⎠

(b)

Use the average power and the rms voltage to find the peak current. P = I rmsVrms =

54.

(a)

Vrms

→ I peak =

2P Vrms

240 V

= 9.7 A

The maximum power is twice the average power, and the minimum power is 0. Pmin = 0

We follow exactly the derivation in Example 18–14, which results in an expression for the drift velocity.

υd =

56.

2 ⎡⎣ 12 (3282 W) ⎤⎦

2 Vrms (240 V) 2 = = 1516 W ≈ 1500 W R 38 Ω

Pmax = 2 P = 2(1516 W) ≈ 3.0 × 103 W

55.

The average power used can be found from the resistance and the rms voltage by Eq. 18–9c. P=

(b)

I peak

(a)

I I = neA N (1 mole) ρ eπ D m(1 mole) 23

4 Im N ρ D eπ d 2

(6.02 × 10 )(8.9 × 10 kg/m )(1.60 × 10

−19

C)π (0.65 × 10

−3

= 6.0 × 10−10 m/s

Use Ohm’s law to find the resistance. V 22.0 × 10−3 V = = 0.02933 Ω ≈ 0.029 Ω I 0.75 A

Find the resistivity from Eq. 18–3. R=

(c)

4(2.7 × 10−6 A)(63.5 × 10−3 kg)

V = IR → R =

(b)

( 12 d )

ρL A

→ ρ=

RA Rπ r 2 (0.02933 Ω)π (1.0 × 10−3 m) 2 = = = 1.9 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m L L (4.80 m)

Find the number of electrons per unit volume from Eq. 18–10. I = neAυd n=

→

I I (0.75 A) = = = 8.8 × 1028 electrons/m3 eAυd eπ r 2υd (1.60 × 10−19 C)π (1.0 × 10−3 m) 2 (1.7 × 10−5 m/s)

Electric Currents

57.

18-15

We are given a net charge, a concentration, and a speed (like the drift speed) for both types of ions. From that we can use Eq. 18–10 to determine the current per unit area. Both currents are in the same direction in terms of conventional current—positive charge moving north has the same effect as negative charge moving south—so they can be added. I = neAυd

→

I = (neυd ) He + (neυd )O A = (2.4 × 1012 ions/m3 )(2 charges/ion)(1.60 × 10−19 C/charge)(2.0 × 106 m/s)] + [(7.0 ×1011 ions/m 3 )(−1 charge/ion)( − 1.60 × 10−19 C/charge)(6.2 × 106 m/s)] = 2.2 A/m 2 , north

58.

The magnitude of the electric field is the voltage change per unit meter. E =

59.

ΔV 70 × 10−3 V = = 7 × 106 V/m Δx 1.0 × 10−8 m

The speed is the change in position per unit time. Δx 7.20 × 10−2 m − 3.70 × 10−2 m = = 32 m/s Δt 0.0063 s − 0.0052 s

υ=

Two measurements are needed because there may be a time delay from the stimulation of the nerve to the generation of the action potential. 60.

The power is the work done per unit time. The work done to move a charge through a potential difference is the charge times the potential difference. The charge density must be multiplied by the surface area of the cell (the surface area of an open tube, length times circumference) to find the actual charge moved. W QV Q = = V t t t mol ions ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎛ −19 C ⎞ −6 = ⎜ 3 × 10−7 2 ⎟ ⎜ 6.02 × 1023 ⎟ ⎜1.6 × 10 ⎟ (0.10 m)π (20 × 10 m)(0.030 V) mol ⎠ ⎝ ion ⎠ m ⋅s ⎠⎝ ⎝

= 5 × 10−9 W

61.

The energy supplied by the battery is the energy consumed by the lights. Esupplied = Econsumed t=

62.

(a)

→ QΔV = Pt →

⎛ 1h ⎞ QΔV (75 A ⋅ h)(3600 s/h)(12 V) = = 35, 217 s ⎜ ⎟ = 9.783 h ≈ 9.8 h P 92 W ⎝ 3600 s ⎠

If the wire obeys Ohm’s law, then V = IR or I = V /R, showing a linear relationship between I and V. A graph of I vs. V should give a straight line with a slope of 1/R and a y intercept of 0.

18-16

Chapter 18

(b)

From the graph and the calculated linear fit, we see that the wire obeys Ohm’s law. slope =

1 R

→

1 A/V 0.718 = 1.39 Ω

(c)

Use Eq. 18–3 to find the resistivity. R=ρ

A AR π d 2 R π (3.2 × 10−4 m) 2 (1.39 Ω) → ρ= = = = 1.0 × 10−6 Ω ⋅ m A A 4A 4(0.11 m)

From Table 18–1, the material is Nichrome. 63.

Use Eq. 18–5 to calculate the current. We assume that 120 V has 3 significant figures. P = IV

64.

I 0.44 A = = 0.1467 S ≈ 0.15 S V 3.0 V

Use Eq. 18–6b to express the resistance in terms of the power and Eq. 18–3 to express the resistance in terms of the wire geometry. P= 4ρ

66.

P 746 W = = 6.22 A V 120 V

From Eq. 18–2, if R = V /I , then G = I /V . G=

65.

→ I=

(a)

V2 R L

πd2

→ R= =

V2 P

→ d=

R=ρ 4 ρ LP

πV 2

L L L = ρ 2 = 4ρ A πr πd2 =

4(9.71 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(3.8 m)(1500 W)

π (110 V) 2

= 2.4 × 10−4 m

Calculate the total kWh used per day and then multiply by the number of days and the cost per kWh. (2.2 kW)(2.0 h/d) + 4(0.1 kW)(6.0 h/d) + (3.0 kW)(1.0 h/d) + (2.0 kWh/d) = 11.8 kWh/d ⎛ $0.115 ⎞ Cost = (11.8 kWh/d)(30 d) ⎜ ⎟ = $40.71 ≈ $40.70 per month ⎝ kWh ⎠

(b)

The energy required by the household is 35% of the energy that needs to be supplied by the power plant.

Electric Currents

18-17

Household energy = 0.35(Coal mass)(Coal energy per mass) → ⎛ 1000 W ⎞ ⎛ 3600 s ⎞ (11.8 kWh/d)(365 d) ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎜ Household energy ⎝ kW ⎠ ⎝ 1 h ⎠ Coal mass = = (0.35)(Coal energy per mass) ⎛ kcal ⎞ ⎛ 4186 J ⎞ (0.35) ⎜ 7500 ⎟ ⎟⎜ kg ⎠ ⎝ 1 kcal ⎠ ⎝ = 1411 kg ≈ 1400 kg of coal

67.

To deliver 15 MW of power at 120 V, a current of I =

P 1.5 × 107 W = = 125,000 A is required. 120 V V

Calculate the power dissipated in the resistors using the current and the resistance. There are two wires, so we consider 2.0 m of wire. P = I 2R = I 2ρ

L L L 2(1.0 m) = I 2 ρ 2 = 4I 2 ρ = 4(1.25 × 105 A) 2 (1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) 2 A πr πd π (5.0 × 10−3 m) 2

= 2.674 × 107 W ⎛ 1 kW ⎞ ⎛ $0.12 ⎞ Cost = (Power)(Time)(Rate per kWh) = (2.674 × 107 W) ⎜ ⎟ (1 h) ⎜ ⎟ 1000 W ⎝ kWh ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ = $3209 ≈ $3200 per hour per meter

68.

69.

(a)

Use Eq. 18–6b to relate the power to the voltage for a constant resistance. P (105 V) 2 /R (105 V) 2 V2 P= → 105 = = = 0.805 or a 19.5% decrease R P117 (117 V) 2 /R (117 V) 2

(b)

The lower power output means that the resistor is generating less heat, so the resistor’s temperature would be lower. The lower temperature results in a lower value of the resistance, which would increase the power output at the lower voltages. Thus the decrease would be smaller than the value given in the first part of the problem.

Assume that we have a meter of wire, carrying 35 A of current, and dissipating 1.5 W of heat. The ρA power dissipated is PR = I 2 R, and the resistance is R = . A ρA ρA 4ρ A PR = I 2 R = I 2 = I2 2 = I2 → A πr πd2 d = I2

70.

(a)

ρA 4ρ A (1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(1.0 m) = 2I = 2(35 A) = 4.2 × 10−3 m (1.5 W)π PRπ PRπ

The resistance at the operating temperature can be calculated directly from Eq. 18–6b. P=

(b)

V2 R

→ R=

V 2 (120 V) 2 = = 190 Ω 75 W P

The resistance at room temperature is found by converting Eq. 18–4 into an equation for resistances and solving for R0 . R = R0 [1 + a(T − T0 )] R0 =

192 Ω R = = 15.63 Ω ≈ 16 Ω − [1 + α (T − T0 )] ⎡1 + (0.0045 K 1 )(2800 K − 293 K) ⎤ ⎣ ⎦

18-18

71.

Chapter 18

(a)

The angular frequency is ω = 210 rad/s. f =

(b)

ω 210 rad/s = = 33 Hz 2π 2π

The maximum current is 1.40 A. I rms =

(c)

I max 2

1.40 A 2

= 0.990 A

For a resistor, V = IR. V = IR = (1.40 A)( sin 210 t )(24.0 Ω) = (33.6 sin 210t ) V

72.

(a)

The power delivered to the interior is 65% of the power drawn from the source. Pinterior = 0.65 Psource

(b)

→ I=

Psource 1462 W = = 12.18 A ≈ 12 A Vsource 120 V

The volume of wire is unchanged by the stretching. The volume is equal to the length of the wire times its cross-sectional area. Since the length was increased by a factor of 1.5, the area was decreased by a factor of 1.5. Use Eq. 18–3. R0 = ρ

74.

Pinterior 950 W = = 1462 W ≈ 1500 W 0.65 0.65

The current drawn is current from the source. The source power is used to calculate the current. Psource = IVsource

73.

→ Psource =

A0 A0

A = 1.5A 0

A = 11.5 A0

R=ρ

1.5A A A = ρ 1 0 = 2.25ρ 0 = 2.25R0 = 2.25 Ω A A0 A 1.5 0

The long, thick conductor is labeled as conductor number 1, and the short, thin conductor is labeled as number 2. The power transformed by a resistor is given by Eq. 18–6, P = V 2 /R, and both have the same voltage applied. Use Eq. 18–3 for resistance. R1 = ρ

A1 A1

R2 = ρ

A2 A2

A1 = 2A 2

A1 = 4 A2 (diameter1 = 2diameter2 )

A ρ 2 P1 V12 /R1 R2 A2 A 2 A1 1 = 2 = = = = ×4=2 A P2 V2 /R2 R1 ρ 1 A1 A2 2 A1

75.

(a)

P1: P2 = 2:1

From Eq. 18–5, if power P is delivered to the transmission line at voltage V, then there must be a current I = P /V . As this current is carried by the transmission line, there will be power losses of I 2 R due to the resistance of the wire. This power loss can be expressed as ΔP = I 2 R = P 2 R /V 2 . Equivalently, there is a voltage drop across the transmission lines of V ′ = IR. Thus the voltage available to the users is V − V ′, and the power available to the users is P ′ = (V − V ′) I = VI − V ′I = VI − I 2 R = P − I 2 R. The power loss is ΔP = P − P ′ = P − (P − I 2 R )

= I 2 R = P 2 R /V 2 .

Electric Currents

76.

(b)

Since ΔP ∝

(a)

Use Eq. 18–6b. P=

(b)

V2 R

, V should be as large as possible to minimize ΔP.

→

V 2 (240 V) 2 = = 20.57 Ω ≈ 21 Ω P 2800 W

Only 75% of the heat from the oven is used to heat the water. 0.75( Poven )t = Heat absorbed by water = mcΔT mcΔT t= = 0.75( Poven )

(a)

18-19

→

⎛ 1 kg ⎞ (0.120 L) ⎜ ⎟ (4186 J/kg ⋅ C°)(85 C°) ⎝ 1L ⎠ = 23.46 s ≈ 23 s 0.65(2800 W)

11 cents 1h (2.8 kW)(23.46 s) = 0.20 cents (1/5 of a cent) kWh 3600 s

The horsepower required is the power dissipated by the frictional force, since we are neglecting the energy used for acceleration. ⎛ 1 m/s ⎞ P = Fυ = (440 N)(45 km/h) ⎜ ⎟ = 5500 W ⎝ 3.6 km/h ⎠ ⎛ 1 hp ⎞ P = 5500 W ⎜ ⎟ = 7.373 hp ≈ 7.4 hp ⎝ 746 W ⎠

(b)

The charge available by each battery is Q = 95A ⋅ h = 95 C/s ⋅ 3600 s = 3.42 × 105 C, so the total charge available is 24 times that. The potential energy of that charge is the charge times the voltage. That energy must be delivered (batteries discharged) in a certain amount of time to produce the 3000 W necessary. The speed of the car times the discharge time is the range of the car between recharges. P=

PE QV = t t

d = υt = υ

78.

→

QV d = P υ

→

QV QV QV 24(3.42 × 105 C)(12 V) =υ = = = 2.24 × 105 m ≈ 220 km P Fυ F 440 N

The mass of the wire is the density of copper times the volume of the wire, and the resistance of the wire is given by Eq. 18–3. We represent the mass density by ρ m and the resistivity by ρ. A

R=ρ A=

→

ρm ρ ρA R

=π

ρA

m = ρ m AA = ρ m L

ρA

→

(0.0155 kg )(15.2 Ω) (8.9 × 103 kg/m3 )(1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)

( 12 d )

→

4ρ A

πR

= 39.70 m ≈ 39.7 m −8

4(1.68 × 10 Ω ⋅ m)(39.70 m)

π (15.2 Ω)

= 2.36 × 10

−4

18-20

79.

Chapter 18

The resistance can be calculated from the power and voltage, and then the diameter of the wire can be calculated from the resistance. P=

80.

81.

V2 R

4 ρ LP

πV 2

V2 P

ρL A

ρL π ( 12 d )

4(100 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(3.5 m)(95 W)

π (120 V) 2

V2 ρL = P π 1d 2

→

( )

→

= 1.7 × 10−4 m

Use Eq. 18–6b. (a)

V 2 (120 V) 2 = = 1200 W 12 Ω R

(b)

V 2 (120 V) 2 = = 103 W ≈ 100 W (2 significant figures) R 140 Ω

Use Eq. 18–6b for the power in each case, assuming the resistance is constant. P13.8 V P12.0 V

82.

→

(V 2 /R )13.8 V (V 2 /R)12.0 V

13.82 12.02

= 1.3225 = 32% increase

3.0 V V = = 15 Ω. That can be used I 0.20 A with a combination of Eqs. 18–3 and 18–4 to find the temperature.

The resistance of the filament when the flashlight is on is R = R = R0 [1 + α (T − T0 )] → T = T0 +

83.

⎞ ⎛ 15 Ω ⎞ 1⎛ R 1 − 1⎟ = 20°C + − 1⎟ = 2020°C ≈ 2000°C ⎜ ⎜ 1 − α ⎝ R0 ⎠ 0.0045(C°) ⎝ 1.5 Ω ⎠

The solution assumes that the 40-W values are precise to 2 significant figures. (a) The current can be found from Eq. 18–5. I = P /V

(b)

I B = PB /VB = 40W/12 V = 3.3 A

The resistance can be found from Eq. 18–6b. R=

(c)

I A = PA /VA = 40W/120 V = 0.33 A

V2 P

RA =

VA2 (120 V) 2 = = 360 Ω 40 W PA

RB =

VB2 (12 V)2 = = 3.6 Ω 40 W PB

The charge is the current times the time. Q = It QA = I A t = (0.33 A)(3600 s) = 1200 C QB = I Bt = (3.3 A)(3600 s) = 1.2 × 104 C

(d)

The energy is the power times the time, and the power is the same for both bulbs. E = Pt

(e)

EA = EB = (40 W)(3600 s) = 1.4 ×105 J

Bulb B requires a larger current and should have larger diameter connecting wires to avoid overheating the connecting wires.

Electric Currents

84.

(a)

18-21

The power is given by Eq. 18–5. P = IV = (18 A)(220 V) = 3960W ≈ 4.0 × 103 W

(b)

The power dissipated by the resistor is calculated by Eq. 18–6b, and the resistance is calculated by Eq. 18–3. PR = I 2 R = I 2

ρA A

= I2

−8 ρA Ω ⋅ m)2(3.5 m) 2 4ρ A 2 4(1.68 × 10 I = = (18 A) = 18.304 W π r2 πd2 π (1.628 × 10−3 m) 2

≈ 18 W

(c)

Recalculate using the alternate wire. PR = I 2

(d)

4ρ A

πd2

= (18 A) 2

4(1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)2(3.5 m)

π (2.053 × 10−3 m) 2

= 11.510 W ≈ 12 W

The savings is due to the power difference. ⎛ 1 kW ⎞ ⎛ 12 h ⎞ ⎛ $0.12 ⎞ Savings = (18.304 W − 11.510 W) ⎜ ⎟ (30 d) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 1000 W ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1 d ⎠ ⎝ 1 kWh ⎠ = $0.2935/month ≈ 29 cents per month

85.

(a)

The energy stored is electrical potential energy, found by multiplying the available charge by the potential. PE

(b)

⎡ ⎛ 1 C/s ⎞ ⎛ 3600 s ⎞ ⎤ 6 6 = QV = ⎢(100A ⋅ h) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (12 V) = 4.32 ×10 J ≈ 4 ×10 J 1 A 1 h ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦

The work done by the potential energy applies a force to overcome the retarding force and thus does the same amount of work as the retarding force. W = ΔPE = Fd

86.

→

ΔPE 4.32 × 106 J = = 2.057 × 104 m ≈ 2 × 104 m F 210 N

The volume of wire (volume = length × cross-sectional area) remains constant as the wire is stretched from the original length of A 0 to the final length of 2A 0 . Thus the cross-sectional area changes from A0 to

1 2

A0 . Use Eq. 18–3 for the resistance and Eq. 18–6b for the power dissipated.

R0 =

ρ L0 A0

; R=

ρL

ρ 2 L0 1 2

ρ L0 A0

= 4 R0 ; P0 =

V2 V2 V2 V2 1 ; P= = = 14 = P0 R0 R 4 R0 R0 4

The power is reduced by a factor of 4. 87.

The wasted power is due to losses in the wire. The current in the wire can be found from Eq. 18–5. (a)

Pdissipated = I 2 R = =

(b)

Pdissipated =

2 Pdelivered

2 2 2 Pdelivered ρ L Pdelivered ρ L Pdelivered 4ρ L = = 2 2 2 2 A πr πd2 V V V

(1450 W) 2 4(1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(25.0 m)

π (2.59 × 10−3 m) 2

(120 V) 2 2 Pdelivered 4ρ L

πd2

= 11.639 W ≈ 12 W

(1450 W) 2 4(1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(25.0 m) (120 V) 2

π (4.12 × 10−3 m) 2

= 4.6 W

18-22

88.

Chapter 18

(a)

The D-cell provides 25 mA at 1.5 V for 820 h, at a cost of $1.70. ⎛ 1 kW ⎞ Energy = Pt = VIt = (1.5 V)(0.025 A)(820 h) ⎜ ⎟ = 0.03075 kWh ⎝ 1000 W ⎠ Cost/kWh =

(b)

$1.70 = $55.28/kWh ≈ $55/kWh 0.03075 kWh

The AA-cell provides 25 mA at 1.5 V for 120 h, at a cost of $1.25. ⎛ 1 kW ⎞ Energy = Pt = VIt = (1.5 V)(0.025 A)(120 h) ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0045 kWh ⎝ 1000 W ⎠ $1.25 = $277.78/kWh ≈ $280/kWh Cost/kWh = 0.0045 kWh

(c)

Compare the battery costs with a normal commercial electric rate. D-cell:

$55.28/kWh ≈ 550 × as costly $0.10/kWh

AA-cell: 89.

Eq. 18–3 can be used. The area to be used is the cross-sectional area of the pipe. R=

90.

ρA A

ρA 2

π (routside − rinside )

(1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(10.0 m)

π ⎡⎣(2.50 × 10−2 m) 2 − (1.50 × 10−2 m) 2 ⎤⎦

= 1.34 × 10−4 Ω

Model the protons as moving in a continuous beam of cross-sectional area A. Then by Eq. 18–10, N I = neAυd . The variable n is the number of protons per unit volume, so n = , where N is the AA number of protons in the beam and A is the circumference of the ring. The “drift” velocity in this case is the speed of light. N N I = neAυd = eAυd = eυd → A AA N=

91.

$277.78/kWh ≈ 2800 × as costly $0.10/kWh

(11× 10−3 A)(6300 m) IA = = 1.4 × 1012 protons − 19 8 eυd (1.60 × 10 C)(3.00 × 10 m/s)

When the tank is empty, the entire length of the wire is in a nonsuperconducting state and has a nonzero resistivity, which we call ρ. Then the resistance of the wire when the tank is empty is given A V0 = . When a length x of the wire is superconducting, that portion of the wire has 0 A I A−x resistance. Then the resistance of the wire is only due to the length A − x, and R = ρ A A A−x A−x =ρ = R0 . This resistance, combined with the constant current, gives V = IR. A A A

by R0 = ρ

⎛V V = IR = ⎜ 0 ⎝ R0

⎞ A−x ⎛ x⎞ = V0 ⎜ 1 − ⎟ = V0 (1 − f ) → ⎟ R0 A ⎝ A⎠ ⎠

f = 1−

V V0

Thus a measurement of the voltage can give the fraction of the tank that is filled with liquid helium. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Electric Currents

18-23

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

Ohm’s law is an empirical law that applies only to certain materials. Newton’s laws are general laws that apply to all objects.

(a)

The efficiency of the bulb is proportional to the power radiated from the bulb. The power radiated is given by Eq. 14–6. The subscript “H” is used for the halogen bulb and “T” for the traditional incandescent bulb. (Q /t ) H − (Q /t )T TH4 − TT4 (2900 K) 4 − (2700 K) 4 = = = 0.331 ≈ 33% (Q /t )T TT4 (2900 K) 4 The halogen bulb is about 33% more efficient than the traditional incandescent bulb.

(b)

The radiated power is proportional to the power consumed by the lightbulb. Since the halogen bulb is 33% more efficient than the incandescent, the power input can be decreased by a factor of 1.33 to provide the same output intensity. PH = PT =

100 W = 75 W 1.33

The resistor code in Fig. 18–12 shows that the resistance is 24 × 101 = 240 Ω. Solve for the resistivity by inserting this resistance into Eq. 18–3 along with the length and diameter of the resistor.

ρ=R

A πd2 π (2.15 × 10−3 m) 2 =R = (240 Ω) = 9.68 × 10−2 Ω ⋅ m ≈ 97 × 10−3 Ω ⋅ m A 4A 4(9.00 × 10−3 m)

Using Table 18–1, the only material that has a resistivity in this range is germanium. 4.

V . Combine this A relationship with Eq. 18–3. We assume that ΔA A 0 , and use that fact in the third line where we drop

For the cylindrical wire, its (constant) volume is given by V = A 0 A0 = AA, so A =

the term ρ

R0 = ρ

(ΔA) 2 . V0

A0 A2 =ρ 0 A0 V0

(

A 20 + 2AΔA + ( ΔA ) (A 0 + ΔA) 2 A A2 =ρ =ρ R=ρ =ρ A V0 V0 V0 R − R0 = ΔR = 2 ρ

)=ρA

A 0 ΔA A ΔA R (ΔA) +ρ ≈ 2 ρ 0 = 2 0 ΔA → A0 V0 V0 V0

This is true for any initial conditions, so

2 0

+ 2ρ

A 0 ΔA (ΔA) 2 +ρ = R0 + ΔR V0 V0

ΔR ΔA = 2 R0 A 0

ΔA 1 ΔR = A 0 2 R0

The heater must heat 130 m3 of air per hour from 5°C to 22°C and also replace the heat being lost at a rate of 850 kcal/h. Use Eq. 14–2 to calculate the energy needed to heat the air. The density of air is found in Table 10–1.

18-24

Chapter 18

⎛ m3 ⎞ ⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ kcal ⎞ kcal Q m = cΔT = ⎜130 ⎟⎟ ⎜ 1.29 3 ⎟ ⎜ 0.17 ⎟ (17C°) = 485 ⎜ h ⎠⎝ kg ⋅ C° ⎠ h t t m ⎠⎝ ⎝ kcal kcal kcal ⎛ 4186 J ⎞ ⎛ 1 h ⎞ + 850 = 1335 Power required = 485 ⎟ = 1552 W ≈ 1550 W ⎜ ⎟⎜ h h h ⎝ kcal ⎠ ⎝ 3600 s ⎠

Q = mcΔT

(a)

→

We use Eq. 18–3. RCu ρCu A /A ρCu 1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m = = = = 0.634 RAl ρAl A /A ρAl 2.65 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m

(b)

Use Eq. 18–3 with the resistivity of copper to find the resistance. RCu = ρ

(c)

Use Eq. 18–3 with the resistivity of aluminum. RAl = ρ

(d)

A 4A 4(125 m) =ρ = (1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) = 1.01 Ω 2 A πd π (1.63 ×10−3 m)2 A 4A 4(125 m) =ρ = (2.65 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) = 1.59 Ω 2 A πd π (1.63 ×10−3 m)2

Use Eq. 18–6a to determine the power dissipated in each wire. PCu = I 2 RCu = (18 A) 2 (1.01 Ω) = 327 W ≈ 330 W PAl = I 2 RAl = (18 A) 2 (1.59 Ω) = 515 W ≈ 520 W

(e)

Set the resistances in Eq. 18–3 equal and solve for the ratio of the wire diameters. RAl = RCu d Al = dCu

(f)

ρAl

→

ρ Al ρ Cu

4A 2 π d Al

= ρCu

= 1.63 mm

4A 2 π d Cu

→

2.65 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m 1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m

= 2.05 mm

Use the density of copper to find the mass of the copper wire in part (b):

ρ Cu π d 2 A

(8.9 × 103 kg/m3 )π (1.63 ×10−3 m) 2 (125 m) = 2.32 kg 4 4 Set the mass of aluminum equal to the mass of the copper and then calculate the diameter of the aluminum wire. ρ π d 2A 4mAl 4(2.32 kg) → d= mAl = Al = = 2.96 × 10−3 m 4 ρM π A (2.70 × 103 kg/m3 )π (125 m) mCu = ρ CuV =

Using the length, diameter, and resistivity of aluminum, calculate the resistance of the aluminum wire. 4 ρ A 4(2.65 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(125 m) = 0.481 Ω RAl = Al2 = πd π (2.96 × 10−3 m) 2 In part (b) above, the copper has a resistance of 1.01 Ω. In Section 18–4 it states that an aluminum wire of the same mass and length as copper wire would have a smaller resistance. We see that this is true, with the resistance of the aluminum being about 48% of the resistance of copper.

Electric Currents

18-25

The electrons are assumed to be moving with simple harmonic motion. During one cycle, an object in simple harmonic motion will move a distance equal to twice its amplitude—it will move from its minimum position to its maximum position. From Eq. 11–7, we know that υmax = Aω , where ω is the angular frequency of oscillation and A is the amplitude. From Eq. 18–10, we see that I max = ne(Area)υmax . Finally, the maximum current can be related to the power by Eqs. 18–8 and 18–9. The charge carrier density, n, is calculated in Example 18–14. P = I rmsVrms = A=

vmax

1 I V 2 max rms

I max

ω ne(Area)

2π (60 Hz)(8.4 × 10

ω ne −3

(

2P 1πd2 4

rms

4 2 ( 650 W )

m )(1.60 × 10−19 C)π (1.7 × 10−3 m) 2 (120 V)

= 6.66 × 10−7 m

The electron will move this distance in both directions from its equilibrium point, so its maximum displacement is from one extreme to the other, which is twice the amplitude ≈ 1.3 × 10−6 m . 8.

(a)

We model the axon as a cylindrically shaped parallel plate capacitor, with opposite charges on each side. The area of the capacitor plates is the area of the walls of the cylindrical surface area. C=

K ε 0 A K ε 0 2π r A 3(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )2π (10 × 10−6 m)(0.1 m) = = d d 10−8 m

= 1.67 × 10−8 F ≈ 10−8 F

(b)

In one action, the voltage changes from –70 mV to +30 mV, or a difference of 100 mV. From the capacitance and change in voltage we calculate the change in charge during the action. Q = CV = (1.67 × 10−8 F)(0.1 V) = 1.67 ×10−9 C

Each sodium ion is singly ionized and carries a charge of 1.6 × 10−19 C. Use this to calculate the number of ions that have moved. n=

1.67 × 10−9 C Q = = 1.04 × 1010 ions q 1.6 × 10−19 C/ion

Table 18–2 gives the concentration of sodium ions inside the axon as 15 mol/m3 . Multiplying this concentration by the volume of the axon and Avogadro’s number gives the number of sodium ions in the axon. We divide the change in ions by the total number to determine the relative change during the action. 1.04 × 1010 ions n = 3.67 × 10−5 ≈ 4 × 10−5 3 N (15 mol/m )(6.02 × 1023 ions/mol)π (10 × 10−6 m) 2 (0.1 m)

The number of ions changes by about 1 per 40,000. This tiny change is not measureable.

DC CIRCUITS

Responses to Questions 1.

Even though the bird’s feet are at high potential with respect to the ground, there is very little potential difference between them, because they are close together on the wire. The resistance of the bird is much greater than the resistance of the wire between the bird’s feet. These two resistances are in parallel, so very little current will pass through the bird as it perches on the wire. However, when you put a metal ladder up against a power line, you provide a direct connection between the high potential line and ground. The ladder will have a large potential difference between its top and bottom. A person standing on the ladder will also have a large potential difference between his or her hands and feet. Even if the person’s resistance is large, the potential difference will be great enough to produce a current through the person’s body large enough to cause substantial damage or death.

Series: The main disadvantage of Christmas tree lights connected in series is that when one bulb burns out, a gap is created in the circuit and none of the bulbs remains lit. Finding the burned-out bulb requires replacing each individual bulb one at a time until the string of bulbs comes back on. As an advantage, the bulbs are slightly easier to wire in series. Only one wire needs to be attached from bulb to bulb. Also, a “blinker bulb” can make the entire string flash on and off by cutting off the current. Parallel: The main advantage of connecting the bulbs in parallel is that one burned-out bulb does not affect the rest of the strand and is easy to identify and replace. As a disadvantage, wiring the bulbs in parallel is slightly more difficult. Two wires must be attached from bulb to bulb.

If 20 of the 6-V lamps were connected in series and then connected to the 120-V line, there would be a voltage drop of 6 V for each of the lamps, and they would not burn out due to too much voltage. Being in series, if one of the bulbs went out for any reason, then they would all turn off.

If the lightbulbs are in series, then each will have the same current. The power dissipated by the bulb as heat and light is given by P = I 2 R. Thus the bulb with the higher resistance ( R2 ) will be brighter. If the bulbs are in parallel, then each will have the same voltage. The power dissipated by the bulb as heat and light is given by P = V 2 /R. Thus the bulb with the lower resistance ( R1 ) will be brighter.

The outlets are connected in parallel to each other, because you can use one outlet without using the other. If they were in series, then both outlets would have to be used at the same time to have a completed circuit. Also, both outlets supply the same voltage to whatever device is plugged in to the outlet, which indicates that they are wired in parallel to the voltage source.

19-1

19-2

Chapter 19

The power output from a resistor is given by P = V 2 /R. To maximize this value, the voltage needs to be as large as possible and the resistance as small as possible. That can be accomplished by putting the two batteries in series and then connecting the two resistors in parallel to each other, across the full two-battery voltage.

The battery has to supply less power when the two resistors are connected in series than it has to supply when only one resistor is connected. P = V 2 /R, so if V is constant and R increases, then the power decreases.

We assume that the bulbs are in parallel with each other. The overall resistance decreases and more current is drawn from the source. A bulb rated at 60 W and 120 V has a resistance of 240 Ω. A bulb rated at 100 W and 120 V has a resistance of 144 Ω. When only the 60-W bulb is on, the total resistance is 240 Ω . When both bulbs are lit, the total resistance is the combination of the two resistances in parallel, which is only 90 Ω.

The energy stored in a capacitor network can be calculated by PE = 12 CV 2 . Since the voltage for the capacitor network is the same in this problem for both configurations, the configuration with the highest equivalent capacitance will store the most energy. The parallel combination has the highest equivalent capacitance, so it stores the most energy. Another way to consider this is that the total stored energy is the sum of the quantity PE = 12 CV 2 for each capacitor. Each capacitor has the same capacitance, but in the parallel circuit, each capacitor has a larger voltage than in the series circuit. Thus the parallel circuit stores more energy.

10.

No, the sign of the battery’s emf does not depend on the direction of the current through the battery. The sign of the battery’s emf depends on the direction you go through the battery in applying the loop rule. If you go from negative pole to positive pole, then the emf is added. If you go from positive pole to negative pole, then the emf is subtracted. But the terminal voltage does depend on the direction of the current through the battery. If current is flowing through the battery in the normal orientation (leaving the positive terminal, flowing through the circuit, and arriving at the negative terminal), then there is a voltage drop across the internal resistance, and the terminal voltage is less than the emf. If the current flows in the opposite sense (as in charging the battery), then there is a voltage rise across the terminal resistance, and the terminal voltage is higher than the emf.

11.

(a) (b)

With the batteries in series, a greater voltage is delivered to the lamp, and the lamp will burn brighter. With the batteries in parallel, the voltage across the lamp is the same as for either battery alone. Each battery supplies only half of the current going through the lamp, so the batteries will last longer (and the bulb stay lit longer) as compared to just having one battery.

12.

When batteries are connected in series, their emfs add together, producing a larger potential. For instance, if there are two 1.5-V batteries in series in a flashlight, then the potential across the bulb will be 3.0 V, and there will be more current in the bulb. The batteries do not need to be identical in this case. When batteries are connected in parallel, the currents they can generate add together, producing a larger current over a longer time period. Batteries in this case need to be nearly identical, or the battery with the larger emf will end up charging the battery with the smaller emf.

13.

Yes. When a battery is being charged, current is forced through it “backward” and Vterminal = Ᏹ + Ir , so Vterminal > Ᏹ.

DC Circuits

14.

19-3

Refer to Fig. 19–2. Connect the battery to a known resistance R and measure the terminal voltage Vab . Vab . It is also true that Vab = Ᏹ − Ir , so the R Ᏹ − Vab =R . Vab

The current in the circuit is given by Ohm’s law to be I = internal resistance can be calculated by r =

Ᏹ − Vab I

15.

No. As current passes through the resistor in the RC circuit, energy is dissipated in the resistor. Therefore, the total energy supplied by the battery during the charging is the combination of the energy dissipated in the resistor and the energy stored in the capacitor.

16.

(a) (f)

17.

The following is one way to accomplish the desired task.

stays the same; (b) decreases; (g)

increases; (c) decreases; decreases; (h) increases;

(d) increases; (e) increases; (i) stays the same.

Light

In the current configuration, the light would be on. If either switch is moved, then the light will go out. But if either switch were moved again, then the light would come back on. 18.

The soles of your shoes are made of a material which has a relatively high resistance, and there is relatively high resistance flooring material between your shoes and the literal ground (the Earth). With that high resistance, a malfunctioning appliance would not be able to cause a large current flow through your body. The resistance of bare feet is much less than that of shoes, and the feet are in direct contact with the ground, so the total resistance is much lower and a larger current would flow through your body.

19.

In an analog ammeter, the internal resistor, or shunt resistor, has a small value and is in parallel with the galvanometer, so that the overall resistance of the ammeter is very small. In an analog voltmeter, the internal resistor has a large value and is in series with the galvanometer, and the overall resistance of the voltmeter is very large.

20.

If you mistakenly use an ammeter where you intend to use a voltmeter, then you are inserting a short in parallel with some resistance. That means that the resistance of the entire circuit has been lowered, and almost all of the current will flow through the low-resistance ammeter. Ammeters usually have a fairly small current limit, so the ammeter will very likely be damaged in such a scenario. Also, if the ammeter is inserted across a voltage source, then the source will provide a large current, and again the meter will almost certainly be damaged or at least disabled by burning out a fuse.

21.

An ammeter is placed in series with a given circuit element in order to measure the current through that element. If the ammeter did not have very low (ideally, zero) resistance, then its presence in the circuit would change the current it is attempting to measure by adding more resistance in series. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance and thus does not change the current it is measuring. A voltmeter is placed in parallel with a circuit element in order to measure the voltage difference across that element. If the voltmeter does not have a very high resistance, then its presence in parallel will lower the overall resistance and affect the circuit. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance so that when placed in parallel with circuit elements it will not change the value of the voltage it is reading.

19-4

Chapter 19

22.

When the voltmeter is connected to the circuit, it reduces the resistance of that part of the circuit. That will make the resistor + voltmeter combination a smaller fraction of the total resistance of the circuit than the resistor was alone, which means that it will have a smaller fraction of the total voltage drop across it.

23.

A voltmeter has a very high resistance. When it is connected to the battery, very little current will flow. A small current results in a small voltage drop due to the internal resistance of the battery, and the emf and terminal voltage (measured by the voltmeter) will be very close to the same value. However, when the battery is connected to the lower-resistance flashlight bulb, the current will be higher and the voltage drop due to the internal resistance of the battery will also be higher. As a battery is used, its internal resistance increases. Therefore, the terminal voltage will be significantly lower than the emf: Vterminal = Ᏹ − Ir. A lower terminal voltage will result in a dimmer bulb and usually indicates a “usedup” battery.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(a, c) Resistors are connected in series when there are no junctions between the resistors. With no junctions between the resistors, any current flowing through one of the resistors must also flow through the other resistor.

(d)

It might be easy to think that all three resistors are in parallel because they are on three branches of the circuit. However, following a path from the positive terminal of the battery, all of the current from the battery passes through R2 before reaching the junction at the end of that branch. The current then splits and part of the current passes through R1 while the remainder of the current passes through R3 before meeting at the right junction.

(c)

A common misconception is that the smaller resistor would have the larger current. However, the two resistors are in series, so they must have the same current flowing through them. It does not matter which resistor is first.

(a)

It might seem that current must flow through each resistor and lightbulb. However, current will only flow through the lightbulb if there is a potential difference across the bulb. If we consider the bottom branch of the circuit to be at ground, then the left end of the lightbulb will be at a potential of 10 V. The top branch will be at 20 V. Since the two resistors are identical, the voltage drop across each will be half the voltage from the top to bottom, or 10 V each. This makes the right side of the lightbulb also at 10 V. Since both sides of the lightbulb are at the same potential, no current will flow through the lightbulb.

(d)

Resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel, so each has half of the current from the battery. R3 and R4 are in series and add to produce twice as much resistance as R5 . Since they are in parallel with R5 , one-third of the current from the battery goes through them, while two-thirds goes through R5 . The greatest current therefore goes through R5 .

(d)

Current takes the path of least resistance. Since bulb A is in parallel with the short circuit, all of the current will pass through the short circuit, causing bulb A to go out.

DC Circuits

19-5

(b)

A common misconception is that adding another parallel branch would have no effect on the voltage across R4 . However, when the switch is closed, the additional parallel resistor makes the effective resistance of the parallel resistors smaller, and therefore the resistance of the entire circuit gets smaller. With a smaller effective resistance, a greater current flows through the battery and through R1 , resulting in a greater voltage drop across R1. Since the voltage from the battery is equal to the sum of the voltages across R1 and R4 , increasing the voltage across R1 results in a decrease in voltage across R4 .

(a)

As explained in the answer to Question 7, when the switch is closed, it adds an additional resistor in parallel to R3 and R4 , making the effective resistance of the entire circuit smaller. With less effective resistance, a greater current flows through the circuit, increasing the potential difference across R1.

(b)

As the capacitor charges, the voltage drop across the capacitor increases, thereby diminishing the voltage drop across the resistor. As the voltage drop across the resistor decreases, the current decreases.

10.

(c)

Even though steady current cannot flow through a capacitor, charge can build up on the capacitor, allowing current to initially flow in the circuit. As the charge builds on the capacitor, the voltage drop across the capacitor increases, and the current decreases. The rate of charging is determined by the time constant, which is the product of R and C.

11.

(b)

It might seem that a capacitor would discharge linearly in time, losing one-fourth of the charge every second. This is incorrect, as the capacitor discharges exponentially. That is, every 2.0 seconds, half of the remaining charge on the capacitor will discharge. After 2.0 seconds, half of the charge remains. After 4.0 seconds, half of the half, or one-fourth, of the charge remains. After 6.0 seconds, one-eighth of the charge remains.

12.

(a)

To double the heart rate, the time of discharging must be shorter, so the discharge rate must be faster. The resistance limits the rate at which the current can flow through the circuit. Decreasing the resistance will increase the current flow, causing the capacitor to discharge faster.

13.

(c)

In a two-prong cord, one prong is at high voltage and the other is grounded. Electricity flows through the appliance between these two wires. However, if there is a short between the highvoltage wire and the casing, then the casing can become charged and electrocute a person touching the case. The third prong connects the external case to ground, so that the case cannot become charged.

14.

(c)

Connecting capacitors in series effectively increases the plate separation distance, decreasing the net capacitance. Connecting capacitors in parallel effectively increases the plate area, increasing the net capacitance. Therefore, when capacitors are connected in series, the effective capacitance will be less than the capacitance of the smallest capacitor, and when connected in parallel, the effective capacitance will be greater than the capacitance of the largest capacitance.

15.

(b)

The ammeter is placed in series with the circuit and therefore should have a small resistance, so there is minimal voltage drop across the ammeter. The voltmeter is placed in parallel with the circuit. It should have a large resistance so that minimal current from the circuit passes through the voltmeter instead of passing through the circuit.

19-6

Chapter 19

Solutions to Problems 1.

See Fig. 19–2 for a circuit diagram for this problem. Using the same analysis as in Example 19–1, the Ᏹ . Use Eq. 19–1 to calculate the terminal voltage. current in the circuit is I = R+r R 71.0 Ω Ᏹ(R + r ) − Ᏹr ⎛ Ᏹ ⎞ =Ᏹ = (6.00 V) = 5.92 V (a) Vab = Ᏹ − Ir = Ᏹ − ⎜ ⎟r = R r R r R r (71 0 + + + . + 0.900)Ω ⎝ ⎠ (b)

Vab = Ᏹ

R 710 Ω = (6.00 V) = 5.99 V R+r (710 + 0.900)Ω

See the circuit diagram. The current in the circuit is I. The voltage Vab is given by Ohm’s law to be Vab = IR. That same voltage is the terminal voltage of the series emf.

Ᏹ

a Ᏹ

R Vab = ( Ᏹ − Ir ) + ( Ᏹ − Ir ) + ( Ᏹ − Ir ) + ( Ᏹ − Ir ) = 4( Ᏹ − Ir ) and Vab = IR 4( Ᏹ − Ir ) = IR → r =

Ᏹ − 14 IR I

(1.50 V) − 14 (0.45 A)(12.0 Ω) 0.45 A

See Fig. 19–2 for a circuit diagram for this problem. Use Eq. 19–1. Ᏹ − Vab 12.0 V − 8.8 V Vab = Ᏹ − Ir → r = = = 0.034 Ω I 95 A V 8.8 V Vab = IR → R = ab = = 0.093 Ω I 95 A

The equivalent resistance is the sum of the two resistances: Req = R1 + R2 . The current in the circuit is then the voltage divided by the equivalent resistance: I =

Ᏹ Ᏹ = . The Req R1 + R2

= 0.333 Ω ≈ 0.33 Ω

voltage across the 1800-Ω resistor is given by Ohm’s law. R2 Ᏹ 1800 Ω V2200 = IR2 = R2 = Ᏹ = (12 V) = 8.8 V R1 + R2 R1 + R2 650 Ω + 1800 Ω 5.

Ᏹ

(a)

For the resistors in series, use Eq. 19–3, which says the resistances add linearly. Req = 3(45 Ω) + 3(65 Ω) = 330 Ω

(b)

For the resistors in parallel, use Eq. 19–4, which says the resistances add reciprocally. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3(65 Ω) + 3(45 Ω) = + + + + + = + = Req 45 Ω 45 Ω 45 Ω 65 Ω 65 Ω 65 Ω 45 Ω 65 Ω (65 Ω)(45 Ω) Req =

→

(65 Ω)(45 Ω) = 8.9 Ω 3(65 Ω) + 3(45 Ω)

DC Circuits

(a)

19-7

The maximum resistance is made by combining the resistors in series. Req = R1 + R2 + R3 = 580 Ω + 790 Ω + 1200 Ω = 2.57 kΩ

(b)

The minimum resistance is made by combining the resistors in parallel. 1 1 1 1 = + + Req R1 R2 R3

→

⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ Req = ⎜ + + ⎟ R R R 2 3⎠ ⎝ 1

⎛ 1 1 1 1 1 ⎞ =⎜ + + + + ⎟ ⎝ R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 ⎠

= 260 Ω

−1

⎛ 5 ⎞ =⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 100 Ω ⎠

−1

= 20 Ω = n(10 Ω) → n =

20 Ω = 2 10 Ω

Ᏹ

R1 = 40 Ω

R2 = 10 Ω a

Ᏹ Ᏹ (40) = 0.8%, and the voltage across R2 would be V2 = IR2 = (10) = 0.2%. 50 50

Connecting 18 of the resistors in series will enable you to make a voltage divider with a 3.5-V output. To get the desired output, measure the voltage across 7 consecutive series resistors. In the diagram that would be the voltage between points a and b. Ᏹ Ᏹ Req = 18(1.0 Ω) I = = Req 18.0 Ω Vab = (7.0 Ω) I = (7.0 Ω)

10.

−1

The ratio R1 /R2 must be 4/1. Since both resistors have the same current, the voltage drop across R1 (4/5 of the battery voltage) will be 4 times that across R2 (1/5 of the battery voltage). So if R1 = 40 Ω and R2 = 10 Ω, then the current would be Ᏹ/50. The voltage across R1 would be found from Ohm’s law to be V1 = IR1 =

⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ =⎜ + + ⎟ 580 790 1200 Ω Ω Ω⎠ ⎝

The equivalent resistance of five 100-Ω resistors in parallel is found, and then that resistance is divided by 10 Ω to find the number of 10-Ω resistors needed. Req

−1

Ᏹ

11.0 Ω

7.0 Ω b

Ᏹ 9.0 V = (7.0 Ω) = 3.5 V 18.0 Ω 18.0 Ω

The resistors can all be connected in series. Req = R + R + R = 3(1.70 kΩ) = 5.10 kΩ

The resistors can all be connected in parallel. 1 1 1 1 = + + Req R R R

⎛3⎞ → Req = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝R⎠

−1

R 1.70 kΩ = = 567 Ω 3 3

Two resistors in series can be placed in parallel with the third. 1 1 1 1 1 3 = + = + = Req R R + R R 2 R 2 R

→ Req =

2 R 2(1.70 kΩ) = = 1.13 kΩ 3 3

19-8

Chapter 19

Two resistors in parallel can be placed in series with the third. ⎛1 1⎞ Req = R + ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝R R⎠

11.

−1

= R+

R 3 = (1.70 kΩ) = 2.55 kΩ 2 2

The resistance of each bulb can be found from its power rating. V2 R

→ R=

V 2 (12.0 V) 2 = = 36 Ω 4.0 W P

Ᏹ

Find the equivalent resistance of the two bulbs in parallel. 1 1 1 2 = + = Req R R R

→ Req =

R 36 Ω = = 18 Ω 2 2

The terminal voltage is the voltage across this equivalent resistance. Use that to find the current drawn from the battery. Vab = IReq

→ I=

Vab Vab 2Vab = = Req R /2 R

Finally, use the terminal voltage and the current to find the internal resistance, as in Eq. 19–1. Vab = Ᏹ − Ir

12.

(a)

→ r=

Ᏹ − Vab Ᏹ − Vab Ᏹ − Vab 12.0 V − 11.8 V = =R = (36 Ω) = 0.305 Ω ≈ 0.3 Ω 2 V 2Vab 2(11.8 V) I ⎛ ab ⎞ ⎜ R ⎟ ⎝ ⎠

Each bulb should get one-eighth of the total voltage, but let us prove that instead of assuming it. Since the bulbs are identical, the net resistance is Req = 8 R. The current flowing through the bulbs is then Vtot = IReq

→ I=

Vtot Vtot = . The voltage across one bulb is found from Ohm’s Req 8 R

law. V = IR =

(b)

Vtot 8R

Vtot V 120 V R = tot = = 15 V 8R 8 8

→ R=

Vtot 120 V = = 33.33 Ω ≈ 33 Ω 8I 8(0.45 A)

P = I 2 R = (0.45 A) 2 (33.33 Ω) = 6.75 W ≈ 6.8 W

13.

We model the resistance of the long leads as a single resistor r. Since the bulbs are in parallel, the total current is the sum of the current in each bulb, so I = 8I R . The voltage drop across the long leads is Vleads = Ir = 8I R r = 8(0.21 A)(1.4 Ω) = 2.352 V. Thus the voltage across each of the parallel resistors is VR = Vtot − Vleads = 120 V − 2.352 V = 117.6 V. Since we have the current through each resistor, and the voltage across each resistor, we calculate the resistance using Ohm’s law. VR = I R R → R =

VR 117.6 V = = 560 Ω IR 0.21 A

The total power delivered is P = Vtot I , and the “wasted” power is I 2 r. The fraction wasted is the ratio of those powers.

DC Circuits

fraction wasted =

19-9

I 2r Ir 8(0.21 A)(1.4 Ω) = = = 0.0196 ≈ 0.020 120 V IVtot Vtot

So about 2% of the power is wasted. 14.

To fix this circuit, connect another resistor in parallel with the 480-Ω resistor so that the equivalent resistance is the desired 350 Ω. ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ → R2 = ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ Req R1 ⎟ ⎝ ⎠

1 1 1 = + Req R1 R2

−1

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ =⎜ − ⎟ ⎝ 350 Ω 480 Ω ⎠

−1

= 1292 Ω ≈ 1300 Ω

So solder a 1300-Ω resistor in parallel with the 480-Ω resistor. 15.

Vtot . That could be proven using a 8 similar argument to that used in Problem 12. Use that voltage and the power dissipated by each bulb to calculate the resistance of a bulb.

Each bulb will get one-eighth of the total voltage, so Vbulb =

Pbulb =

16.

(a)

2 Vbulb R

→ R=

2 Vbulb V2 (120 V) 2 = tot = = 32 Ω P 64 P 64(7.0 W)

The equivalent resistance is found by combining the 750-Ω and 680-Ω resistors in parallel and then adding the 990-Ω resistor in series with that parallel combination. ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ Req = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ 750 Ω 680 Ω ⎠

(b)

−1

+ 990 Ω = 357 Ω + 990 Ω = 1347 Ω ≈ 1350 Ω

The current delivered by the battery is I =

V 12.0 V = = 8.909 × 10−3 A. This is the current in Req 1347 Ω

the 990-Ω resistor. The voltage across that resistor can be found by Ohm’s law. V990 = IR = (8.909 × 10−3 A)(990 Ω) = 8.820 V ≈ 8.8 V

Thus the voltage across the parallel combination must be 12.0 V − 8.8 V = 3.2 V . This is the voltage across both the 750-Ω and 680-Ω resistors, since parallel resistors have the same voltage across them. Note that this voltage value could also be found as follows. Vparallel = IRparallel = (8.909 × 10−3 A)(357 Ω) = 3.181 V ≈ 3.2 V

(c)

The current in the 990-Ω resistor was already seen to be 8.91 mA. The other currents can be found from Ohm’s law. I 750 =

V750 3.18 V = ≈ 4.2 mA ; R750 470 Ω

I 680 =

V750 3.18 V = ≈ 4.7 mA R680 680 Ω

Note that these last two currents add to be the current in the 990-Ω resistor. 17.

The resistance of each bulb can be found by using Eq. 18–6, P = V 2 /R. The two individual resistances are combined in parallel. We label the bulbs by their wattage. P = V 2 /R →

1 P = 2 R V

19-10

Chapter 19

Req

18.

(a)

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ =⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ R75 R25 ⎠

−1

⎛ 75 W 25 W =⎜ + ⎜ (120 V) 2 (120 V) 2 ⎝

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

−1

= 144 Ω ≈ 140 Ω

The three resistors on the far right are in series, so their equivalent resistance is 3R. That combination is in parallel with the next resistor to the left, as shown in the dashed box in figure (b). The equivalent resistance of the dashed box is found as follows. ⎛1 1 ⎞ Req1 = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ R 3R ⎠

−1

= 34 R

This equivalent resistance of

3 4

R is in series with the next two

resistors, as shown in the dashed box in figure (c). The equivalent R. This resistance of that dashed box is Req2 = 2 R + 34 R = 11 4 11 R 4

is in parallel with the next resistor to the left, as shown in

figure (d). The equivalent resistance of that dashed box is found as follows. 4 ⎞ ⎛1 Req2 = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ R 11R ⎠

−1

11 R = 15

This is in series with the last two resistors, the ones connected directly to A and B. The final equivalent resistance is then 11 R = 41 R = 41 (175 Ω) = 478.33 Ω ≈ 478 Ω Req = 2 R + 15 15 15

(b)

The current flowing from the battery is found from Ohm’s law. V 50.0 V = = 0.10453 A ≈ 0.105 A Req 478.33 Ω

I total =

This is the current in the top and bottom resistors. There will be less current in the next resistor because the current splits, with some current passing through the resistor in question, and the rest of the current passing through the equivalent resistance of 11 R, as shown in figure (d). The 4 voltage across R and across

11 R 4

must be the same, since they are in parallel. Use this to find the

desired current. VR = V11 R 4

→ I R R = I 11 R 4

( 114 R ) = (I total − I R ) ( 114 R )

→

11 I 11 I R = 15 total = 15 (0.10453 A)I total = 0.0767 A

19.

The resistors have been numbered in the accompanying diagram to help in the analysis. R1 and R2 are in series with an equivalent resistance of R12 = R + R = 2 R. This combination is in parallel with R3 , with an equivalent −1

⎛1 1 ⎞ 2 resistance of R123 = ⎜ + ⎟ = 3 R. This combination is in series with R4 , ⎝ R 2R ⎠ with an equivalent resistance of R1234 = 32 R + R = 53 R. This combination is in ⎛1 3 ⎞ parallel with R5 , with an equivalent resistance of R12345 = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ R 5R ⎠

−1

= 85 R.

R2 R1 A

R3 R5

R4 C

DC Circuits

19-11

Finally, this combination is in series with R6 , and we calculate the final equivalent resistance. Req = 85 R + R =

13 R 8

A more detailed solution with more circuit diagrams is given in Problem 20. 20.

We reduce the circuit to a single loop by combining series and parallel combinations. We label a combined resistance with the subscripts of the resistors used in the combination. See the successive diagrams. The initial diagram has been rotated by 90 degrees. R1 and R2 are in series.

R2 R1 A

R4 C

R12 R3 A

R4 C

R12 = R1 + R2 = R + R = 2 R

R123

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ =⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ R12 R3 ⎠

−1

Ᏹ

R12 and R3 are in parallel.

⎛ 1 1⎞ =⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ 2R R ⎠

−1

B = 23 R

R123 A

R123 and R4 are in series. R1234 = R123 + R4 = 23 R + R = 53 R R1234 and R5 are in parallel.

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ + R12345 = ⎜ ⎟ R R 5⎠ ⎝ 1234

−1

⎛ 1 1⎞ =⎜5 + ⎟ ⎜ R R⎟ ⎝3 ⎠

Req = R12345 + R6 = R + R =

13 8

= 85 R

R12345

R6 Ᏹ

Ᏹ

−1

R12345 and R6 are in series, producing the equivalent resistance. 5 8

R1234

Req

Ᏹ

Now work “backward” from the simplified circuit. Resistors in series have the same current as their equivalent resistance, and resistors in parallel have the same voltage as their equivalent resistance. To avoid rounding errors, we do not use numeric values until the end of the problem. I eq =

Ᏹ Ᏹ 8Ᏹ = = = I 6 = I12345 Req 13 13 R R 8

⎛ 8Ᏹ ⎞ 5 5 V5 = V1234 = V12345 = I12345 R12345 = ⎜ ⎟ ( R) = 13 Ᏹ; ⎝ 13R ⎠ 8 I1234 =

I3 =

V1234 = R1234

5 Ᏹ 13 5R 3

V3 2Ᏹ = = I3 ; R3 13R

3Ᏹ = I 4 = I123 ; 13R I12 =

I5 =

5 V5 13 Ᏹ 5Ᏹ = = = I5 R5 R 13R

⎛ 3Ᏹ ⎞ 2 2 V123 = I123 R123 = ⎜ ⎟ ( R) = 13 Ᏹ = V12 = V3 ⎝ 13R ⎠ 3

V12 13 Ᏹ Ᏹ = = = I1 = I 2 R12 2R 13R

19-12

Chapter 19

Now substitute in numerical values. I1 = I 2 = I5 =

21.

Ᏹ 12.0 V 2Ᏹ 3Ᏹ = = 0.284 mA ; I3 = = 0.568 mA ; I 4 = = 0.852 mA ; 13R 13(3250 Ω) 13R 13R

5Ᏹ 8Ᏹ 2 Ᏹ = 1.85 V = 1.42 mA ; I 6 = = 2.27 mA ; VAB = V3 = 13 13R 13R

It is given that the power used when the resistors are in series is one-fourth the power used when the resistors are in parallel. The voltage is the same in both cases. Use Eq. 18–6b, along with the definitions of series and parallel equivalent resistance. Pseries = 14 Pparallel

→

V2 = Rseries

( R1 + R2 ) 2 = 4 R1 R2

1 4

V2 Rparallel

→ Rseries = 4 Rparallel

→ ( R1 + R2 ) = 4

→ R12 + 2 R1 R2 + R22 − 4 R1 R2 = 0 = ( R1 − R2 ) 2

R1 R2 ( R1 + R2 )

→

→ R1 = R2

Thus the two resistors must be the same, so the “other” resistor is 4.8 kΩ . 22.

We label identical resistors from left to right as Rleft , Rmiddle , and Rright . When the switch is opened, the equivalent resistance of the circuit increases from the battery decreases, from (a)

3 2

R + r to 2 R + r. Thus the current delivered by

Ᏹ Ᏹ to . Note that this is LESS than a 50% decrease. 2R + r R+r

Because the current from the battery has decreased, the voltage drop across Rleft will decrease, since it will have less current than before. The voltage drop across Rright decreases to 0, since no current is flowing in it. The voltage drop across Rmiddle will increase, because even though the total current has decreased, the current flowing through Rmiddle has increased since before the switch was opened, only half the total current was flowing through Rmiddle . Vleft decreases; Vmiddle increases; Vright goes to 0

(b)

By Ohm’s law, the current is proportional to the voltage for a fixed resistance. I left decreases; I middle increases; I right goes to 0

(c)

Since the current from the battery has decreased, the voltage drop across r will decrease, and thus the terminal voltage increases.

(d)

With the switch closed, the equivalent resistance is I closed =

3 2

R + r. Thus the current in the circuit is

Ᏹ , and the terminal voltage is given by Eq. 19–1. R+r

Vterminal = Ᏹ − I closed r = Ᏹ − closed

3 2

⎛ ⎛ ⎞ Ᏹ r ⎞ 0.50 Ω r = Ᏹ ⎜1 − 3 ⎟ = (9.0 V) ⎜ 1 − 3 ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ R+r R + r ⎟⎠ (5.50 Ω) + 0.50 Ω ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 2 2

= 8.486 V ≈ 8.5 V

DC Circuits

(e)

19-13

With the switch open, the equivalent resistance is 2 R + r. Thus the current in the circuit is Ᏹ I closed = , and again the terminal voltage is given by Eq. 19–1. 2R + r Vterminal = Ᏹ − I closed r = Ᏹ − closed

⎛ ⎞ Ᏹ r ⎞ 0.50 Ω ⎛ r = Ᏹ ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎟ = (9.0 V) ⎜ 1 − + . Ω + . Ω 2R + r 2 R r 2(5 50 ) 0 50 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

= 8.609 V ≈ 8.6 V

23.

Find the maximum current and resulting voltage for each resistor under the power restriction. P = I 2R = I1400 = I 2500 = I 3700 =

V2 R

→ I=

0.5 W 1.4 × 103 Ω 0.5 W 2.5 × 103 Ω 0.5 W 3.7 × 103 Ω

P , V = RP R

= 0.0189 A V1800 = (0.5 W)(1.4 × 103 Ω) = 26.5 V = 0.0141 A V2500 = (0.5 W)(2.8 × 103 Ω) = 35.4 V = 0.0116 A V3700 = (0.5 W)(3.7 × 103 Ω) = 43.0 V

The parallel resistors have to have the same voltage, so the voltage across that combination is limited to 35.4 V. That would require a current given by Ohm’s law and the parallel combination of the two resistors. I parallel =

Vparallel Rparallel

⎛ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎞ = Vparallel ⎜ + + ⎟ = (35.4 V) ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0237 A ⎝ 2500 Ω 3700 Ω ⎠ ⎝ R2500 R3700 ⎠

This is more than the maximum current that can be in R1400 . Thus the maximum current that R1400 can carry, 0.0189 A, is the maximum current for the circuit. The maximum voltage that can be applied across the combination is the maximum current times the equivalent resistance. The equivalent resistance is the parallel combination of R2500 and R3700 added to R1400 . Vmax

−1 −1 ⎡ ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎤ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎥ ⎢ = I max Req = I max ⎢ R1800 ⎜ + = . Ω + (0 0189 A) 1400 ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎥ R2800 R3700 ⎠ ⎥ 2500 Ω 3700 Ω ⎠ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎝ ⎝ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

= 54.66 V ≈ 55 V

24.

(a)

Note that adding resistors in series always results in a larger resistance, and adding resistors in parallel always results in a smaller resistance. Closing the switch adds another resistor in parallel with R3 and R4 , which lowers the net resistance of the parallel portion of the circuit and thus lowers the equivalent resistance of the circuit. That means that more current will be delivered by the battery. Since R1 is in series with the battery, its voltage will increase. Because of that increase, the voltage across R3 and R4 must decrease so that the total voltage drops around the loop are equal to the battery voltage. Since there was no voltage across R2 until the switch was closed, its voltage will increase. To summarize: V1 and V2 increase; V3 and V4 decrease

19-14

Chapter 19

(b)

By Ohm’s law, the current is proportional to the voltage for a fixed resistance. Thus I1 and I 2 increase; I 3 and I 4 decrease

(c)

Since the battery voltage does not change and the current delivered by the battery increases, the power delivered by the battery, found by multiplying the voltage of the battery by the current delivered, increases .

(d)

Before the switch is closed, the equivalent resistance is R3 and R4 in parallel, combined with R1 in series. ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ + Req = R1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ R3 R4 ⎠

−1

⎛ 2 ⎞ = 155 Ω + ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 155 Ω ⎠

−1

= 232.5 Ω

The current delivered by the battery is the same as the current through R1. I total =

Vbattery Req

22.0 V = 0.09462 A = I1 232.5 Ω

The voltage across R1 is found by Ohm’s law. V1 = IR1 = (0.09462 A)(155 Ω) = 14.666 V

The voltage across the parallel resistors is the battery voltage less the voltage across R1. Vp = Vbattery − V1 = 22.0 V − 14.666 V = 7.334 V

The current through each of the parallel resistors is found from Ohm’s law. I3 =

Vp R2

7.334 V = 0.04732 A = I 4 155 Ω

Notice that the current through each of the parallel resistors is half of the total current, within the limits of significant figures. The currents before closing the switch are as follows. I1 = 0.0946 A

I 3 = I 4 = 0.0473 A

After the switch is closed, the equivalent resistance is R2 , R3 , and R4 in parallel, combined with R1 in series. Do a similar analysis. Req

⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ = R1 + ⎜ + + ⎟ R R R 3 4⎠ ⎝ 2

I total =

Vbattery Req

−1

⎛ 3 ⎞ = 155 Ω + ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 155 Ω ⎠

−1

= 206.7 Ω

22.0 V = 0.1064 A = I1 V1 = IR1 = (0.1064 A)(155 Ω) = 16.49 V 206.7 Ω

Vp = Vbattery − V1 = 22.0 V − 16.49 V = 5.51 V I 2 =

Vp R2

5.51 V = 0.0355 A = I 3 = I 4 155 Ω

Notice that the current through each of the parallel resistors is one-third of the total current, within the limits of significant figures. The currents after closing the switch are as follows. I1 = 0.106 A

I 2 = I3 = I 4 = 0.0355 A

Yes, the predictions made in part (b) are all confirmed.

DC Circuits

25.

19-15

All of the resistors are in series, so the equivalent resistance is just the sum of the resistors. Use Ohm’s law to find the current, and show all voltage changes starting at the negative pole of the battery and going counterclockwise. I=

Ᏹ 9.0 V = = 0.3529 A ≈ 0.35 A Req (9.5 + 14.0 + 2.0)Ω

∑ voltages = 9.0 V − (9.5 Ω)(0.3529 A) − (14.0 Ω)(0.3529 A) − (2.0 Ω)(0.3529 A) = 9.0 V − 3.35 V − 4.94 V − 0.71 V = 0

26.

Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the circuit, starting at the upper left corner of the circuit diagram, in order to calculate the current. Assume that the current is flowing clockwise. − I (2.0 Ω) + 18 V − I (4.8 Ω) − 12 V − I (1.0 Ω) = 0 → I =

6V = 0.769 A 7.8 Ω

The terminal voltage for each battery is found by summing the potential differences across the internal resistance and emf from left to right. Note that for the 12-V battery, there is a voltage gain going across the internal resistance from left to right. 18-V battery: Vterminal = − I (2.0 Ω) + 18 V = −(0.769 A)(2.0 Ω) + 18 V = 16.46 V ≈ 16 V 12-V battery: Vterminal = I (1.0 Ω) + 12 V = (0.769 A)(1.0 Ω) + 12 V = 12.769 V ≈ 13 V

27.

To find the potential difference between points a and b, the current must be found from Kirchhoff’s loop law. Start at point a and go counterclockwise around the entire circuit, taking the current to be counterclockwise. − IR + Ᏹ − IR − IR + Ᏹ − IR = 0 → I =

Ᏹ 2R

Vab = Va − Vb = − IR + Ᏹ − IR = Ᏹ − 2 IR = Ᏹ − 2

Ᏹ R= 0 2R

Notice that the actual values for the battery voltages and the resistances were not used. 28.

(a)

There are three currents involved, so there must be three independent equations to determine those three currents. One comes from Kirchhoff’s junction rule applied to the junction of the three branches on the right of the circuit. I 2 = I1 + I 3

Ᏹ1

→ I1 = I 2 − I 3

Another equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to the top loop, starting at the negative terminal of the battery and progressing clockwise. Ᏹ1 − I1 R1 − I 2 R2 = 0 → 9 = 25I1 + 68I 2

The final equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to the bottom loop, starting at the negative terminal of the battery and progressing counterclockwise.

R2 I2 R3

Ᏹ2 I3

Ᏹ 2 − I 3 R3 − I 2 R2 = 0 → 12 = 35I 3 + 68I 2

Substitute I1 = I 2 − I 3 into the top loop equation, so that there are two equations with two unknowns. 9 = 25 I1 + 68 I 2 = 25( I 2 − I 3 ) + 68 I 2 = 93I 2 − 25 I 3 ; 12 = 35 I 3 + 68I 2

19-16

Chapter 19

Solve the bottom loop equation for I 2 and substitute into the top loop equation, resulting in an equation with only one unknown, which can be solved. 12 = 35 I 3 + 68 I 2

→ I2 =

12 − 35 I 3 68

⎛ 12 − 35I 3 ⎞ 9 = 93I 2 − 25 I 3 = 93 ⎜ − 25I 3 68 ⎟⎠ ⎝ I3 =

→ 612 = 1116 − 3255I 3 − 1700 I 3

→

12 − 35I 3 504 = 0.1017 A ≈ 0.10 A, up ; I 2 = = 0.1241 A ≈ 0.12 A, left 4955 68

I1 = I 2 − I 3 = 0.0224 A ≈ 0.02 A, right

(b)

We can include the internal resistances simply by adding 1.0 Ω to R1 and R3 . So let R1 = 26 Ω and let R3 = 36 Ω. Now re-work the problem exactly as in part (a). I 2 = I1 + I 3

→ I1 = I 2 − I 3

Ᏹ1 − I1 R1 − I 2 R2 = 0 → 9 = 26 I1 + 68 I 2 Ᏹ 2 − I 3 R3 − I 2 R2 = 0 → 12 = 36 I 3 + 68 I 2 9 = 26 I1 + 68 I 2 = 26( I 2 − I 3 ) + 68I 2 = 94 I 2 − 26 I 3 ; 12 = 36 I 3 + 68I 2

12 = 36 I 3 + 68I 2

→ I2 =

12 − 36 I 3 3 − 9 I 3 = 68 17

⎛ 3 − 9 I3 ⎞ 9 = 94 I 2 − 26 I 3 = 94 ⎜ ⎟ − 26 I 3 → 153 = 282 − 846 I 3 − 442 I 3 → ⎝ 17 ⎠ 3 − 12 I 3 129 I3 = = 0.1002 A ≈ 0.10 A, up ; I 2 = = 0.1234 A ≈ 0.12 A, left 1288 17 I1 = I 2 − I 3 = 0.0232 A ≈ 0.02 A, right

The currents are unchanged to the nearest 0.01 A by the inclusion of the internal resistances. 29.

This circuit is identical to Example 19–8 and Fig. 19–13 except for the numeric values. So we may copy the equations developed in that Example but use the current values. Eq. (i): I 3 = I1 + I 2

Eq. (ii): −34 I1 + 45 − 48I 3 = 0

Eq. (iii): −34 I1 + 19 I 2 − 85 = 0

Eq. (iv): I 2 =

85 + 34 I1 = 4.474 + 1.789 I1 19

45 − 34 I1 = 0.938 − 0.708 I1 48 I 3 = I1 + I 2 → 0.938 − 0.708 I1 = I1 + 4.474 + 1.789 I1 → I1 = −1.011 A

Eq. (v): I 3 =

I 2 = 4.474 + 1.789 I1 = 2.665 A; I 3 = 0.938 − 0.708 I1 = 1.654 A

(a)

To find the potential difference between points a and d, start at point a and add each individual potential difference until reaching point d. The simplest way to do this is along the top branch. Vad = Vd − Va = − I1 (34 Ω) = −(−1.011 A)(34 Ω) = 34.37 V ≈ 34 V Slight differences might be obtained in the final answer depending on the branch used, due to rounding. For example, using the bottom branch, we get the following. Vad = Vd − Va = Ᏹ1 − I 2 (19 Ω) = 85 V − (2.665 A)(19 Ω) = 34.365 V ≈ 34 V

DC Circuits

(b)

19-17

For the 85-V battery, the terminal voltage is the potential difference from point g to point e. For the 45-V battery, the terminal voltage is the potential difference from point d to point b. 85 = V battery: Vterminal = Ᏹ1 − I 2 r = 85 V − (2.665 A)(1.0 Ω) = 82 V 45 = V battery: Vterminal = Ᏹ 2 − I 3 r = 45 V − (1.654 A)(1.0 Ω) = 43 V

30.

58V 120Ω

I1 = I 2 + I 3

25Ω

74Ω

3.0V

I2 56Ω

110Ω

Another equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to the left loop, starting at the negative terminal of the battery and progressing counterclockwise. 58 V − I1 (120 Ω) − I1 (74 Ω) − I 2 (56 Ω) = 0 → 58 = 194 I1 + 56 I 2

The final equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to the right loop, starting at the negative terminal of the battery and progressing counterclockwise. 3.0 V − I 3 (25 Ω) + I 2 (56 Ω) − I 3 (110 Ω) = 0 → 3 = −56 I 2 + 135I 3

Substitute I1 = I 2 + I 3 into the left loop equation, so that there are two equations with two unknowns. 58 = 194( I 2 + I 3 ) + 56 I 2 = 250 I 2 + 194 I 3

Solve the right loop equation for I 2 and substitute into the left loop equation, resulting in an equation with only one unknown, which can be solved. 3 = −56 I 2 + 135 I 3

→ I2 =

135 I 3 − 3 ⎛ 135 I 3 − 3 ⎞ ; 58 = 250 I 2 + 194 I 3 = 250 ⎜ ⎟ + 194 I 3 56 ⎝ 56 ⎠

→

3998 = 44614 I 3 I 3 = 0.08961 A;

I2 =

135 I3 − 3 = 0.1625 A; I1 = I 2 + I 3 = 0.2521 A 56

The current in each resistor is as follows: 120 Ω: 0.25 A 31.

74 Ω: 0.25 A

56 Ω: 0.16 A

25 Ω: 0.090 A

110 Ω: 0.090 A

Because there are no resistors in the bottom branch, it is possible to write Kirchhoff loop equations that only have one current term, making them easier to solve. To find the current through R1 , go around the outer loop counterclockwise, starting at the lower left corner. V3 − I1 R1 + V1 = 0 → I1 =

V3 + V1 6.0 V + 9.0 V = = 0.68 A, left R1 22 Ω

19-18

Chapter 19

To find the current through R2 , go around the lower loop counterclockwise, starting at the lower left corner. V3 − I 2 R2 = 0 → I 2 =

32.

V3 6.0 V = = 0.33 A, left R2 18 Ω

1.4Ω

22Ω

I2 I3

Another equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to the outer loop, starting at the lower left corner and progressing counterclockwise.

9.0V

18Ω 6.0V

1.4Ω

− I 3 (1.4 Ω) + 6.0 V − I1 (22 Ω) − I1 (1.4 Ω) + 9.0 V = 0 → 15 = 23.4 I1 + 1.4 I 3 The final equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to the bottom loop, starting at the lower left corner and progressing counterclockwise. − I 3 (1.4 Ω) + 6.0 V + I 2 (18 Ω) = 0 → 6 = −18 I 2 + 1.4 I 3

Substitute I1 = I 2 + I 3 into the top loop equation, so that there are two equations with two unknowns. 15 = 23.4 I1 + 1.4 I 3 = 23.4( I 2 + I 3 ) + 1.4 I 3 = 23.4 I 2 + 24.8 I 3 ; 6 = −18I 2 + 1.4 I 3

Solve the bottom loop equation for I 2 and substitute into the top loop equation, resulting in an equation with only one unknown, which can be solved. −6 + 1.4 I 3 18 ⎛ −6 + 1.4 I 3 ⎞ 15 = 23.4 I 2 + 24.8I 3 = 23.4 ⎜ ⎟ + 24.8 I 3 → 270 = −140.4 + 32.76 I 3 + 446.4 I 3 → 18 ⎝ ⎠ 6 = −18I 2 + 1.4 I 3 → I 2 =

−6 + 1.4 I 3 −6 + 1.4(0.8565) 410.4 = 0.8565 A ; I 2 = = = −0.2667 A ≈ 0.27 A, left 479.16 18 18 I1 = I 2 + I 3 = 0.5898 A ≈ 0.59 A, left I3 =

33.

(a)

We label each of the currents as shown in the accompanying figure. Using Kirchhoff’s junction rule and the first three junctions (a–c), we write equations relating the entering and exiting currents. I = I1 + I 2

[1]

I 2 = I3 + I 4

[2]

I1 + I 4 = I5

[3]

DC Circuits

19-19

We use Kirchhoff’s loop rule to write equations for loops abca, abcda, and bdcb. 0 = − I 2 R − I 4 R + I1 R

[4]

0 = − I 2 R − I3 R + Ᏹ

[5]

0 = − I3 R + I5 R + I 4 R

[6]

We have six unknown currents and six equations. We solve these equations by substitution. First, insert Eq. [3] into [6] to eliminate current I5 . Next insert Eq. [2] into Eqs. [1], [4], and [5] to eliminate I 2 . 0 = − I 3 R + ( I1 + I 4 ) R + I 4 R → 0 = − I 3 R + I1 R + 2 I 4 R

[6′]

I = I1 + I 3 + I 4

[1′]

0 = −( I 3 + I 4 ) R − I 4 R + I1 R → 0 = − I 3 R − 2 I 4 R + I1 R

[4′]

0 = −( I 3 + I 4 ) R − I 3 R + Ᏹ → 0 = − I 4 R − 2 I 3 R + Ᏹ

[5′]

Next we solve Eq. [4′] for I 4 and insert the result into Eqs. [1′], [5′], and [6′]. 0 = − I 3 R − 2 I 4 R + I1 R → I 4 = 12 I1 − 12 I 3 I = I1 + I 3 + 12 I1 − 12 I 3

→ I = 32 I1 + 12 I 3

[1″]

0 = − I 3 R + I1 R + 2( 12 I1 − 12 I 3 ) R = −2 I 3 R + 2 I1R → I1 − I 3

[6″]

0 = −( 12 I1 − 12 I 3 ) R − 2 I 3 R + Ᏹ → 0 = − 12 I1 R − 32 I 3 R + Ᏹ

[5″]

Finally we substitute Eq. [6″] into Eq. [5″] and solve for I1. We insert this result into Eq. [1″] to write an equation for the current through the battery in terms of the battery emf and resistance. 0 = − 12 I1 R − 32 I1 R + Ᏹ → I1 =

(b)

(a)

→ I=

Ᏹ R

We divide the battery emf by the current to determine the effective resistance. Req =

34.

Ᏹ ; I = 32 I1 + 12 I1 = 2 I1 2R

Ᏹ Ᏹ = = R I Ᏹ/R

Since there are three currents to determine, there must be three independent equations to determine those three currents. One comes from Kirchhoff’s junction rule applied to the junction near the negative terminal of the middle battery. I1 = I 2 + I 3

Another equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to the top loop, starting at the negative terminal of the middle battery and progressing counterclockwise. We add series resistances. 12.0 V − I 2 (12 Ω) + 12.0 V − I1 (35 Ω) = 0 → 24 = 35 I1 + 12 I 2

The final equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to the bottom loop, starting at the negative terminal of the middle battery and progressing clockwise. 12.0 V − I 2 (12 Ω) − 6.0 V + I 3 (28 Ω) = 0 → 6 = 12 I 2 − 28I 3

19-20

Chapter 19

Substitute I1 = I 2 + I 3 into the top loop equation, so that there are two equations with two unknowns. 24 = 35 I1 + 12 I 2 = 35( I 2 + I 3 ) + 12 I 2 = 47 I 2 + 35 I 3

Solve the bottom loop equation for I 2 and substitute into the top loop equation, resulting in an equation with only one unknown, which can be solved for I 3 . 6 + 28 I 3 3 + 14 I 3 ⎛ 3 + 14 I 3 ⎞ ; 24 = 47 I 2 + 35I 3 = 47 ⎜ = + 35 I 3 12 6 6 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 6 + 28I 3 I 3 = 3.46 mA ; I 2 = = 0.508 A ; I1 = I 2 + I3 = 0.511 A 12

6 = 12 I 2 − 28I 3

(b)

→ I2 =

→

The terminal voltage of the 6.0-V battery is 6.0 V − I 3 r = 6.0 V − (3.46 × 10−3 A)(1.0 Ω) = 5.997 V ≈ 6.0 V .

35.

This problem is the same as Problem 34, except the total resistance in the top branch is now 23 Ω instead of 35 Ω. We simply reproduce the adjusted equations here without the prose. I1 = I 2 + I 3 12.0 V − I 2 (12 Ω) + 12.0 V − I1 (23 Ω) = 0 → 24 = 23I1 + 12 I 2 12.0 V − I 2 (12 Ω) − 6.0 V + I 3 (28 Ω) = 0 → 6 = 12 I 2 − 28 I 3 24 = 23I1 + 12 I 2 = 23( I 2 + I 3 ) + 12 I 2 = 35 I 2 + 23I3 6 = 12 I 2 − 28 I 3

→ I2 =

6 + 28I 3 3 + 14 I 3 ⎛ 3 + 14 I 3 ⎞ ; 24 = 35I 2 + 23I 3 = 35 ⎜ = + 23I 3 12 6 6 ⎟⎠ ⎝

→

39 = 628 I 3 I 3 = 0.0621 A; I 2 =

36.

6 + 28 I 3 = 0.6449 A; I1 = I 2 + I 3 = 0.707 A ≈ 0.71 A 12

Define I1 to be the current to the right through the 2.00-V battery ( Ᏹ1 ), and I 2 to be the current to the right through the 3.00 V battery ( Ᏹ 2 ). At the junction, they combine to give current I = I1 + I 2 to the left through the top branch. Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule, first to the upper loop and then to the outer loop, and solve for the currents. Ᏹ1 − I1r − ( I1 + I 2 ) R = 0 → Ᏹ1 − ( R + r ) I1 − RI 2 = 0

Ᏹ

I1 + I 2

r I1 r

Ᏹ

Ᏹ 2 − I 2 r − ( I1 + I 2 ) R = 0 → Ᏹ 2 − RI1 − ( R + r ) I 2 = 0

Solve the first equation for I 2 and substitute into the second equation to solve for I1. Ᏹ1 − ( R + r ) I1 2.00 − 4.350 I1 = = 0.500 − 1.0875I1 R 4.00 Ᏹ 2 − RI1 − ( R + r ) I 2 = 3.00 − 4.00 I1 − (4.35)(0.500 − 1.0875I1 ) = 0 → Ᏹ1 − ( R + r ) I1 − RI 2 = 0 → I 2 = 0.825 = −0.7306 I1 I1 = −1.129 A; I 2 = 0.500 − 1.0875 I1 = 1.728 A

DC Circuits

19-21

The voltage across R is its resistance times I = I1 + I 2 . VR = R ( I1 + I 2 ) = (4.00 Ω)(−1.129 A + 1.728 A) = 2.396 V ≈ 2.40 V

Note that the top battery is being charged—the current is flowing through it from positive to negative. 37.

Take 100 of the batteries and connect them in series, which would give a total voltage of 300 volts. Do that again with the next 100 batteries, and again with the last 100 batteries. That gives three sets, each with a total voltage of 300 volts. Then those three sets can be connected in parallel with each other. The total combination of batteries would have a potential difference of 300 volts. Another possibility is to connect three batteries in parallel, which would provide a potential difference of 3 volts. Make 100 sets of those three-battery combinations and connect those 100 sets in series. That total combination would also have a potential difference of 300 volts.

38.

(a)

Capacitors in parallel add according to Eq. 19–5. Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 + C6 = 6(4.8 × 10−6 F) = 2.88 × 10−5 F = 28.8 μ F

(b)

Capacitors in series add according to Eq. 19–6.

Ceq

39.

⎛ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ⎞ =⎜ + + + + + ⎟ ⎝ C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 ⎠

⎛ ⎞ 6 =⎜ ⎜ 4.8 × 10−6 F ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠

−1

4.8 × 10−6 F = 8.0 × 10−7 F 6

The series capacitors add reciprocally, and then the parallel combination is found by adding linearly. ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ Ceq = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ C1 C2 ⎠

40.

−1

(a)

−1

⎛ ⎞ 1 1 + C3 = ⎜ + − − 6 6 ⎜ 3.00 × 10 F 4.00 × 10 F ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠

−1

+ 2.00 × 10−6 F = 3.71× 10−6 F = 3.71 μ F

The full voltage is across the 2.00-μ F capacitor, so V3 = 21.0 V . To find the voltage cross the two capacitors in series, find their equivalent capacitance and the charge stored. That charge will be the same for both of the series capacitors. Finally, use that charge to determine the voltage on each capacitor. The sum of the voltages across the series capacitors is 26.0 V. ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ Ceq = ⎜ + ⎟ C C 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1

−1

⎛ ⎞ 1 1 =⎜ + ⎟ −6 −6 ⎟ ⎜ ⎝ 3.00 × 10 F 4.00 × 10 F ⎠

−1

= 1.714 × 10−6 F

Qeq = CeqV = (1.714 × 10−6 F)(21.0 V) = 3.599 × 10−5 C V1 =

(b)

Qeq C

3.599 × 10−5 C 3.00 × 10−6 F

= 12.0 V

V2 =

Qeq C

3.599 × 10−5 C 4.00 × 10−6 F

= 9.0 V

We have found two of the three charges already. The charge Qeq = 3.599 × 10−5 C is the charge on the two capacitors in series. The other charge is found by using the full voltage. Q3 = C3V = (2.00 × 10−6 F)(21.0 V) = 4.20 × 10−5 C Q1 = Q2 = 3.60 × 10−5 C; Q3 = 4.20 × 10−5 C

19-22

41.

Chapter 19

To reduce the net capacitance, another capacitor must be added in series. 1 1 1 = + Ceq C1 C2 C2 =

C1Ceq C1 − Ceq

→ =

1 1 1 C1 − Ceq = − = C2 Ceq C1 C1Ceq (2.9 × 10−9 F)(1.2 × 10−9 F) (2.9 × 10

−9

F) − (1.2 × 10

−9

→ = 2.047 × 10−9 F ≈ 2.0 nF

Yes, an existing connection needs to be broken in the process. One of the connections of the original capacitor to the circuit must be disconnected in order to connect the additional capacitor in series. 42.

Capacitors in parallel add linearly, so adding a capacitor in parallel will increase the net capacitance without removing the 5.0-μ F capacitor. 7.0 μ F + C = 16 μ F → C = 9 μ F connected in parallel

43.

The maximum capacitance is found by connecting the capacitors in parallel. Cmax = C1 + C2 + C3 = 3.2 × 10−9 F + 5.8 × 10−9 F + 1.00 × 10−8 F = 1.90 × 10−8 F in parallel

The minimum capacitance is found by connecting the capacitors in series. Cmin

44.

⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ =⎜ + + ⎟ ⎝ C1 C2 C3 ⎠

−1

⎛ ⎞ 1 1 1 =⎜ + + ⎜ 3.2 × 10−9 F 5.8 × 10−9 F 1.00 × 10−8 F ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠

−1

= 1.7 × 10−9 F in series

From the diagram, we see that C1 and C2 are in parallel and C3 and C4 are in parallel. Those two combinations are then in series with each other. Use those combinations to find the equivalent capacitance. We use subscripts to indicate which capacitors have been combined. C12 = C1 + C2 ; C34 = C3 + C4 ; 1 C1234

C1234 =

1 1 1 1 + = + C12 C34 C1 + C2 C3 + C4

→

(C1 + C2 )(C3 + C4 ) (C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 )

45.

The voltage across C1 is the full 10 V from the battery. Since the other two capacitors are identical, they will each have 5 V across them so that the total voltage across the two of them is 10 V. Thus V1 /V2 = 10 V/5 V = 2/1.

46.

When the capacitors are connected in series, they each have the same charge as the net capacitance. −1

−1

(a)

Q1 = Q2 = Qeq

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1 1 = CeqV = ⎜ + + ⎟⎟ (9.0 V) ⎟ V = ⎜⎜ − 6 − 6 ⎝ C1 C2 ⎠ ⎝ 0.50 × 10 F 1.40 × 10 F ⎠

= 3.316 × 10−6 C V1 =

Q1 3.316 × 10−6 C = = 6.632 V ≈ 6.6 V C1 0.50 × 10−6 F

V2 =

Q2 3.316 × 10−6 C = = 2.369 V ≈ 2.4 V C2 1.4 × 10−6 F

DC Circuits

(b)

19-23

Q1 = Q2 = Qeq = 3.316 × 10−6 C ≈ 3.3 × 10−6 C

When the capacitors are connected in parallel, they each have the full potential difference. (c)

V1 = 9.0 V

V2 = 9.0 V

Q1 = C1V1 = (0.50 × 10−6 F)(9.0 V) = 4.5 × 10−6 C

Q2 = C2V2 = (1.4 × 10−6 F)(9.0 V) = 1.3 × 10−5 C 47.

The energy stored by a capacitor is given by Eq. 17–10, PE = 12 CV 2 . = 4PEinitial

PE final

→

1C V2 2 final final

2 = 4 12 CinitialVinitial

One simple way to accomplish this is to have Cfinal = 4Cinitial and Vfinal = Vinitial . In order to keep the voltage the same for both configurations, any additional capacitors must be connected in parallel to the original capacitor. In order to multiply the capacitance by a factor of 4, we recognize that capacitors added in parallel add linearly. Thus if a capacitor of value 3C = 750 pF were connected in parallel to the original capacitor, then the final capacitance would be 4 times the original capacitance with the same voltage, so the potential energy would increase by a factor of 4. 48.

The capacitors are in parallel, so the potential is the same for each capacitor, and the total charge on the capacitors is the sum of the individual charges. We use Eqs. 17–7 and 17–8. Q1 = C1V = ε 0

A A1 A V ; Q2 = C2V = ε 0 2 V ; Q3 = C3V = ε 0 3 V d1 d2 d3

Qtotal = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = ε 0

Cnet =

49.

Qtotal V

⎛ A A A ⎞ A1 A A V + ε 0 2 V + ε 0 3 V = ⎜ ε 0 1 + ε 0 2 + ε 0 3 ⎟V d1 d2 d3 d2 d3 ⎠ ⎝ d1

⎛ A1 A ⎞ A + ε 0 2 + ε 0 3 ⎟V ⎜ ε0 d1 d2 d3 ⎠ ⎛ A A ⎞ A =⎝ = ⎜ ε 0 1 + ε 0 2 + ε 0 3 ⎟ = C1 + C2 + C3 V d2 d3 ⎠ ⎝ d1

We have CP = C1 + C2 = 35.0 μ F and

1 1 1 1 . Solve for C1 and C2 in terms of CP = + = CS C1 C2 4.8 μ F

and CS . (C − C1 ) + C1 CP 1 1 1 1 1 = + = + = P = CS C1 C2 C1 CP − C1 C1 (CP − C1 ) C1 (CP − C1 ) CP 1 = CS C1 (CP − C1 ) C1 =

→

→ C12 − CP C1 + CP CS = 0 →

CP ± CP2 − 4CP CS

2 = 29.3 μ F, 5.7 μ F

35.0 μ F ± (35.0 μ F) 2 − 4(35.0 μ F)(4.8 μ F) 2

C2 = CP − C1 = 35.0 μ F − 29.3 μ F = 5.7 μ F or 35.0 μ F − 5.7 μ F = 29.3 μ F

So the two values are 29.3 μ F and 5.7 μ F .

19-24

50.

Chapter 19

We want a small voltage drop across C1. Since V = Q /C , if we put the smallest capacitor in series with the battery, there will be a large C3 voltage drop across it. Then put the two larger capacitors in parallel, C1 so that their equivalent capacitance is large and therefore will have a small voltage drop across them. So put C1 and C3 in parallel with V0 C2 each other, and then put that combination in series with C2 . See the diagram. To calculate the voltage across C1 , find the equivalent capacitance and the net charge. That charge is used to find the voltage drop across C2 , and then that voltage is subtracted from the battery voltage to find the voltage across the parallel combination. C + C2 + C3 1 1 1 = + = 1 Ceq C2 C1 + C3 C2 (C1 + C3 ) V1 = V0 − V2 = V0 −

Qeq C2

= V0 −

→ Ceq =

CeqV0 C2

Qeq C2 (C1 + C3 ) Q ; Qeq = CeqV0 ; V2 = 2 = ; C1 + C2 + C3 C2 C2

C2 (C1 + C3 ) V0 C1 + C2 + C3 C2 1.5 μ F V0 = = V0 − = (12 V) C2 C1 + C2 + C3 6.5 μ F

= 2.8 V

51.

(a)

From the diagram, we see that C1 and C2 are in series. That combination is in parallel with C3 , and then that combination is in series with C4 . Use those combinations to find the equivalent capacitance. We use subscripts to indicate which capacitors have been combined. 1 1 1 = + C12 C C 1 C1234

(b)

→ C12 = 12 C ; C123 = C12 + C3 = 12 C + C = 32 C

1 1 2 1 5 + = + = C123 C4 3C C 3C

→ C1234 =

3C 5

The charge on the equivalent capacitor C1234 is given by Q1234 = C1234V = 53 CV . This is the charge on both of the series components of C1234 . Q123 = 53 CV = C123V123 = 32 CV123 Q4 = 53 CV = C4V4

→ V123 = 52 V

→ V4 = 53 V

The voltage across the equivalent capacitor C123 is the voltage across both of its parallel components. Note that the sum of the charges across the two parallel components of C123 is the same as the total charge on the two components,

3 CV . 5

DC Circuits

19-25

( 12 C ) ( 52 V ) = 15 CV V123 = 52 V = V3 ; Q3 = C3V3 = C ( 52 V ) = 52 CV V123 = 52 V = V12 ; Q12 = C12V12 =

Finally, the charge on the equivalent capacitor C12 is the charge on both of the series components of C12 . Q12 = 15 CV = Q1 = C1V1 → V1 = 15 V ; Q12 = 15 CV = Q2 = C1V2

→ V2 = 15 V

Here are all the results, gathered together. Q1 = Q2 = 15 CV ; Q3 = 52 CV ; Q4 = 53 CV V1 = V2 = 15 V ; V3 = 52 V ; V4 = 53 V

52.

We take each of the given times as the time constant of the RC combination.

τ = RC → R = τ

R1s =

R4s = R15s =

τ C

1s 1× 10

−6

= 1× 106 Ω ; R2s =

4s 1× 10

−6

15 s 1× 10−6 F

τ C

= 4 × 106 Ω ; R2s =

τ C

2s 1× 10−6 F

= 2 × 106 Ω ;

8s 1× 10

−6

= 8 × 106 Ω ;

= 15 × 106 Ω

So we estimate the range of resistance to be 1 MΩ − 15 MΩ . 53.

From Eq. 19–7, the product RC is equal to the time constant.

τ = RC → R = 54.

(a)

τ C

3.0 × 10−6 F

= 1.0 × 106 Ω

From Eq. 19–7, the product RC is equal to the time constant.

τ = RC → C = (b)

3.0 s

τ R

18.0 × 10−6 s 3

15.0 × 10 Ω

= 1.20 × 10−9 F

Since the battery has an EMF of 24.0 V, if the voltage across the resistor is 16.0 V, then the voltage across the capacitor will be 8.0 V as it charges. Use the expression for the voltage across a charging capacitor. t ⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞ VC = Ᏹ(1 − e−t /τ ) → e−t /τ = ⎜ 1 − C ⎟ → − = ln ⎜ 1 − C ⎟ → τ Ᏹ⎠ Ᏹ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ ⎛ V t = −τ ln ⎜ 1 − C Ᏹ ⎝

⎛ 16.0 V ⎞ ⎞ −6 −5 ⎟ = −(18.0 × 10 s)ln ⎜ 1 − 24.0 V ⎟ = 1.98 × 10 s ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

19-26

55.

Chapter 19

The current for a capacitor-charging circuit is given by Eq. 19–7d, with R the equivalent series resistance and C the equivalent series capacitance. I=

Ᏹ −(t /Req Ceq ) e Req

R2 C2

– + S

→

– + – +

⎛ IReq ⎞ ⎛ C1C2 ⎞ ⎡ I (R1 + R2 ) ⎤ t = − Req Ceq ln ⎜ ⎟ = −(R1 + R2 ) ⎜ ⎟ ln ⎢ ⎥ Ᏹ ⎦ ⎝ C1 + C2 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ Ᏹ ⎠ ⎡ (3.8 × 10−6 F) 2 ⎤ ⎡ (1.50 × 10−3 A)(4400 Ω) ⎤ −3 = −(4400 Ω) ⎢ ⎥ ln ⎢ ⎥ = 7.4 × 10 s −6 (16.0V) ⎣⎢ 7.6 × 10 F ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥

56.

The voltage of the discharging capacitor is given by VC = V0 e−t /RC . The capacitor voltage is to be 0.0025 V0 . VC = V0 e−t /RC

→ 0.0010 V0 = V0 e−t /RC

→ 0.0010 = e−t /RC

→ ln (0.010) = −

t RC

→

t = − RC ln (0.010) = −(8.7 × 103 Ω)(3.0 × 10−6 F) ln (0.0025) = 0.16 s

57.

(a)

At t = 0, the capacitor is uncharged, so there is no voltage difference across it. The capacitor is a “short,” so a simpler circuit can be drawn just by eliminating the capacitor. In this simpler circuit, the two resistors on the right are in parallel with each other, and then in series with the resistor by the switch. The current through the resistor by the switch splits equally when it reaches the junction of the equal, parallel resistors. ⎛1 1⎞ Req = R + ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝R R⎠

I1 =

(b)

−1

= 32 R →

Ᏹ Ᏹ Ᏹ 2Ᏹ = = ; I 2 = I 3 = 12 I1 = Req 32 R 3R 3R

At t = ∞, the capacitor will be fully charged and there will be no current in the branch containing the capacitor, so a simpler circuit can be drawn by eliminating that branch. In this simpler circuit, the two resistors are in series, and they both have the same current. Req = R + R = 2 R → I1 = I 2 =

(c)

Ᏹ Ᏹ = ; I3 = 0 Req 2R

At t = ∞, since there is no current through the branch containing the capacitor, there is no potential drop across that resistor. Therefore, the voltage difference across the capacitor equals the voltage difference across the resistor through which I 2 flows. ⎛ Ᏹ ⎞ VC = VR2 = I 2 R = ⎜ ⎟R = ⎝ 2R ⎠

1 2

Ᏹ

DC Circuits

58.

(a)

19-27

With the switch open, the resistors are in series with each other, so have the same current. Apply the loop rule clockwise around the left loop, starting at the negative terminal of the source, to find the current. V − IR1 − IR2 = 0 → I =

V 24 V = = 1.818 A R1 + R2 8.8 Ω + 4.4 Ω

The voltage at point a is the voltage across the 4.4 Ω -resistor. Va = IR2 = (1.818 A)(4.4 Ω) = 8.0 V

(b)

With the switch open, the capacitors are in series with each other. Find the equivalent capacitance. The charge stored on the equivalent capacitance is the same value as the charge stored on each capacitor in series. 1 1 1 = + Ceq C1 C2

→ Ceq =

C1C2 (0.48 μ F)(0.36 μ F) = = 0.2057 μ F C1 + C2 (0.48 μ F + 0.36 μ F)

Qeq = VCeq = (24.0 V)(0.2057 μ F) = 4.937 μ C = Q1 = Q2

The voltage at point b is the voltage across the 0.24-μ F capacitor. Vb =

(c)

(d)

Q2 4.937 μ C = = 13.7 V ≈ 14 V C2 0.36 μ F

The switch is now closed. After equilibrium has been reached for a long time, there is no current flowing in the capacitors, so the resistors are again in series, and the voltage of point a must be 8.0 V. Point b is connected by a conductor to point a, so point b must be at the same potential as point a, 8.0 V . This also means that the voltage across C2 is 8.0 V, and the voltage across C1 is 16 V. Find the charge on each of the capacitors, which are no longer in series. Q1 = V1C1 = (16 V)(0.48 μ F) = 7.68 μ C Q2 = V2C2 = (8.0 V)(0.36 μ F) = 2.88 μ C

When the switch was open, point b had a net charge of 0, because the charge on the negative plate of C1 had the same magnitude as the charge on the positive plate of C2 . With the switch closed, these charges are not equal. The net charge at point b is the sum of the charge on the negative plate of C1 and the charge on the positive plate of C2 . Qb = −Q1 + Q2 = −7.68 μ C + 2.88 μ C = −4.80 μ C ≈ −4.8 μ C

Thus 4.8 μ C of charge has passed through the switch, from right to left. 59.

(a)

The full-scale current is the reciprocal of the sensitivity. I full = scale

(b)

1 = 2.9 × 10−5 A or 29 μ A 35,000 Ω /V

The resistance is the full-scale voltage multiplied by the sensitivity. R = Vfull (sensitivity) = (250 V)(35,000 Ω /V) = 8.75 × 106 Ω ≈ 8.8 × 106 Ω scale

19-28

60.

Chapter 19

The total resistance with the ammeter present is Req = 720 Ω + 480 Ω + 53 Ω = 1253 Ω. The voltage supplied by the battery is found from Ohm’s law to be Vbattery = IReq = (5.25 × 10−3 A)(1253 Ω) = 6.578 V. When the ammeter is removed, we assume that the battery voltage does not change. The ′ = 1200 Ω, and the new current is again found from Ohm’s law. equivalent resistance changes to Req I=

61.

Vbattery ′ Req

To make a voltmeter, a resistor Rser must be placed in series with the existing meter so that the desired full-scale voltage corresponds to the full-scale current of the galvanometer. We know that 35 mA produces full-scale deflection of the galvanometer, so the voltage drop across the total meter must be 25 V when the current through the meter is 35 mA. Vfull = I full Req scale

scale

Vfull Rser =

scale

I full

scale

(a)

Rser

scale

Rshunt

Vfull

scale

−1

25 V 35 × 10−3

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ −⎜ + ⎟ A ⎝ 33 Ω 0.20 Ω ⎠

−1

= 714.1 Ω ≈ 710 Ω

To make an ammeter, a shunt resistor must be placed in parallel with the galvanometer. The voltage across the shunt resistor must be the voltage across the galvanometer. See Fig. 19–31 for a circuit diagram.

Rshunt =

→ (I − I G ) Rshunt = I G r

→

−6

IG r (55 × 10 A)(32 Ω) = = 7.0 × 10−5 Ω (I − I G ) (25 A − 55 × 10−6 A)

To make a voltmeter, a resistor must be placed in series with the galvanometer, so that the desired full-scale voltage corresponds to the full-scale current of the galvanometer. See Fig. 19–32 for a circuit diagram. Vfull scale = I G (Rser + r ) → Rser =

63.

I full

714 Ω = 29 Ω /V . 25 V

Vshunt = VG

(b)

−1 ⎡ ⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎢ = I full Rser + ⎜ + ⎟ ⎥ → r Rshunt ⎠ ⎥ scale ⎢ ⎝ ⎣ ⎦

⎛1 1 ⎞ −⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ r Rshunt ⎠

The sensitivity is 62.

6.578 V = 5.48 × 10−3 A = 5.48 mA 1200 Ω

Vfull scale 250 V −r = − 32 Ω = 4.5 × 106 Ω IG 55 × 10−6 A

Find the equivalent resistance for the entire circuit, and then find the current drawn from the source. That current will be the ammeter reading. The ammeter and voltmeter symbols in the diagram below are each assumed to have resistance.

A 0.50Ω 7.5kΩ

7.5kΩ V 15kΩ

DC Circuits

Req = 1.0 Ω + 0.50 Ω + 7500 Ω +

19-29

(7500 Ω)(15, 000 Ω) (7500 Ω + 15, 000 Ω)

= 12501.5 Ω ≈ 12500 Ω; I source =

Ᏹ 12.0 V = = 9.60 × 10−4 A Req 12500 Ω

The voltmeter reading will be the source current times the equivalent resistance of the resistor– voltmeter combination. Vmeter = I source Req = (9.60 × 10−4 A)

(7500 Ω)(15, 000 Ω) = 4.8 V (7500 Ω + 15, 000 Ω)

If there were no meters at all, then the equivalent resistance, delivered current, and voltage across the resistor would be as follows. Req = 1.0 Ω + 7500 Ω + 7500 Ω = 15,001 Ω I source =

12.0 V Ᏹ = = 8.00 × 10−4 A Req 15,001 Ω

V7500Ω = I source R = (8.00 × 10−4 A)(7500 Ω) = 6.00 V

We also calculated the % difference from the readings with realistic meters. ⎛ 9.60 × 10−4 A − 8.00 × 10−4 A ⎞ (% diff) I = ⎜ ⎟⎟ × 100 = 20 % ⎜ 8.00 × 10−4 A ⎝ ⎠ ⎛ 4.8 V − 6.0 V ⎞ (% diff)V = ⎜ ⎟ × 100 = −20 % 6.0 V ⎝ ⎠

The current reads 20% higher with the meters present, and the voltage reads 20% lower. 64.

We know from Example 19–17 that the voltage across the resistor without the voltmeter connected is 4.0 V. Thus the minimum acceptable voltmeter reading is 95% of that: (0.95)(4.0 V) = 3.8 V. The voltage across the other resistor would then be 4.2 V, which is used to find the current in the circuit. I=

V2 4.2 V = = 2.8 × 1024 A R2 15, 000 Ω

This current is used with the voltmeter reading to find the equivalent resistance of the meter–resistor combination, from which the voltmeter resistance can be found. V 3.8 V = 13,570 Ω Rcomb = comb = I 2.8 × 10−4 A 1 Rcomb

Rmeter =

65.

1 1 + R1 Rmeter

→

1 Rmeter

1 Rcomb

−

1 R1

→

R1 Rcomb (15,000 Ω)(13,570 Ω) = = 142,300 Ω ≈ 140 kΩ R1 − Rcomb 15,000 Ω − 13,570 Ω

The sensitivity of the voltmeter is 1000 ohms per volt on the 3.0volt scale, so it has a resistance of 3000 ohms. The circuit is shown in the diagram. Find the equivalent resistance of the meter–resistor parallel combination and the entire circuit.

R V RV

19-30

Chapter 19 −1

⎛1 RV R 1 ⎞ (3000 Ω)(9400 Ω) Rp = ⎜ + = = 2274 Ω ⎟ = R R R R 3000 Ω + 9400 Ω + V ⎠ V ⎝ Req = R + Rp = 2274 Ω + 9400 Ω = 11, 674 Ω

Using the meter reading of 1.9 volts, calculate the current into the parallel combination, which is the current delivered by the battery. Use that current to find the emf of the battery. I=

1.9 V V = = 8.355 × 10−4 A Rp 2274 Ω

Ᏹ = IReq = (8.355 × 10−4 A)(11, 674 Ω) = 9.754 V ≈ 9.8 V

66.

Because the voltmeter is called “high resistance,” we can assume it has no current passing through it. Write Kirchhoff’s loop rule for the circuit for both cases, starting with the negative pole of the battery and proceeding counterclockwise. Case 1: Vmeter = V1 = I1 R1

Ᏹ − I1r − I1 R1 = 0 → Ᏹ = I1 (r + R1 ) =

Case 2: Vmeter = V2 = I 2 R2

V1 (r + R1 ) R1

Ᏹ − I 2 r − I 2 R2 = 0 → Ᏹ = I 2 (r + R2 ) =

V2 (r + R2 ) R2

Solve these two equations for the two unknowns of Ᏹ and r. Ᏹ=

V1 V (r + R1 ) = 2 (r + R2 ) → R1 R2

⎛ V2 − V1 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 8.1 V − 9.7 V r = R1 R2 ⎜ ⎟ = (35 Ω)(14.0 Ω) ⎜ ⎟ = 5.308 Ω ≈ 5.3 Ω ⎝ (9.7 V)(14.0 Ω) − (8.1 V)(35 Ω) ⎠ ⎝ V1 R2 − V2 R1 ⎠ V 9.7 V Ᏹ = 1 (r + R1 ) = (5.308 Ω + 35 Ω) = 11.17 V ≈ 11.2 V R1 35 Ω

67.

We can use a voltage divider circuit, as discussed in Example 19–3b and illustrated in Fig. 19–6b. The current to be passing through the body is given by Ohm’s law. I=

Vbody Rbody

0.25 V = 1.389 × 10−4 A 1800 Ω

This is the current in the entire circuit. Use this to find the resistor to put in series with the body. Vbattery = I (Rbody + Rseries ) →

Rseries =

68.

(a)

Vbattery I

− Rbody =

1.5 V 1.389 × 10−4 A

− 1800 Ω = 8999 Ω = 9.0 kΩ

Since P = V 2 /R and the voltage is the same for each combination, the power and resistance are inversely related to each other. So for the 50-W output, use the higher-resistance filament. For the 100-W output, use the lower-resistance filament. For the 150-W output, use the filaments in parallel.

DC Circuits

(b)

P = V 2 /R → R =

V2 P

R1 =

(120 V) 2 = 288 Ω ≈ 290 Ω 50 W

R2 =

19-31

(120 V) 2 = 144 Ω ≈ 140 Ω 100 W

As a check, the parallel combination of the resistors gives the following. Rp =

69.

R1 R2 (288 Ω)(144 Ω) V 2 (120 V) 2 = = 96 Ω P = = = 150 W R1 + R2 288 Ω + 144 Ω R 96 Ω

There are nine values of effective capacitance that can be obtained from the four capacitors. All four in parallel:

All four in series:

Ceq = C + C + C + C = 4C

⎛1 1 1 1⎞ Ceq = ⎜ + + + ⎟ ⎝C C C C ⎠

−1

1C 4

(Three in parallel) in series with one: 1 1 1 1 1 4 = + = + = Ceq C + C + C C 3C C 3C

→ Ceq =

3C 4

(Two in parallel) in series with (two in parallel): 1 1 1 1 1 2 = + = + = Ceq C + C C + C 2C 2C 2C

→ Ceq = C

(Two in parallel) in series with (two in series): 1 1 1 1 1 2 5 = + + = + = Ceq C + C C C 2C C 2C

→ Ceq =

2C 5

(Two in series) in parallel with (two in series): ⎛1 1⎞ Ceq = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝C C ⎠

−1

⎛1 1⎞ +⎜ + ⎟ ⎝C C ⎠

−1

⎛2⎞ =⎜ ⎟ ⎝C⎠

−1

⎛2⎞ +⎜ ⎟ ⎝C⎠

−1

C C + =C 2 2

(not a new value) (Three in series) in parallel with one: ⎛1 1 1⎞ Ceq = ⎜ + + ⎟ ⎝C C C ⎠

−1

⎛3⎞ +C = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝C⎠

−1

+C =

4C 3

(Two in series) in parallel with (two in parallel): ⎛1 1⎞ Ceq = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝C C ⎠

−1

⎛2⎞ +C +C = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝C ⎠

−1

+ 2C =

5C 2

19-32

Chapter 19

((Two in series) in parallel with one) in series with one: −1

−1 ⎡⎛ 1 1 ⎞ −1 ⎤ 1 1 ⎡C 1 ⎤ = ⎢⎜ + ⎟ + C ⎥ + = ⎢ + C ⎥ + Ceq ⎢⎣⎝ C C ⎠ C ⎣2 C ⎦ ⎥⎦ 2 1 5 = + = → Ceq = 53 C 3C C 3C

((Two in parallel) in series with one) in parallel with one: 1 ⎞ ⎛1 Ceq = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ C 2C ⎠

70.

−1

+C = C +

2C = 3

5C 3

The equivalent resistance is the sum of all the resistances. The current is found from Ohm’s law. I=

Ᏹ 240 V = = 8 × 10−3 A Req 3 × 104 Ω

This is 8 milliamps, and 10 milliamps is considered to be a dangerous level in that it can cause sustained muscular contraction. The 8 milliamps could certainly be felt by the patient and could be painful. 71.

The capacitor will charge up to 75% of its maximum value and then discharge. The charging time is the time for one heartbeat. tbeat =

1 min 60 s × = 0.8333 s 72 beats 1 min

(

)

t ⎛ − beat → 0.75 V0 = V0 ⎜ 1 − e RC ⎝ tbeat 0.8333 s =− = R=− C ln(0.25) (6.5 × 10−6 F)( − 1.3863)

V = V0 1 − e

72.

(a)

t − RC

t t ⎞ − beat RC = 0.25 → ⎛ − beat → e ⎟ ⎜ RC ⎝ ⎠

⎞ ⎟ = ln(0.25) → ⎠

9.2 × 104 Ω

Apply Ohm’s law to find the current. I=

Vbody Rbody

120 V = 0.126 A ≈ 0.13 A 950 Ω

(b)

The description of “alternative path to ground” is a statement that the 25-Ω path is in parallel with the body. Thus the full 110 V is still applied across the body, so the current is the same: 0.13 A .

(c)

If the current is limited to a total of 1.5 A, then that current will be divided between the person and the parallel path. The voltage across the body and the parallel path will be the same, since they are in parallel. Vbody = Valternate I body = I total

→ I body Rbody = I alternate Ralternate = (I total − I body )Ralternate

→

Ralternate 25 Ω = (1.5 A) = 0.03846 A ≈ 38 mA (Rbody + Ralternate ) 950 Ω + 25 Ω

This is still a very dangerous current.

DC Circuits

73.

The original resistance of the motor is found from Ohm’s law. V = IR → Roriginal =

(a)

V 12 V = = 2.4 Ω I 5.0 A

Now another resistor is put in series to reduce the current to 2.0 A. We assume the battery voltage has not changed. V = IR → Roriginal + Rseries =

74.

V 12 V = = 6.0 Ω → Rseries = 6.0 Ω − 2.4 Ω = 3.6 Ω I 2.0 A

(b)

P = I 2 R = (2.0 A) 2 (3.6 Ω) = 14.4 W ≈ 14 W

(a)

If the ammeter shows no current with the closing of the switch, then points B and D must be at the same potential, because the ammeter has some small resistance. Any potential difference between points B and D would cause current to flow through the ammeter. Thus the potential drop from A to B must be the same as the drop from A to D. Since points B and D are at the same potential, the potential drop from B to C must be the same as the drop from D to C. Use these two potential relationships to find the unknown resistance.

(b) 75.

19-33

VBA = VDA

→ I 3 R3 = I1 R1 →

VCB = VCD

→ I 3 Rx = I1 R2

Rx = R2

R3 I1 = R1 I 3

→ Rx = R2

I1 = R2 R3 /R1 I3

⎛ 78.6 Ω ⎞ R3 = (972 Ω) ⎜ ⎟ = 129 Ω ≈ 130 Ω R1 ⎝ 590 Ω ⎠

Divide the power by the required voltage to determine the current drawn by the hearing aid. I=

P 2.5 W = = 0.625 A V 4.0 V

Use Eq. 19–1 to calculate the terminal voltage across the series combinations of three batteries for both mercury (Hg) and dry (D) cells. VHg = 3(Ᏹ − Ir ) = 3[1.35 V − (0.625 A)(0.030 Ω)] = 3.99 V VD = 3(Ᏹ − Ir ) = 3[1.50 V − (0.625 A)(0.35 Ω)] = 3.84 V

The terminal voltage of the mercury cell batteries is closer to the required 4.0 V than the voltage from the dry cell. 76.

One way is to connect N resistors in series. If each resistor can dissipate 0.5 W, then it will take 7 resistors in series to dissipate 3.5 W. Since the resistors are in series, each resistor will be 1/7 of the total resistance. R=

Req 7

3200 Ω = 457 Ω ≈ 460 Ω 7

So connect 7 resistors of 460 Ω each, rated at ½ W, in series. Each resistor would have to have a voltage of about 15 V in order to not exceed the power rating. Thus the total voltage would be limited to about 105 V. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

19-34

Chapter 19

Alternately, the resistors could be connected in parallel. Again, if each resistor watt can dissipate 0.5 W, then it will take 7 resistors in parallel to dissipate 3.5 W. Since the resistors are in parallel, the equivalent resistance will be 1/7 of each individual resistance. 1 ⎛1⎞ = 7 ⎜ ⎟ → R = 7 Req = 7(3200 Ω) = 22.4 kΩ Req ⎝R⎠

So connect 7 resistors of 22.4 kΩ each, rated at ½ W, in parallel. Each resistor could have about 105 V across it in this configuration. 77.

To build up a high voltage, the cells will have to be put in series. 120 V is needed from a series of 120 V 0.80 V cells. Thus = 150 cells are needed to provide the desired voltage. Since these cells 0.80 V/cell are all in series, their current will all be the same at 350 mA. To achieve the higher current desired, banks made of 150 cells each can be connected in parallel. Then their voltage will still be at 120 V, but 1.3 A the currents would add, making a total of = 3.71 banks ≈ 4 banks. So the total 350 × 10−3 A/bank number of cells is 600 cells . The panel area is 600 cells (9.0 × 10−4 m 2 /cell) = 0.54 m 2 . The cells should be wired in 4 banks of 150 cells in series per bank, with the banks in parallel. This will produce 1.4 A at 120 V.

78.

There are two answers because it is not known which direction the given current is flowing through the 4.0-kΩ resistor. Assume the current is to the right. The voltage across the 4.0-kΩ resistor is given by Ohm’s law as V = IR = (3.10 × 10−3 A)(4000 Ω) = 12.4 V. The voltage drop across the 8.0 kΩ must be the same, so the current through it is I =

V 12.4 V = = 1.55 × 10−3 A. The total current in the circuit is R 8000 Ω

the sum of the two currents: I tot = 4.65 × 10−3 A. That current can be used to find the terminal voltage of the battery. Write a loop equation, starting at the negative terminal of the unknown battery and going clockwise. Vba − (3200 Ω)I tot − 12.4 V − 12.0 V − (1.0 Ω)I tot Vba = 24.4V + (3201 Ω)(4.65 × 10

−3

→

A) = 39.28 V ≈ 39 V

If the current is to the left, then the voltage drop across the parallel combination of resistors is still 12.4 V, but with the opposite orientation. Again write a loop equation, starting at the negative terminal of the unknown battery and going clockwise. The current is now to the left. Vab + (3200 Ω)I tot + 12.4 V − 12.0 V + (1.0 Ω)I tot

→

Vab = −0.4V − (3201 Ω)(4.65 × 10−3 A) = −15.28 V ≈ −15 V

79.

(a)

If the terminal voltage is to be 3.5 V, then the voltage across R1 will be 8.5 V. This can be used to find the current, which then can be used to find the value of R2 . V V1 = IR1 → I = 1 V2 = IR2 → R1 R2 =

V2 V 3.5 V = R1 2 = (14.5 Ω) = 5.971 Ω ≈ 6.0 Ω I V1 8.5 V

DC Circuits

(b)

19-35

If the load has a resistance of 7.0 Ω, then the parallel combination of R2 and the load must be used to analyze the circuit. The equivalent resistance of the circuit can be found and used to calculate the current in the circuit. Then the terminal voltage can be found from Ohm’s law, using the parallel combination resistance. R2+ load = I=

R2 Rload (5.971 Ω)(7.0 Ω) = = 3.222 Ω Req = 3.222 Ω + 14.5 Ω = 17.722 Ω R2 + Rload (5.971 Ω + 7.0 Ω)

V 12.0 V = = 0.6771 A VT = IR2+ load = (0.6771 A)(3.222 Ω) = 2.182 V ≈ 2.2 V Req 17.722 Ω

The presence of the load has affected the terminal voltage significantly. 80.

The terminal voltage and current are given for two situations. Apply Eq. 19–1 to both of these situations and solve the resulting two equations for the two unknowns. V1 = Ᏹ − I1r ; V2 = Ᏹ − I 2 r → Ᏹ = V1 + I1r = V2 + I 2 r → r=

V2 − V1 47.3 V − 40.8 V = = 1.161 Ω ≈ 1.2 Ω I1 − I 2 8.40 A − 2.80 A

Ᏹ = V1 + I1r = 40.8 V + (8.40 A)(1.161 Ω) = 50.6 V

81.

The current in the circuit can be found from the resistance and the power dissipated. Then the product of that current and the equivalent resistance is equal to the battery voltage. P = I 2R → I =

P33 0.80 W = = 0.1557 A 33 Ω R33

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ + Req = 33 Ω + ⎜ ⎟ Ω Ω⎠ 68 85 ⎝

82.

−1

= 70.78 Ω V = IReq = (0.1557 A)(70.78 Ω) = 11.02 V ≈ 11 V

There are three loops, so there are three loop equations necessary to solve the circuit. We identify five currents in the diagram, so we need two junction equations to complete the analysis. We also assume that the 10-kΩ resistor is known to 2 significant digits, like the other resistors. Finally, note that if we use the resistances in “kiloohms,” the currents will be in “milli-amps.” Lower left junction:

I 4 = I1 + I 3

Lower right junction: I 2 = I3 + I 5 Left loop, clockwise:

16 V − 10I1 − 12I 4 = 0

Right loop, counterclockwise:

21 V − 13I 2 − 18I 5 = 0

Bottom loop, counterclockwise: 12 V + 18I 5 − 12I 4 = 0

19-36

Chapter 19

16 − 12I 3 22 21 − 13I 3 21 − 13(I 3 + I 5 ) − 18I5 = 0 → 21 − 13I 3 − 31I5 = 0 → I 5 = 31 12 + 18I 5 − 12(I1 + I 3 ) = 0 → 12 − 12 I1 − 12 I 3 + 18 I5 = 0

16 − 10I1 − 12(I1 + I 3 ) = 0 → 16 − 22I1 − 12I 3 = 0 → I1 =

Substitute the results of the first two equations into the third equation. ⎡16 − 12 I 3 ⎤ ⎡ 21 − 13I 3 ⎤ 12 − 12 ⎢ ⎥ − 12 I 3 + 18 ⎢ 31 ⎥ = 0 22 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ 12 − 12 (16 − 12 I 3 ) − 12 I 3 + 18 (21 − 13I 3 ) = 0 22 31 6 16 + 18 21 = (12 + 18 13 − 6 12)I 12 − 11 3 31 31 11

15.466 = 13.003I 3

→ I3 =

15.466 = 1.189 mA 13.003

16 − 12I 3 16 − 12(1.189) = = 0.0787 mA ≈ 7.9 × 10−5 A, upward 22 22

(a)

I1 =

(b)

Reference all voltages to the lower left corner of the circuit diagram. Then Va = 16 V, Vb = 12 V + 21 V = 33 V, and Va − Vb = 16 V − 33 V = −17 V .

83.

If the switches are both open, then the circuit is a simple series circuit. Use Kirchhoff’s loop rule to find the current in that case. 6.0 V − I (50 Ω + 20 Ω + 10 Ω) = 0 → I = 6.0 V/80 Ω = 0.075 A

If the switches are both closed, then the 20-Ω resistor is in parallel with R. Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the outer loop of the circuit, with the 20-Ω resistor having the current found previously. 6.0 V − I (50 Ω) − (0.075 A)(20 Ω) = 0 → I =

6.0 V − (0.075 A)(20 Ω) = 0.090 A 50 Ω

This is the current in the parallel combination. Since 0.075 A is in the 20-Ω resistor, 0.015 A must be in R. The voltage drops across R and the 20-Ω resistor are the same since they are in parallel. V20 = VR

84.

(a)

→ I 20 R20 = I R R → R = R20

I 20 0.075 A = (20 Ω) = 100 Ω IR 0.015 A

The 12-Ω and the 22-Ω resistors are in parallel, with a net resistance R1− 2 as follows. ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ R1− 2 = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ 12 Ω 22 Ω ⎠

−1

= 7.765 Ω

R1− 2 is in series with the 4.5-Ω resistor, for a net resistance R1− 2−3 as follows. R1− 2−3 = 4.5 Ω + 7.765 Ω = 12.265 Ω

DC Circuits

19-37

That net resistance is in parallel with the 14-Ω resistor, for a final equivalent resistance as follows. ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ Req = ⎜ + ⎟ Ω Ω⎠ 12.265 14 ⎝

(b)

−1

Find the current in the 14-Ω resistor by using Kirchhoff’s loop rule for the loop containing the battery and the 14-Ω resistor. Ᏹ − I14 R14 = 0 → I18 =

(c)

= 6.538 Ω ≈ 6.5 Ω

Ᏹ 6.0 V = = 0.4286 A ≈ 0.43 A R18 14 Ω

Find the current in R1− 2 and the 4.5-Ω resistor by using Kirchhoff’s loop rule for the outer loop containing the battery and the resistors R1− 2 and the 4.5-Ω resistor. Those resistances are in series. Ᏹ − I1− 2 R1− 2 − I1− 2 R4.5 = 0 → I1− 2 =

Ᏹ 6.0 V = = 0.4892 A R1− 2 + R4.5 7.765 Ω + 4.5 Ω

This current divides to go through the 12-Ω and 22-Ω resistors in such a way that the voltage drop across each of them is the same. Use that to find the current in the 12-Ω resistor. I1− 2 = I12 + I 25 VR12 = VR25 I12 = I1− 2

(d)

→ I 25 = I1− 2 − I12

→ I12 R12 = I 25 R25 = (I1− 2 − I12 )R25

→

R25 22 Ω = (0.4892 A) = 0.3165 A ≈ 0.32 A (R12 + R25 ) 34 Ω

The current in the 4.5-Ω resistor was found above to be I1− 2 = 0.4892 A. Find the power accordingly. P4.5 = I12− 2 R4.5 = (0.4892 A) 2 (4.5 Ω) = 1.077 W ≈ 1.1 W

85.

(a)

We assume that the ammeter is ideal so has 0 resistance but that the voltmeter has resistance RV . Then apply Ohm’s law, using the equivalent resistance. We also assume the voltmeter is accurate, so it is reading the voltage across the battery. V = IReq = I

(b)

1 1 1 + R RV

⎛1 1 ⎞ → V⎜ + ⎟=I ⎝ R RV ⎠

→

1 1 I + = R RV V

→

1 I 1 = − R V RV

We now assume the voltmeter is ideal, so has an infinite resistance but that the ammeter has resistance RA . We also assume that the voltmeter is accurate and is reading the voltage across the battery. V = IReq = I (R + RA ) → R + RA =

V I

→

V − RA I

19-38

86.

Chapter 19

(a)

The light will first flash when the voltage across the capacitor reaches 90.0 V. t ⎞ ⎛ − RC ⎜ ⎟ → V = Ᏹ0 1 − e ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠ ⎛ 90 ⎞ V ⎞ ⎛ 6 −6 t = − RC ln ⎜1 − ⎟ = −(2.35 × 10 Ω)(0.150 × 10 F) ln ⎜1 − ⎟ = 0.686 s ⎝ 105 ⎠ ⎝ Ᏹ0 ⎠

(b)

We see from the equation that t ∝ R, so if R increases, then the time will increase.

(c)

The capacitor discharges through a very low resistance (the lamp filled with ionized gas), so the discharge time constant is very short. Thus the flash is very brief. Once the lamp has flashed, the stored energy in the capacitor is gone, and there is no source of charge to maintain the lamp current. The lamp “goes out,” the lamp resistance increases, and the capacitor starts to recharge. It charges again for 0.686 second, and the process will repeat.

(d)

87.

We find the current for the bulb from the bulb’s ratings. Also, since the bulb will have 3.0 V across it, the resistor R will have 6.0 V across it. Pbulb = I bulbVbulb

88.

(a)

→ I bulb =

Pbulb 2.0 W V 6.0 V = = 0.667 A; R = R = = 9.0 Ω Vbulb 3.0 V I R 0.667 A

As shown, the equivalent capacitance is found from adding the capacitance of C1 to the series combination of C1 and C1. That net capacitance is used to calculate the stored energy. ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ Cnet = C1 + ⎜ + ⎟ C C 3⎠ ⎝ 2

−1

⎛ ⎞ 2 = 25.4 μ F + ⎜ ⎟ 25.4 F μ ⎝ ⎠

−1

= 38.1 μ F

PE = 12 CnetV 2 = 12 (38.1× 10−6 F)(10.0 V) 2 = 1.905 × 10−3 J ≈ 1.91× 10−3 J

(b)

If all the capacitors were in series, then the equivalent capacitance is 1/3 the value of one of the capacitors. ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ Cnet = ⎜ + + ⎟ C C C 2 3⎠ ⎝ 1

−1

⎛ ⎞ 3 =⎜ ⎟ μ 25.4 F ⎝ ⎠

−1

= 8.467 μ F

PE = 12 CnetV 2 = 12 (8.467 × 10−6 F)(10.0 V) 2 ≈ 4.24 × 10−4 J

(c)

If all the capacitors were in parallel, then the equivalent capacitance is 3 times the value of one of the capacitors. Cnet = C1 + C2 + C3 = 3(25.4 μ F) = 76.2 μ F PE = 12 CnetV 2 = 12 (76.2 × 10−6 F)(10.0 V) 2 ≈ 3.81× 10−4 J

89.

After a long time, the only current is in the resistors. The voltage across the 3.3-kΩ resistor is found using the left loop. 12.0V − I (4600 Ω) = 0 → I =

12.0V = 2.609 × 10−3 Ω → 4600 Ω

V3.3 kΩ = IR = (2.609 × 10−3 Ω)(3300 Ω) = 8.609 V

DC Circuits

19-39

The voltage across the 3.3 kΩ is the voltage across each capacitor. Q12 μ F = CV = (12 × 10−6 F)(8.609 V) = 1.033 × 10−4 C ≈ 1.0 × 10−4 C Q48 μ F = CV = (48 × 10−6 F)(8.609 V) = 4.132 × 10−4 C ≈ 4.1× 10−4 C

90.

We have labeled currents through the resistors with the value of the specific resistance and the emfs with the appropriate voltage value. We apply the junction rule to points a and b and then apply the loop rule to the left loop, the middle loop, and the right loop. This enables us to solve for all of the currents. I 5 = I 6 + I top ; I top + I 6.8 = I12

→ I 5 − I 6 = I12 − I 6.8

17 V − I 5 (5.00 Ω) − I 6 (6.00 Ω) = 0

I top

I12

I 6.8

→ I 5 + I 6.8 = I12 + I 6 [1]

[2] (left loop)

10 V − I12 (12.00 Ω) − I 6.8 (6.80 Ω) = 0 [3] (right loop)

I12 (12.00 Ω) − I 6 (6.00 Ω) = 0

[4] (center loop)

Solve Eq. [4] to get I 6 = 2 I12 . Substitute that into the other equations. I 5 + I 6.8 = 3I12

[1]

17 V − I5 (5.00 Ω) − 2 I12 (6.00 Ω) = 0 10 V − I12 (12.00 Ω) − I 6.8 (6.80 Ω) = 0

[ 2] [3]

Use Eq. [1] to eliminate I 6.8 by I 6.8 = 3I12 − I 5 . 17 V − I5 (5.00 Ω) − I12 (12.00 Ω) = 0

[ 2]

10 V − I12 (12.00 Ω) − (3I12 − I 5 )(6.80 Ω) = 0 → 10 V − I12 (32.40 Ω) + I 5 (6.80 Ω) = 0

Use Eq. [2] to eliminate I 5 by I 5 =

[3]

17 V − I12 (12.00 Ω) , and then substitute into Eq. [3] and solve for (5.00 Ω)

solve for I12 . Then back-substitute to find the other currents. ⎡17 V − I12 (12.00 Ω) ⎤ ⎥ (6.80 Ω) = 0 → (5.00 Ω) ⎣ ⎦

10 V − I12 (32.40 Ω) + ⎢

10 V(5.00 Ω) − I12 (32.40 Ω)(5.00 Ω) + [17 V − I12 (12.00 Ω) ] (6.80 Ω) = 0 I12 =

I5 =

10 V(5.00 Ω) + 17 V(6.80 Ω)

(12.00 Ω)(6.80 Ω) + (32.40 Ω)(5.00 Ω)

= 0.6798 A

→

I12 = 0.680 A

17 V − I12 (12.00 Ω) 17 V − (0.6798 A)(12.00 Ω) = = 1.768 A → I 5 = 1.77 A (5.00 Ω) (5.00 Ω)

I 6.8 = 3I12 − I 5 = 3(0.6798 A) − 1.768 A = 0.2714 A → I 6.8 = 0.271 A I 6 = 2 I12 = 2(0.6798 A) = 1.3596 A → I 6 = 1.36 A

19-40

91.

Chapter 19

(a)

When the capacitors are connected in parallel, their equivalent capacitance is found from Eq. 19–5. The stored energy is given by Eq. 17–10. Ceq = C1 + C2 = 0.65 μ F; PE = 12 CeqV 2 = 12 (0.65 × 10−6 F)(24 V) 2 = 1.9 × 10−4 J

(b)

When the capacitors are connected in parallel, their equivalent capacitance is found from Eq. 19–6. The stored energy is again given by Eq. 17–10. 1 1 1 = + Ceq C1 C2

→ Ceq =

C1C2 (0.45 μ F)(0.20 μ F) = = 0.1385 μ F C1 + C2 0.65 μ F

PE = 12 CeqV 2 = 12 (0.1385 × 10−6 F)(24 V) 2 = 4.0 × 10−5 J

The charge is found from Eq. 17–7, Q = CV .

(c)

Qparallel = (Ceq ) parallelV = (0.65 μ F)(24 V) = 16 μ C Qseries = (Ceq )seriesV = (0.1385 μ F)(45 V) = 3.3 μ C

92.

Because Q = CV and the capacitors both have the same voltage applied, it will be the case that Q1 > Q2 . Because of conservation of charge, when the capacitors are hooked up, the total charge that is available is Q1 − Q2 . That amount of charge redistributes over the capacitor plates, and once equilibrium has been reached, the total charge on the plates is given by q1 + q2 = Q1 − Q2 . The other constraint on this system is that once equilibrium has been reached, the capacitors must have the same q q voltage, so 1 = 2 . C1 C2

Q1 = C1V = (2.2 μ F)(24 V) = 52.8 μ F; Q2 = C2V = (1.2 μ F)(24 V) = 28.8 μ F Q1 − Q2 = 52.8 μ F − 28.8 μ F = 24.0 μ F = q1 + q2 q1 C1

q2 C2

24.0 μ F − q1

q1 = 15.5 μ C,

93.

→

q1 =

24.0 μ F

⎛ C2 ⎞ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎝ C1 ⎠

→

q2 = 24.0 μ F − q1

24.0 μ F

⎛ 1.2 μ F ⎞ ⎜ 1 + 2.2 μ F ⎟ ⎝ ⎠

= 15.5 μ C

q2 = 8.5 μ C

When the switch is down, the initial charge on C2 is calculated from Eq. 17–7. Q2 = C2V0

When the switch is moved up, charge will flow from C2 to C1 until the voltage across the two capacitors is equal. V=

Q2′ Q1′ = C2 C1

→ Q2′ = Q1′

C2 C1

DC Circuits

19-41

The sum of the charges on the two capacitors is equal to the initial charge on C2 . Q2 = Q2′ + Q1′ = Q1′

⎛ C + C2 ⎞ C2 + Q1′ = Q1′ ⎜ 1 ⎟ C1 ⎝ C1 ⎠

Inserting the initial charge in terms of the initial voltage gives the final charges. ⎛ C + C2 ⎞ Q1′ ⎜ 1 ⎟ = C2V0 ⎝ C1 ⎠

94.

→ Q1′ =

C1C2 C C22 V0 ; Q2′ = Q1′ 2 = V0 C1 + C2 C1 C1 + C2

The power delivered to the starter is equal to the square of the current in the circuit multiplied by the resistance of the starter. Since the resistors in each circuit are in series, we calculate the currents as the battery emf divided by the sum of the resistances. 2 ⎛ Ᏹ/Req P I 2 RS ⎛ I ⎞ = 2 =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎜ Ᏹ/R0eq P0 I 0 RS ⎝ I 0 ⎠ ⎝

⎞ ⎛ R0eq ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ Req ⎠ ⎝

2 ⎞ ⎛ r + RS ⎞ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎝ r + RS + RC ⎠ ⎠

⎛ ⎞ 0.02 Ω + 0.15 Ω =⎜ ⎟ = 0.40 0.02 0.15 0.10 Ω + Ω + Ω ⎝ ⎠

95.

(a)

From the diagram, we see that one group of four plates is connected together, and the other group of four plates is connected together. This common grouping shows that the capacitors are connected in parallel. Each capacitor would have the same voltage across it.

(b)

Since they are connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances. The variable area will change the equivalent capacitance. Ceq = 7C = 7ε 0

A d

Cmin = 7ε 0

Amin (2.0 × 10−4 m 2 ) = 7(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) = 7.7 × 10−12 F −3 d (1.6 × 10 m)

Cmax = 7ε 0

Amax (9.0 × 10−4 m 2 ) = 7(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) = 3.5 × 10−11 F 3 − d (1.6 × 10 m)

So the range is from 7.7 pF to 35 pF . 96.

Capacitors in series each store the same amount of charge, so the capacitance on the unknown capacitor is also 125 pC. We calculate the voltage across each capacitor, and then calculate the unknown capacitance. V175 =

Q175 125 × 10−12 C = = 0.714 V C175 175 × 10−12 F

Vunknown = 25.0 V − V185 = 25.0 V − 0.714 V = 24.286 V Cunknown =

Q 125 × 10−12 C = = 5.15 × 10−12 C V 24.286 V

19-42

Chapter 19

Thus the voltage across the unknown capacitor is 25 V − V185 = 25 V − 0.676 V = 24.324 V. The capacitance can be calculated from the voltage across and charge on that capacitor. C=

97.

Q 125 × 10−12 C = = 5.14 pF V 24.324 V

The first capacitor is charged and has charge Q0 = C1V0 on its plates. Then, when the switch is moved, the capacitors are not connected to a source of charge, so the final charge is equal to the initial charge. Initially treat capacitors C2 and C3 as their equivalent capacitance, C23 =

C2C3 (2.0 μ F)(2.4 μ F) = = 1.091 μ F. The final voltage across C1 and C23 must be the same. C2 + C3 4.4 μ F

The charge on C2 and C3 must be the same. Use Eq. 17–7. Q0 = C1V0 = Q1 + Q23 = C1V1 + C23V23 = C1V1 + C23V1 → V1 =

C1 1.0 μ F (24 V) = 11.48 V = V1 = V23 V0 = 1.0 μ F + 1.091 μ F C1 + C23

Q1 = C1V1 = (1.0 μ F)(11.48 V) = 11.48 μ C Q23 = C23V23 = (1.091 μ F)(11.48 V) = 12.52 μ C = Q2 = Q3 V2 =

Q 12.52 μ C Q2 12.52 μ C = = 6.26 V; V3 = 3 = = 5.22 V 2.0 μ F 2.4 μ F C2 C3

To summarize: Q1 = 11 μ C, V1 = 11 V; Q2 = 13 μ C, V2 = 6.3 V; Q3 = 13 μ C, V3 = 5.2 V .

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

Req

Ceq

Series

Req = R1 + R2 + "

1 1 1 = + +" Ceq C1 C2

Parallel

1 1 1 = + +" Req R1 R2

Ceq = C1 + C2 + "

When resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances, Req = R1 + R2 + " . The current has to go through each additional resistance if the series

resistors are in series and therefore the equivalent resistance is greater than any individual resistance. In contrast, when capacitors are in parallel, the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of the = C1 + C2 + ". Charge drawn from the battery can go down any one of individual capacitors, Ceq parallel

the different branches and land on any one of the capacitors, so the overall capacitance is greater than that of each individual capacitor. When resistors are connected in parallel, the current from the battery or other source divides into the different branches so the equivalent resistance is less than any individual resistor in the circuit. The © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

DC Circuits

1 Req

corresponding expression is

parallel

19-43

1 1 + + ". The formula for the equivalent capacitance of R1 R2

capacitors in series follows this same form,

1 Ceq

series

1 1 + + ". When capacitors are in series, the C1 C2

overall capacitance is less than the capacitance of any individual capacitor. Charge leaving the first capacitor lands on the second rather than going straight to the battery, so on. Compare the expressions defining resistance (R = V /I ) and capacitance (C = Q /V ). Resistance is proportional to voltage, whereas capacitance is inversely proportional to voltage. 2.

Property Equivalent resistance

Resistors in Series R1 + R2

Resistors in Parallel R1 R2 /(R1 + R2 )

Current through equivalent resistance Voltage across equivalent resistance Voltage across the pair of resistors Voltage across each resistor

(VB − VA )/(R1 + R2 )

(VB − VA )(R1 + R2 )/(R1 R2 )

VB − VA

V1 = (VB − VA )R1 /(R1 + R2 )

V1 = VB − VA

V2 = (VB − VA )R2 /(R1 + R2 )

V2 = VB − VA

(VA R2 + VB R1 )/(R1 + R2 )

Not applicable

I1 = (VB − VA )/(R1 + R2 )

I1 = (VB − VA )/R1

I 2 = (VB − VA )/(R1 + R2 )

I 2 = (VB − VA )/R2

Voltage at a point between the resistors Current through each resistor 3.

(a)

Use Eq. 19–7a to solve for the unknown resistance, where the ratio VC /Ᏹ = 0.95. 0.95 = 1 − e−t /RC

(b)

t 2.0 s =− = 6.7 × 105 Ω − C ln (1 − 0.95) (1.0 × 10 6 F) ln (0.05)

The defibrillator paddles are usually moistened so that the resistance of the skin is about 1000 Ω. Use Eq. 19–7c to solve for the capacitance.

τ = RC → C = 4.

→ R =2

τ R

10 × 10−3 s = 10 × 10−6 F 1000 Ω

When the galvanometer gives a null reading, no current is passing through the galvanometer or the emf that is being measured. All of the current is flowing through the slide wire resistance. Application of the loop rule to the lower loop gives Ᏹ − IR = 0, since there is no current through the emf to cause a voltage drop across any internal resistance in the emf or any resistance in the galvanometer. The

19-44

Chapter 19

current flowing through the slide wire resistor is independent of the emf in the lower loop because no current is flowing through the lower loop. We solve the loop rule equation for the current and set the currents equal. The resulting equation is solved for the unknown emf. Ᏹ x − IRx = 0; Ᏹs − IRs = 0 → I =

Ᏹ x Ᏹs = Rx Rs

→

⎛R Ᏹx = ⎜ x ⎝ Rs

⎞ ⎟ Ᏹs ⎠

Note that, based on the significant figures of the resistors, that the 1.0-Ω resistor will not change the equivalent resistance of the circuit as determined by the resistors in the switch bank. Case 1: n = 0 switch closed. The effective resistance of the circuit is 16.0 kΩ. The current in the circuit is I =

16 V = 1.0 mA. The voltage across the 1.0-Ω resistor is V = IR 16.0 kΩ

= (1.0 mA)(1.0 Ω) = 1.0 mV .

Case 2: n = 1 switch closed. The effective resistance of the circuit is 8.0 kΩ. The current in the circuit is I =

16 V = 2.0 mA. The voltage across the 1.0-Ω resistor is V = IR 8.0 kΩ

= (2.0 mA)(1.0 Ω) = 2.0 mV .

Case 3: n = 2 switch closed. The effective resistance of the circuit is 4.0 kΩ. The current in the circuit is I =

16 V = 4.0 mA. The voltage across the 1.0-Ω resistor is V = IR 4.0 kΩ

= (4.0 mA)(1.0 Ω) = 4.0 mV . Case 4: n = 3 and n = 0 switches closed. The effective resistance of the circuit is found by the parallel combination of the 2.0-kΩ and 16.0-kΩ resistors. ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ + Req = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 2.0 kΩ 16.0 kΩ ⎠

−1

The current in the circuit is I =

= 1.778 kΩ 16 V = 8.999 mA ≈ 9.0 mA. The voltage across the 1.778 kΩ

1.0-Ω resistor is V = IR = (9.0 mA)(1.0 Ω) = 9.0 mV .

So in each case, the voltage across the 1.0-Ω resistor, if taken in mV, is the expected analog value corresponding to the digital number set by the switches.

MAGNETISM

Responses to Questions 1.

The Earth’s magnetic field is not always parallel to the surface of the Earth—it may have a component perpendicular to the Earth’s surface. The compass will tend to line up with the local direction of the magnetic field, so one end of the compass will dip downward. The angle that the Earth’s magnetic field makes with the horizontal is called the dip angle.

The pole on a magnetic compass needle that points geographically northward is defined at the north pole of the compass. This north pole is magnetically attracted to the south pole of other magnets, so the Earth’s magnetic field must have a south pole at the geographic north pole.

The magnetic field lines form clockwise circles centered on the wire.

The force is downward. The field lines point from the north pole to the south pole, or left to right. Use the right-hand rule. Your fingers point in the direction of the current (away from you). Curl them in the direction of the field (to the right). Your thumb points in the direction of the force (downward). See Fig. 20–11a, copied here.

A magnet will not attract just any metallic object. For example, while a magnet will attract paper clips and nails, it will not attract coins or pieces of aluminum foil. This is because magnets will only attract other ferromagnetic materials (iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, and some of their oxides and alloys). Iron and its alloys (such as steel) are the only common materials. These ferromagnetic materials contain magnetic domains that can be made to temporarily align when a strong magnet is brought near. The alignment occurs in such a way that the north pole of the domain points toward the south pole of the strong magnet, and vice versa, which creates the attraction.

No, they are not both magnets. If they were both magnets, then they would repel one another when they were placed with like poles facing each other. However, if one is a magnet and the other isn’t, then they will attract each other no matter which ends are placed together. The magnet will cause an alignment of the domains of the nonmagnet, causing an attraction.

20-1

20-2

Chapter 20

Typical current in a house circuit is 60 Hz AC. Due to the mass of the compass needle, its reaction to 60 Hz (changing direction back and forth at 60 complete cycles per second) will probably not be noticeable. A DC current in a single wire could affect a compass, depending on the relative orientation of the wire and the compass, the magnitude of the current, and the distance from the wire to the compass. A DC current being carried by two very close wires in opposite directions would not have much of an effect on the compass needle, since the two currents would cause magnetic fields that tended to cancel each other.

The magnetic force will be exactly perpendicular to the velocity, which means that the force is perpendicular to the direction of motion. Since there is no component of force in the direction of motion, the work done by the magnetic force will be zero, and the kinetic energy of the particle will not change. The particle will change direction, but not change speed.

Use the right-hand rule to determine the direction of the force on each particle. In the plane of the diagram, the magnetic field is coming out of the page for points above the wire and is going into the page for points below the wire. a: force down, toward the wire b: force to the left, opposite of the direction of the current c: force up, toward the wire d: force to the left, opposite of the direction of the current

10.

Charge a experiences an initial upward force. By the right-hand rule, charge a must be positive. Charge b experiences no force, so charge b must be uncharged. Charge c experiences an initial downward force. By the right-hand rule, charge c must be negative.

11.

A magnet can attract an iron bar, so by Newton’s third law, an iron bar can attract a magnet. Another consideration is that the iron has domains that can be made slightly magnetic by an external magnetic field, as opposed to a substance like plastic or wood. Thus the iron is also a magnet, at least when it is close to the magnet.

12.

The right-hand rule tells us that as the positive particle moves to the right, if it is deflected upward, then the magnetic field must be into the page, and if it is deflected downward, then the magnetic field must be out of the page. Also, the stronger the magnetic field, the more tightly the charged particle will turn. The magnetic field at the first bend must be relatively small and pointed into the page. The magnetic field at the second bend must be medium in size and pointed out of the page. The magnetic field at the third bend must be relatively very large and pointed into the page. In terms of the indicated letters: a: no field b: relatively weak field, into the page c: moderate strength field, out of the page d: no field e: very strong field, into the page

13.

Section 17–11 shows that a CRT television picture is created by shooting a beam of electrons at a fluorescent screen. Wherever the electrons hit the screen, the screen glows momentarily. When you hold a strong magnet too close to the screen, the magnetic field puts a force on the moving electrons (F = qυ B sin θ ), which causes them to bend away from their original destination position on the screen. These errant electrons then cause parts of the screen to light up that aren’t supposed to be lit and cause other parts to be slightly darker than they are supposed to be. The picture sometimes goes completely black where the field is strongest because at these points all of the electrons that were supposed to hit that particular spot have been deflected by the strong field.

Magnetism

20-3

14.

Put one end of one rod close to one end of another rod. The ends will either attract or repel. Continue trying all combinations of rods and ends until two ends repel each other. Then the two rods used in that case are the magnets.

15.

No, you cannot set a resting electron into motion with a magnetic field (no matter how big the field is). A magnetic field can only put a force on a moving charge. Thus, with no force (which means no acceleration), the velocity of the electron will not change—it will remain at rest. However, you can set a resting electron into motion with an electric field. An electric field will put a force on any charged particle, moving or not. Thus, the electric force can cause the electron to accelerate from rest to a higher speed.

16.

The particle will move in an elongating helical path in the direction of the electric field (for a positive charge). The radius of the helix will remain constant, but the pitch (see Problem 79) will increase, because the particle will accelerate along the electric field lines.

17.

Yes. One possible situation is that the magnetic field is parallel or antiparallel to the velocity of the charged particle. In this case, the magnetic force would be zero, and the particle would continue moving in a straight line. Another possible situation is that there is an electric field with a magnitude and direction (perpendicular to the magnetic field) such that the electric and magnetic forces on the particle cancel each other out. The net force would be zero and the particle would continue moving in a straight line.

18.

No. A moving charged particle can be deflected sideways with an electric field that points perpendicular to the direction of the velocity, even when the magnetic field in the region is zero.

19.

Consider that the two wires are both horizontal, with the lower one carrying a current pointing east and with the upper one carrying a current pointing north. The magnetic field from the upper wire points downward on the east half of the lower wire and points upward on the west half of the lower wire. Using the right-hand rule on the east half of the lower wire, where the magnetic field is downward, the force points to the north. Using the right-hand rule on the west half of the lower wire, where the magnetic field is upward, the force points to the south. Thus, the lower wire experiences a counterclockwise torque about the vertical direction due to the magnetic forces from the upper wire. This torque is attempting to rotate the two wires so that their currents are parallel. Likewise, the upper wire would experience a clockwise torque tending to align the currents in the wires.

20.

(a)

(b)

21.

The current in the lower wire is pointing in the opposite direction of the current in the upper wire. If the current in the lower wire is toward the north, then it creates a magnetic field pointing east at the upper wire. Using the right-hand rule, the current of the upper wire must be pointing toward the south so that the magnetic force created on it is upward. No, the lower wire is not stable. If the lower wire falls away from the upper wire, then the upward magnetic force on it will weaken, and there will be a net downward force on the wire. It would continue to fall away. Also, if the lower wire were to be moved toward the upper wire, the upward magnetic force on it would increase, and the lower wire would accelerate upward.

The equation for the magnetic field strength inside a solenoid is given by B = (a) (b) (c)

μ0 NI

, Eq. 20–8. A The magnetic field strength is not affected if the diameter of the loops doubles. The equation shows that the magnetic field is independent of the diameter of the solenoid.

If the spacing between the loops doubles, then the length of the solenoid would increase by a factor of 2, so the magnetic field strength would also decrease by a factor of 2. If the solenoid’s length is doubled along with the doubling of the total number of loops, then the number of loops per unit length remains the same, and the magnetic field strength is not affected.

20-4

Chapter 20

22.

To design a relay, place the iron Springy Car battery rod inside of a solenoid and then Pivot Solenoid point one end of the solenoid/rod Piece Large current of combination at the piece of iron on Iron Rod circuit Iron a pivot. A spring normally holds the piece of iron away from a switch, making an open circuit Small current Starter where current cannot flow. When circuit for the relay is activated with a small dashboard switch current, a relatively strong magnetic field is created inside the solenoid, which aligns most of the magnetic domains in the iron rod and produces a strong magnetic field at the end of the solenoid/rod combination. This magnetic field attracts the piece of iron on the springy pivot, which causes it to move toward the switch, connecting it and allowing current to flow through the large current circuit.

23.

The two ions will come out of the velocity selector portion of the mass spectrometer at the same speed, since υ = E /B. Once the charges reach the area of the mass spectrometer where there is only a magnetic field, the difference in the ions’ charges will have an effect. Eq. 20–12 for the mass spectrometer says that m = qBB ′r /E , which can be rearranged as r = mE /qBB′. Since every quantity in the equation is constant except q, the doubly ionized ion will hit the film at a half of the radius as the singly ionized ion.

24.

The magnetic domains in the unmagnetized piece of iron are initially pointing in random directions, as in Fig. 20–42a (which is why it appears to be unmagnetized). When the south pole of a strong external magnet is brought close to the random magnetic domains of the iron, many of the domains will rotate slightly so that their north poles are closer to the external south pole, which causes the unmagnetized iron to be attracted to the magnet. Similarly, when the north pole of a strong external magnet is brought close to the random magnetic domains of the iron, many of the domains will rotate slightly so that their south poles are closer to the external north pole, which causes the unmagnetized iron to now be attracted to the magnet. Thus, either pole of a magnet will attract an unmagnetized piece of iron.

25.

Initially, both the nail and the paper clip have all of their magnetic domains pointing in random directions (which is why they appear to be unmagnetized). Thus, when you bring them close to each other, they are not attracted to or repelled from each other. Once the nail is in contact with a magnet (let’s say the north pole), many of the nail’s domains will align in such a way that the end of the nail that is touching the magnet becomes a south pole, due to the strong attraction, and the opposite end of the nail then becomes a north pole. Now, when you bring the nail close to the paper clip, there are mainly north poles of nail domains close to the paper clip, which causes some of the domains in the paper clip to align in such a way that the end near the nail becomes a south pole. Since the nail’s domains are only partially aligned, it will not be a strong magnet and thus the alignment of the paper clip’s domains will be even weaker. The attraction of the paper clip to the nail will be weaker than the attraction of the nail to the magnet.

Responsess to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(a, b, d, e) A common misconception is that only permanent magnets (such as a magnet and the Earth) create magnetic fields. However, moving charges and electric currents also produce magnetic fields. Stationary charges, ordinary pieces of iron, and other pieces of metal do not create magnetic fields.

Magnetism

20-5

(c)

It is common to confuse the directions of the magnetic fields with electric fields and thus indicate that the magnetic field points toward or away from the current. Since the current is flowing into the page, the right-hand rule indicates that the magnetic field is in the clockwise direction around the current. At point A the field points downward.

(b)

The right-hand rule indicates that the magnetic field is clockwise around the current, so at point B the current is to the left.

(a)

The charged particle only experiences a force when it has a component of velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field. When it moves parallel to the field, it follows a straight line at constant speed.

(c)

Electric fields are created by charged objects whether the charges are moving or not. Magnetic fields are created by moving charged objects. Since the proton is charged and moving, it creates both an electric field and a magnetic field.

(a)

A stationary charged particle does not experience a force in a magnetic field. Therefore, the particle must be moving to experience a force. The force is a maximum when the particle is moving perpendicular to the field, not parallel to the field. Since the force is perpendicular to the motion of the particle, it acts as a centripetal force, changing the particle’s direction but not its kinetic energy. That is, since the force is perpendicular to the motion, it does no work on the particle. The direction of the force is always perpendicular to the direction of motion and also perpendicular to the magnetic field.

(c)

Section 20–5 shows that the magnetic field from a current is directed circularly around the wire, is proportional to the current flowing in the wire, and is inversely proportional to the distance from the wire. A constant current produces a magnetic field, so the current does not need to be changing.

(e)

It is common to confuse the direction of electric fields (which point toward or away from the charges) with magnetic fields, which always make circles around the current.

(c)

A common misconception is that a force always does work on the object. Since the magnetic force is perpendicular to the velocity of the proton, the force acts as a centripetal force, changing the proton’s direction, but not doing any work and thus not changing its kinetic energy.

10.

(a)

A common misconception is that a constant magnetic field can change the magnitude of the particle’s velocity. However, the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the velocity, so it can do no work on the particle. The magnetic force only serves as a centripetal force to change the particle’s direction.

11.

(e)

Equation 20–3 shows that the magnetic force depends upon the particle’s charge, its velocity, and the strength of the external magnetic field. The direction of the force is always perpendicular to the magnetic field and the velocity of the particle. Therefore, all four statements are accurate.

12.

(c)

This question requires a consideration of Newton’s third law. The force that one wire exerts on a second must be equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to the force that the second exerts on the first.

20-6

Chapter 20

Solutions to Problems 1.

(a)

Use Eq. 20–1 to calculate the force with an angle of 90° and a length of 1 meter. F = I AB sin θ

(b)

→ F /A = IB sin θ = (6.40 A)(0.90 T) sin 90° = 5.8 N/m

Change the angle to 35.0°. F /A = IB sin θ = (6.40 A)(0.90 T) sin 35.0° = 3.3 N/m

Use Eq. 20–2. Fmax = I AB → I =

Fmax 0.625 N = = 1.63 A AB (4.80 m)(8.00 × 10−2 T)

Use Eq. 20–1 to calculate the force. F = I AB sin θ = (120 A)(240 m)(5.0 × 10−5 T) sin 68° = 1.3 N

The dip angle is the angle between the Earth’s magnetic field and the current in the wire. Use Eq. 20–1 to calculate the force. F = I AB sin θ = (4.5 A)(2.6 m)(5.5 × 10−5 T) sin 41° = 4.2 × 10−4 N

To have the maximum force, the current must be perpendicular to the magnetic field, F F = 0.45 max to find the angle between the wire as shown in the first diagram. Use A A and the magnetic field, illustrated in the second diagram. Use Eq. 20–1. F F = 0.45 max A A

→ IB sin θ = 0.45IB → θ = sin

0.45 = 27°

wire

G B

wire

Use Eq. 20–2. The length of wire in the B field is the same as the diameter of the pole faces. Fmax = I AB → B =

−1

G B

Fmax 1.28 N = = 0.358 T IA (6.45 A)(0.555 m)

(a)

By the right-hand rule, the magnetic field must be pointing up, so the top pole face must be a south pole.

(b)

Use Eq. 20–2 to relate the maximum force to the current. The length of wire in the magnetic field is equal to the diameter of the pole faces. Fmax = I AB → I =

(c)

Fmax (8.50 × 10−2 N) = = 3.864 A ≈ 3.86 A AB (0.100 m)(0.220 T)

If the wire is tipped so that it points 10.0° downward, then the angle between the wire and the magnetic field is changed to 100.0°. But the length of wire now in the field has increased from A to A / cos10.0°. The net effect of the changes is that the force has not changed.

initial rotated

Finitial = I AB; Frotated = I (A / cos10.0°) B sin100.0° = I AB = Finitial = 8.50 × 10−2 N © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Magnetism

20-7

The magnetic force must be equal in magnitude to the force of gravity on the wire. The maximum magnetic force is applicable since the wire is perpendicular to the magnetic field. The mass of the wire is the density of copper times the volume of the wire. FB = mg I=

→ I AB = ρπ

ρπ d 2 g 4B

( 12 d )

→

(8.9 × 103 kg/m3 )π (1.00 × 10−3 m) 2 (9.80 m/s 2 ) 4(5.0 × 10−5 T)

= 1400 A

This answer does not seem feasible. The current is very large, and the resistive heating in the thin copper wire would probably melt it. 9.

The maximum magnetic force as given in Eq. 20–4 can be used since the velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field. Fmax = qυ B = (1.60 × 10−19 C)(7.75 × 105 m/s)(0.45 T) = 5.6 × 10−14 N By the right-hand rule, the force must be directed to the north.

10.

The magnetic force will cause centripetal motion, and the electron will move in a clockwise circular path if viewed in the direction of the magnetic field. The radius of the motion can be determined. Fmax = qυ B = m r=

υ2 r

→

mυ (9.11× 10−31 kg)(1.70 × 106 m/s) = = 1.51× 10−5 m qB (1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.640 T)

Assuming the magnetic field existed in a sharply defined region, the electron would make only onehalf of a rotation and then exit the field going in the opposite direction from which it came. 11.

In this scenario, the magnetic force is causing centripetal motion, so it must have the form of a centripetal force. The magnetic force is perpendicular to the velocity at all times for circular motion. Fmax = qυ B = m

υ2 r

→ B=

mυ (6.6 × 10−27 kg)(1.6 × 106 m/s) = = 0.24 T qr 2(1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.14 m)

12.

Since the charge is negative, the answer is the OPPOSITE of the result given from the right-hand rule applied to the velocity and magnetic field. (a) no force (b) downward (c) upward (d) inward, into the page (e) to the left (f) to the left

13.

The right-hand rule applied to the velocity and magnetic field would give the direction of the force. Use this to determine the direction of the magnetic field given the velocity and the force. (a) to the right (b) downward (c) into the page

20-8

14.

Chapter 20

The force on the electron due to the electric force must be the same magnitude as the force on the electron due to the magnetic force. FE = FB

→ qE = qυ B → υ =

E 7.7 × 103 V/m = = 1.027 × 106 m/s ≈ 1.0 × 106 m/s B 7.5 × 10−3 T

If the electric field is turned off, then the magnetic force will cause circular motion. FB = qυ B = m

15.

(a)

υ2

→ r=

The speed of the ion can be found using energy conservation. The electric potential energy of the ion becomes kinetic energy as it is accelerated. → qV = 12 mυ 2

Einitial = Efinal

υ= (b)

(6.6 × 10−27 kg)

υ2 r

→

mυ (6.6 × 10−27 kg)(5.99 × 105 m/s) = = 3.63 × 10−2 m ≈ 3.6 × 10−2 m qB 2(1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.340 T)

The period can be found from the speed and the radius. T=

(a)

= 5.99 × 105 m/s ≈ 6.0 × 105 m/s

Since the ion is moving perpendicular to the magnetic field, the magnetic force will be a maximum. That force will cause the ion to move in a circular path.

16.

→

2[2(1.60 × 10−19 C)](3700 V)

2qV = m

Fmax = qυ B = m

(c)

mυ (9.11× 10−31 kg)(1.027 × 106 m/s) = = 7.8 × 10−4 m qB (1.60 × 10−19 C)(7.5 × 10−3 T)

2π r

2π (3.63 × 10−2 m) 5.99 × 105 m/s

= 3.8 × 10−7 s

From Example 20–6, we have r =

rqB mυ . The kinetic energy is given by , so υ = m qB

r 2q2 B2 ⎛ rqB ⎞ = 12 mυ 2 = 12 m ⎜ , so we see that KE ∝ r 2 . ⎟ = 2m ⎝ m ⎠

(b)

The angular momentum of a particle moving in a circular path is L = mυ r. From Example 20–6, rqB mυ we have r = , so υ = . Combining these relationships gives the following. m qB L = mυ r = m

17.

rqB r = qBr 2 m

The kinetic energy of the proton can be used to find its velocity. The magnetic force produces centripetal acceleration, and from this the radius can be determined. KE

= 12 mυ 2

mυ r= = qB

→ υ= 2 KE m = qB

2 KE m 2 KE m = qB

qυ B =

mυ 2 r

→

2(1.5 × 106 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(1.67 × 10−27 kg) (1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.30 T)

= 0.59 m

Magnetism

18.

20-9

The magnetic field can be found from Eq. 20–4, and the direction is found from the right-hand rule. Remember that the charge is negative. Fmax = qυ B → B =

Fmax 6.2 × 10−13 N = = 1.4 T qυ (1.60 × 10−19 C)(2.8 × 106 m/s)

The direction would have to be east for the right-hand rule, applied to the velocity and the magnetic field, to give the proper direction of force. 19.

The kinetic energy is used to determine the speed of the particles, and then the speed can be used to determine the radius of the circular path, since the magnetic force is causing centripetal acceleration.

= 12 mυ 2 2mp

rp re

20.

→ υ=

mυ → r= = qB

2 KE m = qB

2m KE qB

qB 2me KE qB

1.67 × 10−27 kg

9.11× 10−31 kg

= 42.8

The velocity of each charged particle can be found using energy conservation. The electrical potential energy of the particle becomes kinetic energy as it is accelerated. Then, since the particle is moving perpendicularly to the magnetic field, the magnetic force will be a maximum. That force will cause the ion to move in a circular path, and the radius can be determined in terms of the mass and charge of the particle. Einitial = Efinal

Fmax = qυ B = m

→ qV = 12 mυ 2

1 2mdV B qd

rd = = rp 1 2mpV B qp 1 2mα V B qα

rα = = rp 1 2mpV B qp

21.

mυ 2 qυ B = r

2 KE m

→ r= md mp qd qp mα mp qα qp

2 1

4 2

→ υ=

mυ = qB

= 2

2qV m

2qV m = 1 2mV qB B q

→

rd = 2rp

rα = 2rp

The magnetic force produces an acceleration perpendicular to the original motion. If that acceleration is small, then it will produce a small deflection, and the original velocity can be assumed to always be perpendicular to the magnetic field. This leads to a constant perpendicular acceleration. The time that this (approximately) constant acceleration acts can be found from the original velocity υ and the distance traveled A. The starting speed in the perpendicular direction will be zero.

20-10

Chapter 20

F⊥ = ma⊥ = qυ B → a⊥ = d ⊥ = υ0⊥ t + 12 a⊥ t 2 =

qυ B m 2

1 2

qυ B ⎛ A ⎞ qBA 2 (18.5 × 10−9 C)(5.00 × 10−5 T)(1.50 × 103 m) 2 = = ⎜ ⎟ m ⎝υ ⎠ 2mυ 2(3.40 × 10−3 kg)(155 m/s)

= 1.97 × 10−6 m

This small distance justifies the assumption of constant acceleration. 22.

(a)

The discussion of the Hall effect in the text states that the Hall emf is proportional to the magnetic field causing the effect. We can use this proportionality to determine the unknown resistance. Since the new magnetic field is oriented 90° to the surface, the full magnetic field will be used to create the Hall potential. VHall′ B⊥′ = VHall B⊥

(b)

VHall′ B⊥ VHall

→ B⊥′ =

63 mV (0.10 T) = 0.61 T 12 mV sin 60°

(a)

The sign of the ions will not change the magnitude of the Hall emf but will determine the polarity of the emf.

(b)

The flow velocity corresponds to the drift velocity in the Hall effect relationship. VHall = υ Bd

24.

VHall′ 63 mV B⊥ = (0.10 T) = 0.53 T VHall 12 mV

When the field is oriented at 60° to the surface, the magnetic field, B sin 60°, is used to create the Hall potential. B⊥′ sin 60° =

23.

→ B⊥′ =

(a)

VHall (0.13 × 10−3 V) = = 0.56 m/s Bd (0.070 T)(0.0033 m)

The drift velocity is found from VHall = υd Bd .

υd = (b)

→ υ=

VHall (1.02 × 10−6 V) = = 4.722 × 10−5 m/s ≈ 4.7 × 10−5 m/s Bd (1.2 T)(0.018 m)

We now find the density by using Eq. 18–10. n=

I 15 A = − 19 − 3 eAυd (1.6 × 10 C)(1.0 × 10 m)(0.018 m)(4.722 × 10−5 m/s)

= 1.1× 1029 electrons/m3

25.

We assume that the jumper cable is a long straight wire and use Eq. 20–6. Bcable =

μ0 I (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(65 A) = = 2.889 × 10−4 T ≈ 2.9 × 10−4 T 2π r 2π (4.5 × 10−2 m)

Compare this with the Earth’s field of 0.5 × 10−4 T. Bcable /BEarth =

2.889 × 10−4 T 5.0 × 10−5 T

= 5.77, so the field of the cable is about 5.8 times that of the Earth.

Magnetism

26.

We assume that the wire is long and straight and use Eq. 20–6. Bwire =

27.

μ0 I 2π r

→ I=

2π rBwire

μ0

2π (0.12 m)(0.50 × 10−4 T) 4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A

= 30 A (2 significant figures)

Since the currents are parallel, the force on each wire will be attractive, toward the other wire. Use Eq. 20–7 to calculate the magnitude of the force. F2 =

28.

20-11

μ0 I1 I 2 (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A) (25 A) 2 (25 m) = 7.8 × 10−2 N, attractive A2 = 2π d 2π (0.040 m)

Since the force is attractive, the currents must be in the same direction, so the current in the second wire must also be upward. Use Eq. 20–7 to calculate the magnitude of the second current.

μ0 I1 I 2 A2 → 2π d 2π F2 d 2π 0.090 m I2 = = = 12.54 A ≈ 13 A upward (7.8 × 10−4 N/m) 7 − μ0 A 2 I1 4π × 10 T ⋅ m/A 28 A

F2 =

29.

To find the direction, draw a radius line from the wire to the field point. Then at the field point, draw a line perpendicular to the radius, directed so that the perpendicular line would be part of a counterclockwise circle. The relative magnitude is given by the length of the arrow. The farther a point is from the wire, the weaker the field.

30.

For the experiment to be accurate to ± 3.0%, the magnetic field due to the current in the cable must be less than or equal to 3.0% of the Earth’s magnetic field. Use Eq. 20–6 to calculate the magnetic field due to the current in the cable. Bcable =

μ0 I ≤ 0.030 BEarth 2π r

→ I≤

2π r (0.030 BEarth )

μ0

2π (1.00 m)(0.030)(0.50 × 10−4 T) 4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A

= 7.5 A

Thus the maximum allowable current is 7.5 A . 31.

The magnetic field at the loop due to the long wire is into the page and can be calculated by Eq. 20–6. The force on the segment of the loop closest to the wire is toward the wire, since the currents are in the same direction. The force on the segment of the loop farthest from the wire is away from the wire, since the currents are in the opposite direction. Because the magnetic field varies with distance, it is difficult to calculate the total force on either the left or right segments of the loop. Using the right-hand rule, the force on each small piece of the left segment of wire is to the left, and the force on each small piece of the right segment of wire is to the right. If left and right small pieces are chosen that are equidistant from the long wire, then the net force on those two small pieces is zero. Thus the total force on the left and right segments of wire is zero, so only the parallel segments need to be considered in the calculation. Use Eq. 20–7 to find the force. Fnet = Fnear − Ffar = =

⎛ 1 μ0 I1 I 2 μ II μ 1 ⎞ − A near − 0 1 2 A far = 0 I1 I 2 A ⎜ ⎟ 2π d near 2π d far 2π ⎝ d near dfar ⎠

⎛ ⎞ 4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A 1 1 −6 − (3.5 A) 2 (0.100 m) ⎜ ⎟ = 5.1× 10 N, toward wire 2π 0.030 m 0.080 m ⎝ ⎠

20-12

32.

Chapter 20

At the location of the compass, the magnetic field caused by the wire will point to the west, and the part of the Earth’s magnetic field that turns the compass is pointing due north. The compass needle will point in the direction of the NET magnetic field. Bwire

μ I (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(48 A) = 0 = = 5.33 × 10−5 T 2π r 2π (0.18 m)

G B net

G B Earth

G B wire

BEarth 4.5 × 10−5 T = tan −1 = 40° N of W (2 significant figures) Bwire 5.33 × 10−5 T G B wire The magnetic field due to the long horizontal wire points straight up at the point in question, and its magnitude is given by Eq. 20–6. The two fields are oriented as shown in the diagram. The net field is the vector sum of the two fields.

θ = tan −1

33.

Bwire

−7

μ I (4π × 10 T ⋅ m/A)(24.0 A) = 0 = = 2.40 × 10−5 T 2π r 2π (0.200 m)

44°

G B Earth

G B net

BEarth = 5.0 × 10−5 T Bnet x = BEarth cos 44° = 3.60 × 10−5 T

Bnet, y = Bwire − BEarth sin 44° = −1.07 × 10−5 T

2 2 −5 Bnet = Bnet T) 2 + (−1.07 × 10−5 T) 2 = 3.8 × 10−5 T x + Bnet y = (3.60 × 10

θ = tan −1 34.

Bnet x

−1.07 × 10−5 T 3.60 × 10−5 T

= 17° below the horizontal

(a)

μ0 I (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(2.5 × 109 protons/s)(1.60 × 10−19 C/proton) = = 5.3 × 10−17 T 2π r 2π (1.5 m)

If the currents are in the same direction, then the magnetic fields at the midpoint between the two currents will oppose each other, so their magnitudes should be subtracted. Bnet =

(b)

μ0 I1 μ0 I 2 (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A) − = (I − 25 A) = (2.0 × 10−5 T/A)(I − 25 A) 2π r1 2π r2 2π (0.010 m)

If the currents are in the opposite direction, then the magnetic fields at the midpoint between the two currents will reinforce each other, so their magnitudes should be added. Bnet =

36.

= tan −1

The stream of protons constitutes a current, whose magnitude is found by multiplying the proton rate by the charge of a proton. Then use Eq. 20–6 to calculate the magnetic field. Bstream =

35.

Bnet y

μ0 I1 μ0 I 2 (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A) + = (I + 25 A) = (2.0 × 10−5 T/A)(I + 25 A) 2π r1 2π r2 2π (0.010 m)

Using the right-hand rule, we see that if the currents flow in the same direction, then the magnetic fields will oppose each other between the wires and therefore can equal zero at a given point. Set the sum of the magnetic fields from the two wires equal to zero at the point 2.2 cm from the first wire and use Eq. 20–6 to solve for the unknown current. Bnet = 0 =

μ0 I1 μ0 I 2 − 2π r1 2π r2

→

⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 7.0 cm − 2.2 cm ⎞ I 2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ I1 = ⎜ ⎟ (2.0 A) = 4.4 A, same direction as other current 2.2 cm ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ r1 ⎠ © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Magnetism

37.

Use the right-hand rule to determine the direction of the magnetic field from each wire. Remembering that the magnetic field is inversely proportional to the distance from the wire, qualitatively add the magnetic field vectors. The magnetic field at point 2 is zero.

38.

(a)

20-13

We assume that the power line is long and straight and use Eq. 20–6. Bline =

μ0 I (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(95 A) = = 2.235 × 10−6 T ≈ 2.2 × 10−6 T 2π r 2π (8.5 m)

The direction at the ground, from the right-hand rule, is south. Compare this with the Earth’s field of 0.5 × 10−4 T, which points approximately north. Bline /BEarth =

2.235 × 10−6 T 0.5 × 10−4 T

= 0.0447

The field of the cable is about 4% that of the Earth. (b)

We solve for the distance where Bline = BEarth . Bline =

μ0 I = BEarth 2π r

→ r=

μ0 I

2π BEarth

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(95 A) 2π (0.5 × 10−4 T)

= 0.38 m ≈ 0.4 m

So about 0.4 m below the wire, the net B field would be 0, assuming that the Earth’s field points straight north at this location. 39.

The Earth’s magnetic field is present at both locations in the problem, and we assume that it is the same at both locations. The field east of a vertical wire must be pointing either due north or due south. The compass shows the direction of the net magnetic field, and it changes from 17° E of N to 32° E of N when taken inside. That is a “southerly” change (rather than a “northerly” change”), so the field due to the wire must be pointing due south. See the diagram, in which θ = 17°, θ + φ = 32°, and β + θ + φ = 180°. Thus φ = 15° and β = 148°. Use the G law of sines to find the magnitude of B wire and then use Eq. 20–6 to find the magnitude of the current. Bwire BEarth = sin φ sin β I = BEarth

→ Bwire = BEarth

sin φ μ0 I = sin β 2π r

G B Earth

θ BG

wire

G B net

→

sin φ 2π sin15° 2π r = (5.0 × 10−5 T) (0.120 m) = 14.65 A ≈ 15 A − sin β μ0 sin 148° 4π × 10 7 T ⋅ m/A

Since the field due to the wire is due south, the current in the wire must be downward. 40.

The fields created by the two wires will oppose each other, so the net field is the difference between the magnitudes of the two fields. The positive direction for the fields is taken to be into the page, so the closer wire creates a field in the positive direction, and the more distant wire creates a field in the negative direction. Let d be the separation distance of the wires. Bnet =

μ0 I μ0 I μ I⎛ 1 1 − = 0 ⎜ − 2π rcloser 2π rfarther 2π ⎝ rcloser rfarther

⎞ μ0 I ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟= 1 1 ⎠ 2π ⎜⎝ r − 2 d r + 2 d ⎟⎠

20-14

Chapter 20

⎞ μ0 I ⎛⎜ d ⎟ 2π ⎜ ( r − 1 d )( r + 1 d ) ⎟ ⎝

(4π × 10

−7

⎠

⎞ T ⋅ m/A)(24.5 A) ⎛ 0.0028 m ⎜ ⎟ 2π ⎝ (0.10 m − 0.0014 m)(0.10 m + 0.0014 m) ⎠

= 1.372 × 10−6 T ≈ 1.4 × 10−6 T

Compare this with the Earth’s field of 0.5 × 10−4 T. Bnet /BEarth =

1.372 × 10−6 T 0.5 × 10−4 T

= 0.027

The field of the wires is about 3% that of the Earth. 41.

The center of the third wire is 5.6 mm from the left wire and 2.8 mm from the right wire. The force on the near (right) wire will attract the near wire, since the currents are in the same direction. The force on the far (left) wire will repel the far wire, since the currents oppose each other. Use Eq. 20–7 to calculate the force per unit length. μ0 I1 I 2

Fnear = Fnear

A near

A far

42.

2π d near

2π d far

A near

μ0 I1 I 2

Ffar = Ffar

2π d near

μ0 I1 I 2 2π d far

A far =

→

4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A (25.0 A)(24.5 A) = 4.4 × 10 −2 N/m, attract (to the right) −3 2π 2.8 × 10 m →

4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A ( 25.0 A)( 24.5 A) = 2.2 × 10 −2 N/m, repel (to the left) 2π 5.6 × 10−3 m

Since the magnetic field from a current-carrying wire circles the wire, the individual field at point P from each wire is perpendicular G to the radial line from that wire to point P. We define B1 as the field G from the top wire and B 2 as the field from the bottom wire. We use Eq. 20–6 to calculate the magnitude of each individual field. B1 =

μ0 I (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(28 A) = = 9.333 × 10−5 T 2π r1 2π (0.060 m)

B2 =

μ0 I (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(28 A) = = 5.600 × 10−5 T 2π r2 2π (0.100 m)

We use the law of cosines to determine the angle that the radial line from each wire to point P makes with the vertical. Since the field is perpendicular to the radial line, this is the same angle that the magnetic fields make with the horizontal. ⎛ (0.060 m) 2 + (0.130 m) 2 − (0.100 m) 2 ⎞ ⎟⎟ = 47.7° ⎜ 2(0.060 m)(0.130 m) ⎝ ⎠ 2 2 2 ⎛ (0.100 m) + (0.130 m) − (0.060 m) ⎞ θ 2 = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 26.3° ⎜ 2(0.100 m)(0.130 m) ⎝ ⎠

θ1 = cos −1 ⎜

Magnetism

20-15

Using the magnitudes and angles of each magnetic field, we calculate the horizontal and vertical components, add the vectors, and calculate the resultant magnetic field and angle. Bnet x = B1 cos (θ1 ) − B2 cos θ 2 = (9.333 × 10−5 T) cos 47.7° − (5.600 × 10−5 T) cos 26.3° = 1.261× 10−5 T Bnet y = B1 sin (θ1 ) + B2 sin θ1 = (9.333 × 10−4 T) sin 47.7° + (5.600 × 10−5 T) sin 26.3° = 9.384 × 10−5 T 2 2 −5 B = Bnet, T) 2 + (9.384 × 10−5 T) 2 = 9.468 × 10−5 T x + Bnet, y = (1.261× 10

θ = tan −1

Bnet , y Bnet, y

= tan −1

8.379 × 10−5 T 1.126 × 10−5 T

= 82.3°

G B = 9.468 × 10−5 T at 82.3° ≈ 9.5 × 10−5 T at 82°

43.

The magnetic fields created by the individual currents will be at right angles to each other. The field due to the top wire will be to the right, and the field due to the bottom wire will be out of the page. Since they are at right angles, the net field is the hypotenuse of the two individual fields.

Bnet

⎛ μ0 I top = ⎜ ⎜ 2π rtop ⎝

⎞ ⎛ μ0 I bottom ⎞ 2 μ 4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A 2 2 = 0 I top + I bottom = (20.0 A) 2 + (12.0 A) 2 ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎝ 2π rbottom ⎠ 2 r 2 (0.100 m) π π ⎠

= 4.66 × 10−5 T

44.

Use Eq. 20–8 for the field inside a solenoid. B=

45.

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(460)(2.0 A) = 9.6 × 10−3 T 0.12 m

μ0 NI A

→ I=

BA (4.65 × 10−3 T)(0.300 m) = = 1.19 A μ0 N (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(935)

The field inside a solenoid is given by Eq. 20–8. B=

47.

Use Eq. 20–8 for the field inside a solenoid. B=

46.

μ0 NI

μ0 NI A

→ N=

BA (0.030 T)(0.42 m) = = 2.2 × 103 turns μ0 I (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(4.5 A)

The field due to the solenoid is given by Eq. 20–8. Since the field due to the solenoid is perpendicular to the current in the wire, Eq. 20–2 can be used to find the force on the wire segment. F = I wire A wire Bsolenoid = I wire A wire

μ0 NI solenoid A solenoid

= (22 A)(0.030 m)

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(38 A)(550) (0.15 m)

= 0.1156 N ≈ 0.12 N to the south

20-16

48.

Chapter 20

Since the mass of copper is fixed and the density is fixed, the volume of copper is fixed, and we designate it as VCu = mCu ρCu = A Cu ACu . We call the fixed voltage V0 . The magnetic field in the solenoid is given by Eq. 20–8. For the resistance, we used the resistivity-based definition from Eq. 18–3, with resistivity represented by ρ R Cu . B=

μ0 NI A sol

= μ0

N V0 N = μ0 A sol RCu A sol

ρ RCu

A Cu ACu

μ0V0 N ACu μ0V0 N mCu ρCu = ρ RCu A sol A Cu ρ RCu A sol A 2Cu

μ0V0 mCu ρCu N ρ R Cu A sol A 2Cu

The number of turns of wire is the length of wire divided by the circumference of the solenoid.

A Cu 2π rsol

→ B=

A Cu 2π rsol

μ0V0 mCu ρCu N μVm ρ μVm ρ 1 = 0 0 Cu Cu = 0 0 Cu Cu 2 2 A 2 r ρ RCu ρ πρ A sol A Cu A sol A Cu R Cu RCu sol sol A Cu

The first factor in the expression for B is made of constants, so we have B ∝

. Thus we A sol rsol A Cu want the wire to be short and fat. Also, the radius of the solenoid should be small and the length of the solenoid should be small.

49.

(a)

Each loop of wire produces a field along its axis, similar to Fig. 20–9. For path 1, with all the loops taken together, that symmetry leads to a magnetic field that is the same anywhere along the path and parallel to the path. One side of every turn of the wire is enclosed by path 1, so the enclosed current is NI . Apply Eq. 20–9.

∑ B& ΔA = μ0 NI (b)

→

B = μ0 NI /2π R

For path 2, each loop of wire pierces the enclosed area twice—once going up and once going down. Ampere’s law takes the direction of the current into account, so the net current through the area enclosed by path 2 is 0.

∑ B& ΔA = μ0 NI (c)

→ B(2π R ) = μ0 NI

→ B(2π R ) = 0 →

B=0

The field inside a toroid is not uniform. As seen in the result to part (a), the field varies inversely as the radius of the toroid, so B ∝

1 . The field is strongest at the inside wall of the toroid, and R

weakest at the outside wall. 50.

(a)

Ampere’s law (Eq. 20–9) says that along a closed path,

∑ B& ΔA = μ0 I encl . For the path, choose

a circle of radius r, centered on the center of the wire, greater than the radius of the inner wire and less than the radius of the outer cylindrical braid. Because the wire is long and straight, the magnetic field is tangent to the chosen path, so B& = B. The current enclosed is I.

μ0 I encl = ∑ B& ΔA = ∑ BΔA = B ∑ ΔA = B(2π r ) → B =

μ0 I 2π r

Magnetism

(b)

20-17

We make a similar argument, but now choose the path to be a circle of radius r, greater than the radius of the outer cylindrical braid. Because the wire and the braid are long and straight, the magnetic field is tangent to the chosen path, so B& = B. The current enclosed by the path is zero, since there are two equal but oppositely directed currents.

μ0 I encl = ∑ B& ΔA =∑ BΔA = B ∑ ΔA = B(2π r ) → B = 51.

μ0 I encl =0 2π r

If the face of the loop of wire is parallel to the magnetic field, then the angle between the perpendicular to the loop and the magnetic field is 90°. Use Eq. 20–10 to calculate the magnetic field strength.

τ = NIAB sin θ

→ B=

τ NIA sin θ

0.325 m ⋅ N (1)(5.70 A)(0.220 m)2 sin 90°

= 1.18 T

52.

From Eq. 20–10, we see that the torque is proportional to the current, so if the current drops by 12%, then the output torque will also drop by 12%. Thus the final torque is 0.88 times the initial torque.

53.

In Section 20–10, it is shown that the angular deflection of the galvanometer needle is proportional to the product of the current and the magnetic field. Thus if the magnetic field is decreased to 0.760 times its original value, then the current must be increased by dividing the original value by 0.760 to obtain the same deflection. (IB)initial = (IB )final

54.

(a)

→ I final =

I initial Binitial (53.0 μ A)Binitial = = 69.7 μ A Bfinal 0.760 Binitial

The torque is given by Eq. 20–10. The angle is the angle between the B field and the perpendicular to the coil face. ⎡ ⎛ 0.120 m ⎞2 ⎤ −5 −5 ⎟ ⎥ (5.50 × 10 T) sin 34.0° = 2.25 × 10 m ⋅ N 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝

τ = NIAB sin θ = 9(7.20 A) ⎢π ⎜ (b)

55.

In Example 20–13 it is stated that if the coil is free to turn, then it will rotate toward the orientation so that the angle is 0°. In this case, that means the north edge of the coil will rise, so that a perpendicular to its face will be parallel with the Earth’s magnetic field.

The radius and magnetic field values can be used to find the speed of the protons. The electric field is then found from the fact that the magnetic force must be the same magnitude as the electric force for the protons to have straight paths. qυ B = mυ 2 /r

→ υ = qBr /m

E = υ B = qB 2 r /m =

(1.60 × 10

−19

→ qE = qυ B →

FE = FB

C)(0.566 T) (6.10 × 10−2 m) 2

1.67 × 10−27 kg

= 1.87 × 106 V/m

The direction of the electric field must be perpendicular to both the velocity and the magnetic field and must be in the opposite direction to the magnetic force on the protons.

20-18

56.

Chapter 20

The magnetic force on the ions causes them to move in a circular path, so the magnetic force is a centripetal force. This results in the ion mass being proportional to the path’s radius of curvature. qυ B = mυ 2 /r → m = qBr /υ → m /r = qB /υ = constant = 76 u/22.8 cm m21.0 m21.6 76 u 76 u = → m21.0 = 70 u = → m21.6 = 72 u 21.0 cm 22.8 cm 21.6 cm 22.8 cm m21.9 m22.2 76 u 76 u = → m21.9 = 73 u = → m22.2 = 74 u 21.9 cm 22.8 cm 22.2 cm 22.8 cm

The other masses are 70 u, 72 u, 73 u, and 74 u. 57.

The location of each line on the film is twice the radius of curvature of the ion. The radius of curvature can be found from Eq. 20–12. m=

qBB ′r E

2r12 =

→ r=

mE qBB ′

→ 2r =

2mE qBB ′

2(12)(1.67 × 10−27 kg)(2.88 × 104 V/m) (1.60 × 10

2r13 = 1.690 × 10

−2

−19

C)(0.68 T)

= 1.560 × 10−2 m

2r14 = 1.820 × 10−2 m

The distances between the lines are the following. 2r13 − 2r12 = 1.690 × 10−2 m − 1.560 × 10−2 m = 1.11× 10−3 m ≈ 1.3 × 10−3 m 2r14 − 2r13 = 1.820 × 10−2 m − 1.690 × 10−2 m = 1.12 × 10−3 m ≈ 1.3 × 10−3 m

If the ions are doubly charged, then the value of q in the denominator of the expression would double, so the actual distances on the film would be halved. Thus the distances between the lines would also be halved. 2r13 − 2r12 = 8.451× 10−3 m − 7.801× 10−3 m = 6.5 × 10−4 m 2r14 − 2r13 = 9.101× 10−3 m − 8.451× 10−3 m = 6.5 × 10−4 m

58.

The velocity of the ions is found using energy conservation. The electrical potential energy of the ions becomes kinetic energy as they are accelerated. Then, since the ions move perpendicularly to the magnetic field, the magnetic force will be a maximum. That force will cause the ions to move in a circular path. qυ B =

59.

mυ 2 R

→ υ=

qBR m

q2 B2 R2 ⎛ qBR ⎞ qV = 12 mυ 2 = 12 m ⎜ = ⎟ 2m ⎝ m ⎠

→ m=

qR 2 B 2 2V

Since the particle is undeflected in the crossed fields, its speed is given by υ = E /B, as stated in Section 20–11. Without the electric field, the particle will travel in a circle due to the magnetic force. Using the centripetal acceleration, we can calculate the mass of the particle. Also, the charge must be an integer multiple of the fundamental charge. qυ B = m=

mυ 2 r

qBr

→ qBr neB 2 r n(1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.034 T) 2 (0.027 m) = = = n(3.3 × 10−27 kg) ≈ n(2.0 u) E (E /B ) 1.5 × 103 V/m

Magnetism

20-19

The particle has an atomic mass of a multiple of 2.0 u. The simplest two cases are that it could be a hydrogen-2 nucleus (called a deuteron) or a helium-4 nucleus (called an alpha particle): 60.

2 4 1 H, 2 He .

The particles in the mass spectrometer follow a semicircular path as shown in Fig. 20–41. A particle has a displacement of 2r from the point of entering the semicircular region to where it strikes the film. So if the separation of the two molecules on the film is 0.50 mm, then the difference in radii of the two molecules is 0.25 mm. The mass to radius ratio is the same for the two molecules. qυ B = mυ 2 /r

→ m = qBr /υ

⎛m⎞ ⎛m⎞ ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ⎝ r ⎠CO ⎝ r ⎠ N 2

→ m /r = constant

28.0106 u 28.0134 u = r r + 2.5 × 10−4 m

→

→ r = 2.5 m

The field inside the solenoid is given by Eq. 20–8 with μ0 replaced by the permeability of the iron.

61.

μ NI A

3000(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(380)(0.35 A) = 0.5 T (1.0 m)

We assume that the factor of 3000 only has 1 significant figure. The field inside the solenoid is given by Eq. 20–8 with μ0 replaced by the permeability of the iron.

62.

63.

μ NI A

→ μ=

BA (2.2 T)(0.38 m) = = 2.239 × 10−5 T ⋅ m/A ≈ 2.2 × 10−5 T ⋅ m/A ≈ 18μ0 NI (780)(48 A)

The magnetic permeability is found from the two fields. B μ = B0 μ0

B0 = μ0 nI ; B = μ nI ;

→ μ = μ0

B B0

Here is a data table with the given values as well as the calculated values of μ. For the graph, we have not plotted the last three data points so that the structure for low fields is seen. It would appear from the data that the value of μ is asymptotically approaching 0 for large fields.

B0 (10−4 T)

-4

μ (10 T-m/A)

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0

-4

B 0 (10 T)

0 0.13 0.25 0.50 0.63 0.78 1.0 1.3 1.9 2.5 6.3 13.0 130 1300 10000

B (T) 0 0.0042 0.01 0.028 0.043 0.095 0.45 0.67 1.01 1.18 1.44 1.58 1.72 2.26 3.15

μ (10−4 )(T-m/A) 4.06 5.03 7.04 8.58 15.3 56.5 64.8 66.8 59.3 28.7 15.3 1.66 0.218 0.040

20-20

64.

Chapter 20

(a)

Use Eq. 20–6 to calculate the field due to a long straight wire. BA at B =

μ0 I A (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(2.0 A) = = 2.667 × 10−6 T ≈ 2.7 × 10−6 T 2π rA to B 2π (0.15 m)

μ0 I B (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(4.0 A) = = 5.333 × 10−6 T ≈ 5.3 × 10−6 T 2π rB to A 2π (0.15 m)

(b)

BB at A =

(c)

The two fields are not equal and opposite. Each individual field is due to a single wire and has no dependence on the other wire. The magnitude of current in the second wire has nothing to do with the value of the field caused by the first wire. Use Eq. 20–7 to calculate the force per unit length on one wire due to the other wire. The forces are attractive since the currents are in the same direction.

(d)

Fon A due to B Fon B due to A μ0 I A I B (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A) (2.0 A)(4.0 A) = = = AA AB 2π d A to B 2π (0.15 m) = 1.067 × 10−5 N/m ≈ 1.1× 10−5 N/m

These two forces per unit length are equal and opposite because they are a Newton’s third law pair of forces. 65.

The magnetic force produces centripetal acceleration. qυ B = mυ 2 /r → mυ = p = qBr → B =

4.8 × 10−21 kg ⋅ m/s p = = 2.7 × 10−2 T qr (1.60 × 10−19 C)(1.1 m)

The magnetic field must point upward to cause an inward-pointing (centripetal) force that steers the protons clockwise. 66.

There will be no force on either the top or bottom part of the wire, because the current is either parallel to or opposite to the magnetic field. So the only force is on the left branch, which we define to be of length A. Since the current is perpendicular to the magnetic field, use Eq. 20–2. The magnetic field can be calculated by Eq. 20–8 for the magnetic field inside a solenoid. By the right-hand rule, the force on the left branch is up out of the page. ⎡ (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(700)(7.0 A) ⎤ ⎛ μ NI ⎞ F = I wire A wire B = I wire A wire ⎜ 0 solenoid ⎟ = (5.0 A)A wire ⎢ ⎥ 0.15 m ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎝ A solenoid ⎠ = 0.2A wire N (assuming A wire given in m)

67.

G FB

We assume that the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field is pointing due north. The Earth’s magnetic field also has the dip angle of 22°. The angle between the magnetic field and the eastward current is 90°. Use Eq. 20–1 to calculate the magnitude of the force. F = I AB sin θ = (330 A)(18 m)(5.0 × 10−5 T)sin 90°

68o

22o G B Earth

= 0.297 N ≈ 0.30 N

Using the right-hand rule with the eastward current and the Earth’s magnetic field, the force on the wire is northerly and 68° above the horizontal.

Magnetism

68.

From Example 20–6, we have r =

20-21

mυ p . The quantity mυ is the momentum, p, so r = . Thus qB qB

p = qBr .

69.

The airplane is a charge moving in a magnetic field. Since it is flying perpendicular to the magnetic field, Eq. 20–4 applies. Fmax = qυ B = (1280 ×10−6 C)(120 m/s)(5.0 × 10−5 T) = 7.7 × 10−6 N

70.

The field inside a solenoid is given by Eq. 20–8. B=

71.

μ0 NI

→ N=

BA (0.050 T)(0.32 m) = = 1989 ≈ 2.0 × 103 turns μ0 I (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(6.4 A)

The magnetic force must be equal in magnitude to the weight of the electron. mg = qυ B → υ =

(9.11× 10−31 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) mg = = 1.1× 10−6 m/s qB (1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.50 × 10−4 T)

The magnetic force must point upward, so by the right-hand rule and the negative charge of the electron, the electron must be moving west. 72.

(a)

The velocity of the ions is found using energy conservation. The electrical potential energy of the ions becomes kinetic energy as they are accelerated. Then, assuming the ions move perpendicularly to the magnetic field, the magnetic force will be a maximum. That force will cause the ion to move in a circular path. PE initial

= KE final

mυ r= = qB

(b)

2qV m = qB

2mV qB 2

→ υ=

2qV m

qυ B =

2(6.6 × 10−27 kg)(3200 V) 2(1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.240 T) 2

mυ 2 r

→

= 4.787 × 10−2 m ≈ 4.8 × 10−2 m

The period is the circumference of the circular path divided by the speed.

73.

→ qV = 12 mυ 2

2π r

2π =

2mV qB 2 2qV m

2π m 2π (6.6 × 10−27 kg) = = 5.5 × 10−7 s qB 2(1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.240 T)

The magnetic field at the center of the square is the vector sum of the magnetic field created by each current. Since the magnitudes of the currents are equal and the distance from each corner to the center is the same, the magnitude of the magnetic field from each wire is the same and is given by Eq. 20–6. The direction of the magnetic field is directed by the right-hand rule and is shown in the diagram. By symmetry, we see that the vertical components of the magnetic field cancel and the horizontal components add.

A © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

20-22

Chapter 20

G G G G G ⎛μ I⎞ B = B1 + B 2 + B3 + B 4 = 4 ⎜ 0 ⎟ cos 45° to the left ⎝ 2π r ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎜ μ I ⎟ 2 2 μ0 I 0 ⎟ = 4⎜ to the left = to the left πA ⎜ 2 ⎟ 2 A⎟ ⎜ 2π ⎝ 2 ⎠

74.

(a)

For the beam of electrons to be undeflected, the magnitude of the magnetic force must equal the magnitude of the electric force. We assume that the magnetic field will be perpendicular to the velocity of the electrons so that the maximum magnetic force is obtained. FB = FE

12,000 V/m 6

4.8 × 10 m/s

= 2.5 × 10−3 T

Since the electric field is pointing south, the electric force is to the north. Thus the magnetic force must be to the south. Using the right-hand rule with the negative electrons, the magnetic field must be vertically upward.

(c)

If the electric field is turned off, then the magnetic field will cause a centripetal force, moving the electrons in a circular path. The frequency is the cyclotron frequency, Eq. 20–5. (1.60 × 10−19 C)(12,000 V/m) qB qE = = = 7.0 × 107 Hz 2π m 2π mυ 2π (9.11× 10−31 kg)(4.8 × 106 m/s)

The protons will follow a circular path as they move through the region of magnetic field, with a radius of curvature given in mυ Example 20–6 as r = . Fast-moving protons will have a radius qB of curvature that is too large, so they will exit above the second tube. Likewise, slow-moving protons will have a radius of curvature that is too small, so they will exit below the second tube. Since the exit velocity is perpendicular to the radius line from the center of curvature, the bending angle can be calculated. sin θ =

A r A r

μ0 I 2r

r θ

AqB (5.0 × 10−2 m)(1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.41 T) = sin −1 = sin −1 0.7856 = 52° mv (1.67 × 10−27 kg)(2.5 × 106 m/s)

With one turn of wire, we have B =

→

θ = sin −1 = sin −1

76.

(b)

f =

75.

→ qυ B = qE → B =

→ I=

2rB

μ0

μ0 I 2r

. Use the radius of the Earth for r.

2(6.38 × 106 m)(1× 10−4 T) 4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A

= 1.015 × 109 A ≈ 1× 109 A

Magnetism

77.

20-23

The speed of the proton can be calculated based on the radius of curvature of the (almost) circular motion. From that the kinetic energy can be calculated. 2

qυ B =

mυ 2 r

ΔKE =

q2 B2 2 2 (1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 (0.010 T) 2 (r2 − r1 ) = [(8.5 × 10−3 m) 2 − (10.0 × 10−3 m) 2 ] −27 2m 2(1.67 × 10 kg)

→ υ=

qBr m

q2 B2r 2 ⎞ ⎟ = 2m ⎝ m ⎠

⎛ qBr 2 KE = 1 mυ = 1 m ⎜ 2

= −2.1× 10−20 J or − 0.13 eV

78.

There are three forces on each wire—its weight, the magnetic force of repulsion from the other wire, and the tension in the attached string. See the diagram. The magnetic force is given by Eq. 20–7. The mass of the wire is its density times its volume. The length of the current-carrying wires is A. The net force in both the vertical and horizontal directions is zero. FB = FT sin θ ; FT cos θ = mg

→ FT =

mg cos θ

FB =

mg 2 sin θ = mg tan θ = ρ Alπ rAl Ag tan θ cos θ

FB =

μ0 I 2 μ0 I 2 2 A → A = ρ Alπ rAl Ag tan θ 2π S 2π S

2 g tan θ 2π S ρ Alπ rAl

μ0

G FB

G θ F T

G mg

→

2π [2(0.50 m) sin 3°](2700 kg/m3 )π (2.1× 10−4 m) 2 (9.8 m/s 2 ) tan 3°

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)

= 7.1 A

79.

The centripetal force is caused by the magnetic field and is given by Eq. 20–3. F = qυ B sin θ = qυ⊥ B = m r=

υ⊥2 r

→

mυ⊥ (9.11× 10−31 kg)(3.0 × 106 m/s) sin 45° = = 5.251× 10−5 m ≈ 5.3 × 10−5 m −19 qB (1.60 × 10 C)(0.23 T)

The component of the velocity that is parallel to the magnetic field is unchanged, so the pitch is that velocity component times the period of the circular motion.

2π r

υ⊥

2π =

mυ⊥ qB

υ⊥

2π m qB

⎛ 2π m ⎞ 2π (9.11× 10−31 kg) 6 = 3.3 × 10−4 m p = υ&T = υ cos 45° ⎜ ⎟ = (3.0 × 10 m/s) cos 45° −19 qB (1.60 × 10 C)(0.23 T) ⎝ ⎠

80.

The maximum torque is found using Eq. 20–10 with sin θ = 1. Set the current equal to the voltage divided by the resistance and the area as the square of the side length. ⎛ 9.0 V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ 2 2 −4 ⎟ (0.050 m) (0.020 T) = 3.2 × 10 m ⋅ N ⎟ A B = 20 ⎜ R 28 Ω ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

τ = NIAB = N ⎜

20-24

81.

Chapter 20

We find the speed of the electron using conservation of energy. The accelerating potential energy becomes the kinetic energy of the electron. eV = 12 mυ 2

υ=

→

2eV = m

2(2200 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) (9.11× 10−31 kg)

= 2.78 × 107 m/s

Upon entering the magnetic field, the electron is traveling horizontally. The magnetic field will cause the path of the electron to be an arc of a circle of radius r and deflect an angle θ from the horizontal. While in the field, the electron will travel a horizontal distance d and a vertical distance h0 . Our approximation will be to ignore the distance h0 . We have the following relationships. h d mυ ; sin θ = ; r = → A r eB h 11 cm d 0.038 m θ = tan −1 = tan −1 = 26.6°; r = = = 0.0849 m A 22 cm sin θ sin 26.6° tan θ =

82.

mυ (9.11× 10−31 kg)(2.78 × 107 m/s) = = 1.86 × 10−3 T ≈ 1.9 × 10−3 T er (1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.0849 m)

The magnetic field from the wire at the location of the plane is perpendicular to the velocity of the plane since the plane is flying parallel to the wire. We calculate the force on the plane, and thus the acceleration, using Eq. 20–4, with the magnetic field of the wire given by Eq. 20–6. F = qυ B = qυ a=

μ0 I 2π r

F qυ μ0 I (18.0 × 10−3 C)(3.4 m/s)(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(25 A) = = m m 2π r 2π (0.175 kg)(0.086 m)

⎛ 1g = 2.033 × 10−5 m/s 2 ⎜ ⎜ 9.80 m/s 2 ⎝

83.

⎞ −6 ⎟⎟ = 2.1× 10 g's ⎠

Since the magnetic and gravitational force along the entire rod is uniform, we consider the two forces acting at the center of mass of the rod. To be balanced, the net torque about the fulcrum must be zero. Using the usual sign convention for torques and Eq. 8–10a, we solve for the magnetic force on the rod.

∑τ = 0 = Mg ( 14 A ) − mg ( 14 A ) − FM ( 14 A )

→ FM = (M − m)g

We solve for the current using Eq. 20–2. I=

F (M − m)g (6.0m − m)g 5.0mg = = = AB AB AB AB

The right-hand rule indicates that the current must flow toward the left since the magnetic field is into the page and the magnetic force is downward.

Magnetism

84.

20-25

The magnetic force will produce centripetal acceleration. Use that relationship to calculate the speed. The radius of the Earth is 6.38 × 106 km, and the altitude is added to that. FB = qυ B = m

υ2 r

→ υ=

qrB (1.60 × 10−19 C)(6.385 × 106 m)(0.50 × 10−4 T) = = 1.3 × 108 m/s −27 m 238(1.66 × 10 kg)

Compare the size of the magnetic force to the force of gravity on the ion. FB qυ B (1.60 × 10−19 C)(1.3 × 108 m/s)(0.50 × 10−4 T) = = = 2.7 × 108 Fg mg 238(1.66 × 10−27 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) It is fine to ignore gravity—the magnetic force is almost 300 million times larger than gravity. 85.

(a)

For the particle to move upward, the magnetic force must point upward; by the right-hand rule we see that the force on a positively charged particle would be downward. Therefore, the charge on the particle must be negative.

(b)

In the figure we have created a right triangle to relate the horizontal distance A, the displacement d, and the radius of curvature, r. Using the Pythagorean theorem we can write an expression for the radius in terms of the other two distances. r 2 = (r − d ) 2 + A 2

→ r=

d 2 + A2 2d

Since the momentum is perpendicular to the magnetic field, we can solve for the momentum by relating the maximum force (Eq. 20–4) to the centripetal force on the particle. Fmax = qυ B0 =

86.

mυ 2 r

→

p = mυ = qB0 r =

qB0 (d 2 + A 2 ) 2d

Example 18–10 estimates the current in a lightning bolt at 100 A. Use Eq. 20–2, with the Earth’s magnetic field. We estimate the flag pole as being 65 m tall. F = I AB = (100 A)(6 m)(0.5 × 10−4 T) = 0.03 N

87.

The accelerating force on the bar is due to the magnetic force on the current. If the current is constant, then the magnetic force will be constant, so constant-acceleration kinematics (Eq. 2–11c) can be used.

υ 2 = υ02 + 2aΔx → a =

Fnet

υ 2 − υ02

υ2

2Δx 2Δx ⎛ υ2 ⎞ m⎜ ⎜ 2Δx ⎟⎟ 2 2 −3 ma ⎠ = mv = (1.5 × 10 kg)(28 m/s) = 1.2 A = ma = I AB → I = = ⎝ AB AB 2ABΔx 2(0.28 m)(1.7 T)(1.0 m)

Using the right-hand rule, for the force on the bar to be in the direction of the acceleration shown in Fig. 20–71, the magnetic field must be down.

20-26

88.

Chapter 20

(a)

The frequency of the voltage must match the frequency of circular motion of the particles so that the electric field is synchronized with the circular motion. The radius of each circular orbit is mυ . For an object moving in circular motion, the period is given given in Example 20–6 as r = qB by T = T=

(b)

2π r

, and the frequency is the reciprocal of the period.

2π r

→

f =

A υ Bq = = T 2π mυ 2π m qB

In particular, we note that this frequency is independent of the radius, so the same frequency can be used throughout the acceleration. This frequency is also given as Eq. 20–5. For a small gap, the electric field across the gap will be approximately constant and uniform as the particles cross the gap. If the motion and the voltage are synchronized so that the maximum voltage occurs when the particles are at the gap, then the particles receive an energy increase of KE = qV0 as they pass each gap. The energy gain from one revolution will include the passing of two gaps, so the total KE increase is 2qV0 .

(c)

The maximum kinetic energy will occur at the outside of the cyclotron.

υ=

rqB m 2

KE max

⎛ r qB ⎞ 2 = 12 mυmax = 12 m ⎜ max ⎟ = ⎝ m ⎠ ⎛ 1 eV = 7.66 × 10−12 J ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝

89.

(a)

2 2 2 1 rmax q B 2 m

1 2

(2.0 m) 2 (1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 (0.50 T) 2 1.67 × 10−27 kg

⎞⎛ 1 MeV ⎞ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎟ = 48 MeV 6 J ⎟⎜ ⎠⎝ 10 eV ⎠

The forces on wire M due to the other wires are repelling forces, away from the other wires. Use Eq. 20–7 to calculate the force per unit length on wire M due to each of the other wires and then add the force vectors together. The horizontal parts of the forces cancel, and the sum is vertical. FM net y AM =

G FMP 30o 30o

G FMN

FMN F cos 30° + MP cos 30° AM AM

μ0 I M I N μ I I cos 30° + 0 M P cos 30° 2π d MN 2π d MP

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A) (8.00 A) 2 cos 30° = 5.8 × 10−4 N/m, upward 2π (0.038 m)

The forces on wire N due to the other wires are an attractive force toward wire P and a repelling force away from wire M. Use Eq. 20–7 to calculate the force per unit length on wire N due to each of the other wires and then add the force vectors together. From symmetry, we expect the net force to lie exactly between the two individual force vectors, which is 60° below the horizontal.

G FNP G FNM

90o o

Magnetism

FN net y = − FNM cos 30° = − =−

20-27

μ0 I M I N cos 30° 2π d MN

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A) (8.00 A) 2 cos 30° = −2.917 × 10−4 N/m 2π (0.038 m)

FN net x = − FNM sin 30° + FNP =−

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A) (8.00 A) 2 (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A) (8.00 A) 2 sin 30° + 2π (0.038 m) 2π (0.038 m)

= 1.684 × 10−5 N/m FN net = FN2 net x + FN2 net y = 3.4 ×10−4 N/m θ = tan −1

FN net y FN net x

= tan −1

−2.917 = 300° 1.684

The forces on wire P due to the other wires are an attractive force toward wire N and a repelling force away from wire M. Use Eq. 20–7 to calculate the force per unit length on wire P due to each of the other wires and then add the force vectors together. From symmetry, this is just a mirror image of the previous solution, so the net force is as follows. FP net = 3.4 × 10−4 N/m (b)

30o

G BP

G G G G B net = B M + B N + B P

BP =

G FPM

90o

θ = 240°

There will be three magnetic fields to sum—one from each wire. Each field will point perpendicularly to the line connecting the wire to the midpoint. The two fields due to M and N are drawn slightly separated from each other, but should be collinear. The magnitude of each field is given by Eq. 20–6.

BM = BN =

G FPN

μ0 I (4π × 10−7 Τ ⋅ m/A) 8.00 A = = 8.421× 10−5 T 2π rM 2π 0.019 m

μ0 I (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A) 8.00 A = = 4.862 × 10−5 T 2π rP 2π 3(0.019 m)

60o 30o G BM G BN P

Bnet x = 2 BM cos 30° + BP cos 60° = 2(8.421× 10−5 T) cos 30° + (4.862 × 10−5 T)cos 60° = 1.702 × 10−4 T Bnet y = −2 BM sin 30° + BP sin 60° = −2(8.421× 10−5 T) sin 30° + (4.862 × 10−5 T)sin 60° = −4.210 × 10−5 T 2 2 −4 Bnet = Bnet T) 2 + (− 4.210 × 10−5 T) = 1.75 × 10−4 T x + Bnet y = (1.702 × 10

θ net = tan −1

Bnet y Bnet x

= tan −1

−4.210 × 10−5 T 1.702 × 10−4 T

= −14°

The net field points slightly below the horizontal direction. 90.

Each of the bottom wires will repel the top wire since each bottom current is opposite to the top current. The repelling forces will be along the line directly from the bottom wires to the top wires. Only the vertical components of those forces will be counteracting gravity. Use Eq. 20–7 to calculate the magnetic forces. The mass of the wire is its density times its volume. The length of the wire is represented by A.

G FB

30o 30o

G FB

G mg

20-28

Chapter 20

mg = 2 FB cos 30° → ρCu Aπ

ρCu π 2 ( 12 d Cu ) dg 2

I Cu =

μ0 I bottom cos 30°

( 12 dCu )

g=2

μ0 I bottom I Cu

2π

A cos 30° →

(8900 kg/m3 )π 2 (5.0 × 10−4 m) 2 (0.038 m)(9.80 m/s 2 ) (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(75 A)( cos 30°)

= 100.2 A ≈ 1.0 × 102 A

91.

We approximate the magnetic field by using Eq. 20–6. The current is found from Eq. 18–5. I=

P V

→ B=

μ0 I μ P (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A) (46 × 106 W) = 0 = = 2.949 × 10−6 T ≈ 2.9 × 10−6 T 5 2π r 2π r V 2π (13 m) (2.4 × 10 V)

Bwire 2.949 × 10−6 T = = 5.90 × 10−2 ≈ 6% BEarth 5 × 10−5 T

The power line is almost certainly AC, so the voltage, power, current, and the magnitude of the magnetic field are most likely rms values. 92.

The net magnetic field is the vector sum of the magnetic fields produced by each current-carrying wire. Since the individual magnetic fields encircle the wire producing it, the field is perpendicular to the radial line from the wire to point P. We G G let B1 be the field from the left wire and B 2 designate the field from the right wire. The magnitude of the magnetic field vectors is calculated from Eq. 20–6. B1 =

μ0 I (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(19.2 A) = = 3.2000 × 10−5 T 2π r1 2π (0.12 m)

B2 =

μ0 I (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(19.2 A) = = 2.9538 × 10−5 T 2π r2 2π (0.13 m)

θ2

We use the law of cosines to determine the angle that the radial line from each wire to point P makes with the horizontal. Since the magnetic fields are perpendicular to the radial lines, these angles are the same as the angles the magnetic fields make with the vertical. ⎛ (0.12 m) 2 + (0.082 m) 2 − (0.13 m) 2 ⎞ ⎟⎟ = 77.606° ⎜ 2(0.12 m)(0.082 m) ⎝ ⎠ 2 2 2⎞ ⎛ (0.13 m) + (0.082 m) − (0.12 m) θ 2 = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 64.364° ⎜ 2(0.13 m)(0.082 m) ⎝ ⎠

θ1 = cos −1 ⎜

Using the magnitudes and angles of each magnetic field, we calculate the horizontal and vertical components, add the vectors, and calculate the resultant magnetic field and angle. Bnet x = − B1 sin (θ1 ) − B2 sin θ 2 = −(3.2000 × 10−5 T)sin 77.606° − (2.9538 × 10−5 T) sin 64.364° = −57.88 × 10−6 T Bnet y = B1 cos (θ1 ) − B2 cos θ1 = (3.2000 × 10−5 T) cos 77.606° − (2.9538 × 10−5 T) cos 64.364° = −5.911× 10−6 T © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Magnetism

20-29

2 2 −6 B = Bnet T)2 + (−5.911× 10−6 T) 2 = 5.82 × 10−5 T x + Bnet y = (−57.88 × 10

θ = tan −1

Bnet y Bnet x

= tan −1

−5.911× 10−6 T −57.88 × 10−6 T

= 5.83°

G B = 5.82 × 10−5 T at 5.83° below the negative x axis

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

There are three magnetic force equations given in this chapter. (i)

(ii)

F = I AB sin θ

F = qυ B sin θ

This is the force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field. The current is measured in amperes, the length in meters, and the magnetic field in teslas. A tesla is equivalent to a newton per ampere per meter. ⎛ N ⎞ (A)(m)(T) = (A)(m) ⎜ ⎟ = (N) ⎝ A⋅m ⎠ This is the force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field. The charge is measured in coulombs, the velocity in meters per second, and the magnetic field in teslas.

⎛m⎞ ⎛C⎞ ⎛ N ⎞ (C) ⎜ ⎟ (T) = ⎜ ⎟ (m)(T) = (A)(m) ⎜ ⎟ = (N) s s ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ A⋅m ⎠

(iii)

μ0 I1 I 2 A2 2π d

This is the force between two parallel currents—specifically, the force on a length A 2 of the wire carrying current I 2 , due to another wire carrying current I1. The permeability of free space has units of T ⋅ m/A. ⎛ T ⋅ m ⎞ (A)(A) ⎛ N ⎞ (m) = (T ⋅ m)(A) = ⎜ ⋅ m ⎟ (A) = (N) ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ A ⎠ (m) ⎝ A⋅m ⎠

(a) (b) (c)

The electron, a negative particle, accelerates opposite the direction of the electric field. Therefore, for the electron to accelerate east, the electric field should point to the west. By the right-hand rule, the magnetic field must point upward for the magnetic force on a northmoving electron to point westward. For the electron to not accelerate, the magnetic force must be equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the electric force. Set the magnitudes of the forces from Eq. 16–5 and Eq. 20–4 equal and solve for the magnetic field. The direction of the field is upward.

qE = qυ B → B = (d)

(e)

330 V/m 3.0 × 104 m/s

= 0.011 T

If the electron is moving faster, then the magnetic force will be greater than the electric force and the electron will accelerate westward. If it is moving slower, then the magnetic force will be smaller than the electric force and the electron will accelerate eastward. The two forces must be equal and opposite for the particle to travel undeflected. The ratio of the electric to magnetic field can be calculated by setting the forces equal. E = υ = 5.5 × 104 m/s B The value of B cannot be determined unless the value of E is known. qE = qυ B →

20-30

Chapter 20

(a)

In Example 20–6, the radius of curvature for an electron in a uniform magnetic field was shown to be r = mυ /qB. If the kinetic energy (and therefore the speed) of the particle remains constant as the magnetic field doubles, then the radius of curvature is cut in half. The angular momentum of a particle is given by L = mυ r , so if the speed remains constant as the radius of curvature decreases, the angular momentum will be cut in half.

(b)

The magnetic dipole moment is defined in Eq. 20–11 as M = NIA. The number of turns, N, is 1. The current is the charge per unit time passing a given point, which on the average is the charge on the electron divided by the period of the circular motion, I = e /T . If we assume that the electron is moving in a circular orbit of radius r, then the area is A = π r 2 . The period of the motion is the circumference of the orbit divided by the speed, T = 2π r /υ . Finally, the angular momentum of an object moving in a circle is given by L = mυ r. Combining these relationships gives the magnetic moment in terms of the angular momentum. M = NIA =

(a)

e 2 e eπ r 2υ erυ emυ r e e = = = mυ r = L πr = π r2 = T 2π r /υ 2π r 2 2m 2m 2m

The left current creates a field on the x axis that points in the positive y direction, and the right current creates a field on the x axis pointing in the negative y direction. If the distance from the left wire to a point on the positive x axis is x, then the distance from the right wire to that same point is d − x. We can write the net magnetic field, taking upward as positive, using Eq. 20–6. Bnet =

μ0 I μ0 I μ I ⎛1 1 ⎞ μ0 I ⎛ d − 2 x ⎞ − = 0 ⎜ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟= 2π x 2π (d − x) 2π ⎝ x d − x ⎠ 2π ⎝ x(d − x) ⎠

(b)

Using the configuration shown in Fig. 20–76, the downward electric field puts a force on the charged particles. Positive charges are accelerated downward, and negative particles are accelerated upward. As the ions move vertically, perpendicularly to the magnetic field, the magnetic field now puts a force on them. Using “right-hand rule 1,” we see that both charges of ions experience a force out of the page, which is parallel to the axis of the blood vessel.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND FARADAY’S LAW

Responses to Questions 1.

The advantage of using many turns ( N = large number) in Faraday’s experiments is that the emf and induced current are proportional to N, which makes it easier to experimentally measure those quantities. Many turns in the primary coil will make a larger magnetic flux, and many turns in the output coil will produce a larger output voltage and current.

Magnetic flux is proportional to the total number of magnetic field lines passing through an enclosed loop area: Φ B = BA cos θ , so the flux is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field. The magnetic flux depends not only on the field itself, but also on the area and on the angle between the field and the area. Thus, they also have different units (magnetic field = tesla = T; magnetic flux = T ⋅ m 2 = Wb). Another difference is that magnetic field is a vector, but magnetic flux is a scalar.

(a)

(b)

(c)

A current is induced in the ring when you move the south pole toward the ring. An emf and current are induced in the ring due to the changing magnetic flux. As the magnet gets closer to the ring, more magnetic field lines are going through the ring. Using Lenz’s law and the righthand rule, the direction of the induced current when you bring the south pole toward the ring is clockwise. In this case, the number of magnetic field lines coming through the loop and pointing toward you is increasing (remember that magnetic field lines point toward the south pole of the magnet). The induced current in the loop will oppose this change in flux and will attempt to create magnetic field lines through the loop that point away from you. A clockwise induced current will provide this opposing magnetic field. A current is not induced in the ring when the magnet is held steady within the ring. An emf and current are not induced in the ring since the magnetic flux through the ring is not changing while the magnet is held steady. A current is induced in the ring when you withdraw the magnet. An emf and current are induced in the ring due to the changing magnetic flux. As you pull the magnet out of the ring toward you, fewer magnetic field lines are going through the ring. Using Lenz’s law and the right-hand rule again, the direction of the induced current when you withdraw the south pole from the ring is counterclockwise. In this case, the number of magnetic field lines coming through the loop and pointing toward you is decreasing. The induced current in the loop will oppose this change in flux and will create more magnetic field lines through the loop that point toward you. A counterclockwise induced current will provide this opposing magnetic field.

21-1

21-2

Chapter 21

(a)

(b) 5.

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

The magnetic field through the loop due to the current-carrying wire will be into the page. As the wire loop is pulled away, the flux will decrease since the magnetic field is inversely proportional to the distance from the wire. Current will be induced to increase the inward magnetic field, which means that the induced current will be clockwise. If the wire loop is stationary but the current in the wire is decreased, then the inward magnetic field through the loop will again be decreasing, so again the induced current will be clockwise. There will be no magnetic field lines “piercing” the loop from top to bottom or vice versa. All of the field lines are parallel to the face of the loop. Thus there will be no magnetic flux in the loop and no change of flux in the loop, so there will be no induced current. Now, since the magnet is much thicker than the loop, there will be some field lines that pierce the loop from top to bottom. The flux will increase as the magnet gets closer, so a current will be induced that makes upward-pointing field lines through the loop. The current will be counterclockwise. Yes. As the battery is connected to the front loop and current starts to flow, it will create an increasing magnetic field that points away from you and down through the two loops. Because the magnetic flux will be increasing in the second loop, an emf and current will be induced in the second loop. The induced current in the second loop starts to flow as soon as the current in the front loop starts to increase and create a magnetic field (basically, immediately upon the connection of the battery to the front loop). The current in the second loop stops flowing as soon as the current in the front loop becomes steady. Once the battery has increased the current in the front loop from zero to its steady-state value, the magnetic field it creates is also steady. Since the magnetic flux through the second loop is no longer changing, the induced current goes to zero. The induced current in the second loop is counterclockwise. Since the increasing clockwise current in the front loop is causing an increase in the number of magnetic field lines down through the second loop, Lenz’s law states that the second loop will attempt to oppose this change in flux. To oppose this change, the right-hand rule indicates that a counterclockwise current will be induced in the second loop. Yes. Since both loops carry currents and create magnetic fields while the current in the front loop is increasing from the battery, each current will “feel” the magnetic field caused by the other loop. The force between the two loops will repel each other. The front loop is creating a magnetic field pointed toward the second loop. This changing magnetic field induces a current in the second loop to oppose the increasing magnetic field, and this induced current creates a magnetic field pointing toward the front loop. These two magnetic fields will act like two north poles pointing at each other and repel. We can also explain it by saying that the two currents are in opposite directions, and opposing currents exert a repelling force on each other.

Yes, a current will be induced in the second coil. It will start when the battery is disconnected from the first coil and stop when the current falls to zero in the first coil. The current in the second loop will be clockwise. All of the reasoning is similar to that given for Question 6, except now the current is decreasing instead of increasing.

(a)

The induced current in RA is to the right as coil B is moved toward coil A. As B approaches A, the magnetic flux through coil A increases (there are now more magnetic field lines in coil A pointing to the left). The induced emf in coil A creates a current to produce a magnetic field that opposes this increase in flux, with the field pointing to the right through the center of the coil. A current through RA to the right will produce this opposing field.

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

21-3

(b)

The induced current in RA is to the left as coil B is moved away from coil A. As B recedes from A, the magnetic flux through coil A decreases (there are now fewer magnetic field lines in coil A pointing to the left). The induced emf in coil A creates a current to produce a magnetic field that opposes this decrease in flux, pointing to the left through the center of the coil. A current through RA to the left will produce this opposing field.

(c)

The induced current in RA is to the left as RB in coil B is increased. As RB increases, the current in coil B decreases, which also decreases the magnetic field coil B produces. As the magnetic field from coil B decreases, the magnetic flux through coil A decreases (there are now fewer magnetic field lines in coil A pointing to the left). The induced emf in coil A creates a current to produce a magnetic field pointing to the left through the center of the coil, opposing the decrease in flux. A current through RA to the left will produce this opposing field.

The net current in the wire and shield combination is 0. Thus to the “outside,” there is no magnetic field created by the combination. If there is an external magnetic field, it will not be influenced by the signal current, and then by Newton’s third law, the signal current will not be influenced by an external magnetic field either.

10.

One advantage of placing the two insulated wires carrying ac close together is that the magnetic field created by the changing current moving one way in one wire is approximately cancelled out by the magnetic field created by the current moving in the opposite direction in the second wire. Also, since large loops of wire in a circuit can generate a large self-induced back emf, by placing the two wires close to each other, or even twisting them about each other, the effective area of the current loop is decreased and the induced current is minimized.

11.

When the motor first starts up, there is only a small back emf in the circuit (back emf is proportional to the rotation speed of the motor). This allows a large current to flow to the refrigerator. The power source for the house can be treated as an emf with an internal resistance. This large current to the refrigerator motor from the power source reduces the voltage across the power source because of its internal resistance. Since the power source voltage has decreased, other items (like lights) will have a lower voltage across them and receive less current, so may “dim.” As the motor speeds up to its normal operational speed, the back emf increases to its normal level and the current delivered to the motor is now limited to its usual amount. This current is no longer enough to significantly reduce the output voltage of the power source, so the other devices then get their normal voltage. Thus, the lights flicker just when the refrigerator motor first starts up. A heater, on the other hand, draws a large amount of current (it is a very low-resistance device) at all times. (The heat-producing element is not a motor, so has very little induction associated with it.) The source is then continually delivering a large current, which continually reduces the output voltage of the power source. In an ideal situation, the source could provide any amount of current to the whole circuit in either situation. In reality, though, the higher current in the wires causes bigger losses of energy along the way to the devices, so the lights dim.

12.

Figure 21–17 shows that the induced current in the upper armature segment points into the page. This can be shown using the right-hand rule. The charges in the top metal armature segment are moving in the direction of the velocity shown with the green arrow (up and to the right), and these moving charges are in a magnetic field shown with the blue arrows (to the right). The right-hand rule says that the charges experience a force into the page producing the induced current. This induced current is also in the same magnetic field. Using another right-hand rule, a current-carrying wire, with the current going into the page (as in the upper armature segment) in a magnetic field pointed to the right, will experience a force in a downward direction. This downward force exerts a counterclockwise torque on the armature while it is rotation in a clockwise direction. The back emf is opposing the motion of the armature during its operation.

21-4

Chapter 21

13.

Eddy current brakes will work on metallic wheels, such as copper and aluminum. Eddy current brakes do not need to act on ferromagnetic wheels. The external magnetic field of the eddy brake just needs to interact with the “free” conduction electrons in the metal wheels in order to have the braking effect. First, the magnetic field creates eddy currents in the moving metal wheel using the free conduction electrons (the right-hand rule says moving charges in a magnetic field will experience a magnetic force, making them move and creating an eddy current). This eddy current is also in the braking magnetic field. The right-hand rule says these currents will experience a force opposing the original motion of the piece of metal and the eddy current brake will begin to slow the wheel. Good conductors, such as copper and aluminum, have many free conduction electrons and will allow large eddy currents to be created, which in turn will provide good braking results.

14.

As a magnet falls through a metal tube, an increase in the magnetic flux is created in the areas ahead of it in the tube. This flux change induces a current to flow around the tube walls to create an opposing magnetic field in the tube (Lenz’s law). This induced magnetic field pushes against the falling magnet and reduces its acceleration. The speed of the falling magnet increases until the magnetic force on the magnet is the same size as the gravity force. The opposing magnetic field cannot cause the magnet to actually come to a stop, since then the flux would become a constant and the induced current would disappear, as would the opposing magnetic field. Thus, the magnet reaches a state of equilibrium and falls at a constant terminal velocity. The weight of the magnet is balanced by the upward force from the eddy currents.

15.

The nonferrous materials are not magnetic, but they are conducting. As they pass by the permanent magnets, eddy currents will be induced in them. The eddy currents provide a “braking” mechanism which will cause the metallic materials to slide more slowly down the incline than the nonmetallic materials. The nonmetallic materials will reach the bottom with larger speeds. The nonmetallic materials can therefore be separated from the metallic, nonferrous materials by placing bins at different distances from the bottom of the incline. The closest bin will catch the metallic materials, since their projectile velocities off the end of the incline will be small. The bin for the nonmetallic materials should be placed farther away to catch the higher-velocity projectiles.

16.

The slots in the metal bar prevent the formation of large eddy currents, which would slow the bar’s fall through the region of magnetic field. The smaller eddy currents then experience a smaller opposing force to the motion of the metal bar. Thus, the slotted bar falls more quickly through the magnetic field.

17.

This is similar to the situation accompanying Fig. 21–20. As the aluminum sheet is moved through the magnetic field, eddy currents are created in the sheet. The magnetic force on these induced currents opposes the motion. Thus it requires some force to pull the sheet out.

18.

The speed of the magnet in case (b) will be larger than that in case (a). As the bar magnet falls through the loop, it sets up an induced current in the loop, which opposes the change in flux. This current acts like a magnet that is opposing the physics magnet, repelling it and so reducing its speed. Then, after the midpoint of the magnet passes through the loop, the induced current will reverse its direction and attract the falling magnet, again reducing its speed.

19.

As the metal bar enters (or leaves) the magnetic field during the swinging motion, areas of the metal bar experience a change in magnetic flux. This changing flux induces eddy currents with the “free” conduction electrons in the metal bar. These eddy currents are then acted on by the magnetic field, and the resulting force opposes the motion of the swinging metal bar. This opposing force acts on the bar no matter which direction it is swinging through the magnetic field, thus damping the motion during both directions of the swing.

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

20.

21-5

To determine the ratio of turns on the two coils of a transformer without taking it apart, apply a known ac input source voltage to one pair of leads and carefully measure the output voltage across the other two leads. Then, Vsource /Voutput = Nsource /N output , which provides us with the ratio of turns on the two coils. To determine which leads are paired with which, you could use an ohmmeter, since the two source wires are in no way electrically connected to the two output wires. If the resistance between two wires is very small, then those two wires are a pair. If the resistance between two wires is infinite, then those two wires are not a pair.

21.

Higher voltages, such as 600 V or 1200 V, would be dangerous if they were used in household wires. Having a larger voltage than the typical 120 V would mean that any accidental contact with a “live” wire would send more current through a person’s body. Such a large potential difference between household wires and anything that is grounded (other wires, people, etc.) would more easily cause electrical breakdown of the air, and then much more sparking would occur. Basically, this would supply each of the charges in the household wires with much more energy than the lower voltages, which would allow them to arc to other conductors. This would increase the possibility of more short circuits and accidental electrocutions.

22.

When 120 V dc is applied to the transformer, there is no induced back emf that would usually occur with 120 V ac. This means that the 120 V dc encounters much less resistance than the 120 V ac, resulting in too much current in the primary coils. This large amount of current could overheat the coils, which are usually wound with many loops of very fine, low-resistance wire, and could melt the insulation and burn out or short out the transformer.

23.

(a)

(b)

24.

(a)

To create the largest amount of mutual inductance with two flat circular coils of wire, you would place them face-to-face and very close to each other. This way, almost all of the magnetic flux from one coil also goes through the other coil. To create the least amount of mutual inductance with two flat circular coils, you would place them with their faces at right angles. This way, almost none of the magnetic flux from one coil goes through the other coil. No. Although the current through an LR circuit is described by I = substitute 1− e

(b)

25.

(a) (b)

−

t L /R

t − V0 ⎛ ⎜ 1 − e L /R R⎜ ⎝

⎞ ⎟ , we can ⎟ ⎠

V0 = I max . Thus, a given fraction of a maximum possible current, I /I max , is equal to R

and is independent of the battery emf.

t ⎞ − V0 ⎛ L ⎜ Yes. Since I = 1 − e /R ⎟ , if a given value of the current is desired, then it is dependent on ⎟ R⎜ ⎝ ⎠ the value of the battery emf.

Yes. Yes.

The rms voltages across either an inductor or a capacitor of an LRC circuit can be greater than the rms source voltage because the different voltages are out of phase with each other. At any given instant, the voltage across either the inductor or the capacitor could be negative, for example, thus allowing for a very large positive voltage on the other device. (The rms voltages, however, are always positive by definition.)

21-6

26.

Chapter 21

(a) (b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

27.

The frequency of the source emf does not affect the impedance of a pure resistance. The impedance of a pure resistance is independent of the source emf frequency. The impedance of a pure capacitance varies inversely with the frequency of the source emf according to X C = 1/2π fC. As the source frequency gets very small, the impedance of the capacitor gets very large, and as the source frequency gets very large, the impedance of the capacitor gets very small. The impedance of a pure inductance varies directly with the frequency of the source emf according to X L = 2π fL. Thus, as the source frequency gets very small, the impedance of the inductor gets very small, and as the source frequency gets very large, the impedance of the inductor gets very large. The impedance of an LRC circuit with a small R near resonance is very sensitive to the frequency of the source emf. If the frequency is set at resonance exactly, where X L = X C , then the LRC circuit’s impedance is very small and equal to R. The impedance increases rapidly as the source frequency is either increased or decreased a small amount from resonance. The impedance of an LRC circuit with a small R very far from resonance depends on whether the source frequency is much higher or much lower than the resonance frequency. If the source frequency is much higher than resonance, then the impedance is directly proportional to the frequency of the source emf. Basically, at extremely high frequencies, the circuit impedance is equal to 2π fL. If the source frequency is much lower than resonance (nearly zero), then the impedance is inversely proportional to the frequency of the source emf. Basically, at extremely low frequencies, the circuit impedance is equal to 1/2π fC.

To make the impedance of an LRC circuit a minimum, make the resistance very small and make the reactance of the capacitor equal to the reactance of the inductor: X L = X C , or 2π fL =

1 2π fC

→

f =

1 2π LC

28.

In an LRC circuit, the current and the voltage in the circuit both oscillate. The energy stored in the circuit also oscillates and is alternately stored in the magnetic field of the inductor and the electric field of the capacitor.

29.

Yes. The instantaneous voltages across the different elements in the circuit will be different, but the current through each element in the series circuit is the same.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(b, d) The right-hand rule shows that a clockwise current will create a flux in the loop that points into the page. Since the initial magnetic flux is into the page, the current will be induced when the magnetic flux decreases. This happens when the size of the coil decreases or the magnetic field becomes tilted. Increasing the magnetic field, as in answer (a), will create a counterclockwise current. Moving the coil sideways, as in answer (c), does not change the flux, so no current would be induced.

(c)

A common misconception is that a moving loop would experience a change in flux. However, if the loop is moving through a constant field without rotation, then the flux through the loop will remain constant and no current will be induced.

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

21-7

(d)

A current is induced in the loop when the flux through the loop is changing. As the loop passes through line J it enters a region with a magnetic field, so the flux through the loop increases and a current will be induced. When the loop passes line K, the flux remains constant, as there is no change in field, so no current is induced. As the loop passes line L, the magnetic field flux through the loop decreases and a current is again induced.

(c, a) The magnetic field near a long straight wire is inversely proportional to the distance from the wire. For C, the loop remains at the same distance from the wire, so the magnetic flux through the wire remains constant and no current is induced in the loop. For D, the magnetic field from the long wire points into the page in the region of the loop. As the loop moves away from the wire, the magnetic flux decreases, so a clockwise current is induced in the loop to oppose the change in flux.

(c)

The induced current creates a magnetic field that opposes the motion of the magnet. The result is that the magnet has less kinetic energy than it would have had if the loop were not present. The change in gravitational potential energy provides the energy for the current.

(c)

Since the flux through the loop is increasing, an emf will be produced. However, since plastic is not a conductor, no current will be induced. The emf is produced regardless of whether there is a conducting path for current or not.

(b)

A current will be induced in the loop whenever the magnetic flux through the loop is changed. Increasing the current in the wire will increase the magnetic field produced by the wire and therefore the magnetic flux in the loop. Rotating the loop changes the angle between the loop and wire, which will change the flux. Since the magnetic field strength decreases with distance from the wire, moving the loop away from the wire, either with or without rotation, will decrease the flux in the wire. If the loop is moved parallel to the wire, then the flux through the loop will not change, so no current will be created in the loop.

(c)

When a steady current flows in the first coil, it creates a constant magnetic field and therefore a constant magnetic flux through the second coil. Since the flux is not changing, a current will not be induced in the second coil. If the current in the first coil changes, then the flux through the second will also change, inducing a current in the second coil.

(b)

A generator converts mechanical energy into electric energy. The generator’s magnetic field remains unchanged as the generator operates, so energy is not being pulled from the magnetic field. Resistance in the coils removes electric energy from the system in the form of heat—it does not provide the energy. In order for the generator to work, an external force is necessary to rotate the generator’s axle. This external force does work, which is converted to electric energy.

10.

(c)

Increasing the rotation frequency increases the rate at which the flux changes; therefore, answer (a) will increase the output voltage. Answers (b), (d), and (e) all increase the maximum flux in the coil. Since the generator’s voltage output is proportional to the rate of change of the flux through the coil, increasing the maximum flux results in a greater voltage output. When the magnetic field is parallel to the generator’s axis, little to no flux passes through the coil. With less flux passing through the coil, there will be a lower output voltage.

11.

(d)

A common misconception is that a transformer only changes voltage. However, power is conserved across a transformer, where power is the product of the voltage and current. When a transformer increases the voltage, it must also proportionately decrease the current.

21-8

Chapter 21

12.

(d)

If the charger unit had a battery, then it could run the laptop without being plugged in. A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, but the laptop charger output is electrical energy, not mechanical energy. A generator converts mechanical energy into electric energy, but the input to the laptop is electrical, not mechanical. The cables to and from the charger unit can be considered transmission lines, but they are not the important component inside the charger unit. A transformer can convert a high-voltage input into a low-voltage output without power loss. This is a significant function of the charger unit.

13.

(a)

In a transformer with no lost flux, the power across the transformer (product of current and voltage) is constant across the transformer. Therefore, if the voltage increases, then the current must decrease across the transformer. If the current increases, then the voltage must decrease across the transformer. A transformer works due to the induced voltage created by the changing flux. A dc circuit does not have a changing flux, so a transformer does not work with dc current.

14.

(e)

It may appear that (b) is the correct answer if the problem is interpreted as an ac step-up transformer with twice as many loops in the secondary coil as in the primary. It is true that an ac current would double the voltage and cut the current in half; however, this is a dc current. A dc current does not produce a changing flux, so no current or voltage will be induced in the secondary coil.

15.

(b)

Many people may not realize that generators (rotating coils in a magnetic field) are the heart of most electric power plants that produce the alternating current in wall outlets.

16.

(b)

A common misconception by users of credit card readers is that they are swiping their cards too quickly, so they slow down the swipe. The credit card has a magnetic stripe with information encoded in the magnetic field. Swiping the card more rapidly increases the induced emf, due to the greater rate of change of magnetic flux.

17.

(b)

In a series circuit (whether ac or dc), the current is the same at every point in the circuit. In an ac circuit, the current is out of phase with the voltage across an inductor and the voltage across a capacitor, so (a) is incorrect. In nonresonant ac circuits, there is a phase difference between the current and the voltage source, so (c) is not correct. The current and voltage across a resistor are always in phase, so the resistor does not change the phase in a circuit, so (d) is incorrect.

Solutions to Problems 1.

The magnitude of the average induced emf is given by Eq. 21–2b. Ᏹ=N

ΔΦ B 38 Wb − (−58 Wb) =2 = 564.7 V ≈ 560 V Δt 0.34 s

A direction for the emf cannot be specified without more information. 2.

As the magnet is pushed into the coil, the magnetic flux increases to the right. To oppose this increase, flux produced by the induced current must be to the left, so the induced current in the resistor will be from right to left.

As the coil is pushed into the field, the magnetic flux through the coil increases into the page. To oppose this increase, the flux produced by the induced current must be out of the page, so the induced current is counterclockwise.

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

21-9

As the solenoid is pulled away from the loop, the magnetic flux to the right through the loop decreases. To oppose this decrease, the flux produced by the induced current must be to the right, so the induced current is counterclockwise as viewed from the right end of the solenoid.

The flux changes because the loop rotates. The angle between the field and the normal to the loop changes from 0° to 90°. The magnitude of the average induced emf is given by Eq. 21–2a. Ᏹ=−

We choose up as the positive direction. The average induced emf is given by Eq. 21–2a. Ᏹ=−

ΔΦ B ABΔ cos θ π (0.0925 m) 21.5 T( cos 90° − cos 0°) =− =− = 0.20 V Δt Δt 0.20 s

(a)

ΔΦ B AΔB π (0.054 m)2 (−0.25 T − 0.48 T) =− =− = 4.2 × 10−2 V Δt Δt 0.16 s

When the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the field lines, the flux is given by the maximum of Eq. 21–1. Φ B = BA = Bπ r 2 = (0.50 T)π (0.080 m) 2 = 1.005 × 10−2 Wb ≈ 1.0 × 10−2 Wb

(b)

The angle is θ = 90° − 42° = 48° .

(c)

Use Eq. 21–1. Φ B = BA cos θ = Bπ r 2 = (0.50 T)π (0.080 m) 2 cos 48° = 6.7 × 10−3 Wb

(a)

As the resistance is increased, the current in the outer loop will decrease. Thus the flux through the inner loop, which is out of the page, will decrease. To oppose this decrease, the induced current in the inner loop will produce a flux out of the page, so the direction of the induced current will be counterclockwise.

(b)

If the small loop is placed to the left, then the flux through the small loop will be into the page and will decrease. To oppose this decrease, the induced current in the inner loop will produce a flux into the page, so the direction of the induced current will be clockwise.

(a)

Because the velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the rod, we find the induced emf from Eq. 21–3.

Ᏹ = BAυ = (0.800 T)(0.120 m)(0.180 m/s) = 1.73 × 10−2 V (b)

Because the upward flux is increasing, the induced flux will be into the page, so the induced current is clockwise. Thus the induced emf in the rod is down, which means that the electric field will be down. The electric field is the induced voltage per unit length. E=

10.

Ᏹ 1.73 × 10−2 V = = 0.144 V/m, down 0.120 m A

(a)

The magnetic flux through the loop is into the page and decreasing, because the area is decreasing. To oppose this decrease, the induced current in the loop will produce a flux into the page, so the direction of the induced current will be clockwise.

(b)

The average induced emf is given by Eq. 21–2a. Ᏹ avg =

ΔΦ B B ΔA (0.65 T)π [(0.100 m) 2 − (0.030 m) 2 ] = = Δt Δt 0.50 s

= 3.717 × 10−2 V ≈ 3.7 × 10−2 V © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

21-10

Chapter 21

(c)

We find the average induced current from Ohm’s law. I=

11.

(a) (b)

(c)

(d)

12.

Ᏹ 3.717 × 10−2 V = = 1.5 × 10−2 A R 2.5 Ω

Because the current is constant, there will be no change in flux, so the induced current will be zero. The decreasing current in the wire will cause a decreasing field into the page through the loop. To oppose this decrease, the induced current in the loop will produce a flux into the page, so the direction of the induced current will be clockwise. The decreasing current in the wire will cause a decreasing field out of the page through the loop. To oppose this decrease, the induced current in the loop will produce a flux out of the page, so the direction of the induced current will be counterclockwise. The increasing current in the wire will cause an increasing field out of the page through the loop. To oppose this increase, the induced current in the loop will produce a flux into the page, so the direction of the induced current will be clockwise.

The emf induced in the short coil is given by Eq. 21–2b, where N is the number of loops in the short coil, and the flux change is measured over the area of the short coil. The magnetic flux comes from the B field created by the solenoid. The field in a solenoid is given by Eq. 20–8, B = μ0 INsolenoid /A solenoid , and the changing current in the solenoid causes the field to change. ⎛ μ IN ⎞ Nshort Ashort Δ ⎜ 0 solenoid ⎟ N A ΔB ⎝ A solenoid ⎠ = μ0 Nshort Nsolenoid Ashort ΔI Ᏹ = short short = Δt Δt A solenoid Δt =

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(14)(600)π (0.0125 m)2 (5.0 A) = 1.7 × 10−4 V (0.25 m) (0.60 s)

The induced emf will oppose the emf that is being used to create the 5.0-A current. 13.

Since the antenna is vertical, the maximum emf will occur when the car is traveling perpendicular to the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field. This occurs when the car is traveling in the east or west direction. We calculate the magnitude of the emf using Eq. 21–3, where B is the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field. Ᏹ = Bx Aυ = [(5.0 × 10−5 T) cos 38°](0.55 m)(30.0 m/s) = 6.501× 10−4 V = 0.65 mV

14.

As the loop is pulled from the field, the flux through the loop decreases, causing an induced emf whose magnitude is given by Eq. 21–3, Ᏹ = BAυ. Because the inward flux is decreasing, the induced flux will be into the page, so the induced current is clockwise, given by I = Ᏹ/R. Because this current in the left-hand side of the loop is in a downward magnetic field, there will be a magnetic force to the left. To keep the rod moving, there must be an equal external force to the right, given by F = I AB. F = I AB =

15.

(a)

B Aυ B 2 A 2 (0.550 T) 2 (0.350 m) 2 (3.10 m/s) Ᏹ AB = AB = = = 0.499 N R R R 0.230 Ω

There is a conventional current flowing in the rod, from top to bottom, equal to the induced emf divided by the resistance of the bar. That current is in a magnetic field and, by the right-hand rule, will have a force on it (and the bar) to the left in Fig. 21–11a. The external force must equal that magnetic force in order for the bar to move with a constant speed. Fexternal = Fmagentic = I AB =

B Aυ B 2 A 2υ Ᏹ AB = AB = R R R

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

(b)

The power required is the external force times the speed of the rod. P = Fυ =

16.

B 2 A 2υ 2 R

From the derivation in Problem 15a, we have an expression relating the external force to the magnetic field. Fexternal =

17.

21-11

(a)

B 2 A 2υ R

→ B=

Fexternal R 2

Aυ

(0.350 N)(0.25 Ω) (0.200 m) 2 (1.50 m/s)

= 1.208 T ≈ 1.2 T

Because the velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the rod, we find the induced emf from Eq. 21–3. Ᏹ = BAυ = (0.35 T)(0.300 m)(1.6 m/s) = 0.168 V ≈ 0.17 V

(b)

Find the induced current from Ohm’s law. 0.168 V Ᏹ I= = = 7.149 × 10−3 A ≈ 7.1× 10−3 A R 21.0 Ω + 2.5 Ω

(c)

The induced current in the rod will be down. Because this current is in an upward magnetic field, there will be a magnetic force to the left. To keep the rod moving, there must be an equal external force to the right, given by Eq. 20–2. F = I AB = (7.149 × 10−3 A)(0.300 m)(0.35 T) = 7.506 × 10−4 N ≈ 7.5 × 10−4 N

18.

(a)

There is an emf induced in the coil since the flux through the coil changes. The current in the coil is the induced emf divided by the resistance of the coil. The resistance of the coil is found from Eq. 18–3. ΔB ρA R= Ᏹ = NAcoil Δt Awire Ᏹ I= = R =

(b)

ΔB Δt = NAcoil Awire ΔB ρA ρA Δt Awire

NAcoil

30[π (0.110 m) 2 ][π (1.3 × 10−3 m)](8.65 × 10−3 T/s) (1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)30(2π )(0.110 m)

= 0.1504 A ≈ 0.15 A

The rate at which thermal energy is produced in the wire is the power dissipated in the wire. P = I 2R = I 2

ρA Awire

= (0.1504 A) 2

(1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)30(2π )(0.110 m)

π (1.3 × 10−3 m)2

= 1.484 × 10−3 W ≈ 1.5 ×10−3 W

19.

The charge that passes a given point is the current times the elapsed time, Q = I Δt. The current will be Ᏹ ρA . The resistance is given by Eq. 18–3, R = , and the R Awire emf is given by Eq. 21–2b. Combine these equations to find the charge during the operation. Aloop ΔB A B Aloop Awire ΔB Δ ΔΦ B ρA Ᏹ loop Δt = = Ᏹ= ; R= ; I= = ρA Δt Δt Awire R ρ AΔt Awire

the emf divided by the resistance, I =

21-12

Chapter 21

Q = I Δt = =

Aloop Awire ΔB

ρA

2 2 π rloop π rwire ΔB

ρ (2π )rloop

(0.066 m)π (1.125 × 10−3 m) 2 (0.670 T) 2(1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)

2 rloopπ rwire ΔB

2ρ

= 5.23 C

20.

From Eq. 21–5, the induced voltage is proportional to the angular speed. Thus their quotient is a constant. Ᏹ1 Ᏹ 2 ω 2500 rpm = → Ᏹ 2 = Ᏹ1 2 = (12.7 V) = 28.86 V ≈ 29 V 1100 rpm ω1 ω2 ω1

21.

(a)

The rms voltage is found from the peak induced emf. The peak induced emf is calculated from Eq. 21–5. Ᏹ peak = NBω A → Vrms =

Ᏹ peak 2

NBω A 2

(550)(0.55 T)(2π rad/rev)(120 rev/s)π (0.040 m) 2 2

= 810.7 V ≈ 810 V

22.

(b)

To double the output voltage, you must double the rotation frequency to 240 rev/s.

(a)

The peak current is found from the rms current. I peak = 2 I rms = 2(70.0 A) = 99.0 A

(b)

The area can be found from Eq. 21–5. Ᏹ peak = NBω A = 2 Vrms → A=

23.

2 Vrms 2 (150 V) = = 0.01394 m 2 ≈ 1.4 × 10−2 m 2 NBω (950)(0.030 T)(85 rev/s)(2 π rad/rev)

We assume that the voltage given is an rms value and that the power is an average power, as in Eq. 18–9a. We calculate the resistance of the wire on the armature using Eq. 18–3. Rwire = I rms =

ρA A

(1.68 ×10−8 Ω ⋅ m)[85(4)(0.060 m)]

π [ 12 (5.9 × 10−4 m)]2

= 1.254 Ω

P 25.0 W = = 2.083 A Vrms 12.0 V

Vcircuit = Vbulb + Vwire = Vbulb + IRwire = 12 V + (2.083 A)(1.254 Ω) = 14.61 V

So the generator’s rms emf must be 14.61 volts. We find the frequency of the generator from Eq. 21–5. Ᏹ 2π fNBA = = 14.61 V → 2 2 f =

24.

(14.61 V) 2 (14.61 V) 2 = = 16.54 Hz ≈ 17 Hz = 17 cycles/s 2π NBA 2π (85)(0.65 T)(0.060 m) 2

When the motor is running at full speed, the back emf opposes the applied emf, to give the net voltage across the motor. Ᏹ applied − Ᏹ back = IR → Ᏹ back = Ᏹ applied − IR = 120 V − (8.20 A)(3.65 Ω) = 90 V (2 significant figures)

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

21-13

25.

From Eq. 21–5, the induced voltage (back emf) is proportional to the angular speed. Thus their quotient is a constant. f ω 2π f 2 Ᏹ1 Ᏹ 2 2300 rpm = → Ᏹ 2 = Ᏹ1 2 = Ᏹ1 = Ᏹ1 2 = (72 V) = 92 V 2π f1 f1 1800 rpm ω1 ω2 ω1

26.

The back emf is proportional to the rotation speed (Eq. 21–5). Thus if the motor is running at half speed, then the back emf is half the original value, or 54 V. Find the new current from writing a loop equation for the motor circuit, from Fig. 21–19. Ᏹ − Ᏹ back 120 V − 54 V Ᏹ − Ᏹ back − IR = 0 → I = = = 13 A R 5.0 Ω

27.

We find the number of turns in the secondary from Eq. 21–6. VS NS = VP N P

→

NS = N P

VS 13,500 V = (148 turns) ≈ 17,100 turns VP 117 V

28.

Because NS < N P , this is a step-down transformer. Use Eq. 21–6 to find the voltage ratio and Eq. 21–7 to find the current ratio. VS NS 120 turns 1 IS N P 360 turns = = = or 0.33 = = = 3.0 VP N P 360 turns 3 I P NS 120 turns

29.

Use Eqs. 21–6 and 21–7 to relate the voltage and current ratios. VS NS IS N P = = ; VP N P I P NS

30.

→

VS I P = VP IS

→

IS VP 25 V = = = 0.21 I P VS 120 V

We find the ratio of the number of turns from Eq. 21–6. NS VS 12, 000 V = = = 50 (2 significant figures) N P VP 240 V If the transformer is connected backward, then the role of the turns will be reversed: NS VS VS 1 1 = → = → VS = (240 V) = 4.8 V N P VP 50 240 V 50

31.

(a)

Use Eqs. 21–6 and 21–7 to relate the voltage and current ratios. VS NS IS N P ; = = VP N P I P NS

32.

→

VS I P = VP IS

→ VS = VP

IP 0.35 A = (120 V) = 6.2 V IS 6.8 A

(b)

Because VS < VP , this is a step-down transformer.

(a)

We assume 100% efficiency and find the input voltage from P = IV . P 95 W P = I PVP → VP = = = 3.8 V I P 25 A Since VP < VS , this is a step-up transformer.

(b) 33.

VS 12 V = = 3.2 VP 3.8 V

Use Eqs. 21–6 and 21–7 to relate the voltage and current ratios. VS NS = VP N P

→ VS = VP

NS 1240 turns = (120 V) = 450.9 V ≈ 450 V NP 330 turns

21-14

Chapter 21

IS N P = I P NS

34.

(a)

→ I P = IS

NS 1240 turns = (15.0 A) = 56 A NP 330 turns

The current in the transmission lines can be found from Eq. 18–9a, and then the emf at the end of the lines can be calculated from Kirchhoff’s loop rule. P 35 × 106 W Ptown = Vrms I rms → I rms = town = = 778 A Vrms 45 × 103 V Ᏹ − IR + Voutput = 0 → Ᏹ = IR + Voutput =

(b)

Ptown 35 × 106 W (4.6 Ω) + 45 × 103 V = 48,578 V ≈ 49 kV(rms) R + Vrms = Vrms 45 × 103 V

2 The power loss in the lines is given by Ploss = I rms R.

Fraction wasted =

2 Ploss Ploss I rms R (778 A) 2 (4.6 Ω) = = = 2 Ptotal Ptown + Ploss Ptown + I rms R 35 × 106 W + (778 A) 2 (4.6 Ω)

= 0.074 = 7.4%

35.

At the power plant, 100 kW of power is delivered at 12,000 V. We first find the initial current from Eq. 18–9a. P 100 × 103 W P = VI → I = = = 8.333 A V 12 × 103 V Then we have a step-up transformer, which steps up the voltage by a factor of 20, so the current is stepped down by a factor of 20. IS N P N 1 = → IS = I P P = (8.333 A) = 0.4167 A I P NS NS 20 The power lost is given by Eq. 18–6a. Plost = I 2 R = → 50 × 103 W = (0.4167 A) 2 (5 × 10−5 Ω /m)( x) x=

50 × 103 W 2

(0.4167 A) (5 × 10

−5

Ω /m)

→

= 5.76 × 109 m ≈ 6 × 109 m

Note that we are not taking into account any power losses that occur after the step-down transformers. 36.

37.

(a)

At the power plant, the voltage is changed from 12,000 V to 240,000 V. NS VS 240,000 V = = = 20 (2 significant figures) N P VP 12,000 V

(b)

At the house, the voltage is changed from 7200 V to 240 V. NS VS 240 V = = = 3.3 × 10−2 N P VP 7200 V

Without the transformers, we find the delivered current, which is the current in the transmission lines, from the delivered power and the power lost in the transmission lines. Pout = Vout I line

→ I line =

Pout 2.0 × 106 W = = 1.667 × 104 A Vout 120 V

2 Plost = I line Rline = (1.667 × 104 A) 2 2(0.100 Ω) = 5.556 × 107 W

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

21-15

Thus there must be 2.0 ×106 W + 5.556 × 107 W ≈ 5.756 × 107 W of power generated at the start of the process. With the transformers, to deliver the same power at 120 V, the delivered current from the step-down transformer must still be 1.667 × 104 A. Using the step-down transformer efficiency, we calculate the current in the transmission lines and the loss in the transmission lines. Pout = 0.99 Pline → Vout I out = 0.99Vline I line → end

I line =

Vout I out (120 V)(1.66 × 104 A) = = 1.684 × 103 A 0.99Vline (0.99)(1200 V)

2 Plost = I line Rline = (1.684 × 103 A) 2 2(0.100 Ω) = 5.671× 105 W = 0.5671 MW

The power to be delivered is 2.0 MW. The power that must be delivered to the step-down transformer 2.0 MW = 2.0202 MW. The power that must be present at the start of the transmission must be is 0.99 2.0202 MW + 0.5671M = 2.5873MW to compensate for the transmission line loss. The power that must enter the transmission lines from the 99% efficient step-up transformer is 2.5873 MW = 2.6134 MW. So the power saved is as follows. 0.99 5.756 × 107 W − 2.6134 × 106 W = 5.495 × 107 W ≈ 55 MW

38.

We set the power loss equal to 2.5% of the total power. Then, using Eq. 18–6a, we write the power loss in terms of the current (equal to the power divided by the voltage drop) and the resistance. Then, using Eq. 18–3, we calculate the cross-sectional area of each wire and the minimum wire diameter. We assume there are two lines to have a complete circuit. 2

⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ ρA ⎞ Ploss = 0.025P = I 2 R = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ → ⎝V ⎠ ⎝ A ⎠ d=

4 PρA = 0.025 π V 2

Pρ A 0.025 V 2

πd2 4

→

4(925 × 106 W)(2.65 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)2(185 × 103 m) 0.025 π (660 × 103 V) 2

= 0.03256 m ≈ 3.3 cm

The transmission lines must have a diameter greater than or equal to 3.3 cm. 39.

Find the induced emf from Eq. 21–9. ΔI (10.0 A − 25.0 A) = −(0.16 H) = 6.9 V Ᏹ = −L Δt 0.35 s

40.

Because the current is increasing, the emf is negative. We find the self-inductance from Eq. 21–9. ΔI Δt 0.0140 s → L = −Ᏹ = −(−2.50 V) = 0.593 H Ᏹ = −L Δt ΔI [0.0310 A − (−0.0280 A)]

41.

Use the relationship for the inductance of a solenoid, as given in Example 21–13. L=

42.

μ0 N 2 A A

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(8500)2 π (1.45 × 10−2 m) 2 = 0.10 H 0.60 m

Use the relationship for the inductance of a solenoid, as given in Example 21–13. μ N2A LA (0.13 H)(0.300 m) L= 0 → N= = ≈ 3400 turns A μ0 A (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)π (0.029 m) 2

21-16

43.

Chapter 21

(a)

Use the relationship for the inductance of a solenoid, as given in Example 21–13. L=

(b)

44.

45.

μ0 N 2 A A

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(2600) 2 π (0.0125 m) 2 = 0.01479 H ≈ 0.015 H (0.282 m)

Apply the same equation again, solving for the number of turns but using the permeability of iron. μN2A LA (0.01479 H)(0.282 m) L= → N= = ≈ 75 turns A μA (1200)(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)π (0.0125 m) 2

R L We draw the coil as two elements in series, a pure resistance and a pure inductance. There is a voltage drop due to the resistance of the + − coil, given by Ohm’s law, and an induced emf due to the Ᏹ induced I increasing inductance of the coil, given by Eq. 21–9. Since the current is increasing, the inductance will create a potential difference to b oppose the increasing current, so there is a drop in the potential due to the inductance. The potential difference across the coil is the sum of the two potential drops. ΔI = (3.00 A)(2.25 Ω) + (0.112 H)(3.80 A/s) = 7.18 V Vab = IR + L Δt

The self-inductance of an air-filled solenoid was determined in Example 21–13. We solve this equation for the length of the tube, using the diameter of the wire as the length per turn. L= A=

μ0 N 2 A A Ld 2

μ0π r 2

= μ0 n 2 AA =

μ0 AA d2

(1.0 H)(0.81× 10−3 m) 2 (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)π (0.060 m) 2

= 46.16 m ≈ 46 m

The length of the wire needed (L) is equal to the number of turns (the length of the solenoid divided by the diameter of the wire) multiplied by the circumference of the turn. L=

A 46.16 m πD = π (0.12 m) = 21,490 m ≈ 21 km d 0.81× 10−3 m

The resistance is calculated from the resistivity, area, and length of the wire. R=

46.

ρA A

(1.68 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(21,490 m)

π (0.405 × 10−3 m)2

= 0.70 kΩ

We assume that the solenoid and the coil have the same cross-sectional area. The magnetic field of the NI solenoid (which passes through the coil) is B1 = μ0 1 1 . When the current in the solenoid changes, A the magnetic field of the solenoid changes, and thus the flux through the coil changes, inducing an emf in the coil. ⎛ NI ⎞ N 2 AΔ ⎜ μ0 1 1 ⎟ N AΔB N N A Δ( I1 ) A ⎠ ⎝ Ᏹ=− 2 =− = − μ0 1 2 Δt Δt A Δt As in Eq. 21–8a, the mutual inductance is the proportinality constant in the above relationship. Ᏹ = − μ0

N1 N 2 A Δ( I1 ) A Δt

→

M = μ0

N1 N 2 A A

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

47.

The magnetic energy in the field is derived from Eq. 21–10. u=

Energy stored = Volume

Energy =

48.

21-17

1 2

μ0

1 2

μ0

(Volume) =

→ 1 2

μ0

π r2L =

1 2

(0.72 T) 2 (4π × 10

−7

T ⋅ m/A)

π (0.010 m)2 (0.36 m) = 23 J

The initial energy stored in the inductor is found from an equation in Section 21–11. U = 12 LI 2 = 12 (45.0 × 10−3 H)(50.0 × 10−3 A) 2 = 5.63 × 10−5 J

The final current is found from the final energy, which is 5 times the initial energy. U f = 5U 0

1 2

→

LI f2 = 5( 12 LI 02 ) → I f = 5 I 0

The current increases at a constant rate. ΔI I f − I 0 = = 0.115 A/s → Δt Δt Δt =

49.

If − I0 5I 0 − I 0 I0 (50.0 × 10−3 A) = = ( 5 − 1) = ( 5 − 1) = 0.537 s 0.115 A/s 0.115 A/s 0.115 A/s 0.115 A/s

The magnetic energy in the field is derived from Eq. 21–10. The volume of a relatively thin spherical shell, like the first 10 km above the Earth’s surface, is the surface area of the sphere times its thickness. u=

1 2

→

μ0

E = u (volume) =

50.

μ0

2 h= 4π REarth

1 2

(0.50 × 10−4 T) 2 (4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)

4π (6.38 × 106 m) 2 (104 m) ≈ 5 × 1015 J

(a)

We set I equal to 75% of the maximum value in the equation I = I 0 (1 − e −t /τ ) and solve for the time constant. t (2.56 ms) I = 0.75 I 0 = I 0 (1 − e −t /τ ) → τ = − =− = 1.847 ms ≈ 1.8 ms ln(0.25) ln(0.25 ms)

(b)

The resistance can be calculated from the time constant, τ = L /R. R=

51.

1 2

31.0 mH = 17 Ω 1.847 ms

The potential difference across the resistor is proportional to the current, so we set the current in the equation I = I max e2t /τ equal to 0.025I0 and solve for the time. I = 0.025I 0 = I 0 e −t /τ

52.

→ t = −τ ln(0.025) ≈ 3.7τ

When the switch is initially closed, the inductor prevents current from flowing, so the initial current is 0, as shown in Fig. 21–37. If the current is 0, then there is no voltage drop across the resistor (since VR = IR ), so the entire battery voltage appears across the inductor. Apply Eq. 21–9 to find the initial rate of change of the current. V = VL = L

ΔI Δt

→

ΔI V = Δt L

21-18

Chapter 21

The maximum value of the current is reached after a long time, when there is no voltage across the inductor, so the entire battery voltage appears across the resistor. Apply Ohm’s law. V V = I max R → I max = R Find the time to reach the maximum current if the rate of current change remained at I max = I 0 +

53.

ΔI Δt ⎛ V L ⎞L (elapsed time) → elapsed time = ( I max − I 0 ) = ⎜ − 0⎟ = Δt ΔI ⎝ R R ⎠V

For an LR circuit, we have I = I max (1 − e −t /τ ). Solve for t. I = I max (1 − e −t /τ ) → e −t /τ = 1 −

54.

ΔI V = . Δt L

I I max

⎛ I → t = −τ ln ⎜ 1 − I max ⎝

⎛ I ⎞ → t = −τ ln ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎝ I max ⎠

⎞ ⎟ = −τ ln(1 − 0.9) = 2.3 τ ⎠

(a)

I = 0.90 I max

(b)

I = 0.990 I max

⎛ I ⎞ → t = −τ ln ⎜ 1 − ⎟ = −τ ln(1 − 0.99) = 4.6 τ ⎝ I max ⎠

(c)

I = 0.999 I max

⎛ I → t = −τ ln ⎜ 1 − I max ⎝

⎞ ⎟ = −τ ln(1 − 0.999) = 6.9 τ ⎠

The reactance of a capacitor is given by Eq. 21–12b, X C =

1 . 2π fC

(a)

XC =

1 1 = = 428 Ω 2π fC 2π (60.0 Hz)(6.20 × 10−6 F)

(b)

XC =

1 1 = = 2.57 × 10−2 Ω 6 2π fC 2π (1.00 × 10 Hz)(6.20 × 10−6 F)

55.

We find the frequency from Eq. 21–11b for the reactance of an inductor. X 660 Ω = 3283 Hz ≈ 3300 Hz X L = 2π fL → f = L = 2π L 2π (0.0320 H)

56.

We find the frequency from Eq. 21–12b for the reactance of a capacitor. 1 1 1 XC = → f = = = 10.9 Hz 3 2π fC 2π X C C 2π (6.10 × 10 Ω)(2.40 × 10−6 F)

57.

We find the reactance from Eq. 21–11b and the current from Ohm’s law. X L = 2π fL = 2π (10.0 × 103 Hz)(0.26 H) = 16,336 Ω ≈ 16 kΩ V = IX L

58.

→ I=

V 240 V = = 1.47 × 10−2 A X L 16,336 Ω

We find the reactance from Ohm’s law and the inductance by Eq. 21–11b. V V = IX L → X L = I XL 240 V V = = = 5.22 × 10−2 H X L = 2π fL → L = 2π f 2π fI 2π (60.0 Hz)12.2 A

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

59.

(a)

We find the reactance from Eq. 21–12b. XC =

(b)

1 1 = = 7368 Ω ≈ 7400 Ω 2π fC 2π (720 Hz)(3.0 × 10−8 F)

We find the peak value of the current from Ohm’s law. I peak = 2 I rms = 2

60.

Vrms 2.0 × 103 V = 2 = 0.38 A XC 7368 Ω

We find the impedance from Eq. 21–14. Z=

61.

21-19

Vrms 120 V = = 1700 Ω ≈ 2000 Ω I rms 70 × 10−3 A

The impedance of the circuit is given by Eq. 21–15 without a capacitive reactance. The reactance of the inductor is given by Eq. 21–11b. (a)

Z = R 2 + X L2 = R 2 + 4π 2 f 2 L2 = (36 × 103 Ω) 2 + 4π 2 (50 Hz) 2 (55 × 10−3 H) 2 = 3.6 × 104 Ω

The inductor has essentially no effect on the impedance at this relatively low frequency. (b)

Z = R 2 + X L2 = R 2 + 4π 2 f 2 L2 = (36 × 103 Ω) 2 + 4π 2 (3.0 × 104 Hz) 2 (55 × 10−3 H) 2 = 37, 463 Ω ≈ 3.7 × 104 Ω

62.

The impedance of the circuit is given by Eq. 21–15 without an inductive reactance. The reactance of the capacitor is given by Eq. 21–12b. (a)

Z = R 2 + X C2 = R 2 +

1 2

= (3.5 × 103 Ω) 2 +

4π f C

1 4π (60 Hz) (3.0 × 10−6 F) 2 2

= 3609 Ω ≈ 3600 Ω

(b)

Z = R 2 + X C2 = R 2 +

1 2

4π f C

1 4π (60, 000 Hz) 2 (3.0 ×10−6 F) 2 2

= 3500 Ω 63.

Use Eq. 21–15, with no capacitive reactance. Z = R 2 + X L2

64.

→ R = Z 2 − X L2 = (235 Ω) 2 − (115 Ω) 2 = 205 Ω

The total impedance is given by Eq. 21–15. ⎛ 1 ⎞ Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C ) 2 = R 2 + ⎜ 2π fL − ⎟ π fC ⎠ 2 ⎝

⎡ ⎤ 1 = (8.70 × 103 Ω) 2 + ⎢ 2π (1.00 × 104 Hz)(2.80 × 10−2 H) − ⎥ −9 4 2π (1.00 × 10 Hz)(6.25 × 10 F) ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢

= 8735.5 Ω ≈ 8.74 kΩ

21-20

Chapter 21

The phase angle is given by Eq. 21–16a.

φ = tan −1

X L − XC = tan −1 R

2π fL −

1 2π fC

2π (1.00 × 104 Hz)(2.80 × 10−2 H) − = tan −1

1 2π (1.00 × 104 Hz)(6.25 × 10−9 F)

−787 Ω = tan −1 = −5.17° 8700 Ω

The voltage is lagging the current, or the current is leading the voltage. The rms current is given by Eq. 21–14. V 725 V = 8.30 × 10−2 A I rms = rms = Z 8735.5 Ω 65.

We use the rms voltage across the resistor to determine the rms current through the circuit. Then, using the rms current and the rms voltage across the capacitor in Eq. 21–13b, we determine the frequency. VR, rms I I rms = VC , rms = rms 2π fC R V I rms (3.0 V) R, rms = = = 272.1 Hz ≈ 270 Hz f = 2π CVC , rms 2π CRVC , rms 2π (1.0 × 10−6 C)(650 Ω)(2.7 V) Since the voltages in the resistor and capacitor are not in phase, the rms voltage across the power source will not be the sum of the rms voltages across the resistor and capacitor.

66.

(a)

The rms current is the rms voltage divided by the impedance. The impedance is given by Eq. 21–15 with no capacitive reactance. Z = R 2 + X L2 = R 2 + (2π fL) 2 I rms = =

(b)

Vrms = Z

Vrms 2

2 2

R + 4π f L

120 V 3

(2.80 × 10 Ω) + 4π 2 (60.0 Hz) 2 (0.35 H) 2

120 V = 0.04281 A ≈ 4.3 × 10−2 A 2803 Ω

The phase angle is given by Eq. 21–6a with no capacitive reactance.

φ = tan −1

XL 2π fL 2π (60.0 Hz)(0.35 H) = tan −1 = tan −1 = 2.7° R R 2.80 × 103 Ω

The current is lagging the source voltage. (c)

2 The power dissipated is given by P = I rms R = (4.281× 10−2 A) 2 (2.80 × 103 Ω) = 5.1 W .

(d)

The rms voltage reading is the rms current times the resistance or reactance of the element. Vrms = I rms R = (4.281× 10−2 A)(2.8 × 103 Ω) = 119.87 V ≈ 120 V R

Vrms = I rms X L = I rms 2π fL = (4.281× 10−2 A)2π (60.0 Hz)(0.35 H) = 5.649 V ≈ 5.6 V L

Note that, because the maximum voltages occur at different times, the two readings do not add up to the applied voltage of 120 V. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

67.

(a)

The rms current is the rms voltage divided by the impedance. The impedance is given by Eq. 21–15 with no inductive reactance. Z = R 2 + X C2 = R 2 + I rms =

(b)

21-21

Vrms = Z

1 (2π fC ) 2

Vrms R2 +

1 2

120 V

= (6.60 × 103 Ω)2 +

2 2

4π f L

1 4π (60.0 Hz) (1.80 × 10−6 F) 2 2

120 V = 1.774 × 10−2 A ≈ 1.77 × 10−2 A 6763 Ω

The phase angle is given by Eq. 21–16a with no inductive reactance.

φ = tan −1

−XC = tan −1 R

−

1 1 − 2π (60.0 Hz)(1.80 × 10−6 F) 2π fC = tan −1 = −12.6° R 6.60 × 103 Ω

The current is leading the source voltage. (c)

The rms voltage reading is the rms current times the resistance or reactance of the element. Vrms = I rms R = (1.774 × 10−2 A)(6.60 × 103 Ω) = 117 V R

Vrms = I rms X C = I rms C

1 1 = (1.774 × 10−2 A) = 26.1 V 2π fC 2π (60.0 Hz)(1.80 × 10−6 F)

Note that, because the maximum voltages occur at different times, the two readings do not add up to the applied voltage of 120 V. 68.

(a)

The impedance of the circuit is given by Eq. 21–15. Divide the source voltage by the impedance to determine the magnitude of the current in the circuit. Finally, multiply the current by the resistance to determine the voltage drop across the resistor. VR = IR = =

(b)

Vin R= Z

Vin R 2

R + 1/(2π fC ) 2

(130 mV)(520 Ω) (520 Ω) + 1/[2π (60 Hz)(1.2 × 10−6 F)]2 2

= 29.77 mV ≈ 30 mV

Repeat the calculation with a frequency of 6.0 kHz. VR =

(130 mV)(520 Ω) (520 Ω) + 1/[2π (6000 Hz)(1.2 × 10−6 F)]2 2

= 129.88 mV ≈ 130 mV

Thus the capacitor allows the higher frequency to pass but attenuates the lower frequency. 69.

The resonant frequency is found from Eq. 21–19. The resistance does not influence the resonant frequency. f0 =

1 2π

1 1 = LC 2π

1 (55.0 × 10

−6

H)(3500 × 10

−12

= 3.627 × 105 Hz ≈ 3.6 × 105 Hz

21-22

70.

Chapter 21

(a)

The resonant frequency is given by Eq. 21–19.

f =

1 2π

1 LC

f580 kHz

→

f1600 kHz

1 2π

580 kHz = 1600 kHz 1 2π

71.

LC580 kHz

→

1 LC1600 kHz

(b)

⎛ 580 ⎞ ⎛ 580 ⎞ C1600 kHz = ⎜ ⎟ C580 kHz = ⎜ ⎟ (2800 pF) = 367.9 pF ≈ 370 pF ⎝ 1600 ⎠ ⎝ 1600 ⎠ The inductance can be found from the resonant frequency and the capacitance. 1 1 1 1 → L= = = 2.7 × 10−5 H f = 2 2 2 5 2 −12 2π LC 4π f C 4π (5.8 × 10 Hz) (2800 × 10 F)

(a)

We find the capacitance from the resonant frequency, Eq. 21–19. f0 =

(b)

72.

1 2π

1 LC

→

1 4π

Lf 02

1 2

4π (14.8 × 10

−3

H)(3600 Hz) 2

≈ 1.3 × 10−7 F

At resonance the impedance is the resistance, so the current is given by Ohm’s law. Vpeak 150 V I peak = = = 37 A R 4.10 Ω

Since the circuit is in resonance, we use Eq. 21–19 for the resonant frequency to determine the necessary inductance. We set this inductance equal to the solenoid inductance calculated in Example 21–13, with the area equal to the area of a circle of radius r, the number of turns equal to the length of the wire divided by the circumference of a turn, and the length of the solenoid equal to the diameter of the wire multiplied by the number of turns. We solve the resulting equation for the number of turns. f0 = N=

1 2π LC

→

π f 02C μ0 A 2wire d

L= =

1 4π 2 f 02C

μ0 N 2A A solenoid

⎛ A wire ⎞ 2 ⎟ πr π r 2 ⎝ ⎠ Nd

μ0 ⎜

→

π (18.0 × 103 Hz) 2 (2.6 × 10−7 F)(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(12.0 m) 2 1.1× 10−3 m

= 43.45 ≈ 44 loops

73.

(a)

We calculate the inductance from the resonance frequency. 1 f0 = → 2π LC 1 1 L= = = 0.03189 H ≈ 0.032 H 2 2 2 3 4π f 0 C 4π (19 × 10 Hz) 2 (2.2 × 10−9 F)

(b)

We set the initial energy in the electric field equal to the maximum energy in the magnetic field and solve for the maximum current. 1 CV 2 0 2

(c)

2 = 12 LI max

→

I max =

CV02 (2.2 × 10−9 F)(120 V)2 = = 0.03152A ≈ 0.032 A (0.03189 H) L

The maximum energy in the inductor is equal to the initial energy in the capacitor. U L,max = 12 CV02 = 12 (2.2 × 10−9 F)(120 V) 2 = 16 μ J

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

74.

75.

21-23

(a)

The clockwise current in the left-hand loop produces a magnetic field which is into the page within the loop and out of the page outside the loop. Thus the right-hand loop is in a magnetic field that is directed out of the page. Before the current in the left-hand loop reaches its steady state, there will be an induced current in the right-hand loop that will produce a magnetic field into the page to oppose the increase of the field from the left-hand loop. Thus the induced current will be clockwise.

(b)

After a long time, the current in the left-hand loop is constant, so there will be no induced current in the right-hand coil.

(c)

If the second loop is pulled to the right, then the magnetic field out of the page from the left-hand loop through the second loop will decrease. During the motion, there will be an induced current in the right-hand loop that will produce a magnetic field out of the page to oppose the decrease of the field from the left-hand loop. Thus the induced current will be counterclockwise.

(d)

Since equilibrium has been reached (“a long time”), there is a steady current in the left-hand loop and steady magnetic flux passing through the right-hand loop. There is no emf being induced in the right-hand loop, so closing a switch in the right-hand loop has no effect.

The electrical energy is dissipated because there is current flowing in a resistor. The power dissipation by a resistor is given by P = I 2 R, so the energy dissipated is E = PΔt = I 2 RΔt. The current is created by the induced emf caused by the changing B field. The emf is calculated by Eq. 21–2a. ΔΦB AΔB Ᏹ AΔB =− I = =− Ᏹ=− Δt Δt R RΔt E = PΔt = I 2 RΔt =

A 2 ( ΔB ) 2 R 2 ( Δt ) 2

R Δt =

A2 (ΔB ) 2 [(0.240 m) 2 ]2 [(0 − 0.665 T)]2 = (6.10 Ω) (0.0400 s) R ( Δt )

= 6.01× 10−3 J

76.

77.

(a)

Because VS < VP , this is a step-down transformer.

(b)

Assuming 100% efficiency, the power in both the primary and secondary is 45 W. Find the current in the secondary from the relationship P = IV . P 45 W = 3.8 A PS = ISVS → IS = S = VS 12 V

(c)

PP = I PVP

(d)

Find the resistance of the bulb from Ohm’s law. The bulb is in the secondary circuit. V 12 V = 3.2 Ω VS = IS R → R = S = IS 3.75 A

→

IP =

PP 45 W = = 0.38 A VP 120 V

The coil should have a diameter about equal to the diameter of a standard flashlight D-cell so that it will be simple to hold and use. This would give the coil a radius of about 1.5 cm. As the magnet passes through the coil, the field changes direction, so the change in flux for each pass is twice the maximum flux. Let us assume that the magnet is shaken with a frequency of about two shakes per second, so the magnet passes through the coil four times per second. We obtain the number of turns in the coil using Eq. 21–2b. N=

Ᏹ ᏱΔt ᏱΔt (3 V)(0.25 s) = = = = 10, 610 turns ≈ 10, 000 turns ΔΦ /Δt ΔΦ 2 B0 A 2(0.05 T)π (0.015 m)2

The answer will vary somewhat based on the approximations used. For example, a flashlight with a smaller diameter, for AA batteries perhaps, would require more turns. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

21-24

78.

Chapter 21

(a)

Use Ohm’s law to see that the current is 120 V/3.0 Ω = 40 A (2 significant figures).

(b)

Find the back emf from the normal operating current. Ᏹ applied − Ᏹ back = IR → Ᏹ back = Ᏹ applied − IR = 120 V − (2.0 A)(3.0 Ω) = 114 V

(c)

Use Eq. 18–6a. P = I 2 R = (2.0 A)2 (3.0 Ω) = 12 W

(d)

Use Eq. 18–6a. P = I 2 R = (40 A) 2 (3.0 Ω) = 4800 W

79.

Because the transformers are assumed to be perfect, the power loss is due to resistive heating in the transmission lines. Since the town requires 55 MW, the power at the generating plant must be 55 MW = 55.838 MW. Thus the power lost in the transmission is 0.838 MW. This can be used to 0.985 determine the current in the (two) transmission lines. P = I 2R → I =

P = R

0.838 × 106 W = 273.6 A 2(56 km)0.10 Ω /km

To produce 55.838 MW of power at 273.6 A, the following voltage is required. V=

P 55.838 × 106 W = = 2.041× 105 V ≈ 200 kV 273.6 A I

The voltage has 2 significant figures. 80.

(a)

From the efficiency of the transformer, we have PS = 0.88PP . Use this to calculate the current in the primary. PS 75 W = = 0.7748 A ≈ 0.77 A PS = 0.88PP = 0.88 I PVP → I P = 0.88VP 0.88(110 V)

(b)

The voltage in both the primary and secondary is proportional to the number of turns in the respective coil. The secondary voltage is calculated from the secondary power and resistance since P = V 2 /R. N P VP VP 110 V = = = = 8.2 NS VS PS RS (75 W)(2.4 Ω)

81.

(a)

The voltage drop across the lines is due to the resistance. Vout = Vin − IR = 42, 000 V − (740 A)(2)(0.95 Ω) = 40,594 V ≈ 41 kV

(b)

The power input is given by Pin = IVin . Pin = IVin = (740 A)(42, 000 V) = 3.108 ×107 W ≈ 3.1× 107 W

(c)

The power loss in the lines is due to the current in the resistive wires. Ploss = I 2 R = (740 A) 2 2(0.95 Ω) = 1.040 × 106 W ≈ 1.0 ×106 W

(d)

The power output is given by Pout = IVout . Pout = IVout = (740 A)(40,594 V) = 3.004 × 107 W ≈ 3.0 × 107 W

This could also be found by subtracting the power lost from the input power. Pout = Pin − Ploss = 3.108 ×107 W − 1.040 × 106 W = 3.004 × 107 W ≈ 3.0 × 107 W © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

82.

A side view of the rail and bar is shown in the figure. From the discussion in Section 21–3, the emf in the bar is produced by the components of the magnetic field, the length of the bar, and the velocity of the bar, which are all mutually perpendicular. The magnetic field and the length of the bar are already perpendicular. The component of the velocity of the bar that is perpendicular to the magnetic field is υ cos θ , so the induced emf is given by the following.

G B

21-25

G FN G v

G FB G mg

Ᏹ = BAυ cosθ

This produces a current in the wire, which can be found by Ohm’s law. That current is pointing into the page on the diagram. I=

Ᏹ BAυ cos θ = R R

Because the current is perpendicular to the magnetic field, the force on the wire from the magnetic field can be calculated from Eq. 20–2 and will be horizontal, as shown in the diagram. FB = I AB =

BAυ cos θ B 2 A 2υ cos θ AB = R R

For the wire to slide down at a steady speed, the net force along the rail must be zero. Write Newton’s second law for forces along the rail, with up the rail being positive. Fnet = FB cos θ − mg sin θ = 0 →

υ= 83.

Rmg sin θ B 2 A 2 cos 2 θ

(0.60 Ω)(0.040 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) sin 6.0° (0.45 T) 2 (0.32 m) 2 cos 2 6.0°

→

= 1.199 m/s ≈ 1.2 m/s

We find the current in the transmission lines from the power transmitted to the user and then find the power loss in the lines. PT = I LV

84.

B 2 A 2υ cos 2 θ = mg sin θ R

→

IL =

P2 R ⎛P ⎞ PL = I L2 RL = ⎜ T ⎟ RL = T 2 L V ⎝V ⎠

PT V

The induced current in the coil is the induced emf divided by the resistance. The induced emf is found from the changing flux by Eq. 21–2b. The magnetic field of the solenoid, which causes the flux, is given by Eq. 20–8. For the area used in Eq. 21–2b, the cross-sectional area of the solenoid (not the coil) must be used, because all of the magnetic flux is inside the solenoid. I=

Ᏹ ind R

Ᏹ ind = N coil

N coil Asol μ 0 I=

ΔΦ

ΔBsol Δt

Bsol =μ0

N sol I sol A sol

N sol ΔI sol A sol

Δt

= 2

Δt

= N coil Asol

N coil Asol μ 0 N sol ΔI sol

(190 turns)π (0.045 m) (4π × 10 12 Ω

A sol

R −7

Δt

T ⋅ m/A) (230 turns) 2.0 A −2 = 5.823 × 10 A (0.01 m) 0.10 s

≈ 5.8 × 10−2 A

As the current in the solenoid increases, a magnetic field from right to left is created in the solenoid and the loop. The induced current will flow in such a direction as to oppose that field, so must flow from left to right through the resistor.

21-26

85.

Chapter 21

Putting an inductor in series with the device will protect it from sudden surges in current. The growth of current in an LR circuit is given in Section 21–12. I=

(

)

(

V 1 − e −tR /L = I max 1 − e −tR /L R

)

The maximum current is 55 mA, and the current is to have a value of 7.5 mA after a time of 120 microseconds. Use this data to solve for the inductance.

(

)

I = I max 1 − e −tR /L L=−

tR ⎛ I ⎞ ln ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎝ I max ⎠

→

=−

e−tR /L = 1 −

→

I max

(1.2 × 10−4 s)(120 Ω) = 0.0982 H ≈ 98 mH in series ⎛ 7.5 mA ⎞ ln ⎜ 1 − ⎟ 55 mA ⎠ ⎝

Put an inductor of value 98 mH in series with the device. 86.

The emf is related to the flux change by Eq. 21–2b. The flux change is caused by the changing magnetic field. Ᏹ=N

87.

ΔΦB AΔB =N Δt Δt

→

Ᏹ ΔB 120 V = = = 280 T/s Δt NA (35)π (6.25 × 10−2 m)2

We find the peak emf from Eq. 21–5. Ᏹ peak = NBω A = (125)(0.200 T)(2π rad/rev)(120 rev/s)(6.60 × 10−2 m) 2 = 82 V

88.

(a)

The electric field energy density is given by Eq. 17–11, and the magnetic field energy density is given by Eq. 21–10. u E = 12 ε 0 E 2 = 12 (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(1.0 × 104 V/m) = 4.425 × 10−4 J/m3 ≈ 4.4 × 10−4 J/m3

uB = 12

μ0

1 2

(2.0 T) 2

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)

= 1.592 × 10 J/m ≈ 1.6 × 10

J/m3

uB 1.592 × 106 J/m3 = 3.6 × 109 = uE 4.425 × 10−4 J/m3 The energy density in the magnetic field is 3.6 billion times greater than the energy density in the electric field.

(b)

Set the two densities equal and solve for the magnitude of the electric field. B2 uE = 12 ε 0 E 2 = u B = 12 →

μ0

89.

ε 0 μ0

2.0 T (8.85 × 10

−12

C /N ⋅ m )(4π × 10

−7

T ⋅ m/A)

= 6.0 × 108 V/m

If there is no current in the secondary, then there will be no induced emf from the mutual inductance. Therefore, we set the ratio of the voltage to current equal to the inductive reactance (Eq. 21–11b) and solve for the inductance. Vrms Vrms 220 V = X L = 2π fL → L = = = 93 mH I rms 2π f I rms 2π (60 Hz)(6.3 A)

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

90.

For the current and voltage to be in phase, the net reactance of the capacitor and inductor must be zero, which means that the circuit is at resonance. Thus Eq. 21–19 applies. f0 =

91.

21-27

1 2π

1 LC

→

1 4π

Lf 02

1 2

4π (0.13 H)(1360 Hz) 2

The inductance of the solenoid is given by L =

μ0 N 2 A

= 1.1× 10−7 F

μ0 N 2 π d 2

. The (constant) length of the A A 4 = 2dsol 1 , we also know that N1 = 2 N 2 . The fact that

wire is given by A wire = N π dsol , so since dsol 2 the wire is tightly wound gives A sol = Nd wire . Find the ratio of the two inductances.

μ0π N 22

A 2wire /π 2 A sol 2

N 22 2 dsol 2 A sol 2

2 dsol 2

4 A sol 2 Nd A 2N2 L2 N = = = 2 = sol 1 = 1 wire = 1 = = 2 2 2 2 A sol 2 N 2 d wire N 2 L1 μ0π N1 2 N2 N1 2 A wire /π dsol 1 dsol 1 4 A sol 1 A sol 1 A sol 1

92.

(a)

From the text of the problem, the Q factor is the ratio of the voltage across the capacitor or inductor to the voltage across the resistor, at resonance. The resonant frequency is given by Eq. 21–19. 1 1 L 2π VL I res X L 2π f res L 2π LC = 1 L = = = Q= VR I res R R R R C

(b)

Find the inductance from the resonant frequency and the resistance from the Q factor. f res = L= Q=

1 2π

1 LC

→

1 4π

2 Cf res

1 L R C

→

1 2

4π (1.0 × 10 R=

−8

F)(1.0 × 10 Hz)

= 2.533 × 10−6 H ≈ 2.5 × 10−6 H

1 L 1 2.533 × 10−6 H = = 2.4 × 10−2 Ω Q C 650 1.0 × 10−8 F

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

(a)

(b)

Kitchens, bathrooms, outdoor areas, and near swimming pools are especially dangerous for touching ground because of the abundance of water in those areas. As shown in Section 19–7, high current through the body can stop the heart. Wet skin has a much smaller resistance than dry skin, so for a given voltage it is more dangerous to ground an object with wet skin than with dry skin. The GFCI works using Ampere’s law. Both wires from the power source pass through the center of an iron ring. If the ac current in the circuit passes through both wires (one going in and one going out), then the net current through the ring is exactly zero and there is no magnetic field induced in the ring. If even a small amount of the electric current is shorted, so the exact same current no longer flows through both of the wires, then an ac-induced magnetic field is created in the ring. The changing flux induces a current in the small wire wrapped around the ring, which shuts off the power to the GFCI. This is similar to fuses and circuit breakers, which shut off the power if too much current is flowing through the wires. GFCIs are much more sensitive and they act more quickly than fuses and circuit breakers. This is why electrical codes now require them in kitchens and bathrooms, even though homes already have fuses or circuit breakers. As with a circuit breaker, a GFCI can be reset and used again after it has been triggered.

21-28

Chapter 21

(a)

Use Eq. 21–2a to calculate the emf induced in the ring, where the flux is the magnetic field multiplied by the area of the ring. Then using Eq. 18–6b, calculate the average power dissipated in the ring as it is moved away. The thermal energy is the average power times the time.

(

ΔB 4 π d ΔΦB (ΔB ) A Ᏹ=− =2 =2 Δt Δt Δt ⎛ Ᏹ2 Q = P Δt = ⎜ ⎜ R ⎝ =

(b)

(a)

16(55 × 10−6 Ω) (45 × 10−3 s)

)

2 2 4 ⎛ Δt ⎞ (ΔB ) π d = ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎝ R ⎠ 16 RΔt ⎠

= 5.834 × 10−3 J ≈ 5.8 mJ

Q 5.834 × 10−3 J = = 3.0 × 10−3 C° mc (15 × 10−3 kg)(129 J/kg ⋅°C)

Since the coils are directly connected to the wheels, the torque provided by the motor (Eq. 20–10) balances the torque caused by the frictional force. Fr (250 N)(0.29 m) = = 21.37 A ≈ 21 A NAB 290(0.12 m)(0.15 m)(0.65 T)

To maintain this speed, the power loss due to the friction must equal the net power provided by the coils. The power provided by the coils is the current through the coils multiplied by the back emf. P = Fυ = I Ᏹ back → Ᏹ back =

(c)

) ⎟⎞

The temperature change is calculated from the thermal energy using Eq. 14–2.

τ = NIAB = Fr → I = (b)

(

⎛ ΔB 1 π d 2 ⎞ 4 ⎟⎟ Δt = ⎜⎜ t Δ ⎜ ⎠ ⎝

(0.68 T) 2 π 2 (0.015 m) 4

ΔT =

F (250 N)(35 km/h) ⎛ 1000 m/km ⎞ = ⎜ ⎟ = 113.7 V ≈ 110 V I 21.37 A ⎝ 3600 s/h ⎠

The power dissipated in the coils is the difference between the power produced by the coils and the net power provided to the wheels. Ploss = P − Pnet = I Ᏹ − I Ᏹ back = (21.37 A)(120 V − 113.7 V) = 134.6 W ≈ 130 W

(d)

We divide the net power by the total power to determine the percent used to drive the car. Pnet I Ᏹ back 113.7 V = = = 0.9475 ≈ 95% P IᏱ 120 V

The power dissipated (wasted) in a transmission line is proportional to the square of the current passing through the lines, or P = I 2 R. To minimize the ratio of the power dissipated to the power delivered, it is desirable to have the smallest current possible, which requires a large transmission voltage. However, it is also desirable, for safety reasons, for the voltage at the consumer end to be low. The use of transformers in ac circuits makes it possible to have high voltage in the transmission lines while having low voltage for the consumers.

The sinusoidal varying current in the power line creates a sinusoidal varying magnetic field encircling the power line, with an amplitude given by Eq. 20–6. Using Eq. 21–1, approximate the flux by using the average distance from the power line to the coil. Take the change in flux to be the maximum flux through the coil, as suggested in the problem hint. Set the maximum emf equal to 170 V and note that the flux changes from the maximum to zero in a quarter cycle. Set the area of the coil equal to the product of the length and the height of the rectangle, and solve for the length.

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law

⎛ μ I N⎜ 0 0 ⎜ 2π ravg ΔΦB N (ΔB ) A Ᏹ=N = = ⎝ Δt Δt Δt A=

Ᏹ Δt 2π ravg w

N μ0 I 0

(170 V)

( 2401 s )

2.0 m

⎞ ⎟ wA ⎟ ⎠

21-29

→

2π (6.0 m) 2000(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(155 A)

= 34.27 m ≈ 34 m

This is stealing and unethical because the current in the rectangle creates a back emf in the initial wire, which results in a power loss to the electric company just as if the wire had been directly connected to the line. 6.

The average induced emf is given by Eq. 21–2b. Because the coil orientation changes by 180°, the change in flux is the opposite of twice the initial flux. The average current is the induced emf divided by the resistance, and the charge that flows in a given time is the current times the elapsed time. ΔΦB ΔB [(− B ) − (+ B )] 2 NAB = − NA = − NA = Δt Δt Δt Δt ⎛ 2 NAB ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ Ᏹ avg 2 NAB QR Δt ⎠ ⎝ Δt = Δt = Q = I Δt = → B= R R R 2 NA Ᏹ avg = − N

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Responses to Questions 1.

If the direction of travel for the EM wave is north and the electric field oscillates in an east–west plane, then the magnetic field must oscillate up and down. For an EM wave, the direction of travel, the electric field, and the magnetic field must all be perpendicular to each other.

No, sound is not an electromagnetic wave. Sound is a longitudinal mechanical (pressure) wave, which requires a medium in which to travel. The medium can be a gas, a liquid, or a solid. EM waves do not need a medium in which to travel.

EM waves can travel through a perfect vacuum. The energy is carried in the oscillating electric and magnetic fields, and no medium is required to travel. Sound waves cannot travel through a perfect vacuum. A medium is needed to carry the energy of a mechanical wave such as sound, and there is no medium in a perfect vacuum.

No. Electromagnetic waves travel at a very large but finite speed. When you flip on a light switch, it takes a very small amount of time for the electrical signal to travel along the wires from the switch to the lightbulb.

The wavelengths of radio and TV signals are much longer than those of visible light. Radio waves are on the order of 3 m–30,000 m. TV waves are on the order of 0.3 m–3 m. Visible waves are on the order of 10−7 m.

It is not necessary to make the lead-in wires to your speakers the exact same length. Since electrical signals in the wires travels at nearly the speed of light, the difference in time between the signals getting to the different speakers will be too small for your ears to detect.

Wavelength of 103 km: sub-radio waves (or very long radio waves; for example, ELF waves for submarine communication fall into this category). Wavelength of 1 km: radio waves. Wavelength of 1 m: TV signals and microwaves. Wavelength of 1 cm: microwaves and satellite TV signals. Wavelength of 1 mm: microwaves and infrared waves. Wavelength of 1 μ m: infrared waves.

22-1

22-2

Chapter 22

Yes, radio waves can have the same frequencies as sound waves. These 20- to 20,000-Hz EM waves would have extremely long wavelengths when compared to the sound waves, because of their high speed. A 5000-Hz sound wave has a wavelength of about 70 mm, while a 5000-Hz EM wave has a wavelength of about 60 km.

The receiver antenna should also be vertical for obtaining the best reception. The oscillating carrier electric field is up and down, so a vertical antenna would “pick up” that signal better. That is because the electrons in the metal antenna would be forced to oscillate up and down along the entire length of the vertical antenna, creating a stronger signal.

10.

Diffraction effects (the bending of waves around the edge of an object) are evident only when the size of the wavelength of the wave is on the order of the size of the object (or larger). AM waves have wavelengths that are on the order of 300 m long, while FM waves have wavelengths on the order of 3 m long. Buildings and hills are much larger than FM waves, so FM waves will not diffract around the buildings and hills. Thus the FM signal will not be received behind the hills or buildings. On the other hand, these objects are smaller than AM waves, so the AM waves will diffract around them easily. The AM signal can be received behind the objects.

11.

Cordless phones utilize EM waves when sending information back and forth between the handset (the part you hold up to your ear/mouth) and its base (which is sitting in your house, physically connected to the wire phone lines that lead outside to the phone company’s network). These EM waves are usually very weak—you can’t walk very far away from the base before you lose the signal. Cell phones utilize EM waves when sending information back and forth between the phone and the nearest tower in your geographical area (which could be miles away from your location). These EM waves need to be much stronger than cordless phone waves (or the cell phone electronics need to be more sensitive) because of the larger distances involved.

12.

Transmitting Morse code by flashing a flashlight on and off creates an AM wave. The amplitude of the carrier wave is increasing/decreasing every time you turn the flashlight on and off. The frequency of the carrier wave is visible light, which is on the order of 1014 – 1015 Hz.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(a, b) All electromagnetic waves have the same velocity in a vacuum. The velocity is the product of the wavelength and frequency. Since X-rays and radio waves have different wavelengths but the same speed, they will also have different frequencies.

(c)

(a, b, c, e, f, g, h) All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light. The only listed wave that is not an electromagnetic wave is (d ) ultrasonic wave, which is a sound wave and would travel at the speed of sound.

(e)

A common misconception is that electromagnetic waves travel at different speeds. They do not, as they all travel at the speed of light.

(c)

In empty space, X-ray radiation and a radio wave both travel at the speed of light. X-ray radiation has a much smaller wavelength than a radio wave. Since wave speed is equal to the product of the wavelength and the frequency, and both waves travel at the same speed, the X-ray

Visible light has a wavelength on the order of 10−7 to 10−8 m. This is over a thousand times larger than the size of an atom.

Electromagnetic Waves

22-3

radiation has a higher frequency than a radio wave. The amplitude depends upon the intensity of the wave, so either the X-ray radiation or the radio wave could have the greater amplitude. 6.

(b)

Frequency is the measure of the number of oscillations made per second. The rate at which the electrons oscillate will be equal to the oscillation frequency of the radiation emitted.

(d)

A common misconception is to think that the radiation decreases linearly with distance, such that the intensity would decrease by a factor of two. However, the radiation intensity decreases as the square of the distance. Doubling the distance will decrease the radiation intensity to one-fourth the initial intensity.

(a)

The direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction the wave is traveling and perpendicular to the electric field, so only north and south are possible answers. The right-hand rule can be used to determine which direction is correct by pointing fingers in the direction of the electric field (west) and bending them in the direction of the magnetic field (north), resulting in the thumb pointing in the direction of the wave (down).

(c)

A misconception that can arise is thinking that the wave intensity is proportional to just one of the field amplitudes. However, the intensity is proportional to the product of the amplitudes, with the field amplitudes proportional to each other. If the intensity doubles, then each field (electric and magnetic) must increase by the same factor, 2.

10.

(d)

A common misconception is that every color surface will experience the same radiation pressure. However, the pressure is related to the change in momentum of the light. With a black object, all of the light is absorbed, so the radiation pressure is proportional to the incident momentum. With a colored object, some of the light is reflected, thus increasing the change in momentum of the light and therefore increasing the radiation pressure as compared to the black object. For a white object, the maximum amount of light is reflected off the surface, creating the greatest change in momentum of the light and the greatest radiation pressure.

11.

(c)

A common misconception is that the digital broadcast uses a different frequency than the analog broadcast. This is incorrect—the carrier wave frequency is the same. Since the antenna is designed for operation at the broadcast frequency, the antenna will work just as well with a digital signal.

Solutions to Problems 1.

The electric field between the plates is given by Eq. 17–4a, E = V /d , where d is the distance between the plates. We use that to find the rate of change of the electric field. E=

V d

→

⎞ ΔE 1 Δ V ⎛ 1 5 V/m = =⎜ ⎟ (120 V/s) = 1.1× 10 Δt d Δt ⎝ 0.0011 m ⎠ s

The displacement current is shown in Section 22–1 to be I D = ε 0

ΔΦE , and the flux is given by Δt

ΦE = EA, where A is the area of the capacitor plates. ID = ε0

ΔΦE ΔE V ⎞ ⎛ −8 = ε0 A = (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(0.058 m) 2 ⎜ 1.6 × 106 ⎟ = 4.8 × 10 A m ⋅s ⎠ Δt Δt ⎝

22-4

Chapter 22

The current in the wires must also be the displacement current in the capacitor. Use the displacement current to find the rate at which the electric field is changing. ID = ε0

ΔΦE ΔE = ε0 A Δt Δt

→

I ΔE (3.8 A) V = D = = 1.7 × 1015 12 2 2 2 − Δt ε 0 A (8.85 × 10 C /N ⋅ m )(0.0160 m) m ⋅s

The current in the wires is the rate at which charge is accumulating on the plates and also is the displacement current in the capacitor. Because the location in question is outside the capacitor, use the expression for the magnetic field of a long wire, Eq. 20–6. B=

μ0 I ⎛ μ 0 = 2π R ⎜⎝ 4π

⎞ 2 I (10−7 T ⋅ m/A) 2 (32.0 × 10−3 A) = 6.40 × 10−8 T ⎟ R = (0.100 m) ⎠

After the capacitor is fully charged, all currents will be zero, so the magnetic field will be zero. 5.

Use Eq. 22–2. E0 E 0.72 × 10−4 V/m = c → B0 = 0 = = 2.4 × 10−13 T 8 B0 c 3.00 × 10 m/s

Use Eq. 22–2. E0 = c → E0 = B0 c = (10.5 × 10−9 T)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = 3.15 V/m B0

The frequency of the two fields must be the same: 90.0 kHz. The rms strength of the electric field is found from Eq. 22–2. Erms = cBrms = (3.00 × 108 m/s)(7.75 × 10−9 T) = 2.33 V/m

The electric field is perpendicular to both the direction of travel and the magnetic field, so the electric field oscillates along the horizontal north–south line. 8.

Use the relationship d = υ t to find the time. d = υt

→

(1.50 × 1011 m) (3.00 × 108 m/s)

= 5.00 × 102 s = 8.33 min

We assume that the only significant time is the transit time from the Earth to the Moon, at the speed of light. We use the Earth–Moon distance but subtract the Earth and Moon radii since the astronaut and the receiver are on the surfaces of the bodies.

d = υt

→

d Earth- − rEarth − rMoon =

Moon

(384 × 106 m − 6.38 × 106 m − 1.74 × 106 m) (3.00 × 108 m/s)

= 1.25 s

Electromagnetic Waves

10.

22-5

The frequency of the wave is given by Eq. 22–4. f =

(3.00 × 108 m/s) (720 × 10−9 m)

= 4.2 × 1014 Hz

This frequency is just inside the red end of the visible region, so it is red visible light. 11.

The wavelength of the wave is calculated from Eq. 22–4.

λ=

c (3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 4.20 × 10−7 m f (7.14 × 1014 Hz)

This wavelength is violet visible light. 12.

The radio frequency is found from Eq. 22–4. f =

13.

(3.0 × 108 m/s) = 6.1× 106 Hz (49 m)

Use Eq. 22–4 to find the frequency of the microwave. c=λf

14.

(a)

→

15.

16.

(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.50 × 10−2 m)

= 2.00 × 1010 Hz

λ=

c (3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 3.00 × 105 m f (1.00 × 103 Hz)

Again use Eq. 22–4, with the speed of sound in place of the speed of light.

υ =λf (c)

Use Eq. 22–4 to find the wavelength. c=λf

(b)

f =

→

λ=

υ f

(341 m/s) (1.00 × 103 Hz)

= 0.341 m

No, you cannot hear a 1000-Hz EM wave. It takes a pressure wave to excite the auditory system. However, if you applied the 1000-Hz EM wave to a speaker, you could hear the 1000-Hz pressure wave produced by the speaker.

Use Eq. 22–4 to find the desired wavelength and frequency. c (3.000 × 108 m/s) = = 1.319 × 10−2 m f (22.75 × 109 Hz)

(a)

c=λf

→

λ=

(b)

c=λf

→

f =

(a)

The radio waves travel at the speed of light, so Δd = υΔt. The distance is found from the radii of the orbits. For times when Mars is nearest the Earth, the radii should be subtracted. Δt =

(3.00 × 108 m/s) (0.12 × 10−9 m)

= 2.5 × 1018 Hz

Δd (230 × 109 m − 149.6 × 109 m) = = 268 s ≈ 300 s ≈ 4 min c (3.000 × 108 m/s)

22-6

Chapter 22

(b)

For times when Mars is farthest from Earth, the radii should be subtracted. Δt =

17.

Δd (230 × 109 m + 149.6 × 109 m) = = 1265 s ≈ 1300 s ≈ 21 min c (3.000 × 108 m/s)

We convert the units from light-years to meters. d = (4.2 ly)(3.00 × 108 m/s)(3.16 × 107 s/yr) = 4.0 × 1016 m

18.

The distance is the rate (speed of light) times the time (1 year), with the appropriate units. d = (3.00 × 108 m/s) (3.156 × 107 s/yr) = 9.47 × 1015 m

19.

The length of the pulse is Δd = cΔt , so the number of wavelengths in this length is found by dividing this length by the wavelength. N=

(cΔt )

(3.00 × 108 m/s)(34 × 10−12 s) (1062 × 10−9 m)

= 9600 wavelengths

The time for the length of the pulse to be one wavelength is the wavelength divided by the speed of light. Δt ′ =

20.

(1062 × 10−9 m) 8

(3.00 × 10 m/s)

= 3.54 × 10−15 s

1 Δθ 8 (2π rad) (π rad)c (π rad)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = = = 3400 rad/s (3.2 × 104 rev/ min) 3 Δt (2Δx /c) 8Δx 8(35 × 10 m)

The mirror must rotate at least 1/8 of a revolution in the time it takes the light beam to travel twice the length of the room. t=

22.

The eight-sided mirror would have to rotate 1/8 of a revolution for the succeeding mirror to be in position to reflect the light in the proper direction. During this time the light must travel to the opposite mirror and back.

ω= 21.

(2)(12 m) 8

(3.0 × 10 m/s)

= 8.0 × 10−8 s; ω =

( 18 revolution) (8.0 × 10

−8

= 1.6 × 106 revolutions/s

The average energy transferred across unit area per unit time is the average intensity and is given by Eq. 22–8. I = 12 ε 0 cE02 = 12 (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(3.00 × 108 m/s)(0.0225 V/m) 2 = 6.72 × 10−7 W/m 2

23.

The energy per unit area per unit time is the same as the magnitude of the average intensity, as in Eq. 22–8. Use the given area and energy with the intensity to solve for the time. I= Δt =

1 2

cB02

μ0

μ0 ΔU 2 cBrms A

1 2

c( 2 Brms ) 2

μ0

2 cBrms

μ0

ΔU AΔt

(4π × 10−7 T ⋅ m/A)(365 J) (3.00 × 108 m/s)(22.5 × 10−9 T)2 (1.00 × 10−4 m 2 )

= 3.02 × 107 s ≈ 350 days

Electromagnetic Waves

24.

22-7

The energy per unit area per unit time is the same as the magnitude of the average intensity, as in Eq. 22–8. Use the given area and time with the intensity to solve for the energy. 2 I = 12 ε 0 cE02 = 12 ε 0 c( 2 Erms )2 = ε 0 cErms =

ΔU 2 A = cε 0 Erms Δt

ΔU AΔt

→

= (3.00 × 108 m/s)(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(0.0308 V/m) 2 (1.00 × 10−4 m 2 )(3600 s/h) = 9.07 × 10−7 J/h

25.

The intensity is the power per unit area. The area is the surface area of a sphere, since the wave is spreading spherically. Use Eq. 22–8 to find the rms value of the electric field. I=

P (1800 W) = = 5.730 W/m 2 ≈ 5.7 W/m 2 A [4π (5.0 m) 2 ]

2 I = 12 ε 0 cE02 = 12 ε 0 c( 2 Erms ) 2 = ε 0 cErms

Erms =

26.

(a)

cε 0

→

5.730 W/m 2 (3.00 × 108 m/s)(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )

= 46 V/m

We find E0 using Eq. 22–2 with υ = c. E0 = cB0 = (3.00 × 108 m/s) (2.2 × 10−7 T) = 66 V/m

(b)

The average power per unit area is the intensity, given by Eq. 22–8. I=

27.

E0 B0 (66 V/m)(2.2 × 10−7 T) = = 5.8 W/m 2 (2 μ0 ) [2(4π × 10−7 N ⋅ s 2 /C2 )]

Use Eq. 22–6a (the instantaneous value of energy density) with Eq. 22–7. u = ε0E2

28.

→

I I 1350 W/m 2 u = 12 ε 0 E02 = ; U = uV = V = (1.00 m3 ) = 4.50 × 10−6 J 8 c c 3.00 × 10 m/s

The power output per unit area is the intensity. Use Eq. 22–8 with rms values. I= Erms =

P 1 2 = ε 0 cE02 = 12 ε 0 c( 2 Erms ) 2 = ε 0 cErms A 2

→

0.0158 W P = 3 2 − Acε 0 π (1.20 × 10 m) (3.00 × 108 m/s)(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )

= 1146.9 V/m ≈ 1150 V/m Brms =

29.

Erms 1146.9 V/m = = 3.82 × 10−6 T 8 c 3.00 × 10 m/s

The Sun is assumed to radiate uniformly, so use the intensity at the Earth to calculate the total power output of the sun. Use a sphere centered at the Sun with a radius equal to the Earth’s orbit radius. The 1350 W/m 2 is the average intensity. I=

P A

→

P = IA = 4π R 2 I = 4π (1.496 × 1011 m) 2 (1350 W/m 2 ) = 3.80 × 1026 W

22-8

30.

Chapter 22

(a)

The energy emitted in each pulse is the laser’s power output times the duration of the pulse. P=

(b)

ΔW Δt

→

ΔW = PΔt = (1.5 × 1011 W)(1.0 × 10−9 s) = 150 J

We find the rms electric field from the intensity, which is the power per unit area. Use Eq. 22–8a with rms values. The area to use is the cross-sectional area of the cylindrical beam. I=

P 1 2 = ε 0 cE02 = 12 ε 0 c( 2 Erms ) 2 = ε 0 cErms A 2

→

P (1.5 × 1011 W) = Acε 0 π (2.2 ×10−3 m)2 (3.00 × 108 m/s)(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )

Erms =

= 1.9 × 109 V/m

31.

We assume the light energy is all absorbed, so use Eq. 22–10a. The intensity is the power radiated over a spherical surface area. 25 W I 4π (9.5 × 10−2 m) 2 = 7.348 × 10−7 N/m 2 ≈ 7.3 × 10−7 N/m 2 Pressure = P = = c (3.00 × 108 m/s)

The force on the fingertip is the pressure times the area of the fingertip. We approximate the area of a fingertip to be 1.0 cm 2 . F = PA = (7.348 × 10−7 N/m 2 ) (1.0 × 10−4 m 2 ) = 7.3 × 10−11 N

32.

The intensity from a point source is inversely proportional to the distance from the source. 2 rSun-

I Earth (7.78 × 1011 m) 2 Jupiter = 2 = = 27.0 I Jupiter (1.496 × 1011 m) 2 rSunEarth

So it would take an area of 27 m 2 at Jupiter to collect the same radiation as a 1.0-m 2 solar panel at the Earth. 33.

We convert the horsepower rating to watts and then use the intensity to relate the wattage to the needed area.

34.

P A

→

P = I

100 hp ×

746 W 1 hp

200 W/m

= 373 m 2 ≈ 400 m 2

Use Eq. 22–4. Note that the higher frequencies have the shorter wavelengths. (a)

For FM radio we have the following.

λ=

c (3.00 × 108 m/s) c (3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 2.78 m to = = = 3.41 m λ f f (1.08 × 108 Hz) (8.8 × 107 Hz)

Electromagnetic Waves

(b)

For AM radio we have the following. c (3.00 × 108 m/s) c (3.00 × 108 m/s) λ = = 180 m to = = = 561 m f f (1.7 × 106 Hz) (5.35 ×105 Hz)

λ= 35.

Use Eq. 22–4. c (3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 0.16 m f (1.9 × 109 Hz)

λ= 36.

22-9

The frequencies are 980 kHz on the AM dial and 98.1 MHz on the FM dial. From Eq. 22–4, c = f λ , we see that the lower frequency will have the longer wavelength: the AM station. When we form the ratio of wavelengths, we get

λ2 f1 (98.1× 106 Hz) = = = 100 λ1 f 2 (980 × 103 Hz) The factor is good to 2 significant figures. 37.

Each wavelength is found by dividing the speed of light by the frequency, as in Eq. 22–4.

λ2 =

Channel 2:

Channel 51: λ51 =

c (3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 5.56 m f 2 (54.0 × 106 Hz) (3.00 × 108 m/s) c = = 0.434 m f51 (692 × 106 Hz)

38.

The resonant frequency of an LC circuit is given by Eq. 21–19. We assume that the inductance is constant and form the ratio of the two frequencies. 1 2 2 2π LC1 ⎛ f1 ⎞ ⎛ 550 kHz ⎞ f1 C2 → C2 = ⎜ = = ⎟ C1 = ⎜ ⎟ (2500 pF) = 290 pF 1 f2 C1 ⎝ 1610 kHz ⎠ ⎝ f2 ⎠ 2π LC 2

39.

The resonant frequency of an LC circuit is given by Eq. 21–19. Solve for the capacitance. f =

40.

1 2π LC

→

1 2

4π f F

1 4π (98.3 × 10 Hz) 2 (1.8 × 10−6 H) 2

= 1.5 × 10−12 F

The resonant frequency of an LC circuit is given by Eq. 21–19. Solve for the inductance. f =

1 2π LC

L1 =

L2 =

1 4π 2 f12C

1 4π

f 22 C

→

1 2

4π f 2C 1

4π 2 (88 × 106 Hz) 2 (810 × 10−12 F)

1 2

4π (108 × 10 Hz) (810 × 10

−12

= 4.0 × 10−9 H

= 2.7 × 10−9 H

The range of inductances is 2.7 × 10−9 H ≤ L ≤ 4.0 × 10−9 H . © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

22-10

41.

Chapter 22

(a)

The minimum value of C corresponds with the higher frequency, according to Eq. 21–19. f = L=

(b)

4π f C

→

1 6

1 2π LC

→

1 2

4π f F

1 4π (14.0 ×10 Hz) 2 (1.31×10−6 H) 2

P 1 2 = ε 0 cE02 = 12 ε 0 c( 2 Erms ) 2 = ε 0 cErms A 2

Erms =

= 9.9 × 10−11 F

→

P 1.3 × 104 W = = 1.665 V/m ≈ 1.7 V/m Acε 0 π (750 m) 2 (3.00 × 108 m/s) (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )

The electric field is found from the desired voltage and the length of the antenna. Then use that electric field to calculate the intensity. Erms =

Vrms 1.00 × 10−3 V = = 6.25 × 10−4 V/m d 1.60 m

V2 P 1 2 = 2 ε 0 cE02 = 12 ε 0 c( 2 Erms ) 2 = ε 0 cErms = ε 0 c rms A d2

= (3.00 × 108 m/s)(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )

44.

= 1.31× 10−6 H ≈ 1.3 × 10−6 H

4π (15.0 × 10 Hz) 2 (86 × 10−12 F) 2

The rms electric field strength of the beam can be found from the average intensity, which is the power per unit area. Use Eq. 22–8. I=

43.

2π LC 1

The maximum value of C corresponds with the lower frequency. f =

42.

(1.00 × 10−3 V) 2 (1.60 m)

= 1.04 × 10−9 W/m 2

We ignore the time for the sound to travel to the microphone. Find the difference between the time for sound to travel to the balcony and for a radio wave to travel 1200 km. ⎛d Δt = tradio − tsound = ⎜ radio ⎝ c

⎞ ⎛ dsound ⎞ ⎛ 1.2 × 106 m ⎞ ⎛ 50.0 m ⎞ ⎟−⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = −0.142 s, ⎟−⎜υ ⎠ ⎝ sound ⎠ ⎜⎝ 3.00 × 108 m/s ⎟⎠ ⎝ 343 m/s ⎠

so the person at the radio hears the voice 0.142 s sooner. 45.

The ratio of distance to time must be the speed of light. 9 Δx Δx 3m −8 ⎛ 10 ns ⎞ = c → Δt = = = × = 10 ns 1 10 s ⎜ ⎜ 1 s ⎟⎟ Δt c 3.0 × 108 m/s ⎝ ⎠

46.

The length is found from the speed of light and the duration of the burst. Δx = cΔt = (3.00 × 108 m/s)(10−8 s) = 3 m

Electromagnetic Waves

47.

22-11

The time consists of the time for the radio signal to travel to Earth and the time for the sound to travel from the loudspeaker. We use 343 m/s for the speed of sound. ⎞ ⎛ 3.84 × 108 m ⎞ ⎛ 28 m ⎞ ⎛d ⎞ ⎛d t = tradio + tsound = ⎜ radio ⎟ + ⎜ sound ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ = 1.36 s ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ υsound ⎠ ⎜⎝ 3.00 × 108 m/s ⎟⎠ ⎝ 343 m/s ⎠

Note that about 5% of the time is for the sound wave. The microphone was inside the helmet. The Moon has essentially no atmosphere, so there would not be sound waves in free space on the Moon. The helmet is filled with breathable air, so the microphone has to be inside the helmet so that the sound waves will travel in the air around the astronaut’s head, inside the helmet. 48.

The time travel delay is the distance divided by the speed of radio waves (which is the speed of light). t=

49.

d 3 × 106 m = = 0.01 s c 3.00 × 108 m/s

After the change occurred, we would find out when the change in radiation reached the Earth, traveling at the speed of light. Δt =

50.

(a)

d (1.50 × 1014 m) = = 5.00 × 102 s = 8.33 min c (3.00 × 108 m/s)

The instantaneous energy density is given by Eq. 22–6a. We convert it to average values and use the rms value of the associated electric field. u = ε0E2 u

Erms =

(b)

→

ε0

2 u = 12 ε 0 E 2 = 12 ε 0 ( 2 Erms ) 2 = ε 0 Erms

4 × 10−14 J/m3

→

= 0.0672 V/m ≈ 0.07 V/m

8.85 ×10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2

The distance to receive a comparable value can be found using the average intensity. I=

P 2

4π r 1 r= Erms

2 = 12 ε 0 cE02 = 12 ε 0 c( 2 Erms ) 2 = ε 0 cErms

→

P 1 7500 W = 4πε 0 c 0.0672 V/m 4π (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(3.00 × 108 m/s)

= 7055 m ≈ 7 km

51.

The light has the same intensity in all directions, so use a spherical geometry centered on the source to find the value of the intensity, Then use Eq. 22–8 to find the magnitude of the electric field and Eq. 22–2 with υ = c to find the magnitude of the magnetic field. I=

P P = = 1 cε 0 E02 A 4π r 2 2

E0 = B0 =

P 2

2π r cε 0

→

(18 W) 2π (2.50 m) (3.00 × 10 m/s)(8.85 × 10−12 C 2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) 2

= 13.14 V/m ≈ 13 V/m

E0 (13.14 V/m) = = 4.4 × 10−8 T c (3.00 × 108 m/s)

22-12

52.

Chapter 22

The radiation from the Sun has the same intensity in all directions, so the rate at which energy passes through a sphere centered at the Sun is P = I (4π R 2 ). This rate must be the same at any distance from the Sun. Use this fact to calculate the magnitude of the intensity at Mars, and then use the intensity vector to calculate the rms magnitude of the electric field at Mars. 2 2 I Mars (4π RMars ) = I Earth (4π REarth ) →

⎛ R2 = I Earth ⎜ Earth ⎜ R2 ⎝ Mars

I Mars

I Earth ⎛ REarth ⎞ 1350 W/m 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 469 V/m − 8 12 2 2 cε 0 ⎝ RMars ⎠ (3.00 × 10 m/s)(8.85 × 10 C /N ⋅ m ) ⎝ 1.52 ⎠

Erms = Mars

53.

(a)

⎞ 1 ⎛ ⎞ 2 2 = 12 ε 0 c ⎜ 2 Erms ⎟ = ε 0 cErms ⎟ = 2 ε 0 cE0 ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Mars Mars Mars ⎝ ⎠ ⎠

Since intensity is energy per unit time per unit area, the energy is found by multiplying the intensity by the area of the antenna and the elapsed time. 2

⎛ 0.33 m ⎞ −10 J ΔU = IAΔt = (1.0 × 10−13 W/m 2 )π ⎜ ⎟ (4.0 h)(3600 s/h) = 1.2 × 10 ⎝ 2 ⎠

(b)

The electric field amplitude can be found from the intensity, using Eq. 22–8. The magnitude of the magnetic field is then found from Eq. 22–2 with υ = c. I = 12 ε 0 cE02

→

2I 2(1.0 × 10−13 W/m 2 ) = = 8.679 × 10−6 V/m ε 0c (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(3.00 × 108 m/s)

E0 =

≈ 8.7 × 10−6 V/m B0 =

E0 8.679 × 10−6 V/m = = 2.9 × 10−14 T c 3.00 × 108 m/s

54.

According to Fig. 22–8, satellite TV waves have a wavelength of approximately 0.03 m. Example 22–2 says that the wavelength is 4 times the antenna’s length. So the antenna might be 0.075 m in length.

55.

Use the relationship between average intensity (the magnitude of the Poynting vector) and electric field strength, as given by Eq. 22–8. Also use the fact that intensity is power per unit area. We assume that the power is spherically symmetric about the source. I = 12 ε 0 cE0 2 = r=

P 2πε 0 cE0

P P = A 4π r 2 =

→

25, 000 W 2π (8.85 × 10

−12

C /N ⋅ m 2 ) (3.00 × 108 m/s)(0.020 V/m) 2

= 61, 200 m

≈ 61 km

Thus, to receive the transmission one should be within 61 km of the station. 56.

(a)

The radiation pressure when there is total reflection is given in Eq. 22–10b. P=

2 I avg c

2(1350 W/m 2 ) 8

3.00 × 10 m/s

= 9.00 × 10−6 N/m 2

Electromagnetic Waves

(b)

The force on the sail is the pressure times the area; then use Newton’s second law to calculate the acceleration. P=

(c)

22-13

F ma = A A

→

PA P 9.00 × 10−6 N/m 2 = = = 9 × 10−3 m/s 2 −3 2 m m /A 1× 10 kg/m

This answer is not an accurate description of the full situation. There is also a gravitational attraction due to the Sun’s mass, and it might be big enough to change the acceleration calculated here. The required force is the total mass (the payload plus the sail) and is provided by the radiation pressure times the area of the sail. P= A=

F ma = A A

→

2 ma (mpayload + msail )a (mpayload + (0.001 kg/m ) A)a = = P P P

mpayload a 2

[ P − (0.001 kg/m )a]

→

(100 kg)(1× 10−3 m/s 2 ) [(9.00 × 10

−6

N/m 2 ) − (0.001 kg/m 2 )(1× 10−3 m/s 2 )]

= 1.25 × 104 m 2 ≈ 1× 104 m 2 Again, the Sun’s gravitational attraction should also be figured into this before we claim to have a full understanding of the situation.

57.

(a)

The radio waves have the same intensity in all directions. The power crossing a given area is the intensity times the area. The intensity is the total power through the area of a sphere centered at the source. ⎛ P P = IA = ⎜ 0 ⎝ Atotal

(b)

⎞ 35, 000 W (1.0 m 2 ) = 2.785 × 10−3 W ≈ 2.8 mW ⎟A= 3 2 4π (1.0 × 10 m) ⎠

We find the rms value of the electric field from the intensity, using Eq. 22–8. I=

P 4π r 2

Erms =

2 = 12 ε 0 cE02 = 12 ε 0 c( 2 Erms ) 2 = ε 0 cErms

P 2

4π r cε 0

35, 000 W 4π (1.0 × 10 m) (3.00 × 108 m/s) (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) 3

= 1.024 V/m ≈ 1.0 V/m

(c)

The voltage over the length of the antenna is the electric field times the length of the antenna. Vrms = Erms d = (1.024 V/m) (1.0 m) = 1.0 V

(d)

We calculate the electric field at the new distance, and then calculate the voltage. Erms =

P 2

4π r cε 0

35, 000 W 4π (5.0 × 10 m) (3.00 × 108 m/s) (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) 4

= 2.048 × 10−2 V/m; Vrms = Erms d = (2.048 × 10−2 V/m) (1.0 m) = 2.0 × 10−2 V

58.

The light has the same intensity in all directions. Use a spherical geometry centered at the source with the definition of the average intensity, Eq. 22–8. We also use Eq. 22–3. I=

⎛ 1 P0 P = 0 2 = 12 cε 0 E0 2 = 12 c ⎜ 2 ⎜c μ A 4π r 0 ⎝

⎞ ⎟ E0 ⎟ ⎠

→

⎛

⎞ P ⎟ E0 = 0 2 ⎟ 4π r ⎝ c μ0 ⎠

1 1c ⎜ 2 ⎜ 2

→

E0 =

μ0 cP0 2π r 2

22-14

59.

Chapter 22

The power output of the antenna would be the intensity at a given distance from the antenna times the area of a sphere surrounding the antenna. The intensity is given by Eq. 22–8. I=

P 1 = cε 0 E02 A 2

P = 4π r 2 I = 2π r 2 cε 0 E02 = 2π (0.65 m) 2 (3.00 × 108 m/s) (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 )(3 × 106 V/m) 2 ≈ 6 × 1010 W

This is many orders of magnitude higher than the power output of commercial radio stations, which are no higher than tens of kilowatts. 60.

The wavelength of the AM radio signal is given by Eq. 22–4, λ = (a)

1λ 2

= 12 (300 m) = 150 m

(b)

1λ 4

= 14 (300 m) = 75 m

c (3.0 × 108 m/s) = = 300 m. f (106 Hz)

So there must be another way to pick up this signal—we don’t see antennas this long for AM radio. 61.

We find the average intensity at the 12-km distance from Eq. 22–8. Then the power can be found from the intensity, assuming that the signal is spherically symmetric, using the surface area of a sphere of radius 12 km. I = 12 ε 0 cE02 = 12 (8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) (3 × 108 m/s) (0.12 V/m) 2 = 1.9116 × 10−5 W/m 2 P = I A = (1.9116 × 10−5 W/m 2 )4π (12 × 103 m) 2 = 35 kW

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

In each case, the required area is the power requirement of the device divided by 20% of the intensity of the sunlight. (a)

P 50 × 10−3 W = = 2.5 × 10−4 m 2 ≈ 3 cm 2 I 200 W/m 2

(b)

P 1500 W = = 7.5 m 2 ≈ 8 m 2 (to 1 significant figure) I 200 W/m 2

(c)

P 40 hp(746 W/hp) = = 149 m 2 ≈ 100 m 2 I 200 W/m 2

(d)

Calculator: A typical graphing calculator is about 18 cm × 8 cm, which is about 140 cm 2 , so yes, the solar panel can be mounted directly on the calculator. Hair dryer: A house of floor area 1000 ft 2 would have a roof area on the order of 100 m 2 , so yes, a solar panel on the roof should be able to power the hair dryer. Car: This would require a square panel of side length about 12 m, which is much larger than the car. So no, this panel could not be mounted on a car and used for real-time power.

Electromagnetic Waves

(a)

2I , where the intensity is the power per unit c area delivered to the suit. The force is the pressure times the area.

From Eq. 22–10b, the radiation pressure is P =

Flaser = PA =

(b)

22-15

2 IA = c

2 ⎛ 3.0 W ⎞ 2(3.0 W) (π r 2 ) = = 2.0 × 10−8 N 8 c ⎜⎝ π r 2 ⎟⎠ 3.00 × 10 m/s

Use Newton’s law of universal gravitation, Eq. 6–1, to estimate the gravitational force. We take the 30-m distance as having 2 significant figures. Fgrav = G

mshuttle mastronaut r2

= (6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )

(1.03 ×105 kg) (120 kg) (30 m) 2

= 9.160 × 10−7 N ≈ 9.2 × 10−7 N

(c)

The gravity force is larger, by a factor of approximately 50.

(a)

The intensity from a point source is inversely proportional to the distance from the source. 2 rStarISun Earth = 2 IStar rSun-

→

rStar- = rSunEarth

Earth

ISun 1350 W/m 2 = (1.496 × 1011 m) IStar 1× 10−23 W/m 2

Earth

⎛ ⎞ 1 ly ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 15 ⎝ 9.46 × 10 m ⎠

= 1.84 ×108 ly ≈ 2 × 108 ly

(b)

Compare this distance to the galactic size. rStar-

Earth

galactic size

1.84 × 108 ly 1× 105 ly

= 1840 ≈ 2000

The distance to the star is about 2000 times the size of our galaxy. 4.

(a)

Since the cylinder is absorbing the radiation, the pressure (P) is given by Eq. 22–10a, where the intensity is the power ( Pavg ) divided by the cross-sectional area. The force is the pressure multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the cylinder, or the power absorbed divided by the speed of light. P=

I Pavg 1.0 W = = = 4244 W/m 2 ≈ 4 × 103 W/m 2 c cA (3.00 × 108 m/s)π (5 × 10−7 m) 2

F = PA =

(b)

Pavg cA

Pavg c

1.0 W 8

3.00 × 10 m/s

= 3.3 × 10−9 N

The acceleration of the cylindrical particle will be the force on it (due to radiation pressure) divided by its mass. The mass of the particle is its volume times the density of water. a=

F F 3.3 × 10−9 N = = = 8.49 × 106 m/s 2 ≈ 8 × 106 m/s 2 m ρH Oπ r 3 (1000 kg/m 2 )π (5 × 10−7 m)3 2

LIGHT: GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Responses to Questions 1.

It is probably not reasonable to assume that he burned the whole fleet at once, but it does seem possible (although certainly difficult) to start them on fire one at a time. Several attempts have been made to reenact the event in order to test its feasibility. Two of the successful attempts include a 1975 experiment directed by Greek scientist Dr. Ioannis Sakkas and a 2005 experiment performed by a group of engineering students at MIT. (See www.mit.edu for links to both these and other similar experiments.) In both these cases, several individual mirrors operating together (perhaps like a group of soldiers’ shields?) simulated a large spherical mirror and were used to ignite a wooden boat. If in fact the story is true, then Archimedes would have needed good weather and an enemy fleet that cooperated by staying relatively still while the focused sunlight heated the wood.

The focal length of a plane mirror is infinity. The magnification of a plane mirror is + 1. As the radius (and focal length) of a spherical mirror increases, the front surface gets more and more flat. The ultimate limit is that as the radius (and focal length) of the spherical mirror goes to infinity, the front surface becomes perfectly flat. For this mirror, the image height and object height are identical (as are the image distance and object distance) and the image is virtual, with a magnification of m = +1.

The mirror doesn’t actually reverse right and left, either, just as it doesn’t reverse up and down. Instead it reverses “front” and “back.” When you are looking in a flat mirror and move your right hand, it is the image of your right hand that moves in the mirror. When we see our image, though, we imagine it as if it is another person looking back at us. If we saw this other person raise their left hand, then we would see the hand that is on the right side of their body (from our point of view) move.

The image is real and inverted, because the magnification is negative. The mirror is concave, because convex mirrors can only form virtual images. The image is on the same side of the mirror as the object; real images are formed by converging light rays, and light rays cannot actually pass through a mirror.

Yes, if the mirror is the only piece of optics involved. When a concave mirror produces a real image of d a real object, both do and di are positive. The magnification equation, m = − i , results in a negative do magnification, which indicates that the image is inverted. If instead a virtual object were involved, then an upright real image would be formed.

23-1

23-2

Chapter 23

A light ray entering the solid rectangular object will exit the other side following a path that is parallel to its original path but displaced slightly from it. The angle of refraction in the glass can be determined geometrically from this displacement and the thickness of the object. The index of refraction can then be determined using Snell’s law with this angle of refraction and the original angle of incidence. The speed of light in the material follows from the definition of the index of refraction: n = c /υ . Alternatively, if the angles of incidence and refraction at one surface can be measured, then Snell’s law can be used to calculate the index of refraction.

air n

This effect is similar to diffuse reflection off of a rough surface. The ripply sea provides many different surface orientations, so the light from the Moon reflects from that surface at many different angles. This makes it look like there is one continuous reflection along the surface of the water between you and the Moon, instead of just one specular reflection spot.

When a light ray meets the boundary between two materials perpendicularly, both the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction are 0°. Snell’s law shows this to be true for any combination of the indices of refraction of the two materials.

You are likely to underestimate the depth. The light rays leaving the bottom of the pool bend away from the normal as they enter the air, so their source appears to be more shallow than it actually is. The greater the viewing angle relative to the normal, the greater the bending of the light and therefore the shallower the apparent depth.

10.

Your brain interprets the bending rays as though the part of the stick that is underwater is closer to the surface than it really is, so it looks bent. Each point on the stick that is underwater appears to you to be closer to the surface than it actually is.

eye air Apparent depth

Eye Air Water

11.

Because the broad beam hits the surface of the water at an angle, it illuminates an area of the surface that is wider than the beam width. Light from the beam bends toward the normal. The refracted beam is wider than the incident beam because one edge of the beam strikes the surface first, while the other edge travels farther in the air. (See the adjacent diagram.)

12.

The light rays from the fish are bent away from the normal as they leave the tank. The fish will appear closer to the side of the tank than it really is.

air water

fish

Light: Geometric Optics

23-3

13.

One reason you can see a drop of transparent and colorless water on a surface is refraction. The light leaving the tabletop and going through the drop on the way to your eye will make that portion of the tabletop seem to be raised up, due to depth distortion and/or magnification due to the round drop. A second reason that you can see the drop is reflection. At certain angles, the light sources in the room will reflect off of the drop and give its location away.

14.

When the light ray passes from the left material to the middle material, the ray bends toward the normal. This indicates that the index of refraction of the left material is less than that of the middle material. When the light ray passes from the middle material to the right material, the ray bends away from the normal, but not far enough to make the ray parallel to the initial ray, indicating that the index of refraction of the right material is less than that of the middle material but larger than the index of refraction of the left material. The ranking of the indices of refraction is, least to greatest, left, right, and middle. So the middle has the largest index and the left has the smallest.

15.

As discussed in Question 9, the bottom of the pool and the toy will appear closer to the top of the water than they really are. If the child is not aware of this phenomenon, then she will underestimate the depth of the water.

16.

No. Total internal reflection can only occur when light travels from a medium of higher index of refraction to a medium of lower index of refraction.

17.

The mirror is concave, and the person is standing inside the focal point so that a virtual, upright image is formed. A convex mirror would also form a virtual, upright image, but the image would be smaller than the object. See Fig. 23–16 and Example 23–4 for similar situations.

18.

(a)

(b)

19.

The fact that light rays from stars (including our Sun) bend toward the vertical direction as they pass through Earth’s atmosphere makes sense because the index of refraction of the atmosphere is slightly greater than that of the vacuum of space. As the light rays from stars enter the atmosphere, they slow down and bend toward the vertical, according to Snell’s law. The apparent positions of stars in the sky are Apparent too high when compared to actual positions. direction Since the light rays bend toward the vertical Actual as they come into the atmosphere and then direction into our eyes, as we “follow” these rays back into space, which doesn’t take the bending into account, the image of the stars appears higher than the actual position. See the simple diagram, which might be considered looking down from the North Pole, with the sun at the left so that it is nighttime for the observer.

To make a sharp image of an object that is very far away, the film of a camera must be placed at the focal point of the lens. Objects that are very far away have light rays coming into the camera that are basically parallel; these rays will be bent and focused to create an image at the focal point of the lens, which is where the film should be in order to record a focused image.

23-4

Chapter 23

20.

The lens moves farther away from the film. When the photographer moves closer to his subject, the object distance decreases. The focal length of the lens does not change, so the image distance must 1 1 1 = + . To get the image and the film at the same place, the lens needs to increase, by Eq. 23–8, f d o di move away from the film.

21.

If the diverging lens is the only piece of optics involved, then it is not possible for it to form a real image. Diverging lenses, by definition, cause light rays to diverge and will not bring rays from a real object to a focal point as required to form a real image. However, if another optical element (for example, a converging lens) forms a virtual object for the diverging lens, then it is possible for the diverging lens to form a real image.

22.

Yes, to say that light rays are “reversible” is consistent with the thin lens equation. Since 1 1 1 + = , if you interchange the image and object positions, then the equation is unchanged. d o di f

23.

Real images can be projected onto a screen. In this situation, real light rays actually focus at the position of the image, and if the screen is placed at the image location, then the image can be seen on the screen. Virtual images cannot be projected onto a screen. In this situation, no real light rays are converging at the position of the virtual image, so they cannot be seen on a screen (recall that a plane mirror’s virtual image is actually behind the mirror, where no real light rays travel). Both real images and virtual images can be photographed. Real images can be photographed by putting the film at the image location, so the film takes the place of the screen. Both virtual and real images can be photographed in the same way that you can see both virtual and real images with your eye. As long as the camera (or the eye) is positioned so that diverging rays from the (real or virtual) image enter the camera (or the eye), the converging lens is able to make an image from those rays on the film. There is no difference in the way that the camera records rays that came from a virtual image or rays that came from some object directly. See Fig. 23–37c or Fig. 23–39, and simply replace the eye with a camera. The same image will be recorded in both situations.

24.

(a)

(b)

As a thin converging lens is moved closer to a nearby object, the position of the real image changes. As the object distance decreases, the thin lens equation says that the image distance increases in order for the calculation for the focal length to not change. Thus, the position of the image moves farther away from the lens until the object is at the focal point. At that condition, the image is at infinity. As a thin converging lens is moved closer to a nearby object, the size of the real image changes. As the object distance decreases, the thin lens equation says that the image distance increases, which means that the magnification (m = − di /do ) gets larger. Thus, the size of the image increases until the object reaches the focal point, in which case a real image will no longer be formed.

25.

Because there is less refraction when light passes between water and glass than when light passes between air and glass, the light will not be bent as much when the lens is in water, so its focal length will be longer in the water.

26.

The forms of the mirror equation and the lens equation are identical. According to the sign conventions, f > 0 indicates a converging lens or mirror, and f < 0 indicates a diverging lens or mirror. A value for d > 0 indicates a real object or image, and d < 0 indicates a virtual object or image, for both mirrors and lenses. But the positions of the objects and images are different for a mirror and a lens. For a mirror, a real object or image will be in front of the mirror (on the same side as the incoming and outgoing light), and a virtual object or image will be behind the mirror. For a lens, a real image will be on the opposite side of the lens from a real object, and a virtual image will be on the same side of the lens as the real object.

Light: Geometric Optics

23-5

27.

No. If a lens with n = 1.25 is a converging lens in air, then it will become a diverging lens when placed in water, with n = 1.33. The figure on the left shows that as parallel light rays n = 1.00 n = 1.25 n = 1.25 n = 1.33 enter the lens when it is in air, at the first surface the ray is bent toward the normal, and at the second surface the ray is bent away from the normal, which is a net converging situation. The figure on the right shows that as parallel light rays enter the lens when it is in water, at the first surface the ray is bent away from the normal, and at the second surface the ray is bent toward the normal, which is a net diverging situation.

28.

(a)

(b)

Yes, the focal length of a lens depends on the surrounding fluid. The relative values of the index of refraction of the fluid and the index of refraction of the lens will determine the refraction of light as it passes from the fluid through the lens and back into the fluid. The amount of refraction of light determines the focal length of the lens, so the focal length will change if the lens is immersed in a fluid. No, the focal length of a spherical mirror does not depend on the surrounding fluid. The image formation of the spherical mirror is determined by reflection, not refraction, and is independent of the medium in which the mirror is immersed.

29.

The lens material is air and the medium in which the lens is placed is water. Air has a lower index of refraction than water, so the light rays will bend away from the normal when entering the lens and toward the normal when leaving the lens. (a) A converging lens can be made by a shape that is thinner in the middle than it is at the edges. (b) A diverging lens will be thicker in the middle than it is at the edges.

30.

A double convex lens causes light rays to converge because the light bends toward the normal as it enters the lens and away from the normal as it exits the lens. The result, due to the curvature of the sides of the lens, is that the light bends toward the principal axis at both surfaces. The more strongly the sides of the lens are curved (which means the thicker the lens), the greater the refraction and the shorter the focal length. This can ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ also be seen from the lensmaker’s equation: = (n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ . To make a lens that is thick in the f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ middle, the radii of the two convex sides should be small. If R1 and R2 decrease in the lensmaker’s equation, then the focal length decreases.

31.

The image point of an unsymmetrical lens does not change if you turn the lens around. The lensmaker’s ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ equation, = (n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ , is symmetrical (even if the lens is not). Turning the lens around inter f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ changes R1 and R2 , which does not change the value of the focal length or the location of the image point.

32.

(a)

(b)

The focal length of a diverging lens cannot be measured directly because the diverging lens cannot form a real image. Therefore, it is very difficult to measure the image distance—some indirect measure (as described in this problem) must be used. For the converging lens to be stronger, it must have a shorter focal length then the absolute value of the focal length of the diverging lens. If the diverging lens is stronger, then instead of the focal point simply being moved back from its original location in Fig. 23–45, the rays would never focus. The diverging lens would diverge the entering rays so much that, again, a virtual image would be formed, and no direct measure would be possible.

23-6

Chapter 23

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(a)

It is easy to think that as someone approaches the mirror, they will see less of themselves since their image would be larger or they will see more of themselves as the angle of reflection becomes larger. Actually, they will see the exact same amount, as the two properties (larger image and greater angle) exactly cancel each other. A diagram is included with the solution to Problem 1 showing that a ray entering the eye that has reflected from the bottom of the mirror originates at the waist, regardless of how far the person is from the mirror.

(c)

Since the image from a flat mirror is behind the mirror, the image is virtual. Experience shows that when looking through a flat mirror, the image is upright.

(a)

Parallel rays that reflect off of a mirror will reflect out through the focal point. Therefore, if the source is placed at the focal point, then all of the reflected rays will exit the mirror parallel to the principal axis of the mirror.

(c)

A common misconception is that the fish will appear to be located at its actual depth. However, due to refraction, light from the fish bends away from the normal as it exits the surface. This refraction makes the fish appear closer to the surface than it actually is. See Fig. 23â&#x20AC;&#x201C;25 in the text.

(e)

When light travels from a low index to a higher index, it bends toward the normal. When it travels from a high index to a low index, it bends away from the normal. As it passes from region 1 to region 2, it bends toward the normal, so n2 > n1. As it passes from region 2 to region 3, it bends away from the normal, so n2 > n3 . Since the surfaces are parallel and the angle in region 3 is greater than the initial angle in region 1, n1 > n3 . Combining these three relations gives n2 > n1 > n3 .

(a)

Students may note that due to refraction the fish is actually lower in the water than it appears and may answer that you should shoot below the image. However, the laser is a light beam that will also refract at the surface, so to hit the fish you would need to aim directly at the fish.

(b)

If all of the light reflected off of the surface, then the water under the lake would be completely dark. However, when you swim underwater on a moonlit night, it is possible to see the Moon. If all of the moonlight entered the water, then you could not see the Moon reflecting off the surface. Therefore, some of the light must enter the water and some must reflect off of the surface.

(c)

A common misconception is that the light travels down the fiber without touching the edges. However, since the index of refraction of the fiber is greater than the index of refraction of the surrounding air, the light inside the fiber can totally internally reflect off of the sides. Since the ends are perpendicular to the sides, the angle of the light relative to the ends is less than the critical angle and the light exits the ends.

(e)

If the object distance is greater than twice the focal length, then the image will be reduced, so (a) is incorrect. If the object distance is between the focal length and twice the focal length, then the image will be magnified, so (b) is incorrect. If the object is placed between the lens and the focal length, then the virtual image will be upright, so (c) is incorrect. If the object is placed at a distance greater than the focal length, then the image will be inverted, so (d) is incorrect. Therefore, none of the given statements are true.

Light: Geometric Optics

23-7

10.

(e)

Virtual images are formed by plane mirrors, convex mirrors, concave mirrors (when the object is within the focal distance), diverging lenses, and converging lenses (when the object is within the focal distance). Therefore, virtual images can be formed with plane and curved mirrors and lenses.

11.

(d)

A common misconception is to equate power with magnification. However, power is the term used for the reciprocal of the focal length.

12.

(c)

A common misconception is that each half of the lens produces half of the image. Actually, light from each part of the image passes through each part of the lens. When half of the lens is covered, the image is less intense, but the full image is still present on the screen.

13.

(e)

It might seem reasonable that a lens must be curved on both sides to produce an image. However, images can be produced by plane mirrors, curved mirrors, and lenses curved on one or both sides.

14.

(a)

When the object is outside the focal length, the image is real and inverted. When the object is inside the focal length, the image is virtual and upright. And the closer the object is to the focal length, the greater the magnification, so the image is large in both cases.

Solutions to Problems 1.

The angle of incidence must equal the angle of reflection. We see from the diagram that a ray that reflects from your toes to your eyes must strike the mirror at a point that is half the vertical distance from your toes to your eyes, regardless of your distance from the mirror.

For a flat mirror the image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front, so the distance from object to image is twice the distance from the object to the mirror, or 6.2 m .

The law of reflection can be applied twice. At the first reflection, the angle is θ , and at the second reflection, the angle is φ . Consider the triangle formed by the mirrors (at angle α ) and the first reflected ray.

θ + α + φ = 180° → 34° + 135° + φ = 180° → φ = 11° 4.

The angle of incidence is the angle of reflection. See the diagram for the appropriate lengths. ( H − h)

h → x h (0.38 m)(2.20 m) x= = = 0.62 m ( H − h) (1.72 m − 0.38 m)

tan θ =

Mirror

See the “top view” ray diagram.

(a)

The first image seen will be due to a single reflection off the front (leftmost) mirror. This image will be as far behind the mirror as you are in front of the mirror. D1 = 2 × 1.6 m = 3.2 m

23-8

Chapter 23

The second image seen will be the image reflected first from the back (rightmost) mirror and then off the front mirror, so it is an image of your back. As seen in the diagram, this image will appear to be twice the distance between the mirrors. D2 = 1.6 m + 2.3 m + (2.3 m − 1.6 m) = 2 × 2.3 m = 4.6 m The third image seen will be the image reflected off the front mirror, the back mirror, and the front mirror again. As seen in the diagram, this image distance will be the sum of twice your distance to the mirror and twice the distance between the mirrors. D3 = 1.6 m + 2.3 m + 2.3 m + 1.6 m = 2 × 1.6 m + 2 × 2.3 m = 7.8 m The actual person is to the far right in the diagram.

1.6 m

2.3 m

D3 (b) 7.

2.3 m

We see from the diagram that the first image is facing toward you ; the second image is facing away from you; and the third image is facing toward you.

The rays entering your eye are diverging from the virtual image position behind the mirror. Thus the diameter of the area on the mirror and the diameter of your pupil must subtend the same angle from the image. Dpupil Dmirror di = → Dmirror = Dpupil = 1 Dpupil di ( d o + di ) ( d o + di ) 2 2 2 Amirror = 14 π Dmirror = 14 π 14 Dpupil =

1.6 m

π 16

(4.5 × 10−3 m) 2 = 4.0 × 10−6 m 2

The rays from the Sun will be parallel, so the image will be at the focal point, which is half the radius of curvature. r = 2 f = 2(18.8 cm) = 37.6 cm

To produce an image at infinity, the object must be at the focal point, which is half the radius of curvature. do = f = 12 r = 12 (21.0 cm) = 10.5 cm

10.

(a)

The focal length is half the radius of curvature, so f = 12 r = 12 (24 cm) = 12 cm .

(b)

Use Eq. 23–2. d f 1 1 1 (38 cm)(12 cm) + = → di = o = = 17.54 cm ≈ 18 cm do di f do − f 38 cm − 12 cm

(c)

The image is inverted, since the magnification is negative. d 18 cm = − 0.47 m=− i =− do 38 cm

Light: Geometric Optics

11.

(a)

From the ray diagram it is seen that the image is virtual. We estimate the image distance as about a third of the radius of curvature, or about − 5 cm .

(b)

Use a focal length of −8.0 cm with the object distance of 16.0 cm. 1 1 1 + = do di f

(c)

do f (16.0 cm)(− 8.0 cm) = = −5.33 cm ≈ −5.3 cm d o − f 16.0 cm − (− 8.0 cm)

We find the image size from the magnification. m=

12.

→ di =

23-9

hi − di = ho do

⎛ −d ⎞ ⎛ 5.33 cm ⎞ → hi = ho ⎜ i ⎟ = (3.0 mm) ⎜ = 1.0 mm ⎝ 16.0 cm ⎟⎠ ⎝ do ⎠

The object distance of 2.00 cm and the magnification of + 4.0 are used to find the image distance. The focal length and radius of curvature can then be found. m=

− di do

→ di = − md o

1 1 1 + = do di f

→

f =

d o di d (− mdo ) md o 4(2.00 cm) = o = = = 2.677 cm d o + di do − md o m −1 4 −1

r = 2 f = 2(2.667 cm) = 5.3 cm

Because the focal length is positive, the mirror is concave. 13.

The object distance of 3.4 m and the magnification of + 0.5 are used to find the image distance. The focal length and radius of curvature can then be found. m=

− di do

→ di = − md o

1 1 1 + = do di f

→

f =

d o di d (− md o ) md o 0.5(3.4 m) = o = = = −3.4 m do + di do − mdo m −1 0.5 − 1

r = 2 f = 2(−3.4 m) = −6.8 m

14.

Take the object distance to be ∞ and use Eq. 23–2. Note that the image distance is negative since the image is behind the mirror. 1 1 1 + = do di f

→

1 1 1 + = ∞ di f

→

f = di = −19.0 cm → r = 2 f = −38.0 cm

Because the focal length is negative, the mirror is convex. 15.

The image distance can be found from the object distance of 1.9 m and the magnification of + 3. With the image distance and object distance, the focal length and radius of curvature can be found. m=

−di do

→ di = −md o

1 1 1 + = d o di f

→

f =

d o di d (−md o ) md o 3(1.9 m) = o = = 2.85 m d o + di d o − mdo m −1 3 −1

r = 2 f = 2(2.85 m) = 5.7 m

23-10

16.

Chapter 23

The object distance changes from 20.0 cm to 30.0 cm. The radius of curvature is still 30.0 cm, so the focal distance is 15.0 cm. 1 1 1 + = d o di f m=−

do f (30.0 cm)(15.0 cm) = = 30.0 cm do − f 30.0 cm − 15.0 cm

→ di =

di 30.0 cm =− = −1.00 do 30.0 cm

We see that the image is inverted and the same size as the object. We see that d o = 2 f for the “actual-sized image” situation. 17.

The ball is a convex mirror with a focal length f = 12 r = 12 (−4.4 cm) = −2.2 cm. Use Eq. 23–2 to locate the image. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

→ di =

do f (25.0 cm)(−2.2 cm) = = −2.022 cm ≈ −2.0 cm do − f 25.0 cm − (−2.2 cm)

The image is 2.0 cm behind the surface of the ball, virtual, and upright. Note that the magnification is d −(−2.022 cm) m=− i = = + 0.081. do (25.0 cm) 18.

The mirror must be convex. Only convex mirrors produce images that are upright and smaller than the object. The object distance of 16.0 m and the magnification of + 0.33 are used to find the image distance. The focal length and radius of curvature can then be found. m=

−di do

→ di = −md o

1 1 1 + = d o di f

→

f =

d o di d (−md o ) md o 0.33(16.0 m) = o = = = −7.881 m d o + di d o − mdo m −1 0.33 − 1

r = 2 f = 2(−7.881 m) = −15.76 m ≈ −16 m

The negative focal length confirms that the mirror must be convex. 19.

The image flips at the focal point, which is half the radius of curvature. Thus the radius is 1.0 m.

20.

(a)

We are given that di = do . Use Eq. 23–2. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

→

2 1 = do f

→

do = 2 f = r

The object should be placed at the radius of curvature. (b)

Because the image is in front of the mirror, di > 0, it is real.

(c)

The magnification is m =

− di − d o = = −1. Because the magnification is negative, the image is do do

inverted.

21.

(d)

As found in part (c), m = −1.

(a)

Producing a larger upright image requires a concave mirror.

(b)

The image will be upright, virtual, and magnified.

Light: Geometric Optics

(c)

23-11

We find the image distance from the magnification and use that to find the radius of curvature. −d h m = i = i → di = − md o ho do 1 1 1 + = d o di f r =2f =

→

f =

d o di d (− md o ) md o = o = → d o + di do − mdo m −1

2mdo 2(1.40)(20.0 cm) = = 140 cm = 1.40 m (3 significant figures) m −1 1.40 − 1

22. (a)

hi > ho ;

(b)

1r 2

r r = < 1. (2do − r ) (> r )

< d o < r , then (2d o − r ) < r , so m =

r r = > 1. (2do − r ) (< r )

Consider the ray that reflects from the center of the mirror, and note that di < 0. tan θ = m=

24.

m > 1; do < r

Apply Eq. 23–2 and Eq. 23–3. rd o −d 1 1 1 2 −r ; m= i = + = = → di = d o di f r (2d o − r ) do (2d o − r ) If do > r , then (2d o − r ) > r , so m =

23.

hi > ho ;

m > 1; do < r

ho h = i do −di

→

−di hi = do ho

hi d = − i ho do

The distance between the mirror and the wall is equal to the image distance, which we can calculate using Eq. 23–2. The object is located a distance r from the wall, so the object distance will be r less than the image distance. The focal length is given by Eq. 23–1. For the object distance to be real, the image distance must be greater than r. 1 1 1 2 1 1 = + → = + → 2di2 − 4di r + r 2 = 0 f d o di r di − r di di =

do di

⎛ 4r ± 16r 2 − 8r 2 2⎞ = r ⎜⎜ 1 ± ⎟ ≈ 0.292r or 1.71r 4 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝

Use Eq. 23–3 to calculate the magnification: m = −

di 1.71r = = −2.41 do 1.71r − r

23-12

25.

Chapter 23

We find the index of refraction from Eq. 23–4. n=

26.

27.

3.00 × 108 m/s 2.29 × 108 m/s

(a)

Ethyl alcohol:

υ=

c 3.00 × 108 m/s = = 2.21× 108 m/s n 1.36

(b)

Lucite:

υ=

c 3.00 × 108 m/s = = 1.99 × 108 m/s n 1.51

(c)

Crown glass:

υ=

c 3.00 × 108 m/s = = 1.97 × 108 m/s n 1.52

We find the index of refraction from Eq. 23–4. c

c 0.82υ water

⎛ c ⎞ 0.82 ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ nwater ⎠

nwater 1.33 = = 1.62 0.82 0.82

⎛n ⎞ ⎛ 1.00 ⎞ sin 67° ⎟ = 36° → θ 2 = sin −1 ⎜ 1 sin θ1 ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ n 1.56 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛n ⎞ ⎛ 1.33 ⎞ sin 35.2° ⎟ = 50.1° → θ 2 = sin −1 ⎜ 1 sin θ1 ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ n 1.00 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

We find the incident angle in the water from Snell’s law. n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2

31.

Find the angle of refraction from Snell’s law. Medium 1 is water, and medium 2 is air. n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2

30.

Find the angle of refraction from Snell’s law. n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2

29.

= 1.31

In each case, the speed is found from Eq. 23–4 and the index of refraction.

28.

⎛n ⎞ ⎛ 1.00 ⎞ sin 56.0° ⎟ = 38.6° → θ1 = sin −1 ⎜ 2 sin θ 2 ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ n 1.33 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠

We find the incident angle in the air (relative to the normal) from Snell’s law. n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2

⎛n ⎞ ⎛ 1.33 ⎞ sin 36.0° ⎟ = 51.4° → θ1 = sin −1 ⎜ 2 sin θ 2 ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ n 1.00 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠

Since this is the angle relative to the vertical, the angle as measured from the horizon is the complementary angle, 90.0° − 51.4° = 38.6° . 32.

(a)

We use Eq. 23–5 to calculate the refracted angle as the light enters the glass (n = 1.56) from the air (n = 1.00). n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2

→

⎡ n1 ⎤ ⎡1.00 ⎤ sin θ1 ⎥ = sin −1 ⎢ sin 43.5° ⎥ = 26.55° ≈ 26.6° ⎣1.54 ⎦ ⎣ n2 ⎦

θ 2 = sin −1 ⎢

Light: Geometric Optics

(b)

23-13

We again use Eq. 23–5 using the refracted angle in the glass and the indices of refraction of the glass and water. ⎡ n2

⎤ ⎡1.54 ⎤ sin θ 2 ⎥ = sin −1 ⎢ sin 26.55°⎥ = 31.17° ≈ 31.2° n 1.33 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦

θ3 = sin −1 ⎢ (c)

We repeat the same calculation as in part (a) but using the index of refraction of water. ⎡ n1

⎤ ⎡1.00 ⎤ sin θ1 ⎥ = sin −1 ⎢ sin 43.5°⎥ = 31.17° ≈ 31.2° n 1.33 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦

θ3 = sin −1 ⎢

As expected, the refracted angle in the water is the same whether the light beam first passes through the glass or passes directly into the water. 33.

The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence and is equal to twice the angle of refraction: θ ref1 = θ1 = 2θ 2 . Use Snell’s law and a “double-angle” trig identity. nair sin θ1 = nglass sin θ 2

→ (1.00) sin 2 θ 2 = (1.51) sin θ 2

sin 2 θ 2 = 2sin θ 2 cos θ 2 = (1.51) sin θ 2

→ cos θ 2 = 0.755 → θ 2 = 40.97°

θ1 = 2θ 2 = 81.9° 34.

We find the angle of incidence from the distances. tan θ1 =

(2.5 m) = 1.9231 → θ1 = 62.526° (1.3 m)

Use Snell’s law to find the angle in the water. nair sin θ1 = nwater sin θ 2 ; (1.00) sin 62.526° = (1.33) sin θ 2

nair

θ1

→ θ 2 = 41.842°

nwater

θ2

l1 l

Find the horizontal distance from the edge of the pool. =

+ h2 tan θ2

= 2.5 m + (2.1 m) tan 41.842° = 4.38 m ≈ 4.4 m

35.

When the light in the material with a higher index is incident at the critical angle, the refracted angle is 90°. Use Snell’s law. ⎛

ncrown sin θ1 = nwater sin θ 2 glass

→ θ1 = sin

−1 ⎜

nwater ⎜ ⎜ ncrown ⎝ glass

⎞ ⎟ −1 1.33 = 61.0° ⎟ = sin 1.52 ⎟ ⎠

Because crown glass has the higher index, the light must start in crown glass. 36.

Use Eq. 23–6. sin θ C =

nair nliquid

→ nliquid =

nair 1.00 = = 1.36 sin θ1 sin 47.2°

23-14

37.

Chapter 23

We find the critical angle for light leaving the water, so that the refracted angle is 90°. sin θ C =

nair nliquid

air

⎛ 1.00 ⎞ → θ C = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 48.75° ⎝ 1.33 ⎠

If the light is incident at a greater angle than this, then it will totally reflect. Find R from the diagram.

θ1

R > H tan θ1 = (82.0 cm) tan 48.75° = 93.5 cm

38.

Refer to the diagram for the solution to Problem 37. Find the angle of incidence from the distances. tan θ1 =

R (7.6 cm) = = 0.95 → θ1 = 43.53° H (8.0 cm)

The maximum incident angle for refraction from liquid into air is the critical angle, sin θ C = Thus we have the following. 1 sin θ1 ≥ sin θ C = nliquid 39.

(a)

→ sin 43.53° = 0.6887 ≥

1 nliquid

→ nliquid ≥ 1.452 ≈ nliquid ≥ 1.5

The ray enters normal to the first surface, so there is no deviation there. The angle of incidence is 45° at the second surface. When there is air outside the surface, we have the following. n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2

→ n1 sin 45° = (1.00) sin θ 2

For total internal reflection to occur, sin θ 2 ≥ 1, so n1 ≥ (b)

1.00 . nliquid

1 = 1.4 . sin 45°

When there is water outside the surface, we have the following. n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2

→ (1.58) sin 45° = (1.33) sin θ 2

→ sin θ 2 = 0.84

Because sin θ 2 < 1, the prism will not be totally reflecting. (c)

For total reflection when there is water outside the surface, we have the following. n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2

→

n1 sin 45° = (1.33) sin θ 2

For total internal reflection to occur, sin θ 2 ≥ 1. n1 ≥

40.

(a)

1.33 = 1.9 sin 45°

For the refraction at the side of the rod, we have n2 sin γ = n1 sin δ . The minimum angle for total reflection γ min occurs when δ = 90°. n2 sin γ min = (1.00)(1) = 1 → sin γ min =

90°

1 n2

Find the maximum angle of refraction at the end of the rod.

n1 β α

β max = 90° − γ min

Light: Geometric Optics

23-15

Because the sine function increases with angle, for the refraction at the end of the rod, we have the following. n1 sin α max = n2 sin β max

→ (1.00) sin α max = n2 sin(90° − γ min ) = n2 cos γ min

If we want total internal reflection to occur for any incident angle at the end of the fiber, the 1 maximum value of α is 90°, so n2 cos γ min = 1 or cos γ min = . When we divide this by the n2 result for the refraction at the side, we get tan γ min = 1 → γ min = 45°. Thus we have the following. n2 ≥

(b)

1 1 = = 1.414 sin γ min sin 45°

If the fiber were immersed in water, then the value of n1 would be 1.33. We repeat the analysis with that value. n2 sin γ min = (1.33)(1) = 1.33 → sin γ min = n1 sin α max = n2 sin β max

→ (1.33) sin α max = n2 sin (90° − γ min ) = n2 cos γ min

α max = 90° → 1.33 = n2 cos γ min

tan γ min

1.33 ; β max = 90° − γ min n2

→ cos γ min =

1.33 n sin γ min = = 2 = 1 → γ min = 45° → 1.33 cos γ min n2

1.33 n2

n2 ≥

1.33 1.33 = = 1.88 sin γ min sin 45°

The index of refraction of the material must be at least 1.88 to not have losses upon reflection, if immersed in water. 41.

(a)

From the ray diagram, the object distance is about 500 mm.

(b)

We find the object distance from Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = d o di f do =

42.

→

fdi (215 mm)(391 mm) = = 478 mm di − f 391 mm − 215 mm

(a)

Forming a real image from parallel rays requires a converging lens.

(b)

We find the power of the lens from Eqs. 23–7 and 23–8. We treat the object distance as infinite. 1 1 1 1 1 + = =P= + = 6.06 D d o di f ∞ 0.165 m

43.

(a)

The power of the lens is given by Eq. 23–7. P=

1 1 = = 3.08 D f 0.325 m

This lens is converging.

23-16

Chapter 23

(b)

We find the focal length of the lens from Eq. 23–7. P=

1 f

→

f =

1 1 =− = −0.148 m D 6.75 D

This lens is diverging. 44.

Forming a real image from a real object requires a converging lens. We find the focal length of the lens from Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

→

f =

d o di (1.55 m)(0.483 m) = = 0.368 m do + di 1.55 m + 0.483 m

Because di > 0, the image is real. 45.

(a)

We find the image distance from Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

(b)

do f (1.0 m)(0.105 m) = = 0.117 m = 117 mm do − f 1.0 m − 0.105 m

We find the smallest object distance from the maximum image distance. 1 do

min

46.

do f (3.0 m)(0.105 m) = = 0.109 m = 109 mm do − f 3.0 m − 0.105 m

Use the same general calculation. di =

(d)

do f (10.0 m)(0.105 m) = = 0.106 m = 106 mm do − f 10.0 m − 0.105 m

Use the same general calculation. di =

(c)

→ di =

1 di

max

1 = f

−f

di → do

min

max

(132 mm)(105 mm) = 513 mm = 0.513 m 132 mm − 105 mm

max

A real image is only formed by a converging lens, and only if the object distance is greater than the focal length. The image is on the opposite side of the lens as the object and will always be inverted, as shown in the first diagram. If the object were moved back, then the three rays drawn would never intersect above the axis of symmetry to make an upright image, but only intersect below the axis of symmetry, only making an inverted image. A virtual image is formed by a converging lens if the object distance is less than the focal length. In the second diagram, the outgoing rays will never intersect since ray 2 is parallel to the symmetry axis and rays 1 and 3 are sloping downward. Also, ray 3 will always slope more than ray 1, so none of those rays ever meet. Thus they can only form a virtual image, and it has to be upright, as seen in the diagram.

Light: Geometric Optics

23-17

A virtual image is formed by a diverging lens, no matter where a real object is placed. Since the rays leaving the lens diverge, they cannot form a real image. And because the ray that hits the lens at point B is sloping upward, it will always (virtually) intersect the other ray to make an upright image. 47.

(a)

We locate the image using Eq. 23–8. Both the focal length and object distance are positive. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

→ di =

do f (16 cm)(28 cm) = = −37.33 cm ≈ −37 cm do − f 16 cm − 28 cm

The negative sign means that the image is 37 cm behind the lens (virtual). (b)

We find the magnification from Eq. 23–9. m=−

48.

di (−37.33 cm) =− = +2.3 do (16 cm)

(a)

The image should be upright for reading. The image will be virtual, upright, and magnified.

(b)

Forming a virtual, upright magnified image requires a converging lens.

(c)

We find the image distance, then the focal length, and then the power of the lens. The object distance is given. m=− P=

di do

→ di = − md o

1 1 1 d + do − md o + d o m − 1 3.0 − 1 = + = i = = = = 7.4 D f d o di d o di do (− md o ) md o (3.0)(0.090 m)

For reference, the focal length is 13.5 cm. 49.

Use Eqs. 23–7 and 23–8 to find the image distance and Eq. 23–9 to find the image height. 1 1 1 + = =P d o di f

→ di =

do (0.125 m) = = −0.0667 m = −6.67 cm Pdo − 1 (−7.00 D)(0.125 m) −1

Since the image distance is negative, the image is virtual and behind the lens. m=

50.

hi d =− i ho do

→ hi = 2

di (−6.67 cm) ho = − (1.00 mm) = 0.534 mm (upright) do 12.5 cm

First, find the original image distance from Eqs. 23–7 and 23–8. do 1 1 1 (1.50 m) + = = P → di = = = 0.1714 m d o di f Pdo − 1 (6.5 D)(1.50 m) − 1

(a)

With a new object distance of do = 0.60 m, find the new image distance. do 1 1 1 (0.60 m) + = = P → di = = = 0.2069 m d o di f Pd o − 1 (6.5 D)(0.60 m) − 1

Thus the image has moved 0.2069 m − 0.1714 m = 0.0355 m ≈ 0.04 m away from the lens.

23-18

Chapter 23

(b)

With a new object distance of do = 2.40 m, find the new image distance. do 1 1 1 (2.40 m) + = = P → di = = = 0.1644 m d o di f Pd o − 1 (6.5 D)(2.40 m) − 1

The image has moved 0.1714 m − 0.1644 m = 0.007 m toward the lens. 51.

(a)

If the image is real, then the focal length must be positive, the image distance must be positive, and the magnification is negative. Thus di = 2.50do . Use Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 1 1 + = + = do di do 2.50do f

(b)

If the image is magnified, then the lens must have a positive focal length, because negative lenses always form reduced images. Since the image is virtual the magnification is positive. Thus di = −2.50do . Again use Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 1 1 + = − = do di d o 2.5do f

52.

⎛ 3.50 ⎞ ⎛ 3.50 ⎞ → do = ⎜ ⎟ f =⎜ ⎟ (50.0 mm) = 70.0 mm 2.50 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2.50 ⎠

⎛ 1.50 ⎞ ⎛ 1.50 ⎞ → do = ⎜ ⎟ f =⎜ ⎟ (50.0 mm) = 30.0 mm 2.50 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2.50 ⎠

Since a concave (negative focal length) lens always forms reduced images of a real object, the object in these cases must be virtual (formed by another piece of optics) and have negative object distances in order to form enlarged images. Using Eqs. 23–8 and 23–9, we get this relationship. m=

(a)

−di do

→ do =

−di ; m

1 1 1 + = d o di f

→

m 1 1 + = f 2di di

→ di = (1 − m) f

If the image is real, then di > 0. With f < 0, we must have m > 1 from the above relationship. Thus m = +2.50. di = [1 − (+ 2.50)](−50.0 mm) = 75.0 mm do =

(b)

−di −(75.0 mm) = = −30.0 mm m (+ 2.50)

If the image is virtual, then di < 0. With f < 0, we see that m < 1. Thus m = −2.50. di = [1 − (−2.50)](−50.0 mm) = −175 mm do = −

53.

di (−170 mm) =− = −70.0 mm m (−2.50)

From Eq. 23–9, hi = ho when di = d o . So find d o from Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 1 1 + = + = d o di d o d o f

54.

(a)

→ do = 2 f = 64 cm

Use Eqs. 23–8 and 23–9. 1 1 1 + = d o di f m=

hi d =− i ho do

→ di =

do f (1.30 m)(0.135 m) = = 0.1506 m ≈ 151 mm do − f 1.30 m − 0.135 m

→ hi = −

di 0.1506 m ho = − (2.40 cm) = −0.278 cm do 1.30 m

The image is behind the lens a distance of 151 mm and is real, inverted, and reduced.

Light: Geometric Optics

(b)

23-19

Again use Eqs. 23–8 and 23–9. 1 1 1 + = d o di f m=

→ di =

hi d =− i ho do

do f (1.30 m)( −0.135 m) = = −0.1223 m ≈ −122 mm do − f 1.30 m − (−0.135 m)

→ hi = −

di (−0.1223 m) ho = − (2.40 cm) = 0.226 cm do 1.30 m

The image is in front of the lens a distance of 122 mm and is virtual, upright, and reduced. 55.

The sum of the object and image distances must be the distance between object and screen, which we label as dT . We solve this relationship for the image distance and use that expression in Eq. 23–8 in order to find the object distance. d o + di = d T do =

→ di = dT − do ;

d T ± dT2 − 4 fd T 2

1 1 1 1 1 + = + = d o di d o ( d T − d o ) f

→ do2 − dT d o + fd T = 0 →

(86.0 cm) ± (86.0 cm) 2 − 4(16.0 cm)(86.0 cm) = 21.3 cm, 64.7 cm 2

Note that to have real values for do , we must in general have dT2 − 4 fd T > 0 → dT > 4 f .

56.

For a real image, both the object and image distances are positive, so the magnification is negative. Use Eqs. 23–8 and 23–9 to find the object and image distances. Since they are on opposite sides of the lens, the distance between them is their sum. m=

−di do

→ di = − md o = md o = 3.25d o

⎛ 4.25 ⎞ ⎛ 4.25 ⎞ → do = ⎜ ⎟ f =⎜ ⎟ (85 cm) = 111.2 cm ⎝ 3.25 ⎠ ⎝ 3.25 ⎠ di = 3.25d o = 3.25(111.2 cm) = 361.3 cm 1 1 1 1 1 + = + = do di d o 3.25do f

do + di = 111.2 cm + 361.3 cm = 472.5 cm ≈ 470 cm

57.

Find the object distance from Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

→

1 1 1 + = d o di f

→ do =

fdi (0.105 m)(25.5 m) = = 0.105 m di − f 25.5 m − 0.105 m

Find the size of the image from Eq. 23–9.

23-20

Chapter 23

58.

hi d =− i ho do

→

hi =

di 25.5 m ho = (24 mm) = 5805 mm ≈ 5.8 m do 0.105 m

The first lens is the converging lens. An object at infinity will form an image at the focal point of the converging lens, by Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 1 1 + = = + do1 di1 f1 ∞ di1

→ di1 = f1 = 20.0 cm

This image is the object for the second lens. Since this image is behind the second lens, the object distance for the second lens is negative, so do2 = −6.0 cm. Again use Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = do2 di2 f2

→ di2 =

d o2 f 2 (−6.0 cm)(−36.5 cm) = = 7.2 cm do2 − f 2 (−6.0 cm) − (−36.5 cm)

Thus the final image is real and is 7.2 cm beyond the second lens. 59.

Find the image formed by the first lens, using Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = do1 di1 f1

→ di1 =

d o1 f1 (35.0 cm)(25.0 cm) = = 87.5 cm d o1 − f1 (35.0 cm) − (25.0 cm)

This image is the object for the second lens. Because it is beyond the second lens, it has a negative object distance. do2 = 16.5 cm − 87.5 cm = −71.0 cm

Find the image formed by the second lens, again using Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = do2 di2 f2

→ di2 =

d o2 f 2 (−71.0 cm)(25.0 cm) = = 18.5 cm d o2 − f 2 (−71.0 cm) − (25.0 cm)

Thus the final image is real and is 18.5 cm beyond the second lens. The total magnification is the product of the magnifications for the two lenses: ⎛ d ⎞⎛ d ⎞ d d m = m1m2 = ⎜ − i1 ⎟ ⎜ − i2 ⎟ = i1 i2 ⎝ do1 ⎠ ⎝ d o2 ⎠ do1d o2 =

60.

(+87.5 cm)(+18.5 cm) = −0.651 × (inverted) (+ 35.0 cm)(−71.0 cm)

From the ray diagram, the image from the first lens is a virtual image located at the focal point of the first lens. This is a real object for the second lens. Since the light is parallel after leaving the second lens, the object for the second lens must be at its focal point. Let the separation of the lenses be . Note that the focal length of the diverging lens is negative. f1 + = f 2

ff11 <<0

ff11

ff22 >> 0

ff22

→

f1 = f 2 − = 38.0 cm − 28.0 cm = 10.0 cm →

f1 = −10.0 cm

Light: Geometric Optics

61.

(a)

23-21

The first lens is the converging lens. Find the image formed by the first lens. 1 1 1 + = do1 di1 f1

→ di1 =

d o1 f1 (60.0 cm)(20.0 cm) = = 30.0 cm d o1 − f1 (60.0 cm) − (20.0 cm)

This image is the object for the second lens. Since this image is behind the second lens, the object distance for the second lens is negative, so do2 = 25.0 cm − 30.0 cm = −5.0 cm. Use Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = do2 di2 f2

→ di2 =

d o2 f 2 (−5.0 cm)(−10.0 cm) = = 10 cm d o2 − f 2 (−5.0 cm) − (−10.0 cm)

Thus the final image is real and is 10 cm beyond the second lens. The distance has two significant figures. (b)

The total magnification is the product of the magnifications for the two lenses: ⎛ d ⎞⎛ d ⎞ d d (30.0 cm)(10.0 cm) = −1.0 × m = m1m2 = ⎜ − i1 ⎟ ⎜ − i2 ⎟ = i1 i2 = ⎝ do1 ⎠ ⎝ d o2 ⎠ d o1d o2 (60.0 cm)(−5.0 cm)

(c)

62.

(a)

(b)

We see that the image is real and upright. We estimate that it is 30 cm beyond the second lens and that the final image height is half the original object height. Find the image formed by the first lens, using Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = do1 di1 f1 di1 =

→

d o1 f1 (36 cm)(13 cm) = = 20.35 cm d o1 − f1 (36 cm) − (13 cm)

This image is the object for the second lens. Because it is between the lenses, it has a positive object distance. do2 = 56 cm − 20.35 cm = 35.65 cm

Find the image formed by the second lens, again using Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = do2 di2 f2

→ di2 =

d o2 f 2 (35.65 cm)(16 cm) = = 29.25 cm d o2 − f 2 (35.65 cm) − (16 cm)

23-22

Chapter 23

Thus the final image is real and is 29 cm beyond the second lens. The total magnification is the product of the magnifications for the two lenses: ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞ (20.35 cm)(29.25 cm) = 0.46 × m = m1m2 = ⎜ − i1 ⎟ ⎜ − i2 ⎟ = (36 cm)(35.65 cm) ⎝ do1 ⎠ ⎝ d o2 ⎠

63.

Use Eq. 23–10, the lensmaker’s equation. ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ = (n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ → f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎛ (−33.4 cm)(−28.8 cm) ⎞ 1 ⎛ R1 R2 ⎞ 1 f = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = −29.74 cm ≈ −29.7 cm (n − 1) ⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ (1.52 − 1) ⎝ (−33.4 cm) + (−28.8 cm) ⎠

64.

Find the index from Eq. 23–10, the lensmaker’s equation. ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ R1 R2 = (n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ → n = 1+ ⎜ f f ⎝ R1 + R2 ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠

65.

⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1 1 ⎟ = 1+ ⎜ ⎟ ( 2 (34.1 cm)) = 1.590 ⎝ 28.9 cm ⎠ ⎠

The plane surface has an infinite radius of curvature. Let the plane surface be surface 2, so R2 = ∞. Use Eq. 23–10. ⎛ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ (n − 1) 1 1 ⎞ 1 = (n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ = = (n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ = f R1 ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ f ⎝ R1 ∞ ⎠

→

R1 = (n − 1) f = (1.55 − 1)(16.3 cm) = 8.965 cm ≈ 9.0 cm

66.

Find the radius from the Eq. 23–10, the lensmaker’s equation, with R1 = R2 = R. ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ ⎛2⎞ = (n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ = (n − 1) ⎜ ⎟ → f R R ⎝R⎠ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1

R = 2 f (n − 1) = 2(22.0 cm)(1.52 − 1) = 22.88 cm ≈ 23 cm

67.

Find the radius from the lensmaker’s equation, Eq. 23–10. ⎛ 1 ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎞ = (n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ → P = (n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ → f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠

R2 =

68.

(n − 1) R1 (1.56 − 1)(0.300 m) = = 0.34 m PR1 − (n − 1) (3.50 D)(0.300 m) − (1.56 − 1)

First we find the focal length from Eq. 23–10, the lensmaker’s equation. Then we use Eq. 23–8 to find the image distance and Eq. 23–9 to find the magnification. ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ = (n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ → f R R ⎝ 1 2 ⎠ ⎛ (−22.0 cm)(+18.5 cm) ⎞ 1 ⎛ R1 R2 ⎞ 1 f = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 223.6 cm (n − 1) ⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ (1.52 − 1) ⎝ (−22.0 cm) + (+18.5 cm) ⎠

Light: Geometric Optics

1 1 1 + = d o di f m=−

→ di =

23-23

do f (96.5 cm)(223.6 m) = = −169.77 cm ≈ −170 cm d o − f 96.5 cm − 223.6 cm

di −169.77 cm =− = 1.759 ≈ +1.8 96.5 cm do

The image is virtual, in front of the lens, and upright. 69.

The transit time is the distance traveled divided by the speed of light in a vacuum. We use the Earth– Moon distance, but subtract the Earth and Moon radii since the light travels between the surfaces of the bodies. d = υt → t =

70.

d Earth − rEarth − rMoon =

Moon

(384 × 106 m − 6.38 × 106 m − 1.74 × 106 m) (3.00 × 108 m/s)

= 1.25 s

The closest image is the image you see in the small mirror. It will be 0.50 m to the right of the small mirror, or 1.00 m to your right. You could also consider that light left your face, traveled 0.50 m to the small mirror, and then 0.50 m back to your eyes, for a total of 1.00 m. The next closest image is one that is behind the full-length mirror. That image would be 1.0 m behind the full length mirror. You can’t see that image directly, because your back is facing the full-length mirror. So you would see the “reflection” of that back of your head, by light that traveled from you, to the full-length mirror (1.0 m), back to you (1.0 m), then to the small mirror (0.50 m), and then to your eyes (0.50 m), for a total of 3.0 m from you. You could think about that image as being your reflection in the full-length mirror being reflected by the small mirror. The next closest image is the one that would be light that left your face, traveled to the small mirror (0.50 m), reflected from the small mirror to the large mirror (1.5 m), reflected from the large mirror to the small mirror (1.5 m), and then reflected into your eyes (0.5 m), for a total distance of 4.0 m.

71.

Find the angle of incidence for refraction from water into air, using Snell’s law. nwater sin θ1 = nair sin θ 2

→

(1.33) sin θ1 = (1.00) sin(90.0° − 13.0°) → θ1 = 47.11°

θ2

(1.33) sin θ1 = (1.00) sin(90.0° − 13.0°),

nair nwater

θ1

Find the depth of the pool from tan θ1 = x /h. tan 47.11° = (6.50 m)/h → h = 6.04 m

72.

For the critical angle, the refracted angle is 90°. For the refraction from plastic to air, we have the following. Use Eq. 23–6. Plastic to air:

Plastic to water:

sin θ C =

nair nplastic

sin θ C =

nwater nplastic

→ nplastic =

1.00 = 1.6316 sin 37.8°

⎛ 1.33 ⎞ → θ C = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 54.6° ⎝ 1.6316 ⎠

23-24

73.

Chapter 23

The index of refraction is the speed of light in a vacuum divided by the speed of light in the material, Eq. 23–4. The material can be identified from Table 23–1. n=

c 3.00 × 108 m/s = = 1.58 Δx /Δt (0.500 m)/(2.63 × 10−9 s)

The material is light flint glass. 74.

We set di as the original image distance and di + 10.0 cm as the new image distance. Then using Eq. 23–8 for both cases, we eliminate the focal length and solve for the image distance. We insert the real image distance into the initial lens equation and solve for the focal length. 1 1 1 1 1 + = = + do1 di f d o2 di + 10.0 cm

→

1 1 −10.0 cm − = 60.0 cm 40.0 cm di (di + 10.0 cm)

1 1 1 1 −10.0 cm − = − = d o1 do2 di + 10.0 cm di di (di + 10.0 cm) → di2 + (10.0 cm)di − 1200 cm 2 = 0

di = −40.0 cm or 30.cm

Only the positive image distance will produce the real image. dd 1 1 1 (30.0 cm)(60.0 cm) = + ⇒ f = i o1 = = 20.0 cm f d o1 di di + d o1 30.0 cm + 60.0 cm

75.

(a)

Producing a smaller image located behind the surface of the mirror requires a convex mirror.

(b)

Find the image distance from the magnification, Eq. 23–3. m=

hi −di = ho do

→ di = −

do hi (32 cm)(3.5 cm) =− = −24.9 cm ≈ −25 cm ho (4.5 cm)

As expected, di < 0. The image is located 25 cm behind the surface. (c)

Find the focal length from Eq. 23–2. 1 1 1 + = do di f

(d)

→ f =

d o di ( 32 cm)( −24.9 cm) = 2112.2 cm ≈ 2110 cm = d o + di ( 32 cm) + ( −24.9 cm)

The radius of curvature is twice the focal length. r = 2 f = 2 ( − 112.2 cm) = 2 224.4 cm ≈ 2220 cm

76.

The length in space of a burst is the speed of light times the elapsed time. d = ct = (3.00 × 108 m/s)(10−8 s) = 3 m

77.

For refraction at the second surface, use Snell’s law. n sin θ3 = nair sin θ 4 → (1.58) sin θ3 = (1.00) sin θ 4

The maximum value of θ 4 before total internal reflection takes place at the second surface is 90°. Thus for internal reflection not to occur, we have (1.58) sin θ3 ≤ 1.00 → sin θ3 ≤ 0.6329 → θ3 ≤ 39.27°

A θ1 θ2

θ3

θ4

Light: Geometric Optics

23-25

We find the refraction angle at the second surface. (90° − θ 2 ) + (90° − θ3 ) + A = 180° →

θ 2 = A − θ3 = 75° − θ3 Thus θ 2 ≥ 75° − 39.27° = 35.73°. For the refraction at the first surface, we have the following. nair sin θ1 = n sin θ 2

→ (1.00) sin θ1 = (1.58) sin θ 2

→ sin θ1 = (1.58) sin θ 2

Now apply the limiting condition. sin θ1 ≥ (1.58) sin 35.73° = 0.9227 →

78.

θ1 ≥ 67°

(a)

As the radius of a sphere increases, the surface becomes flatter. The plane mirror can be considered a spherical mirror with an infinite radius, and thus f = ∞ .

(b)

When we use the mirror equation, Eq. 23–2, we get the following. 1 1 1 1 + = = = 0 → di = 2d o do di f ∞

For the magnification, we have m =

− d i −( − d o ) = = +1. do do

Yes, these are consistent with the discussion on plane mirrors.

A relationship between the image and object distances can be obtained from Eq. 23–3. d 1 m =2 =2 i 2 do

→ di = 12 d o = 9 cm

Now we find the focal length and the radius of curvature from Eq. 23–2 and Eq. 23–1. 1 1 1 + = do di f

80.

→

1 1 1 + = 18cm 9 cm f

→ f = 6 cm →

r = 12 cm

Find the angle θ 2 for the refraction at the first surface. nair sin θ1 = n sin θ 2

(1.00) sin 45.0° = (1.54) sin θ 2

→ θ 2 = 27.33°

Find the angle of incidence at the second surface from the triangle formed by the two sides of the prism and the light path.

(90° − θ2 ) + (90° − θ3 ) +

A = 180° →

θ1 θ2

θ3

θ4

θ3 = A − θ 2 = 60° − 27.33° = 32.67° Use refraction at the second surface to find θ 4 . n sin θ3 = nair sin θ 4

→ (1.54) sin 32.67° = (1.00) sin θ 4

→ θ 4 = 56.2° from the normal

23-26

81.

Chapter 23

For the refraction at the first surface, we have the following. nair sin θ1 = n sin θ 2

→ (1.00) sin θ1 = n sin θ 2

→

sin θ1 sin θ1 sin θ 2 = →n= n sin θ 2

A θ1 θ2

Find the angle of incidence at the second surface. (90° − θ 2 ) + (90° − θ3 ) + A = 180° →

θ3

θ4

θ3 = A − θ 2 For the refraction at the second surface, we have this: n sin θ3 = nair sin θ 4 = (1.00) sin θ 4

The maximum value of θ 4 before internal reflection takes place at the second surface is 90°, which makes the right side of the above equation equal to 1. For internal reflection to occur, we have the following. n sin θ3 = n sin( A − θ 2 ) ≥ 1 → n(sin A cos θ 2 − cos A sin θ 2 ) ≥ 1

Use the result from the first surface to eliminate n. ⎛ sin A ⎞ sin θ1 (sin A cos θ 2 − cos A sin θ 2 ) = sin θ1 ⎜ − cos A ⎟ ≥ 1 → sin θ 2 ⎝ tan θ 2 ⎠ sin A sin 65.0° tan θ 2 ≤ = = 0.4934 → θ 2 ≤ 26.3° ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1 + cos 65.0° ⎟ + cos A ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎠ ⎝ sin θ1 ⎠ ⎝ sin 45.0°

Use the result from the first surface. nmin =

82.

(a)

sin θ1 sin 45.0° = = 1.596 → sin θ 2 max sin 26.3°

n ≥ 1.60

For the image to be between the object and the lens, the lens must be diverging (see Fig. 23–39). Find the focal length from Eq. 23–8. The image distance is negative. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

→

f =

d o di (37.5 cm)(−8.20 cm) = = −10.5 cm d o + di 37.5 cm − 8.20 cm

The image is in front of the lens, so it is virtual. (b)

For the image to be farther from the lens than the object but on the same side of the lens as the object, the lens must be converging (see Fig. 23–43). The image distance again is negative. f =

d o di (37.5 cm)(−44.50 cm) = = 238 cm ≈ 240 cm d o + di 37.5 cm − 44.5 cm

The image is in front of the lens, so again it is virtual. 83.

(a)

Because the Sun is very far away, the image will be at the focal point. We find the size of the image from Eq. 23–9. m=

hi −di f = =− ho do do

→ hi = −ho

f 35 mm = −(1.4 × 106 km) = −0.33 mm do (1.5 × 108 km)

The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Light: Geometric Optics

(b)

Use the same calculation for the 50-mm lens. hi = − ho

(c)

f 105 mm = −(1.4 × 106 km) = −0.98 mm do (1.5 × 108 km)

(a)

The eye must be acting as a convex mirror—otherwise you couldn’t see the image.

(b)

The eye is being viewed right side up. Convex mirrors make upright images. Also notice the eyelashes. The eye is convex-shaped. If it were acting as a convex lens, then the object would have to be inside the eye, sending light from inside the eye to outside the eye. That is not possible. So it is acting like a convex mirror, making a virtual, reduced object. This is similar to Fig. 23–19b, in which the “mirror” is the eyeball and the “eye” is the camera taking the photo.

(c)

85.

f 50 mm = −(1.4 × 106 km) = −0.47 mm do (1.5 × 108 km)

Use the same calculation for the 105-mm lens. hi = − ho

84.

23-27

The left lens is a converging lens, acting as a magnifying glass, forming a magnified virtual image. The object (the face) is closer to the lens than the focal point. The right lens is a diverging lens, forming a reduced virtual image. For the left lens: O is the person’s face. The observer (the camera taking the picture) is to the right of the lens. For the right lens: O is the person’s face. The observer (the camera taking the picture) is to the right of the lens.

86.

For the device to work properly, the light should experience total internal reflection at the top surface of the prism when it is a prism to air interface, but not total internal reflection when the top surface is a prism to water interface. Since the incident ray is perpendicular to the lower surface of the prism, light does not experience refraction at that surface. As shown in the diagram, the incident angle for the upper surface will be 45°. We then use Eq. 23–6 to determine the minimum index of refraction for total internal reflection with an air interface and the maximum index of refraction for a water interface. The usable indices of refraction will lie between these two values. n2 = sin θ C n1

→ n1, min =

nair n 1.00 1.33 = = 1.41 → n1, max = water = = 1.88 sin θ C sin 45° sin θ c sin 45°

The index of refraction must fall within the range 1.41 < n < 1.88 . A glass, Lucite, or Plexiglas prism would work. 87.

(a)

When two lenses are placed in contact, the negative of the image of the first lens is the object distance of the second. Using Eq. 23–8, we solve for the image distance of the first lens. By inserting the negative of this image distance into the lens equation for the second lens we obtain a relationship between the initial object distance and final image distance. Since that object/image pair is related by the combination focal length, if we use the lens equation with this relationship, then we obtain the focal length of the lens combination.

23-28

Chapter 23

1 1 1 = + f1 do1 di1

→

1 1 1 1 = − =− di1 f1 do1 d o2

⎛1 1 1 1 1 ⎞ 1 1 1 1 1 1 = + = −⎜ − ⇒ + = + = ⎟+ f 2 do2 di2 f 2 f1 do1 di2 fT ⎝ f1 d o1 ⎠ di2 1 1 1 = + fT f1 f 2

(b)

→

fT =

f1 f 2 f1 + f 2

Setting the power equal to the inverse of the focal length gives the relationship between powers of adjacent lenses. 1 1 1 = + ⇒ PT = P1 + P2 fT f1 f 2

88.

Solve this problem by working backward through the lenses. Use the image distances and focal lengths to calculate the object distances. Let the right lens be lens 2 and the left lens be lens 1. Since the final image from lens 2 is halfway between the lenses, set the image distance of the second lens equal to the negative of half the distance between the lenses. Using Eq. 23–8, solve for the object distance of lens 2. By subtracting this object distance from the distance between the two lenses, find the image distance for lens 1. Then using Eq. 23–8 again, solve for the initial object distance. di2 = − 12 = − 12 (30.0 cm) = −15.0 cm 1 1 1 + = do2 di2 f2

→ do2 =

di2 f 2 (−15.0 cm)(20.0 cm) = = 8.57 cm di2 − f 2 −15.0 cm − 20.0 cm

di1 = − d o2 = 30.0 cm − 8.57 cm = 21.4 cm 1 1 1 + = do1 di1 f1

89.

di1 f1 (21.4 cm)(15.0 cm) = = 50.0 cm di1 − f1 21.4 cm − 15.0 cm

→ do1 =

The lens has a focal length of 20 cm. Approach this problem in steps—find the first image formed by the lens, let that image be the object for the mirror, and then use the image from the mirror as the object for the “reversed” light that goes back through the lens. Use Eq. 23–8 for each image formation. Calculate the location of the first image, using do1 = 30.0 cm and f1 = 20.0 cm. 1 1 1 + = do1 di1 f1

→ di1 =

d o1 f1 (30.0 cm)(20.0 cm) = = 60.0 cm d o1 − f1 30.0 cm − 20.0 cm

This image is 15 cm from the mirror. Calculate the location of the second image, using do2 = 15.0 cm and f 2 = 25.0 cm. 1 1 1 + = do2 di2 f2

→ di2 =

d o2 f 2 (15.0 cm)(25.0 cm) = = −37.5 cm d o2 − f 2 15.0 cm − 25.0 cm

This is a virtual image, 37.5 cm behind the mirror, or 112.5 cm from the lens. The diverging light rays from the mirror will be moving from the mirror toward the lens, so this is a real object for the lens. So calculate the location of the third image, using do3 = 125.0 cm and f3 = 20.0 cm. 1 1 1 + = do3 di3 f3

→ di3 =

do3 f3 (112.5 cm)(20.0 cm) = = 24.3 cm do3 − f3 112.5 cm − 20.0 cm

Light: Geometric Optics

23-29

This would be on the same side of the lens as the original object, so this final image is 5.7 cm from the original object, toward the lens. Here is a ray diagram showing some of the rays used to locate the various images.

90.

We use Eq. 23–8 with the final image distance and focal length of the converging lens to determine the location of the object for the second lens. Subtracting this distance from the separation distance between the lenses gives us the image distance from the first lens. Inserting this image distance and object distance into Eq. 23–8, we calculate the focal length of the diverging lens. 1 1 1 + = do2 di2 f2

→ d o2 =

di2 f 2 (17.0 cm)(12.0 cm) = = 40.8 cm di2 − f 2 17.0 cm − 12.0 cm

di1 = − d o2 = 30.0 cm − 40.8 cm = −10.8 cm 1 1 1 + = do1 di1 f1

→

f1 =

di1do1 (−10.8 cm)(25.0 cm) = = −19.0 cm di1 + do1 −10.8 cm + 25.0 cm

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

(a)

Light from a real image actually passes through the image. Light from a virtual image only appears to pass through the image location. A real image can be displayed on a screen. To see a virtual image you must look through the mirror or lens to see the image.

(b)

No, your eyes cannot tell the difference. In each case the light entering your eye appears to come from the position of the image.

(c)

On a ray diagram, the ray traces pass through the real image. You must extrapolate the rays backward through the mirror/lens to find the location of the virtual image.

(d)

You could place a screen at the location of the image. If it is a real image, then it will appear on the screen. If it is a virtual image, then it will not appear on the screen.

(e)

Yes, if the photograph is taken through the lens or mirror, then the image would appear in the photograph.

(f)

No. The light does not actually pass through the location of the virtual image, so no image would be captured on the film.

(g)

Light appears to come from the position of the virtual image, and that light can be captured by the camera. However, the light does not pass through the location of the virtual image, so the film placed at that position would not capture the image.

23-30

Chapter 23

The two students chose different signs for the magnification, that is, one upright and one inverted. The focal length of the lens is f = 12 cm. We relate the object and image distances from the magnification. m=−

di do

→ ±3 = −

di do

→ di = ∓3do

Use this result in the mirror equation. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

→

1 1 1 + = d o (∓3do ) f

→ do =

2f 4f , = 8.0 cm, 16 cm 3 3

So the object distances are + 8.0 cm (produces a virtual image) and + 16 cm (produces a real image). 3.

(a)

For a makeup mirror the object O that is to be magnified is also the observer. For a concave mirror, the ray diagram would be as shown here (Fig. 23–17), and the observer can see the magnified virtual image.

For a converging lens, one possibility is that the magnified image would be virtual and behind the observer, as shown in the adjacent diagram (Fig. 23–43, with O as the observer and the object, looking toward the lens). The observer could not see that image, however, so it is not useful. The final possibility is a converging lens making a real, inverted, and somewhat distant image as shown in the last image (Fig. 23–37c, with O as the observer and the object, looking toward the lens). For the observer (also the object) to see the real image, a screen would need to be placed at the image location. The resulting image would be inverted (making it very inconvenient) and somewhat distant from the observer. Also, for this diagram to be accurate, the object should be closer to the focal point, and the image farther away, probably making it more inconvenient. (b)

The objects will have the same magnification. If the object distance is

1 2

f , then the mirror

equation and the thin lens equation give the same value for the image distance. 1 1 1 = + f d o di

⎛1 1 ⎞ → di = ⎜ − ⎟ ⎝ f do ⎠

−1

⎛1 1 ⎞ =⎜ − 1 ⎟ ⎜ f f ⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎠

−1

=−f

The magnification equation for mirrors and lenses is the same, which gives the same result for both. m =2

di 2f =21 = 2 do f 2

For both the mirror and the lens, the image will be virtual with a magnification of + 2.

Light: Geometric Optics

(a) (b) (c)

23-31

Yes, the person in the picture shot the image. The mirror on the left is a concave mirror. Only a concave mirror produces an inverted image. The middle mirror is flat. The mirror on the right is convex. The middle mirror is flat, so the image in that mirror is the same size as the object. There is no focal point for a flat mirror, so the person could be anywhere relative to the mirror. For the concave mirror (left) the image is inverted and reduced in size, compared to the image in the flat mirror. Therefore, she must be at a distance greater than the center of curvature (so also greater than the focal point). If she were at a distance between the focus point and the radius of curvature, then her image would be enlarged, and the image would be behind the camera and therefore not in focus. And if she were at a distance less than the focus point, then her image would be upright and magnified. In the convex mirror (right), her image is about 1/3 the size of the image in the flat mirror, so the magnification is about 1/3. Solving the mirror equation for di = − 13 do gives do = −2 f . Therefore, she must be at a distance approximately equal in magnitude to the radius of curvature in front of the mirror, or twice the magnitude of the focal length.

The statement to justify is this: “Equivalently, the image distance is positive for a real image and negative for a virtual image.” The three cases to consider are for a diverging lens, a converging lens with object distance greater than the focal length, and a converging lens with object distance less than the focal length. In each case consider this equation:

1 1 1 = + f d o di

−1

⎛1 1 ⎞ → di = ⎜ − ⎟ . ⎝ f do ⎠

Case i: Fig. 23–39 shows that the image from a diverging lens is virtual. Since f < 0 and do > 0, 21

⎛1 1 ⎞ di = ⎜ − ⎟ ⎝ f do ⎠

< 0. Thus the virtual image has a negative image distance.

Case ii: Fig. 23–40 shows that the image from a converging lens with do > f is a real image. In this case, the image distance must be positive in the lens equation since f > 0 and do > f > 0. The 21

⎛1 1 ⎞ reciprocal of f is greater than the reciprocal of do , so di = ⎜ − ⎟ ⎝ f do ⎠ has a positive image distance.

> 0. Therefore, the real image

Case iii: Fig. 23–43 shows that the image from a converging lens with f > d o > 0 is a virtual image. In this case since f > d o > 0, the reciprocal of f is less than the reciprocal of d o , so ⎛1 1 ⎞ di = ⎜ − ⎟ ⎝ f do ⎠

−1

< 0. Therefore, the virtual image has a negative image distance.

To create a real image with a single lens, the image distance must be positive. For a single lens the object distance must be positive. If we solve the thin lens equation for the image distance, then we get the following equation. 1 1 1 = + f d o di

⎛1 1 ⎞ → di = ⎜ − ⎟ ⎝ f do ⎠

−1

Since d o is positive, the image distance will always be negative if f < 0, as it is for a diverging lens. Therefore, a diverging lens cannot produce a real image. If the object is inside the focal length of a

23-32

Chapter 23

converging lens, then d o will be smaller than f, causing the image distance to be negative and the object to be virtual. Only when the object is outside the focal length will the image distance be positive and the image real. The answer is (c). 7. Object Distance

Focal Length Concave Mirror Convex Mirror Converging Lens Diverging Lens 8.

Object Height

Image Distance

In front of

Behind

Positive

Negative

Positive

Positive when right Negative side up

Negative

Positive

Negative

Positive

Negative

Positive

Negative

Positive

Negative

Positive

Negative

Positive

In front of

Image Height

Behind

Negative when inverted

Positive when right side up Negative when inverted

The magnifications in the two figures appear to have the same magnitude with the magnification positive in (a) and negative in (b). In (a) the object distance is 5 cm and in (b) the object distance is 15 cm. Using the magnification equation, we write the image distance in (b) in terms of the image and object distances in (a). mb = − ma = −

dib d = ia dob d oa

→ dib = −

d ob dia 15 cm =− dia = −3dia d oa 5 cm

Then using the thin lens equation for each image, calculate the image distance in figure (a). 1 1 1 1 1 = + = + f doa dia d ob dib 4⎛ 1 1 ⎞ dia = ⎜ − ⎟ 3 ⎝ dob doa ⎠

−1

→

1 1 1 1 + = + d oa dia dob −3dia

4⎛ 1 1 ⎞ − ⎜ ⎟ 3 ⎝ 15 cm 5 cm ⎠

−1

= −10 cm

Now the image distance in figure (b) and the focal length can be determined. dib = −3dia = −3(−10 cm) = 30 cm 1 1 1 = + f doa dia

→

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ + f =⎜ ⎟ ⎝ doa dia ⎠

−1

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ 5 cm −10 cm ⎠

−1

= 10 cm

The focal length is 10 cm. In (a) the object is only half the focal length from the lens and therefore creates a virtual image 10 cm behind the lens, with a magnification of + 2. In (b) the object is 1.5 times the focal length and therefore creates a real image 30 cm in front of the lens, with a magnification of −2.

THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT

Responses to Questions 1.

Huygens’ principle applies to both sound waves and water waves. Huygens’ principle applies to all waves that form a wave crest. Sound, water, and light waves all can be represented in this way. The maximum or crest of a water wave is its highest point above the equilibrium level of the water, so a wave front can be formed by connecting all of the local maximum points of a wave.

A ray shows the direction of propagation of a wave front. If this information is enough for the situation under discussion, then light can be discussed as rays. This is true in particular for geometric optics. Sometimes, however, the wave nature of light is essential to the discussion. For instance, the doubleslit interference pattern depends on the interference of the waves and could not be explained by examining light as only rays.

The bending of waves around corners or obstacles is called diffraction. Diffraction is most prominent when the size of the obstacle is on the order of the size of the wavelength. Sound waves have much longer wavelengths than do light waves. As a result, the diffraction of sound waves around a corner of a building or through a doorway is noticeable, and we can hear the sound in the “shadow region,” but the diffraction of light waves around a corner is not noticeable because of the very short wavelength of the light.

For destructive interference, the path lengths must differ by an odd number of half wavelengths, such as λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2, 7λ/2, etc. In general, the path lengths must differ by λ(m + ½), where m is an integer. Under these conditions, the wave crests from one ray match up with the wave troughs from the other ray and cancellation occurs (destructive interference).

As red light is switched to blue light, the wavelength of the light is decreased. Thus, d sin θ = mλ says that θ is decreased for a constant m and d. This means that the bright spots on the screen are more closely packed together with blue light than with red light.

The wavelength of light in a medium such as water is decreased when compared to the wavelength in air. Thus, d sin θ = mλ says that θ is decreased for a particular m and d. This means that the bright spots on the screen are more closely packed together in water than in air.

The reason you do not get an interference pattern from the two headlights of a distant car is that they are not coherent light sources. The phase relationship between the two headlights is not constant—they

24-1

24-2

Chapter 24

have randomly changing phases relative to each other. Thus, you cannot produce zones of destructive and constructive interference where the crests and troughs match up or the crests and crests match up. Also, the headlights are far enough apart that even if they were coherent, the interference pattern would be so tightly packed that it would not be observable with the unaided eye. 8.

For a very thin film, there are only a select few distinct visible wavelengths that meet the constructive interference criteria, because the film is only a few wavelengths thick. But for a thick film, there might be many different wavelengths that meet the constructive interference criteria for many different m values. Accordingly, many different colors will constructively interfere, and the reflected light will be white (containing all visible wavelengths).

As you move farther away from the center of the curved piece of glass on top, the path differences change more rapidly due to the curvature. Thus, you get higher order interference patterns more closely spaced together. An “air wedge,” as in Fig. 24–33, has equally spaced interference patterns because as the observation point is moved farther from the contact point of the flat piece of glass on top, the path differences change linearly.

10.

These lenses probably are designed to eliminate reflected wavelengths at both the red and the blue ends of the spectrum. The thickness of the coating is designed to cause destructive interference for reflected red and blue light. The reflected light then appears yellow-green.

11.

The index of refraction of the oil must be less than the index of refraction of the water. If the oil film appears bright at the edge, then the interference between the light reflected from the top of the oil film and that reflected from the bottom of the oil film at that point must be constructive. The light reflecting from the top surface (the air/oil interface) undergoes a 180° phase shift since the index of refraction of the oil is greater than that of air. The thickness of the oil film at the edge is negligible, so for there to be constructive interference, the light reflecting from the bottom of the oil film (the oil/water interface) must also undergo a 180° phase shift. This will occur only if the index of refraction of the oil is less than that of the water: 1.00 < n < 1.33.

12.

Radio waves have a much longer wavelength than visible light and will diffract around normal-sized objects (like hills). The wavelengths of visible light are very small and will not diffract around normalsized objects. Thus diffraction allows the radio waves to be “picked up” even if the broadcasting tower is not visible on a line of sight.

13.

You see a pattern of dark and bright lines parallel to your fingertips in the narrow opening between your fingers, due to diffraction.

14.

(a)

(b)

15.

(a)

When you increase the slit width in a single-slit diffraction experiment, the spacing of the fringes mλ , indicates that θ is decreases. The equation for the location of the minima, sin θ = D decreased for a particular m and λ when the width D increases. This means that the bright spots on the screen are more closely packed together for a wider slit. When you increase the wavelength of light used in a single-slit diffraction experiment, the mλ spacing of the fringes increases. The equation for the location of the minima, sin θ = , D indicates that θ is increased for a particular m and D when the wavelength increases. This means that the bright spots on the screen are spread farther apart for a longer wavelength. A slit width of 60 nm would produce a central maximum so spread out that it would cover the entire width of the screen. No minimum (and therefore no diffraction pattern) will be seen,

The Wave Nature of Light

because the first minimum would have to satisfy sin θ =

(b)

16.

(a)

(b)

17.

24-3

≈ 10, which is not possible. The D different wavelengths will all overlap, so the light on the screen will be white. It will also be dim, compared to the source, because it is spread out. For the 60,000-nm slit, the central maximum will be very narrow, about a degree in width for the blue end of the spectrum and about a degree and a half for the red. The diffraction pattern will not be distinct, because most of the intensity will be in the small central maximum and the fringes for the different wavelengths of white light will not coincide.

λ⎞ ⎛ If the apparatus is immersed in water, then the wavelength of the light will decrease ⎜ λ ′ = ⎟ . n⎠ ⎝ and the diffraction pattern will become more compact. If the apparatus is placed in a vacuum, then the wavelength of the light will increase slightly and the diffraction pattern will spread out very slightly.

The interference pattern created by the diffraction grating with 104 lines/cm has bright maxima that are more sharply defined and narrower than the interference pattern created by the two slits 10−4 cm apart. The spacing of the bright maxima would be the same in both patterns, but for the grating, each maximum would be essentially the same brightness, while for the two-slit pattern, slit width effects would make the maxima for m > 1 much less bright than the central maximum.

18.

(a) (b)

19.

(a)

(b)

The advantage of having many slits in a diffraction grating is that this makes the bright maxima in the interference pattern more sharply defined, brighter, and narrower. The advantage of having closely spaced slits in a diffraction grating is that this spreads out the bright maxima in the interference pattern and makes them easier to resolve. Violet light will be at the top of the rainbow created by the diffraction grating. Principal maxima mλ for a diffraction grating are at positions given by sin θ = . Violet light has a shorter d wavelength than red light so will appear at a smaller angle away from the direction of the horizontal incident beam. Red light will appear at the top of the rainbow created by the prism. The index of refraction for violet light in a given medium is slightly greater than for red light in the same medium, so the violet light will bend more and will appear farther from the direction of the horizontal incident beam.

20.

Polarization demonstrates the transverse wave nature of light and cannot be explained if light is considered as a longitudinal wave or as classical particles.

21.

Polarized sunglasses completely block horizontally polarized glare at certain reflected angles and also block unpolarized light by 50%. Regular tinted sunglasses reduce the intensity of all incoming light but don’t preferentially reduce the “glare” from smooth reflective surfaces.

22.

Take the sunglasses outside and look up at the sky through them. Rotate the sunglasses (about an axis perpendicular to the lens) through at least 180°. If the sky seems to lighten and darken as you rotate the sunglasses, then they are polarizing. You could also look at a liquid crystal display or reflections from a tile floor (with a lot of “glare”) while rotating the glasses and again look for the light to be lighter or darker depending on the rotation angle. Finally, you could put one pair of glasses on top of the other as in Fig. 24–44 and rotate them relative to each other. If the intensity of light that you see through the glasses changes as you rotate them, then the glasses are polarizing.

24-4

Chapter 24

23.

If Earth had no atmosphere, then the color of the sky would be black (and dotted with stars and planets) at all times. This is the condition of the sky that the astronauts found on the Moon, which has no atmosphere. If there were no air molecules to scatter the light from the Sun, then the only light we would see would be from the stars, the planets, the Moon, and direct sunlight. The rest of the sky would be black.

24.

If the atmosphere were 50% more dense, then sunlight (after passing through the atmosphere) would be much redder than it is now. As the atmosphere increased in density, more and more of the blue light would be scattered away in all directions, making the light that reaches the ground very red. Think of the color of a deep red sunset, but this might be the color even when the sun was at high elevations.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(a)

The width of the fringes is proportional to the wavelength and inversely proportional to the slit spacing. Therefore, since red light has the longer wavelength, red light with small slit spacing will have the largest fringe width.

(a)

At point A the green laser light is at a maximum. The next maximum (B) occurs when the path difference between the point and each of the two slits is equal to one full wavelength, or 530 nm. The minimum (halfway between points A and B) is the point where the difference in distances is equal to a half wavelength (or 265 nm).

(c)

The index of refraction in the water droplets varies slightly with wavelength. Therefore, as sunlight passes through the droplets, the light of different frequencies (colors) refracts at slightly different angles.

(a)

The cause of single-slit diffraction can be difficult to understand. The slit can be divided into a number of individual regions. If the path difference between each pair of regions and a point on the screen is a half wavelength, then destructive interference occurs at that point.

(b)

It might be common to think that the lines are due to the inability of the eye to focus on the point. However, the lines are due to diffraction of the light as it passes through the very small opening between your fingers.

(b)

The spreading out of the light is due to diffraction, with diffraction being significant when the slit size is about the same size as the wavelength of light. For visible light, the wavelength is about 5 × 10 –7 m, which is on the order of the slit width. Therefore, the light will spread out wider than the slit. The height opening, which is 4 orders of magnitude larger than the wavelength, will have almost no discernible diffraction, so the light will remain about the same height.

(d)

In Eq. 24–2a the angles of constructive interference are proportional to the wavelength and inversely proportional to the slit width. Therefore, if the slit width and wavelength are changed by the same factor, then the diffraction pattern will not change.

(b)

A common misconception is that the center of the shadow will be the darkest. However, since the center of the disk is equidistant from all points on the edge of the disk, the diffracting light constructively interferes at the center, making a bright point. This bright point is independent of the wavelength of the light.

The Wave Nature of Light

24-5

(c)

It can be difficult to recognize the different scales of length involved with the diffraction of sound versus the diffraction of light. The sound waves of a person’s voice have wavelengths about the same size as a doorway and therefore diffract easily around the corner. The wavelength of light is much smaller, approximately 10–7 m, so light does not diffract around the corner.

10.

(c)

The CD is made of thinly spaced grooves. As light reflects off of these grooves, the light interferes in the same way as when it passes through a diffraction grating. Note that the diffraction pattern is the same regardless of the data and/or security on the CD. The bit pattern does not determine the diffraction—just the presence of the thinly spaced grooves.

11.

(e)

If the film has regions of lower index of refraction on both sides of the film (or higher on both sides), then a phase shift will occur at one surface but not the other. In this case constructive interference will occur when the thickness is ¼ of a wavelength and destructive interference will occur when the thickness is ½ of a wavelength. If the film has a lower index on one side and a higher index on the other, then either no phase shift will occur at either surface or phase shifts will occur at both surfaces. In this case destructive interference occurs when the film has a thickness of ¼ wavelength and constructive interference occurs when the thickness is ½ of a wavelength. Since the indices of refraction are not specified for the surfaces of the film, none of the answers are always true.

12.

(b)

If two successive polarizers are perpendicular to each other, then light cannot get through. In case 1, the first two polarizers are perpendicular, and in case 2, the last two polarizers are perpendicular. In case 2, no successive polarizers are perpendicular, so some light can pass through.

Solutions to Problems 1.

For constructive interference, the path difference is a multiple of the wavelength, as given by Eq. 24–2a. Apply this to the fifth order. d sin θ = mλ

d sin θ (1.8 × 10−5 m) sin 8.6° = = 5.4 × 10−7 m m 5

For constructive interference, the path difference is a multiple of the wavelength, as given by Eq. 24–2a. Apply this to the third order (m = 3). d sin θ = mλ

→ λ=

→ d=

mλ 3(610 × 10−9 m) = = 3.6 × 10−6 m sin θ sin 31°

For constructive interference, the path difference is a multiple of the wavelength, as given by Eq. 24–2a. The location on the screen is given by x = tan θ , as seen in Fig. 24–7(c). For small angles, we have sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ x / . Adjacent fringes will have Δm = 1. d sin θ = mλ x1 =

λ= f =

λ m1 d d Δx c

→ d

; x2 = =

= mλ

λ (m + 1)

(4.8 × 10

→ x=

λm d

→ Δx = x2 − x1 =

λ (m + 1) d

−

λm d

λ d

−5

m)(0.085 m) = 6.277 × 10−7 m ≈ 6.3 × 10−7 m 6.50 m

3.00 × 108 m/s 6.277 × 10−7 m

= 4.8 × 1014 Hz

24-6

Chapter 24

= mλ

λm

λ1m

→ d

Δx = x2 − x1 =

(λ2 − λ1 )m [(720 − 660) × 10−9 m](2)(1.0 m) = = 1.935 × 10−4 m ≈ 0.2 mm d (6.2 × 10−4 m)

→ x=

; x1 =

This justifies using the small angle approximation, since x 5.

λ2 m

d sin θ = mλ

; x2 =

→

For destructive interference, the path difference is as follows.

(

)

d sin θ = m + 12 λ

→ sin θ =

( m + 12 ) λ = ( m + 12 ) (4.5 cm) = d

(7.5 cm)

( m + 12 ) (0.60),

m = 0,1, 2, 3, ….

The angles for the first three regions of complete destructive interference are calculated.

θ0 = sin −1 ⎡⎣( 0 + 12 ) (0.60) ⎤⎦ = sin −1 0.30 = 17.46° ≈ 17° θ1 = sin −1 ⎡⎣(1 + 12 ) (0.60) ⎤⎦ = sin −1 0.90 = 64.16° ≈ 64°

θ 2 = sin −1 ⎡⎣( 2 + 12 ) (0.60) ⎤⎦ = sin −1 1.50 = impossible

There are only two regions of destructive interference, at 17° and 64°. 6.

The slit spacing and the distance from the slits to the screen are the same in both cases. The distance between bright fringes can be taken as the position of the first bright fringe (m = 1) relative to the central fringe. We indicate the lab laser with subscript 1 and the laser pointer with subscript 2. For constructive interference, the path difference is a multiple of the wavelength, as given by Eq. 24–2a. The location on the screen is given by x = tan θ , as seen in Fig. 24–7(c). For small angles, we have sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ x / . d sin θ = mλ

λ2 = 7.

x2 =

λ1 x1

= mλ

x2 = (632.8 nm)

→ x=

λm d

; x1 =

λ1 d

; x2 =

λ2 d

→

5.14 mm = 650.52 nm ≈ 651 nm 5.00 mm

→ d

= mλ

→ d=

λm x

(680 × 10−9 m)(3)(2.8 m) 38 × 10−3 m

= 1.5 × 10−4 m

Using a ruler on Fig. 24–9a, the width of 18 fringes is found to be about 25 mm. For constructive interference, the path difference is a multiple of the wavelength, as given by Eq. 24–2a. The location on the screen is given by x = tan θ , as seen in Fig. 24–7(c). For small angles, we have sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ x / . d sin θ = mλ

→ d

= mλ

→ λ=

dx dx (1.7 × 10−4 m)(0.025 m) = = = 6.4 ×10−7 m m m (18)(0.37 m)

The Wave Nature of Light

For constructive interference, the path difference is a multiple of the wavelength, as given by Eq. 24–2a. The location on the screen is given by x = tan θ , as seen in Fig. 24–7(c). For small angles, we have sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ x / . For adjacent fringes, Δm = 1. d sin θ = mλ Δx = Δm

10.

λ d

→ d = (1)

= mλ

→ x=

(633 × 10−9 m)(3.3 m) (6.8 × 10−5 m)

λm

→

= 0.0307 m = 3.1 cm

11.

24-7

→ d

= mλ

→ d=

λm x

(633 × 10−9 m)(1)(5.0 m) = 9.0 ×10−6 m (0.35 m)

The 180° phase shift produced by the glass is equivalent to a path length of

1 λ. 2

For constructive

interference on the screen, the total path difference is a multiple of the wavelength: 1λ 2

+ d sin θ max = mλ , m = 0, 1, 2,

(

)

→ d sin θ max = m − 12 λ , m = 1, 2,

(

)

We could express the result as d sin θ max = m + 12 λ , m = 0, 1, 2,

For destructive interference on the screen, the total path difference is 1λ 2

(

)

+ d sin θ min = m + 12 λ , m = 0, 1, 2,

→ d sin θ min = mλ , m = 0, 1, 2,

Thus the pattern is just the reverse of the usual double-slit pattern. There will be a dark central line instead of a bright central maximum. Every place there was a bright fringe will now have a dark line, and vice versa. Figure 24–10 is reproduced here, and immediately to the right is the pattern that would appear from the situation described by this problem. Notice that maxima have changed to minima, and vice versa. 12.

Original Pattern

Shifted Pattern

We equate the expression from Eq. 24–2a for the second-order blue light to Eq. 24–2b, since the slit separation and angle must be the same for the two conditions to be met at the same location.

(

)

d sin θ = mλb = (2)(480 nm) = 960 nm; d sin θ = m′ + 12 λ , m′ = 0, 1, 2,

( m′ + 12 ) λ = 960 nm

m′ = 0 → λ = 1920 nm; m′ = 1 → λ = 640 nm m′ = 2 → λ = 384 nm

The only one visible is 640 nm . 384 nm is near the low-wavelength limit for visible light.

24-8

13.

Chapter 24

For constructive interference, the path difference is a multiple of the wavelength, as given by Eq. 24–2a. The location on the screen is given by x = tan θ , as seen in Fig. 24–7(c). For small angles, we have sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ x / . For adjacent fringes, Δm = 1. d sin θ = mλ Δx = Δm

14.

→ d = (1)

= mλ

→ x=

(544 × 10−9 m)(4.0 m) (1.0 × 10

−3

λm

→

= 2.2 × 10−3 m

We have the same setup as in Example 24–3, so the two slits are 0.50 mm apart, and the screen is 2.5 m away. We use Eq. 24–21 with the small-angle approximation as described in that example, and solve for the wavelength. d sin θ = d

= mλ

→ λ=

dx (5.0 × 10−4 m)(2.9 × 10−3 m) = = 5.8 × 10−7 m m (1)(2.5 m)

From Fig. 24–12, that wavelength is yellow. 15.

An expression is derived for the slit separation from the data for the 480-nm light. That expression is then used to find the location of the maxima for the 650-nm light. For constructive interference, the path difference is a multiple of the wavelength, as given by Eq. 24–2a. The location on the screen is given by x = tan θ , as seen in Fig. 24–7(c). For small angles, we have sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ x / . d sin θ = mλ x2 =

16.

→ d

= mλ

→ d=

λm

λ1m1 x1

→ x=

λm

→

λ2 m2 λm (650 nm)(2) = x 2 2 = (16 mm) = 14.44 mm ≈ 14 mm λ1m1 /x1 1 λ1m1 (480 nm)(3)

The presence of the water changes the wavelength according to Eq. 24–1, so we must change λ to λn = λ /n. For constructive interference, the path difference is a multiple of the wavelength, as given by Eq. 24–2a. The location on the screen is given by x = tan θ , as seen in Fig. 24–7(c). For small angles, we have sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ x / . Adjacent fringes will have Δm = 1. d sin θ = mλn Δx = x2 − x1 =

→ d

= mλn

λn (m + 1) d

−

λn m d

→ x= =

λn

λn m d

λ nd

; x1 =

λ m1 d

; x2 =

λ (m + 1) d

→

(470 × 10−9 m)(0.400 m) (1.33)(6.00 × 10−5 m)

= 2.356 × 10−3 m ≈ 2.4 × 10−3 m

17.

To change the center point from constructive to destructive interference, the phase shift produced by inserting the plastic must be equivalent to half a wavelength. The wavelength of the light is shorter in the plastic than in the air, so the number of wavelengths in the plastic must be ½ greater than the number in the same thickness of air. The number of wavelengths in the distance equal to the thickness of the plate is the thickness of the plate divided by the appropriate wavelength. N plastic − N air = t=

λ 2(nplastic − 1)

λplastic =

−

tnplastic

−

(nplastic − 1) =

1 2

→

680 nm = 570 nm 2(1.60 − 1)

The Wave Nature of Light

18.

We find the speed of light from the index of refraction, υ = c /n. We calculate the % difference using the red as the standard. Note that answers will vary due to differences in reading the graph. ⎡⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ c ⎢⎜ ⎟−⎜ (υred − υblue ) ⎣⎝ nred ⎠ ⎝ nblue = υred ⎛ c ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ nred ⎠

19.

24-9

⎞⎤ ⎟⎥ ⎠ ⎦ (nblue − nred ) (1.615 − 1.640) = = = −0.015 = 1.5% less (1.640) nblue

We find the angles of refraction in the glass from Snell’s law, n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2 . (1.00) sin 65.00° = (1.4831) sin θ 2,450

→ θ 2,450 = 37.67°

(1.00) sin 65.00° = (1.4754) sin θ 2,700

→ θ 2,700 = 37.90°

θ 2,700 − θ 2,450 = 37.90° − 37.67° = 0.23° 20.

We use Snell’s law for the refraction at the first surface, entering the prism. The lower wavelength has the higher index of refraction. The indices of refraction are found from Fig. 24–14. nair sin θ a = n sin θb ; (1.00)sin 45° = (1.64) sin θb,455

→ θb,455 = 25.54°

(1.00)sin 45° = (1.62) sin θb,642

→ θb,642 = 25.88°

We find the angle of incidence at the second surface, leaving the prism, from the second diagram. (90° − θb ) + (90° − θ c ) + A = 180°

θc,455 = A − θb,455 = 60.00° − 25.54° = 34.46° θc,642 = A − θb,642 = 60.00° − 25.88° = 34.12° Use Snell’s law again for the refraction at the second surface. n sin θ c = nair sin θ d (1.64) sin 34.46° = (1.00)sin θ d ,455

→ θ d ,455 = θ1 = 68.1°

(1.62) sin 34.12° = (1.00)sin θ d ,642

→ θ d ,642 = θ 2 = 65.3°

The values may vary slightly from differences in reading the graph. 21.

We use Eq. 24–3a to calculate the angular distance from the middle of the central peak to the first minimum. The width of the central peak is twice this angular distance. sin θ1 =

⎛ 680 × 10−9 m ⎞ ⎛λ⎞ → θ1 = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ = 0.9168° ⎜ 0.0425 × 10−3 m ⎟⎟ D ⎝D⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Δθ = 2θ1 = 2(0.9168) = 1.834° ≈ 1.8°

24-10

22.

Chapter 24

The angle from the central maximum to the first dark fringe is equal to half the width of the central maximum. Using this angle and Eq. 24–3a, we calculate the wavelength used.

θ1 = 12 Δθ = 12 (28.0°) = 14.0° sin θ1 =

23.

λ D

→ λ = D sin θ1 = (2.60 × 10−3 mm) sin (14.0°) = 6.29 × 10−4 mm = 629 nm

We set the angle to the first minimum equal to half of the separation angle between the dark bands. We insert this angle into Eq. 24–3a to solve for the slit width.

θ = 12 Δθ = 12 (51.0°) = 25.5° sin θ =

24.

λ D

→ D=

λ sin θ

440 nm = 1022 nm ≈ 1.0 ×10−6 m sin 25.5°

We find the angle to the first minimum using Eq. 24–3a. The distance on the screen from the central maximum is found using the distance to the screen and the tangent of the angle. The width of the central maximum is twice the distance from the central maximum to the first minimum. sin θ1 =

λ D

⎛ 450 × 10−9 m ⎞ ⎛λ⎞ → θ1 = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ = 0.02578° ⎜ 1.0 × 10−3 m ⎟⎟ ⎝D⎠ ⎝ ⎠

x1 = tan θ1 = (6.0 m) tan 0.02578° = 2.70 × 10−3 m Δx = 2 x1 = 2(2.70 × 10−3 m) = 5.4 × 10−3 m = 0.54 cm

25.

λ D

⎛ 558 × 10−9 m ⎞ ⎛λ⎞ → θ1 = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ = 0.9187° ⎜ 3.48 × 10−5 m ⎟⎟ ⎝D⎠ ⎝ ⎠

x1 = tan θ1 = (2.30 m) tan 0.9187° = 3.688 × 10−2 m Δx = 2 x1 = 2(3.688 × 10−2 m) = 7.38 × 10−2 m

26.

(a)

We use Eq. 24–3b, using m = 1, 2, 3,… to calculate the possible diffraction minima when the wavelength is 0.50 cm. ⎛ mλ ⎞ D sin θ m = mλ → θ m = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎛ 1× 0.50 cm ⎞ ⎟ = 18.2° ⎝ 1.6 cm ⎠

θ 2 = sin −1 ⎜

⎛ 3 × 0.50 cm ⎞ ⎟ = 69.6° ⎝ 1.6 cm ⎠

θ 4 = sin −1 ⎜

θ1 = sin −1 ⎜

θ3 = sin −1 ⎜

⎛ 2 × 0.50 cm ⎞ ⎟ = 38.7° ⎝ 1.6 cm ⎠ ⎛ 4 × 0.50 cm ⎞ ⎟ → no solution ⎝ 1.6 cm ⎠

There are three diffraction minima: 18°, 39°, and 70°.

The Wave Nature of Light

(b)

24-11

We repeat the process from part (a) using a wavelength of 1.0 cm. ⎛ 1× 1.0 cm ⎞ ⎟ = 38.7° ⎝ 1.6 cm ⎠

θ1 = sin −1 ⎜

⎛ 2 × 1.0 cm ⎞ ⎟ = no real solution ⎝ 1.6 cm ⎠

θ 2 = sin −1 ⎜

The only diffraction minimum is at 39°. (c)

We repeat the process from part (a) using a wavelength of 3.0 cm. ⎛ 1× 3.0 cm ⎞ ⎟ = no real solution ⎝ 1.6 cm ⎠

θ1 = sin −1 ⎜

There are no diffraction minima. 27.

(a)

There will be no diffraction minima if the angle for the first minimum is greater than 90°. We set the angle in Eq. 24–3a equal to 90° and solve for the slit width. sin θ =

(b)

λ D

→D=

λ sin 90°

= λ

For no visible light to exhibit a diffraction minimum, the slit width must be equal to the shortest visible wavelength. D = λmin = 400 nm

28.

3λ . We then find the distance on the screen from the central 2D maximum by multiplying the distance to the screen by the tangent of the angle.

The first bright region occurs at sin θ ≈

−9 m) ⎤ ⎛ 3λ ⎞ −1 ⎡ 3(620 × 10 ⎥ = 14.17° ⎟ = sin ⎢ 6 − ⎝ 2D ⎠ ⎢⎣ 2(3.80 × 10 m) ⎥⎦

θ max = sin −1 ⎜

x = tan θ1 = (10.0 m) tan (14.17°) = 2.52 m

29.

The angle from the central maximum to the first bright maximum is half the angle between the first bright maxima on either side of the central maximum. The angle to the first maximum is about halfway between the angles to the first and second minima. We use Eq. 24–3b, setting m = 3/2, to calculate the slit width, D.

θ1 = 12 Δθ = 12 (32°) = 16° D sin θ m = mλ → D =

30.

(a)

mλ (3/2)(633 nm) = = 3445 nm ≈ 3.4 μ m sin θ1 sin16°

For vertical diffraction we use the height of the slit (1.5 μm) as the slit width in Eq. 24–3a to calculate the angle between the central maximum to the first minimum. The angular separation of the first minima is equal to twice this angle. sin θ1 =

λ D

→ θ1 = sin −1

λ D

= sin −1

780 × 10−9 m 1.5 × 1026 m

= 31.3°

Δθ = 2θ1 = 2(31.3°) ≈ 63° © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

24-12

Chapter 24

(b)

To find the horizontal diffraction we use the width of the slit (3.0 μm) in Eq. 24–3a. sin θ1 =

λ D

→ θ1 = sin −1

λ D

= sin −1

780 × 10−9 m 3.0 × 10−6 m

= 15.07°

Δθ = 2θ1 = 2(15.07°) ≈ 30°

Note that the 30° has 2 significant figures. 31.

The path difference between the top and bottom of the slit for the incident wave is D sin θi . The path difference between the top and bottom of the slit for the diffracted wave is D sin θ . Therefore, the net path difference is D sin θi − D sin θ . When θ = θi , the net path difference is 0, and there will be constructive interference. Thus there will be a central maximum at θ = 23.0°. When the net path difference is equal to a multiple of the wavelength, there will be an even number of segments of the wave having a path difference of λ/2. We set the path difference equal to m (an integer) times the wavelength and solve for the angle of the diffraction minimum. D sin θi − D sin θ = mλ

→

sin θ = sin θi −

Slit, width aD θ θi θi

mλ , m = ±1, ± 2, … D

From this equation we see that when θi = 28.0°, the minima will be symmetrically distributed around a central maximum at 28.0°. 32.

We use Eq. 24–4 to calculate the angle for the second-order maximum. −9 m) ⎞ ⎛ mλ ⎞ −1 ⎛ 2(510 × 10 d sin θ = mλ → θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 4.3° ⎟ = sin ⎜⎜ − 5 ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ 1.35 × 10 m ⎠

33.

The slit separation, in cm, is the reciprocal of the number of slits per cm. We use Eq. 24–4 to find the wavelength. ⎛ 1 ⎞ cm ⎟ sin 22.0° d sin θ ⎜⎝ 3800 ⎠ = = 3.29 × 10−5 cm ≈ 330 nm d sin θ = mλ → λ = m 3

34.

Because the angle increases with wavelength, to have a complete order we use the longest wavelength. We set the maximum angle to 90° to determine the largest integer m in Eq. 24–4. The slit separation, in cm, is the reciprocal of the number of lines per cm. ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 m ⎞ cm ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ sin 90° ⎜ d sin θ ⎝ 7400 ⎠ ⎝ 100 cm ⎠ d sin θ = mλ → m = = = 1.93 λN (700 × 10−9 m)

Thus only one full order (all the way out to red) can be seen on each side of the central white line, although the second order is almost fully visible.

The Wave Nature of Light

24-13

We can also evaluate for the shortest wavelength.

d sin θ = mλ → m =

d sin θ = λN

⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 m ⎞ cm ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ sin 90° ⎜ 7400 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 100 cm ⎠ (400 × 10−9 m)

= 3.38

Thus part of the third order will be visible—at least the violet part. 35.

Since the same diffraction grating is being used for both wavelengths of light, the slit separation will be the same. Solve Eq. 24–4 for the slit separation for both wavelengths and set the two equations equal. The resulting equation is then solved for the unknown wavelength. d sin θ = mλ ⇒ d =

36.

⇒ λ2 =

m1 sin θ 2 2 sin 20.6° λ1 = (632.8 nm) = 556 nm m2 sin θ1 1 sin 53.2°

The number of lines per cm is the reciprocal of the slit width in cm. Use Eq. 24–4. d sin θ = mλ →

37.

m1λ1 m2 λ2 = sin θ1 sin θ 2

1 sin θ = = d mλ

sin15.0° = 1392 lines/cm ≈ 1400 lines/cm ⎛ 100 cm ⎞ (3)(620 × 10−9 m) ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ m ⎠

We use Eq. 24–4 to calculate the wavelengths from the given angles. The slit separation, d, is the inverse of the number of slits per cm. d sin θ = mλ → λ =

d sin θ m

⎛ 1 ⎞ cm ⎟ sin 28.8° = 4.92 × 10−5 cm = 492 nm ≈ 490 nm ⎝ 9800 ⎠ ⎛ 1 ⎞ cm ⎟ sin 36.7° = 6.10 × 10−5 cm ≈ 610 nm λ2 = ⎜ ⎝ 9800 ⎠

λ1 = ⎜

⎛ 1 ⎞ cm ⎟ sin 38.6° = 6.37 × 10−5 cm ≈ 640 nm 9800 ⎝ ⎠ 1 ⎛ ⎞ λ4 = ⎜ cm ⎟ sin 41.2° = 6.72 × 10−5 cm ≈ 670 nm ⎝ 9800 ⎠

λ3 = ⎜

38.

We find the first-order angles for the maximum and minimum wavelengths using Eq. 24–4, where the number of lines per centimeter is the reciprocal of the slit separation distance, in cm. Then we set the distance from the central maximum of the maximum and minimum wavelength equal to the distance to the screen multiplied by the tangent of the first-order angle. The width of the spectrum is the difference in these distances. ⎛ mλ ⎞ d sin θ = mλ → θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ d ⎠

θ1 = sin −1 [(410 ×10−7 cm)(7800 lines/cm)] = 18.65° θ 2 = sin −1 [(750 ×10−7 cm)(7800 lines/cm)] = 35.80° Δx = x2 − x1 = ( tan θ 2 − tan θ1 ) = (3.40 m)( tan 35.80° − tan18.65°) = 1.3 m

24-14

39.

Chapter 24

We find the second-order angles for the maximum and minimum wavelengths using Eq. 24–4, where the slit separation distance is the inverse of the number of lines per cm. Subtracting these two angles gives the angular width. ⎛ mλ ⎞ d sin θ = mλ → θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ d ⎠

θ1 = sin −1 [2(4.5 × 10−7 m)(6.5 × 105 /m)] = 35.80° θ 2 = sin −1 [2(7.0 × 10−7 m)(6.5 × 105 /m)] = 65.50° Δθ = θ 2 − θ1 = 65.50° − 35.80° = 29.7° ≈ 30°

Note that the answer has 2 significant figures. 40.

We set the diffraction angles as one-half the difference between the angles on opposite sides of the center. Then we solve Eq. 24–4 for the wavelength, with d equal to the inverse of the number of lines per cm.

θr − θ

26°38′ − (− 26°18′) = 26°28′ = 26 + 28/60 = 26.47° 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ λ1 = d sin θ = ⎜ cm ⎟ sin 26.47° = 4.618 ×10−5 cm = 462 nm 9650 ⎝ ⎠ θ 2r − θ 2 41°02′ − (− 40°27′) = = 40°44.5′ = 40 + 44.5/60 = 40.74° θ2 = 2 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ λ2 = ⎜ cm ⎟ sin 40.74° = 6.763 × 10−5 cm = 676 nm 9650 ⎝ ⎠

θ1 =

41.

The maximum angle is 90°. The slit separation is the reciprocal of the line spacing. ⎛ 1 ⎞ cm ⎟ sin 90° d sin θ ⎜⎝ 6500 ⎠ = = 2.43 d sin θ = mλ → m = −7 λ 633 × 10 cm

Thus the second order is the highest order that can be seen. 42.

We solve Eq. 24–4 for the slit separation width, d, using the given information. Then, setting m = 3, we solve for the angle of the third-order maximum. mλ 1(589 nm) = = 2352 nm = 2.35 μ m sin θ sin14.5° ⎛ mλ ⎞ −1 ⎛ 3 × 589 nm ⎞ θ3 = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 48.7° ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ 2352 nm ⎠

sin θ =

43.

mλ d

→ d=

Because the angle of the diffracted light increases with wavelength, to have a full order use the largest wavelength, 700 nm. See Fig. 24–26 for an illustration. The maximum angle of diffraction is 90°. Use that angle with the largest wavelength to find the minimum slit separation. The reciprocal of the slit separation gives the number of slits per cm. d sin θ = mλ → d =

mλ 2(7.00 × 10−7 m) = = 1.40 × 10−6 m = 1.40 × 10−4 cm sin θ sin 90°

1 1 = = 7140 slits/cm d 1.40 × 10−4 cm

We have assumed that the original wavelength is known to 3 significant figures. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

The Wave Nature of Light

44.

From Example 24–11, we see that the thickness is related to the interference maximum wavelength by t = λ /4n.

24-15

n = 1.32

t = λ /4n → λ = 4nt = 4(1.32)(120 nm) = 634 nm ≈ 630 nm

45.

Between the 25 dark lines there are 24 intervals. When we add the half-interval at the wire end, we have 24.5 intervals over the length of the plates. 21.5 cm = 0.878 cm 24.5 intervals

46.

(a)

φ1 = π

An incident wave that reflects from the outer surface of the bubble has a phase change of φ1 = π . An incident wave that reflects from the inner surface of the bubble has a phase change due to the additional path length, so ⎛ 2t ⎞ φ2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2π . For destructive interference with a ⎝ λfilm ⎠ minimum nonzero thickness of bubble, the net phase change must be π . ⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π ⎥ − π = π ⎣⎢⎝ λfilm ⎠ ⎦⎥

φnet = φ2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜ (b)

⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π ⎥ − π = 3π ⎢⎣⎝ λfilm ⎠ ⎥⎦

→ t = λfilm =

⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π ⎥ − π = 5π ⎣⎢⎝ λfilm ⎠ ⎦⎥

→ t = λfilm =

φnet = φ2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

47.

λ 2n

480 nm = 180 nm 2(1.33)

For the next two larger thicknesses, the net phase change would be 3π and 5π .

φnet = φ2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

(c)

→ t = 12 λfilm =

φ2 = ( 2t λfilm ) 2π + 0

λ n

480 nm = 360 nm (1.33)

3 2

480 nm = 540 nm (1.33)

If the thickness were much less than one wavelength, then there would be very little phase change introduced by additional path length, so the two reflected waves would have a phase difference of about φ1 = π . This would produce destructive interference.

An incident wave that reflects from the top surface of the coating has a phase change of φ1 = π . An incident wave that reflects from the glass (n = 1.52) at the bottom surface of the coating has a phase change due to both the additional path length and a phase change of π on reflection, so ⎛ 2t ⎞ φ2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2π + π . For constructive interference with a ⎝ λfilm ⎠ minimum nonzero thickness of coating, the net phase change must be 2π . ⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π + π ⎥ − π = 2π ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢⎝ λfilm ⎠

φnet = φ 2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

φ1 = π

φ2 = ( 2t λfilm ) 2π + π

n = 1.25 n = 1.52

⎛ λ ⎞ → t = 12 λfilm = 12 ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ nfilm ⎠

24-16

Chapter 24

The lens reflects the most for λ = 570 nm. The minimum nonzero thickness occurs for m = 1: tmin =

λ 2nfilm

(570 nm) = 230 nm 2(1.25)

Since the middle of the spectrum is being selectively reflected, the transmitted light will be stronger in the red and blue portions of the visible spectrum. 48.

(a)

(b)

When illuminated from above at point A, a light ray reflected from the air–oil interface undergoes a phase shift of φ1 = π . A ray reflected at the oil–water interface undergoes no phase shift. If the oil thickness at point A is negligible compared to the wavelength of the light, then there is no significant shift in phase due to a path length traveled by a ray in the oil. Thus the light reflected from the two surfaces will destructively interfere for all visible wavelengths, and the oil will appear black when viewed from above. From the discussion in part (a), the ray reflected from the air–oil interface undergoes a phase shift of φ1 = π . A ray that reflects from the oil–water interface has no phase change due to ⎛ 2t ⎞ reflection, but has a phase change due to the additional path length of φ2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2π . For ⎝ λoil ⎠ constructive interference, the net phase change must be a multiple of 2π . ⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π ⎥ − π = m(2π ) → t = ⎣⎢⎝ λoil ⎠ ⎦⎥

φnet = φ 2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

1 2

( m + 12 ) λoil = 12 ( m + 12 ) nλ

From the diagram, we see that point B is the second thickness that yields constructive interference for 580 nm, so we use m = 1. (The first location that yields constructive interference would be for m = 0.) t=

49.

1 2

( m + 12 ) nλ

1 2

nm = 290 nm (1 + 12 ) 580 1.50

According to Section 24–8, at each surface approximately 4% of the light is reflected. So passing each surface of a lens results in only 96% transmission either into the lens (at the front surface) or on to the next piece of optics (at the second surface). So the light exiting a lens would experience two of these reductions and so would pass only 96% of 96% of the light incident on the lens. This is a factor of (0.96) 2 for each lens. Reducing to 50% would involve that factor for each lens. Let n be the number of lenses. 0.50 = [(0.96) 2 ]n = (0.96) 2 n → ln (0.50) = 2n ln (0.96) → n =

ln (0.50) = 8.49 2 ln (0.96)

It would take nine lenses for the light to be reduced to 50% or less. 50.

An incident wave that reflects from the convex surface of the lens has no phase change, so φ1 = 0. An incident wave that reflects from the glass underneath the lens has a phase change due to both the additional path length and a phase ⎛ 2t ⎞ change of π on reflection, so φ 2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2π + π . For ⎝λ⎠ destructive interference (dark rings), the net phase change must be an odd-integer multiple of π , so

φnet = φ2 − φ1 = (2m + 1)π , m = 0, 1, 2,

φ1 = 0

φ2 = ( 2t λ ) 2π + π

The Wave Nature of Light

24-17

Because m = 0 corresponds to the dark center, m represents the number of the ring. ⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π + π ⎥ − 0 = (2m + 1)π , m = 0, 1, 2, λ ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦

φnet = φ 2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

→

t = 12 mλair = 12 (35)(560 nm) = 9800 nm = 9.8 μ m

The thickness of the lens is the thickness of the air at the edge of the lens. 51.

Since the wedge is now filled with water, we just use the wavelength in the water, as instructed in the problem statement. Since the index of refraction of the water is less than that of the glass, there are no new phase shifts introduced by reflections, so we can use the relationships developed in that example. We “count” the number of wavelengths at the position of the wire. 2t

λn

2(7.35 × 10−6 m) 6.00 × 10−7 m/1.33

= 32.6 wavelengths

Thus there will be 33 dark bands across the plates, including the one at the point of contact. 52.

An incident wave that reflects from the second surface of the upper piece of glass has no phase change, so φ1 = 0. An incident wave that reflects from the first surface of the second piece of glass has a phase change due to both the additional path length and a phase change of π on reflection, so ⎛ 2t ⎞ φ 2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2π + π . For destructive interference ⎝λ⎠ (dark lines), the net phase change must be an odd-integer multiple of π , so φnet = φ2 − φ1 = (2m + 1)π , m = 0, 1, 2, . Because m = 0 corresponds to the left edge of the diagram, the 24th dark line corresponds to m = 23. The 24th dark line also has a gap thickness of d. ⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π + π ⎥ − 0 = (2m + 1)π ⎣⎝ λ ⎠ ⎦

φnet = φ2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

→ t = 12 mλ

→

d = 12 (23)(670 nm) = 7705 nm ≈ 7.7 μ m

53.

With respect to the incident wave, the wave that reflects from the air at the top surface of the air layer has a phase change of φ1 = 0. With respect to the incident wave, the wave that

φ1 = 0 φ2 = ( 2t λ ) 2π + π

glass

air reflects from the glass at the bottom surface of the air layer has a phase change due to both the additional path length and glass ⎛ 2t ⎞ reflection, so φ2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2π + π . For constructive interference, ⎝λ⎠ the net phase change must be an even nonzero integer multiple of π . ⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π + π ⎥ − 0 = 2mπ λ ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦

φnet = φ 2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

→ t=

1 2

( m − 12 ) λ ,

m = 1, 2,

24-18

Chapter 24

The minimum thickness is with m = 1.

(

)

tmin = 12 (450 nm) 1 − 12 = 113 nm ≈ 110 nm

For destructive interference, the net phase change must be an odd-integer multiple of π . ⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π + π ⎥ − 0 = (2m + 1)π ⎣⎝ λ ⎠ ⎦

φnet = φ 2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

→ t = 12 mλ , m = 0, 1, 2,

The minimum nonzero thickness is tmin = 12 (450 nm)(1) = 225 nm ≈ 230 nm 54.

When illuminated from above, the light ray reflected from the air–oil interface undergoes a phase shift of φ1 = π . A ray reflected at the oil–water interface undergoes no phase shift due to reflection, but has ⎛ 2t ⎞ a phase change due to the additional path length of φ2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2π . For constructive interference to ⎝ λoil ⎠ occur, the net phase change must be a multiple of 2π . ⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π ⎥ − π = m(2π ) → t = ⎢⎣⎝ λoil ⎠ ⎥⎦

φnet = φ 2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

1 2

( m + 12 ) λoil = 12 ( m + 12 ) nλ

For λ = 650 nm, the possible thicknesses are as follows: t650 =

1 2

nm = 108 nm, 325 nm, 542 nm, ( m + 12 ) 650 1.50

For λ = 390 nm, the possible thicknesses are as follows: t390 =

1 2

nm = 65 nm, 195 nm, 325 nm, 455 nm, ( m + 12 ) 390 1.50

The minimum thickness of the oil slick must be 325 nm . 55.

φ1 = π

With respect to the incident wave, the wave that reflects from the top surface of the alcohol has a phase change of φ1 = π . With respect to the incident wave, the wave that

φ2 = ( 2t λfilm ) 2π + π

reflects from the glass at the bottom surface of the alcohol has a phase change due to both the additional path length and a phase change of π on reflection, so ⎛ 2t ⎞ φ2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2π + π . For constructive interference, the ⎝ λfilm ⎠ net phase change must be an even nonzero integer multiple of π . ⎡⎛ 2t ⎢⎣⎜⎝ λ 1film

φnet = φ 2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

⎤ ⎞ ⎟ 2π + π ⎥ − π = m1 2π ⎟ ⎥⎦ ⎠

→ t = 12 λ 1film m1 =

1 2

λ1 nfilm

m1 , m1 = 1, 2, 3,

For destructive interference, the net phase change must be an odd-integer multiple of π .

The Wave Nature of Light

⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π + π ⎥ − π = (2m2 + 1)π ⎢⎣⎝ λ2film ⎠ ⎥⎦

φnet = φ 2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

→ t=

1 4

λ2 nfilm

24-19

(2m2 + 1), m2 = 0, 1, 2,

Set the two expressions for the thickness equal to each other. 1 2

λ1 nfilm

m1 =

1 4

λ2

(2m2 + 1) →

nfilm

2m2 + 1 λ1 (655 nm) 5 = = = 1.2476 ≈ 1.25 = λ2 (525 nm) 2m1 4

Thus we see that m1 = m2 = 2, and the thickness of the film is t=

1 2

λ1 nfilm

⎛ 655 nm ⎞ m1 = 12 ⎜ ⎟ (2) = 481.6 nm or t = ⎝ 1.36 ⎠

1 4

λ2 nfilm

⎛ 525 nm ⎞ (2m2 + 1) = 14 ⎜ ⎟ (5) = 482.5 nm ⎝ 1.36 ⎠

The average thickness, with 3 significant figures, is 482 nm. 56.

From the discussion in Section 24–9, we see that the path length change is twice the distance that the mirror moves. One fringe shift corresponds to a change in path length of λ , so corresponds to a mirror motion of N=

57.

1 λ. 2

Δx 1λ 2

Let N be the number of fringe shifts produced by a mirror movement of Δx.

→ Δx = 12 N λ = 12 (680)(589 × 10−9 m) = 2.00 × 10−4 m

From the discussion in Section 24–9, we see that the path length change is twice the distance that the mirror moves. One fringe shift corresponds to a change in path length of λ , so it corresponds to a mirror motion of N=

58.

Δx 1λ 2

1 λ. 2

Let N be the number of fringe shifts produced by a mirror movement of Δx.

→ λ=

2Δx 2(1.25 × 10−4 m) = = 6.91× 10−7 m = 691 nm N 362

1 λ. 2

Let N be the number of fringe shifts produced by a mirror movement of Δx. The

thickness of the foil is the distance that the mirror moves during the 296 fringe shifts. N=

59.

Δx 1λ 2

→ Δx = 12 N λ = 12 (296)(589 × 10−9 m) = 8.72 × 10−5 m

One fringe shift corresponds to an effective change in path length of λ . The actual distance has not changed, but the number of wavelengths in the depth of the cavity has. If the cavity has a length d, then d the number of wavelengths in vacuum is , and the (greater) number with the gas present is

λgas

ngas d

. Because the light passes through the cavity twice, the number of fringe shifts is twice

the difference in the number of wavelengths in the two media. ⎛ ngas d d ⎞ d Nλ (158)(632.8 × 10−9 m) N = 2⎜ − ⎟ = 2 (ngas − 1) → ngas = +1 = + 1 = 1.004328 λ⎠ λ 2d 2(1.155 × 10−2 m) ⎝ λ

The answer is quoted to more significant figures than is justified. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

24-20

60.

Chapter 24

Use Eq. 24–5. Since the initial light is unpolarized, the intensity after the first polarizer will be half the initial intensity. Let the initial intensity be I 0 . I1 = 12 I 0 ; I 2 = I1 cos 2 θ = 12 I 0 cos 2 θ

61.

→

I 2 cos 2 72° = = 0.048 , or 4.8% I0 2

We assume that the light is coming from air to glass and use Eq. 24–6b. tan θ p = nglass = 1.56 → θ p = tan −1 1.56 = 57.3°

62.

Let the initial intensity of the unpolarized light be I 0 . The intensity after passing through the first Polaroid will be I1 = 12 I 0 . Then use Eq. 24–5. I 2 = I1 cos 2 θ = 12 I 0 cos 2 θ

63.

→ θ = cos −1

2I2 I0

(a)

θ = cos −1

2I2 2 = cos −1 = 35.3° ≈ 35° I0 3

(b)

θ = cos −1

2I2 2 = cos −1 = 63.4° ≈ 63° I0 10

For the first transmission, the angle between the light and the polarizer is 21.0°. For the second transmission, the angle between the light and the polarizer is 42.0°. Use Eq. 24–5 twice. I1 = I 0 cos 2 21.0°; I 2 = I1 cos 2 42.0° = I 0 ( cos 2 21.0°)( cos 2 42.0°) = 0.4813I 0

Thus the transmitted intensity is 48.1% of the incoming intensity. 64.

For the first transmission, since the incoming light is unpolarized, the transmission is the same as if the angle were 45°. So I1 = 12 I 0 . The second polarizer is at an angle of 30° relative to the first one, so I 2 = I1 cos 2 30°. And the third polarizer is at an angle of 60° relative to the second one, so I 3 = I 2 cos 2 60°. Combine these to find the percent that is transmitted out through the third polarizer. I 3 = I 2 cos 2 60° = I1 cos 2 30° cos 2 60° = 12 I 0 cos 2 30° cos 2 60° → I3 1 = cos 2 30° cos 2 60° = I1 2

65.

The polarizing angle θ p is found using Eq. 24–6a, tan θ p = tan θ p =

66.

( ) ( 14 ) = 323 = 0.09375 ≈ 9.4%

1 3 2 4

n2 . For an oil–diamond interface, n1

2.42 , which gives θ p = 59.4°. The material does NOT appear to be diamond. 1.43

If I 0 is the intensity passed by the first Polaroid, then the intensity passed by the second will be I 0 when the two axes are parallel. To calculate a reduction to half intensity, we use Eq. 24–5. I = I 0 cos 2 θ = 12 I 0

→ cos 2 θ =

1 2

→ θ = 45°

The Wave Nature of Light

67.

The light is traveling from water to diamond. We use Eq. 24–6a. tan θ p =

68.

24-21

ndiamond 2.42 = = 1.82 → θ p = tan −1 1.82 = 61.2° nwater 1.33

The critical angle exists when light passes from a material with a higher index of refraction (n1 ) into a material with a lower index of refraction (n2 ). Use Eq. 23–6. n2 = sin θ C = sin 58° n1

To find Brewster’s angle, use Eq. 24–6a. If light is passing from high index to low index, then we have the following: n2 = tan θ p = sin 58° → θ p = tan −1 ( sin 58°) = 40.3° ≈ 40° n1

If light is passing from low index to high index, then we have the following: n1 1 = tan θ p = n2 sin 58°

⎛ 1 ⎞ → θ p = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 49.7° ≈ 50° ⎝ sin 58° ⎠

Note that both answers are given to 2 significant figures. 69.

First case: the light is coming from water to air. Use Eq. 24–6a. tan θ p =

nair nwater

→ θ p = tan −1

nair 1.00 = tan −1 = 36.9° nwater 1.33

Second case: for total internal reflection, the light must also be coming from water into air. Use Eq. 23–6. sin θ C =

nair nwater

→ θ p = sin −1

nair 1.00 = sin −1 = 48.8° nwater 1.33

Third case: the light is coming from air to water. Use Eq. 24–6b. tan θ p = nwater

→ θ p = tan −1 nwater = tan −1 1.33 = 53.1°

Note that the two Brewster’s angles add to give 90.0°. 70.

When plane-polarized light passes through a sheet oriented at an angle θ , the intensity decreases according to Eq. 24–5, I = I 0 cos 2 θ . For the first sheet, with unpolarized light incident, we can treat

θ = 45°, cos 2 θ = 12 . Then sheets two through six will each reduce the intensity by a factor of cos 2 35.0°. Thus we have the following: I = I 0 ( cos 2 45.0°)( cos 2 35.0)5 = 0.068 I 0

The transmitted intensity is 6.8% of the incident intensity. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

24-22

71.

Chapter 24

Let I 0 be the initial intensity. Use Eq. 24–5 for both transmissions of the light. I1 = I 0 cos 2 θ1 ; I 2 = I1 cos 2 θ 2 = I 0 cos 2 θ1 cos 2 θ 2 = 0.35I 0

→

⎛ 0.35 ⎞ 0.35 ⎞ −1 ⎛ ⎟⎟ = cos ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 28° cos cos 48° ⎟⎠ θ 2⎠ ⎝ ⎝

θ1 = cos −1 ⎜⎜ 72.

(a)

We apply Eq. 24–5 through the successive polarizers. The initial light is unpolarized. Each polarizer is then rotated 30.0° from the previous one. I1 = 12 I 0 ; I 2 = I1 cos 2 θ 2 = 12 I 0 cos 2 θ 2 ; I 3 = I 2 cos 2 θ3 = 12 I 0 cos 2 θ 2 cos 2 θ3 ; I 4 = I 3 cos 2 θ 4 = 12 I 0 cos 2 θ 2 cos 2 θ3 cos 2 θ 4 = 12 I 0 cos 2 30.0° cos 2 30.0° cos 2 30.0° = 0.211I 0

(b)

If the second polarizer is removed, then the angle between polarizers 1 and 3 is now 60.0°. I1 = 12 I 0 ; I 3 = I1 cos 2 θ3 = 12 I 0 cos 2 θ3 ; I 4 = I 3 cos 2 θ 4 = 12 I 0 cos 2 θ3 cos 2 θ 4 = 12 I 0 cos 2 60.0° cos 2 30.0° = 0.0938 I 0

The same value would result by removing the third polarizer, because then the angle between polarizers 2 and 4 would be 60°. The intensity can be decreased by removing either the second or third polarizer.

73.

(c)

If both the second and third polarizers are removed, then there are still two polarizers with their axes perpendicular, so no light will be transmitted.

(a)

(b)

λ Δm Δx

→ d

= mλ

→

(5.0 × 10−7 m)(5.0 m)(1) (2.0 × 10

−2

λm d

→ Δx = Δm

λ d

→

= 1.25 × 10−4 m ≈ 1.3 × 10−4 m

For minima, we use Eq. 24–2b. The fourth-order minimum corresponds to m = 3, and the fifthorder minimum corresponds to m = 4. The slit separation, screen distance, and location on the screen are the same for the two wavelengths.

( ) → d x = ( m + 12 ) λ → ( mA + 12 ) λA = ( mB + 12 ) λB ( mA + 12 ) = (5.0 ×10−7 m) 3.5 = 3.9 ×10−7 m λB = λA 4.5 ( mB + 12 ) d sin θ = m + 12 λ

74.

The wavelength of the signal is λ = (a)

υ f

(3.00 × 108 m/s) (75 × 106 Hz)

→

= 4.00 m.

There is a phase difference between the direct and reflected signals ⎛h⎞ from both the path difference, ⎜ ⎟ 2π , and the reflection, π. ⎝λ⎠ The total phase difference is the sum of the two.

The Wave Nature of Light

⎛h⎞

24-23

(122 m)

2π + π = 62π = 31(2π ) φ = ⎜ ⎟ 2π + π = (4.00 m) ⎝λ⎠

Since the phase difference is an integer multiple of 2π , the interference is constructive. (b)

When the plane is 22 m closer to the receiver, the phase difference is as follows. ⎡ (122 m − 22 m) ⎤ 51 ⎡ (h − y ) ⎤ 2π + π = ⎢ ⎥ 2π + π = 51π = (2π ) ⎥ λ ⎦ 2 ⎣ (4.00 m) ⎦

φ=⎢ ⎣

Since the phase difference is an odd half-integer multiple of 2π , the interference is destructive. 75.

We find the angles for the first order from Eq. 24–2a, d sin θ = mλ. We are considering first order, so m = 1, and the slit separation (in meters) is the reciprocal of the lines per meter value.

λH = d sin θ H =

sin θ H 3.60 × 10 lines/m

λNe = d sin θ Ne = λAr = d sin θ Ar = 76.

= 6.56 × 10−7 m → θ H = sin −1 0.2362 = 13.7°

sin θ Ne 3.60 × 105 lines/m sin θ Ar 3.60 × 105 lines/m

= 6.50 × 10−7 m → θ Ne = sin −1 0.2340 = 13.5° = 6.97 × 10−7 m → θ Ar = sin −1 0.2509 = 14.5°

With respect to the incident wave, the wave that reflects from the top surface of the material has a phase change of φ1 = π . If we assume that the film has an index less than that of the glass, then the wave that reflects from the glass has a phase change due to the additional path length and a phase ⎛ 2t change on reflection, for a total phase change of φ 2 = ⎜ ⎝ λfilm

⎞ ⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎟ 2π + π = ⎜ ⎟ 2π + π . ⎝ λ /n ⎠ ⎠

For destructive interference, the net phase change must be an odd-integer multiple of π . ⎛ 2t ⎞ 1⎛λ⎞ 1 ⎟ 2π + π − π = (2m − 1)π → n = 2 ⎜ ⎟ m − 2 , m = 1, 2, … ⎝ λ /n ⎠ ⎝t⎠

(

φnet = φ2 − φ1 = ⎜

)

The minimum index of refraction is found from m = 1. ⎛ 675 nm ⎞ 1 nmin = 12 ⎜ ⎟ 1 − 2 = 1.35 ⎝ 125 nm ⎠

(

)

This index is smaller than the typical index of glass (about 1.5), so choose a material with n = 1.35. If we now assume that the film has an index greater than glass, then the wave that reflects from the glass has a phase change due to the additional path length and no phase change on reflection, for a total ⎛ 2t ⎞ phase change of φ2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2π + 0. ⎝ λ /n ⎠ Repeat the calculation from above for this new phase change.

24-24

Chapter 24

mλ ⎛ 2t ⎞ , m = 1, 2, … ⎟ 2π − π = (2m − 1)π → n = λ / n 2t ⎝ ⎠ λ 1 ⎛ 675 nm ⎞ = = ⎜ ⎟ = 2.70 2t 2 ⎝ 125 nm ⎠

φnet = φ 2 − φ1 = ⎜ nmin

That is a very high index—higher than diamond. It probably is not realistic to look for this material. 77.

→ d

Δx = x1 − x2 =

λ2 = λ1 − 78.

λ1m

−

= mλ

λ2 m d

→ x=

λm d

; x1 =

λ1m d

; x2 =

λ2 m d

→

d Δx (6.6 × 10−4 m)(1.23 × 10−3 m) = 650 × 10−9 m − = 4.81× 10−7 m ≈ 480 nm m 2(2.40 m)

With respect to the incident wave, the wave that reflects at the top surface of the film has a phase change of φ1 = π . With respect to the incident wave, the wave that reflects from the bottom surface of the film has a phase change due to the additional path length and no phase change due to reflection, so

φ1 = π φ2 = ( 2t λfilm ) 2π

⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎟ 2π + 0. For constructive interference, the net phase change must be an integer multiple of ⎝ λfilm ⎠

φ2 = ⎜ 2π .

⎛ 2t ⎞ λ 1 1 1 1 , m = 0, 1, 2, … ⎟ 2π − π = 2π m → t = 2 (m + 2 )λfilm = 2 (m + 2 ) λ n film ⎝ film ⎠

φnet = φ2 − φ1 = ⎜

Evaluate the thickness for the two wavelengths. t = 12 (m1 + 12 )

(m2 + 12 ) (m1 + 12 )

λ1 nfilm

= 12 (m2 + 12 )

(m1 + 32 ) (m1 + 12 )

λ2 nfilm

→

λ1 688.0 nm 7 = = 1.40 = → 5(m1 + 32 ) = 7(m1 + 12 ) λ2 491.4 nm 5

→ m1 = 2

Thus m2 = 3 and m1 = 2. Evaluate the thickness with either value and the corresponding wavelength. t = 12 (m1 + 12 )

79.

λ1 nfilm

= 12 ( 52 )

λ 688.0 nm 491.4 nm = 544 nm ; t = 12 (m2 + 12 ) 2 = 12 ( 72 ) = 544 nm 1.58 1.58 nfilm

Because the angle increases with wavelength, we compare the maximum angle for the second order with the minimum angle for the third order, using Eq. 24–4, by calculating the ratio of the sines for each angle. Since this ratio is greater than one, the maximum angle for the second order is larger than the minimum angle for the first order and the spectra overlap. d sin θ = mλ

⎛ mλ ⎞ sin θ 2 2λ2 /d 2λ2 2(700 nm) → sin θ = ⎜ = = = = 1.2 ⎟; ⎝ d ⎠ sin θ3 3λ3 /d 3λ3 3(400 nm)

The Wave Nature of Light

24-25

To determine which wavelengths overlap, we set this ratio of sines equal to one and solve for the second-order wavelength that overlaps with the shortest wavelength of the third order. We then repeat this process to find the wavelength of the third order that overlaps with the longest wavelength of the second order. sin θ 2 2λ /d 2λ =1= 2 = 2 sin θ3 3λ3 /d 3λ3

→ λ3 = → λ2 =

2 2 λ2, max = (700 nm) = 467 nm 3 3 3 3 λ3,min = (400 nm) = 600 nm 2 2

Therefore, the wavelengths 600 nm–700 nm of the second order overlap with the wavelengths 400 nm–467 nm of the third order. Note that these wavelengths are independent of the slit spacing. 80.

Because the measurements are made far from the antennas, we can use the analysis for the double slit. Use Eq. 24–2a for constructive interference, and Eq. 34–2b for destructive interference. The υ (3.00 × 108 m/s) = 3.322 m. wavelength of the signal is λ = = f (90.3 × 106 Hz) For constructive interference, the path difference is a multiple of the wavelength. d sin θ = mλ , m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....; → θ = sin −1

mλ d

θ1

= sin −1

(1)(3.322 m) (2)(3.322 m) = 21.7° ≈ 22° ; θ 2 = sin −1 = 47.6° ≈ 48° ; 9.0 m 9.0 m max

θ3

= sin −1

(3)(3.322 m) = impossible 9.0 m

max

For destructive interference, the path difference is an odd multiple of half a wavelength. d sin θ = (m + 12 )λ , m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...; → θ = sin −1 1 −1 ( 2 )(3.322 m)

θ0

= sin

θ2

= sin −1

max

9.0 m ( 52 )(3.39 m) 9.0 m

= 10.6° ≈ 11° ; θ1

(m + 12 )λ

= sin

d 3 ( −1 2 )(3.39 m)

max

= 70.3° ≈ 70° ; θ3

max

= sin −1

9.0 m ( 72 )(3.39 m) 9.0 m

= 34.4° ≈ 34° ; = impossible

These angles are applicable both above and below the midline and both to the left and to the right of the antennas. 81.

With respect to the incident wave, the wave that reflects φ1 = π from the top surface of the coating has a phase change of φ2 = ( 2t λfilm ) 2π + π φ1 = π . With respect to the incident wave, the wave that reflects from the glass (n ≈ 1.5) at the bottom surface of the coating has a phase change due to both the additional ⎛ 2t ⎞ path length and reflection, so φ2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2π + π . For ⎝ λfilm ⎠ destructive interference, the net phase change must be an odd-integer multiple of π .

24-26

Chapter 24

⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π + π ⎥ − π = (2m + 1)π ⎢⎣⎝ λfilm ⎠ ⎥⎦

φnet = φ2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

t = 14 (2m + 1)λfilm = 14 (2m + 1)

λ nfilm

, m = 0, 1, 2, …

The minimum thickness has m = 0, so tmin =

82.

1 4

λ nfilm

(a)

For the blue light, tmin =

1 4

(450 nm) = 81.52 nm ≈ 82 nm . (1.38)

(b)

For the red light, tmin =

1 4

(720 nm) = 130.4 nm ≈ 130 nm . (1.38)

The phase difference caused by the path difference back and forth through the coating must correspond to half a wavelength in order to produce destructive interference. 2t = 12 λ

83.

→

→ t = 14 λ = 14 (2 cm) = 0.5 cm

We first find the angular half-width for the first order, using Eq. 24–3a, sin θ =

. Since this angle is D small, we may use the approximation that sin θ ≈ tan θ . The width from the central maximum to the first minimum is given by x = tan θ . That width is then doubled to find the width of the beam, from the first diffraction minimum on one side to the first diffraction minimum on the other side. x = tan θ = x sin θ Δx = 2 x = 2 sin θ = 2

84.

λ D

2(3.8 × 108 m)(633 × 10−9 m) = 4.8 × 104 m = 48 km 0.010 m

With respect to the incident wave, the wave that reflects φ1 = π from the top surface of the film has a phase change of φ2 = ( 2t λfilm ) 2π + π φ1 = π . With respect to the incident wave, the wave that reflects from the glass (n = 1.52) at the bottom surface of n = 1.34 the film has a phase change due to both the additional path n = 1.52 ⎛ 2t ⎞ length and reflection, so φ2 = ⎜ ⎟ 2π + π . For ⎝ λfilm ⎠ constructive interference, the net phase change must be an even nonzero integer multiple of π . ⎡⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤ ⎟ 2π + π ⎥ − π = m2π ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢⎝ λfilm ⎠

φnet = φ2 − φ1 = ⎢⎜

→ t = 12 mλfilm = 12 m

λ nfilm

, m = 1, 2, 3, …

The minimum nonzero thickness occurs for m = 1. tmin =

λ 2nfilm

643 nm = 240 nm 2(1.34)

The answer has 3 significant figures.

The Wave Nature of Light

85.

Because the width of the pattern is much smaller than the distance to the screen, the angles from the diffraction pattern for this first order will be small. Thus we may make the approximation that sin θ = tan θ . We find the angle to the first minimum from the distances, using half the width of the full first-order pattern. Then we use Eq. 24–3b to find the slit width. tan θ1min =

1 2

D sin θ = mλ

86.

24-27

(8.20 cm) = 0.01302 = sin θ1min (315 cm) → D=

mλ (1)(415 nm) = = 3.188 × 104 nm = 3.19 × 10−5 m sin θ 0.01302

If the original intensity is I 0 , then the first polarizers will reduce the intensity to I1 = 12 I 0 . Each

subsequent polarizer oriented at an angle θ to the preceding one will reduce the intensity as given by the equation I transmitted = I incident cos 2 θ . For n polarizers (including the first one), I n = 12 I 0 (cos 2 θ )n −1. Solve for n such that the intensity is

1I . 5 0

I n = 15 I 0 = 12 I 0 (cos 2 10°) n −1 → 0.4 = (cos 2 10°) n −1 → ln(0.4) = (n − 1) ln(cos 2 10°) → n = 1+

ln(0.4) ln(cos 2 10°)

= 30.93

Thus 31 polarizers are needed for the intensity to drop below 87.

of its original value.

The lines act like a reflection grating, similar to a CD. We assume that we see the first diffractive order, so m = 1. Use Eq. 24–4. d sin θ = mλ

88.

1 5

→ d=

mλ (1)(480 nm) = = 580 nm sin θ sin 56°

We assume that the sound is diffracted when it passes through the doorway and find the angles of the minima from Eq. 24–3b.

λ=

υ f

; D sin θ = mλ =

mυ f

→ θ = sin −1

mυ , m = 1, 2, 3, ... Df

m = 1: θ = sin −1

mυ (1)(340 m/s) = sin −1 = 24° Df (0.88 m)(950 Hz)

m = 2 : θ = sin −1

mυ (2)(340 m/s) = sin −1 = 54° Df (0.88 m)(950 Hz)

m = 3 : θ = sin −1

mυ (3)(340 m/s) = sin −1 = sin −1 1.22 = impossible Df (0.88 m)(950 Hz)

Thus the whistle would not be heard clearly at angles of 24° and 54° on either side of the normal. 89.

We find the angles for the first order from Eq. 24–4. The slit spacing is the reciprocal of the number of lines per cm.

θ1 = sin −1

(1)(4.4 × 10−7 m) (1)(6.8 × 10−7 m) mλ = sin −1 = 18.47°; θ 2 = sin −1 = 29.31° d ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 m ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 m ⎞ cm cm ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎝ 7200 ⎠ ⎝ 100 cm ⎠ ⎝ 7200 ⎠ ⎝ 100 cm ⎠

24-28

Chapter 24

The distances from the central white line on the screen are found using the tangent of the angle and the distance to the screen. x1 = tan θ1 = (2.5 m) tan 18.47° = 0.835 m; x2 = tan θ 2 = (2.5 m) tan 29.31° = 1.404 m

Subtracting these two distances gives the linear separation of the two lines. x2 − x1 = 1.404 m − 0.835 m = 0.569 m ≈ 0.6 m

90.

Because the angle increases with wavelength, to miss a complete order we use the smallest visible wavelength, 400 nm. The maximum angle is 90°. With these parameters we use Eq. 24–4 to find the slit separation, d. The inverse of the slit separation gives the number of lines per unit length. d sin θ = mλ

→ d=

2(400 nm) mλ = = 800 nm sin θ sin 90°

1 1 = = 12,500 lines/cm d 800 × 10−7 cm

91.

We find the angles for the two first-order peaks from the distance to the screen and the distances along the screen to the maxima from the central peak. tan θ1 =

→ θ1 = tan −1

tan θ 2 =

→ θ 2 = tan −1

= tan −1

(3.32 cm) = 2.640° (72.0 cm)

= tan −1

(3.71 cm) = 2.950° (72.0 cm)

Inserting the wavelength of yellow sodium light and the first-order angle into Eq. 24–4, we calculate the slit separation on the grating. Then, using the slit separation and the second angle, we calculate the wavelength of the second source. Finally, we take the inverse of the slit separation to determine the number of lines per cm on the grating. d sin θ1 = mλ1

→ d=

mλ1 1(589 nm) = = 12,790 nm sin θ1 sin 2.64°

d sin θ 2 = (12,790 nm) sin 2.95° = 658 nm m 1 1 line = = 782 lines/cm d 12,790 × 10−7 cm

λ2 =

92.

Find the angles for the first order from Eq. 24–4, with m = 1. The slit spacing is the inverse of the lines/cm of the grating. d=

1 1 cm 1 × = m; d sin θ = mλ 7700 lines/cm 100 cm 7.7 × 105

Δθ = sin −1

λ1 d

− sin −1

λ d

= sin −1

→ θ = sin −1

mλ d

→

656 × 10−9 m 410 × 10−9 m − sin −1 = 11.94° ≈ 12° 1 1 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ m⎟ m⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎝ 7.7 × 105 ⎠ ⎝ 7.7 × 105 ⎠

The Wave Nature of Light

93.

24-29

The m = 1 brightness maximum for the wavelength of 1200 nm occurs at angle θ . At this same angle m = 2, m = 3, etc., brightness maxima may exist for other wavelengths. To find these wavelengths, use Eq. 24–4, keeping d sin θ constant, and solve for the wavelengths of higher order. m1λ1 λ1 = m m 1200 nm 1200 nm 1200 nm = 600 nm λ3 = = 400 nm λ4 = = 300 nm λ2 = 2 3 4 d sin θ = m1λ1 = mλm

→ λm =

Higher order maxima will have shorter wavelengths. Therefore, in the range from 360 nm to 2000 nm, the only wavelengths that have maxima at the angle θ are 600 nm and 400 nm besides the 1200 nm. 94.

We use the relationships for Brewster’s angle, Eq. 24–6b, for light coming from air to water. tan θ p = n → θ p = tan −1 n = tan −1 1.33 = 53.1°

This is the angle from the normal, as seen in Fig. 24–48, so the angle above the horizontal is the complement of Brewster’s angle, 90.0° − 53.1° = 36.9° . 95.

(a)

Let the initial unpolarized intensity be I 0 . The intensity of the polarized light after passing the first polarizer is I1 = 12 I 0 . Apply Eq. 24–5 to find the final intensity. I 2 = I1 cos 2 θ = I1 cos 2 90° = 0 .

(b)

Now the third polarizer is inserted. The angle between the first and second polarizers is 56°, so the angle between the second and third polarizers is 34°. It is still true that I1 = 12 I 0 . I 2 = I1 cos 2 56° = 12 I 0 cos 2 56°; I 3 = I 2 cos 2 34° = 12 I 0 cos 2 56° cos 2 34° → I3 = I0

(c)

96.

1I 2 0

cos 2 56° cos 2 34° I0

= 0.1075 ≈ 0.11

The two crossed polarizers, which are now numbers 2 and 3, will still not allow any light to pass I through them if they are consecutive to each other. Thus, 3 = 0 . I1

The reduction being investigated is that which occurs when the polarized light passes through the second Polaroid. Let I1 be the intensity of the light that emerges from the first Polaroid and I 2 be the intensity of the light after it emerges from the second Polaroid. Use Eq. 24–5. (a)

I 2 = I1 cos 2 θ = 0.25I1

→ θ = cos −1 0.25 = 60°

(b)

I 2 = I1 cos 2 θ = 0.10 I1

→ θ = cos −1 0.10 = 72°

(c)

I 2 = I1 cos 2 θ = 0.010 I1

→ θ = cos −1 0.010 = 84°

24-30

Chapter 24

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

Figure 24–5: • The light is traveling from left to right. • The wave crests are located at regular intervals along the rays of light. A line connecting the wave crests from one ray to the next would run vertically up and down the page. • The wave crests are not represented in this figure. • The advantage of this figure is to compare the particle theory prediction for what appears on the screen with the actual image. Figure 24–6: • The light is traveling from left to right. • The wave crests are in the plane of the page, perpendicular to the direction of motion. • The wave crests are represented by the vertical lines to the left of the slits and barrier and by the curved lines to the right of the slits and barrier. • An advantage to this figure is that it shows the two slits as point sources due to diffraction and shows the overlap (implying interference) of the waves from the two slit sources when they reach the viewing screen. Figure 24–7: • The light is traveling from left to right. • The wave crests are in the plane of the page, perpendicular to the direction of motion. • The wave crests are the maxima of each sinusoidal representation of the two individual rays that are shown in part (a), (b), and (c). They are not shown in part (d). • An advantage is that this figure shows two rays in phase [(a) and (b)] or out of phase (c) when they reach the screen, illustrating constructive and destructive interference, respectively.

Similarities: Double-slit interference and single-slit diffraction are both caused by the interference of light. In double-slit interference the maxima and minima occur when the path difference between the two slits is equal to integral and half-integral wavelengths. In single-slit diffraction the minima occur when the path difference from different portions of the slit is equal to a half wavelength. The sine of the angle of diffraction in each case is proportional to the wavelength of light and inversely proportional to the slit separation or slit width.

The Wave Nature of Light

24-31

Differences: In double-slit interference the central maximum has the same angular width as each of the other maxima. In single-slit diffraction the central maximum is much wider than any of the other maxima. Double-slit interference has equations for the location of both the maxima and minima, and the maxima are located exactly between the minima. Single-slit diffraction only has a (simple) equation for the location of the minima. The maxima are not located exactly at the midpoint between each minimum. 3.

Fig. 24–16: Inside the raindrop the violet light is refracted at a slightly greater angle than the red light, because each wavelength of light has a slightly different index of refraction in water. The two colors then reflect off the back of the raindrop at different positions and exit the front of the raindrop with the violet closer to the horizontal than the red, with the other colors between these two extremes. For an observer to see the violet light, the rain droplets must be lower in the sky than the droplets that refract the red light to the observer. The observer sees the red light from droplets higher in the sky and the violet light from lower droplets.

Fig. 24–26: In a diffraction grating the angle of diffraction is directly related to the wavelength. Since red light has a greater wavelength than violet light, it is diffracted more and appears farther from the central maximum than does the violet light.

Geometric optics is useful for studying reflection and refraction through lenses and mirrors whose physical dimensions are much larger than the wavelength of light. When dealing with objects (slits and thin films) whose dimensions are roughly the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of light we must use the more complicated wave nature of light. The physical characteristics that determines whether we must use the wave nature are the size of the object interacting with the light and the wavelength of the light.

24-32

Chapter 24

(a)

For the refraction at the first surface, apply Snell’s law (twice) to find the exit angles. Take the indices of refraction from Fig. 24–14. Subscript 1 is the 420-nm light (with the higher index of refraction), and subscript 2 is the 650-nm light. Subscript a is the incident angle on the left side, subscript b is the angle after the first refraction, subscript c is the incident angle on the right side, and subscript d is the final refracted angle. For the entrance face: nair sin θ a = n sin θb

→

(1.00) sin 45° = (1.585) sin θb1

→ θb1 = 26.495°

(1.00) sin 45° = (1.565) sin θb1

→ θb1 = 26.861°

We find the angle of incidence at the second surface, leaving the prism, from the second diagram. (90° − θb ) + (90° − θ c ) + A = 180°

θc1 = A − θb1 = 60° − 26.495° = 33.505° θc 2 = A − θb 2 = 60° − 26.861° = 33.139° Use Snell’s law again for the refraction at the second surface. n sin θ c = nair sin θ d (1.585) sin 33.505° = (1.00) sin θ d 1 → θ d 1 = θ1 = 61.037° (1.565) sin 33.139° = (1.00)sin θ d 2

→ θ d 2 = θ 2 = 58.820°

Δθ = 2.2°

(b)

The values may vary due to differences in reading the graph in Fig. 24–14. We use Eq. 24–4 to determine the angles for each wavelength. The slit separation distance is the inverse of the number of slits per centimeter, and m = 1. sin θ =

mλ d

⎛λ⎞ → θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎝d ⎠

⎛ 420 nm ⎞ ⎟ = 14.1° ⎝ 1724 nm ⎠

θ1 = sin −1 ⎜

1 = 1724 nm 5800 slits/cm ⎛ 650 nm ⎞ ⎟ = 22.1° ⎝ 1724 nm ⎠

θ 2 = sin −1 ⎜

Δθ = 22.1° − 14.1° = 8.0°

(c)

One obvious advantage for using the diffraction grating is that much larger separation angles are possible: 8.0° versus 2.2° in this example. Also with a diffraction grating it is possible to observe second-order diffractions, which give a second, even larger separation angle that can be measured.

The incident ray intensity is equal to the sum of the intensities of the transmitted and reflected rays. Therefore, the transmitted ray will be a maximum when the reflected ray is a minimum, and the transmitted ray will be a minimum when the reflected ray is a maximum. When the index of refraction of the film is less than the index of refraction of the glass (nfilm < nglass ) then phase changes occur

The Wave Nature of Light

24-33

at both film surfaces and the transmission will be a minimum when 2nfilm t = mλ and a maximum when 2nfilm t = (m + 12 )λ , where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, …. When the index of refraction of the film is greater than the index of refraction of the glass (nfilm > nglass ), a phase change only occurs at the air/film surface. The transmission will be a minimum when 2nfilm t = (m + 12 )λ and a maximum when 2nfilm t = mλ , where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, …. In Section 24–8, it states that a single coating of film can reduce the reflection from about 4% to 1% of the incident light. The transmission then would have a minimum value of about 96% if the incident light was a maximum of 99%. 7.

About 4% of light is reflected off each surface. Therefore, of 100% incident on the front surface, only 96% reaches the back surface. Four percent of this value or 0.04(0.96) = 3.84% reflects off the back surface, so after one lens only 100% – 4% –3.94% = 92.2% of the light is transmitted. For each lens only 92% of the light incident on the lens would transmit through the lens. After multiple lenses the transmission can become small. If there are six lenses (12 surfaces), then only (0.96)12 = 0.61 or 61% is transmitted. To minimize this degradation, it is suggested to coat the lens with a thin film that will cause destructive interference for the reflected light at the center of the visible spectrum. Since the light cannot reflect, a greater percentage of light is transmitted. For the lens in air, this reduces the reflected light from 4% to 1%. For six lenses (12 surfaces), this increases the transmission percentage from 61% to 89%, a significant improvement.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Responses to Questions 1.

⎛1 1 1⎞ The lens equation ⎜ = + ⎟ says that as an object gets closer to the lens (do decreases) and the f d d o i ⎠ ⎝ focal length of the lens remains constant, the image distance di must get larger to create a focused image. Since we cannot move the film or sensor inside the camera, the lens must be moved farther away from the film or sensor. This is unlike the human eye, where the focal length of the lens is changed as the object distance changes.

Stopping down a lens to a larger f-number means that the lens opening is smaller and only light rays coming through the central part of the lens are accepted. These rays are more nearly parallel than if a smaller f-number was used. These rays form smaller circles of confusion, which means that a greater range of object distances will be more sharply focused.

If a lens is stopped down too much (too big an f-number, so the iris opening is small), then diffraction will occur as light passes through the extremely small lens opening (the light will begin to “bend around” the edges of the stop). This diffraction will blur the image, especially around the edges of the film, and will lead to an image that is less sharp.

As people get older, their eyes can no longer accommodate as well. It becomes harder for the muscles to change the shape of the lens, since the lens becomes less flexible with age. In general, people first lose the ability to see far objects, so they need corrective diverging lenses to move their “far point” back toward infinity. Then, as people get older, their near point increases and becomes greater than the ideal value of 25 cm. They may still need the diverging portion of their corrective lenses (kept as the upper part of the corrective lens) so they can have a far point at infinity, but now they also need a converging lens to move the near point back toward 25 cm for seeing close objects. Thus, as people get older, their far point is too close and their near point is too far. Bifocals (with two different focal lengths) can correct both of these problems.

25-1

25-2

Chapter 25

No, a nearsighted person will not be able to see in air clearly if she wears her corrective lenses underwater. A nearsighted person has a far point that is closer than infinity and wears corrective lenses to bring the image of a faraway object to their far point so she can see it clearly. See the pair of diagrams. The object is at infinity. In air, in water the image is at the (relatively close) far point. If the person’s eyes and glasses are underwater, and since the index of refraction of glass is closer to that of water than to that of air, the glasses will not bend the light as much as they did in the air. Therefore, the image of the faraway object will now be at a position that is beyond the person’s far point. The image will now be out of focus.

This person is nearsighted. Diverging lenses are used to correct nearsightedness, and converging lenses are used to correct farsightedness. If the person’s face appears narrower through the glasses, then the image of the face produced by the lenses is smaller than the face, virtual, and upright. Thus, the lenses must be diverging; therefore, the person is nearsighted.

To see far objects clearly, you want your eye muscles relaxed, which makes your lens relatively flat (large focal length). When you f-stop your eye down by closing your eyelids partially (squinting), you are only using the middle of your lens, where it is the most flat. This creates a smaller circle of confusion for the lens, which helps you see distant objects more clearly.

The images formed on our retinas are real, so they are inverted. The implication of this is that our brains must flip this inverted image for us so that we can see things upright.

All light entering the camera lens while the shutter is open contributes to a single picture. If the camera is moved while the shutter is open, then the position of the image on the film moves. The new image position overlaps the previous image position, causing a blurry final image. With the eye, new images are continuously being formed by the nervous system, so images do not “build up” on the retina and overlap with each other. Your brain “refreshes” the image from the retina about 30 times a second. In other words, your brain and your retina work together in a manner similar to how a motion picture camera and film work together, which is not at all like how a still camera and film work together.

10.

Both reading glasses and magnifiers are converging lenses. A magnifier, generally a short focal length lens, is typically used by adjusting the distance between the lens and the object so that the object is exactly at or just inside the focal point. An object exactly at the focal point results in an image that is at infinity and can be viewed with a relaxed eye. If the lens is adjusted so that it focuses the image at the eye’s near point, then the magnification is slightly greater. The lenses in reading glasses typically are a fixed distance from the eye. They are used when the near point is too far away to be convenient—such as when reading a book. These lenses cause the rays from a nearby object to converge somewhat before they reach the eye, allowing the eye to focus on an object that is inside the near point. The focal length of the lens needed for reading glasses will depend on the individual eye. For both reading glasses and magnifiers, the lenses allow the eye to focus on an object that is located closer than the near point.

11.

The glasses that near-sighted people wear are designed to help the viewing of distant objects by moving the focus point farther back in the eye. Near-sighted eyes in general have good vision for close objects whose focus point already lies on the retina. They can actually see close objects better without the corrective lenses. The near point of near-sighted people can be very close to their eye, so they bring small objects close to their eyes in order to see them most clearly.

Optical Instruments

12.

25-3

The curved surface should face the object. If the flat surface faces the object and the rays come in parallel to the optical axis, then no bending will occur at the first surface and all the bending will occur at the second surface. Bending at the two surfaces will clearly not be equal in this case. The bending at the two surfaces may be equal (or at least less different) if the curved surface faces the object. If the parallel rays from the distant object come in above or below the optical axis with the flat side toward the object, then the first bending is actually away from the axis. In this case also, bending at both surfaces can be equal (or at least less different) if the curved side of the lens faces the object.

13.

Chromatic aberrations in lenses occur due to dispersion, which is when different colors (or wavelengths) of light are bent different amounts due to the fact that the index of refraction of most materials varies with wavelength. Thus when light passes through a lens, not all of the different colors come out of the lens at the exact same angle, and they are all focused at different positions. A mirror, in contrast, reflects light off of a smooth metallic surface. This surface reflects all different colors of light at the exact same angle, thus there is no refraction, no dispersion, and no chromatic aberrations. Of course, in most mirrors, there is a piece of glass that covers the metallic reflector. Since the two faces of this piece of glass are parallel to each other, even though refraction and dispersion take place inside the piece of glass, when the light emerges from the parallel face, all of the different colors are once again going in the same direction, and there is no dispersion and no chromatic aberration.

14.

A poor-quality, inexpensive lens will not be correctly shaped to fix chromatic aberrations. Thus, the colors you see around the edges of these lenses are from all the different colors of light focusing at different points, instead of all being focused at the same point.

15.

Spherical aberrations can be present in a simple lens. To correct this in a simple lens, usually many lenses are used together in combination to minimize the bending at each of the surfaces. Your eye minimizes spherical aberrations by bending the light at many different interfaces as it makes its way through the different parts of the eye (cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, etc.), each with their own n. Also, the cornea is less curved at the edges than it is at the center, and the lens is less dense at the edges than at the center, both of which reduce spherical aberrations in the eye since they cause the rays at the outer edges to be bent less strongly. Curvature of field occurs when the focal plane is not flat. Our curved retina helps with this distortion, whereas a flat piece of film in a camera, for example, wouldn’t be able to fix this. Distortion is a result of the variation of the magnification at different distances from the optical axis. This is most common in wide-angle lenses, where it must be corrected for. This is compensated in the human eye because it is a very small lens and our retina is curved. Chromatic aberrations are mostly compensated for in the human eye because the lens absorbs shorter wavelengths and the retina is not very sensitive to most blue and violet wavelengths where most chromatic aberrations occur.

16.

The Rayleigh criterion gives us the resolution limit for two objects a distance D apart when using light 1.22λ of wavelength λ: θ = , which can be interpreted as the smaller the angle, the better the D 1.22(450 nm) 1.22(700 nm) resolution. Looking at the two wavelengths given, θ blue = , and θ red = D D

25-4

Chapter 25

θ we have blue = θ red

1.22(450 nm) D 1.22(700 nm)

450 = 0.64. This could be expressed as saying that the 700

resolution with blue light is

17.

1 = 1.56 times the resolution with red light. 0.64

No. The resolving power of a lens is on the order of the wavelength of the light being used, so it is not possible to resolve details smaller than the wavelength of the light. Atoms have diameters of about 10−8 cm, and the wavelength of visible light is on the order of 10−5 cm.

18.

Violet light would give the best resolution in a microscope, because according to the Rayleigh criterion, a smaller wavelength gives better resolution. Violet light has the shortest wavelength of visible light.

19.

For both converging and diverging lenses, the focal point for violet light is closer to the lens than the focal point for red light. The index of refraction for violet light is slightly greater than that for red light for glass, so the violet light bends more, resulting in a focal length of a smaller magnitude.

20.

Radiotelescopes are large primarily because the wavelength of radio waves is large—on the order of meters to hundreds of meters. To get better resolution with a large wavelength, the Rayleigh criterion says that a large aperture is needed. Making such large optical telescopes is not done for several reasons: (i) The theoretical resolution obtained by such a large aperture would not be achievable because of atmospheric turbulence that does not affect radiotelescopes; (ii) the much smaller wavelength of light means that the mirror has to be more perfectly shaped than the radiotelescope, and that is very difficult to do with huge mirrors. Some large-aperture optical telescopes (such as the “Very Large Telescope” in Chile) are now being made with multiple small mirrors combined to provide some of the capabilities of a single large mirror.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(d)

An object at infinity would produce an image at the focal point. Objects closer than infinity produce images that are farther from the lens than the focal point.

(d)

Mega- is the prefix meaning million. A pixel is a single point on the image. Therefore, a megapixel is a million light-sensitive spots on the detector.

(b)

A nearsighted person cannot see objects clearly beyond her far point. Therefore, glasses create images of distant objects at the observer’s far point.

(a)

If the distance from the lens to retina is shorter than normal, then the lens must contract to focus distant objects. It must contract even more to view closer objects. Since it is already partially contracted to view far objects, it will not be able to sufficiently contract to view nearby objects.

(a)

Because people perceive objects as upright, they may think that the image is upright. However, when a converging lens creates a real image, the image is inverted.

(a)

A nearsighted person’s retina is farther from the front of the eye than usual. As such, a diverging lens is needed to make the image focus farther from the front of the eye.

Optical Instruments

25-5

(c)

A common misconception is that a magnifying glass makes the object appear to be closer since it appears larger. A magnifying glass creates an enlarged image outside the observer’s near point, when the object is very close to the eye (within the near point). The angular magnification of that image is what the observer perceives as larger.

(d)

The limit on magnification using visible light is not due to the lenses, but due to the nature of light. Diffraction limits resolution to the wavelength of the light used. For visible light the wavelength is about 500 nm. Crystal structures are much smaller (1–10 nm) in size and require X-rays to resolve their structure.

(e)

The limit on magnification of visible light is not due to the lenses, but to the nature of light. A magnification of 3000 × would magnify objects whose size was on the order of, or smaller than, the wavelength of light. The effects of diffraction prevent clear images of these objects at that great of a magnification.

10.

(a)

The resolving power is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the light. Of the four types of light listed, ultraviolet light has the smallest wavelength and therefore the greatest resolving power.

11.

(a)

Red light has a longer wavelength than blue light and therefore will not have a better resolving power, since resolving power is inversely proportional to the wavelength. The resolving power is related to the angular separation of the objects. Two objects separated by the same distance would have a larger angular separation when they are closer to the observer and therefore a better resolution when they are closer to the observer. Objects that are farther apart from each other are easier to resolve. Therefore, the only correct answer is that the larger the lens diameter, the better the resolving power.

12.

(d)

The f-stop value determines the amount of light entering the camera and therefore affects how dark the image is. It does not affect the focus. Since the focal length of the lens is fixed, when the object distance increases, the image distance must decrease. Therefore, the lens must be moved closer to the sensor or film.

13.

(b, d) When the object is placed between the lens and the focal point, the converging lens produces a magnified, upright, virtual image. When the object is just outside the focal length, the lens produces a magnified, inverted, real image. When the object is far from the lens, the lens produces a reduced, inverted, real image. Therefore, the image from a converting lens could be larger or smaller than the object, and the image can be inverted or upright.

Solutions to Problems 1.

As implied in Example 25–2, the exposure is proportional to the product of the lens opening area and the exposure time, with the square of the f-stop number inversely proportional to the lens opening area. Setting the exposures equal for both exposure times, we solve for the needed f-stop number. t1 Exposure = A1t1 = A2t2 f -stop 2 = f -stop1

→ t1 ( f -stop1 ) −2 = t2 ( f -stop 2 ) −2

→

t2 1/400 s = 16 = 8 or f /8 t1 1/100 s

We find the f-number from f -stop = f /D. f -stop =

f (17 cm) f = = D (6.0 cm) 2.8

25-6

Chapter 25

From the definition of the f-stop, we have f -stop = D1.4 =

65 mm = 46 mm; 1.4

D22 =

f f , so D = . D f -stop

65 mm = 3.0 mm 22

Thus the range of diameters is 3.0 mm ≤ D ≤ 46 mm .

As discussed in Example 25–2, to maintain an exposure, the product of the area of the lens opening and the exposure time must be the same. The area is inversely proportional to the f-stop value squared. Thus exposure time divided by ( f -stop) 2 must be constant. t1 ( f -stop1 ) 2

t2 ( f -stop 2 ) 2

→ t2 = t1

( f -stop 2 ) 2 ( f -stop1 ) 2

1 s) = ( 500

112 5.62

= 7.72 × 10−3 s ≈

1 125

Since the object height is equal to the image height, the magnification is –1. We use Eq. 23–9 to obtain the image distance in terms of the object distance. Then we use this relationship with Eq. 23–8 to solve for the object distance. m = −1 = −

di do

→ di = d o

1 1 1 1 1 2 = + = + = f d o di d o d o d o

→ do = 2 f = 2(55 mm) = 110 mm

The distance between the object and the film is the sum of the object and image distances. d = d o + di = d o + d o = 2do = 2(110 mm) = 220 mm 6.

The image distance is found from Eq. 23–9 and then the focal length from Eq. 23–8. The image is inverted. m=

hi d =− i ho do

1 1 1 + = d o di f

→ di = − d o →

f =

hi (−24 mm) = −(65 m) = 45.9 mm ho (34 m)

d o di (65 m)(0.0459 m) = = 0.0459 m ≈ 46 mm d o + di 65 m − 0.0459 m

The object is essentially at infinity, so the image distance is equal to the focal length. 7.

We calculate the range object distances from Eq. 23–8 using the given focal length and maximum and minimum image distances. 1 1 1 = + f d o di do ,max =

→ d o, min =

fdi,min di, min − f

fdi, max di,m ax − f

(200.0 mm)(208.2 mm) = 5078 mm ≈ 5.1 m 208.2 mm − 200.0 mm

(200.0 mm)(200.0 mm) =∞ 200.0 mm − 200.0 mm

Thus the range of object distances is 5.1 m ≤ do < ∞ .

Optical Instruments

(a)

Because the Sun is very far away, the image will be at the focal point, or di = f . We find the magnitude of the size of the image using Eq. 23–9, with the image distance equal to 28 mm. hi −di = ho do

(b)

hi =

ho di (1.4 × 106 km)(28 mm) = = 0.26 mm do 1.5 × 108 km

(1.4 × 106 km)(50 mm) 1.5 × 108 km

= 0.47 mm

Again, with a 135-mm image distance. hi =

(d)

→

We repeat the same calculation with a 50-mm image distance. hi =

(c)

(1.4 × 106 km)(135 mm) 1.5 × 108 km

= 1.3 mm

The equations show that image height is directly proportional to focal length. Therefore, the relative magnifications will be the ratio of focal lengths. 28 mm = 0.56 × for the 28-mm lens; 50 mm

25-7

135 mm = 2.7 × for the 135-mm lens 50 mm

We calculate the maximum and minimum image distances from Eq. 23–8, using the given focal length and maximum and minimum object distances. Subtracting these two distances gives the distance over which the lens must move relative to the plane of the sensor or film. 1 1 1 = + f d o di di,min =

→ di,max =

fd o,max do,max − f

f do,min do,min − f

(135 mm)(1.30 m) = 0.151 m = 151 mm 1300 mm − 135 mm

(135 mm)(∞) = 135 mm ∞ − 135 mm

Δd = di,max − di,max = 151 mm − 135 mm = 16 mm

10.

When an object is very far away, the image will be at the focal point. We set the image distance in Eq. 23–9 equal to the focal length to show that the magnification is proportional to the focal length. m=−

11.

di f ⎛ 1 ⎞ =− = ⎜ − ⎟ f = (constant) f do do ⎝ do ⎠

m∝ f

The length of the eyeball is the image distance for a far object, that is, the focal length of the lens. We find the f-number from f -stop = f /D. f -stop =

12.

→

f (20 mm) f = = 2.5 or D (8.0 mm) 2.5

The actual near point of the person is 52 cm. With the lens, an object placed at the normal near point, 25 cm, or 23 cm from the lens, is to produce a virtual image 52 cm from the eye, or 50 cm from the lens. We find the power of the lens from Eqs. 23–7 and 23–9. P=

1 1 1 1 1 = + = + = 2.3 D f do di 0.23 m −0.50 m

25-8

13.

Chapter 25

The screen placed 55 cm from the eye, or 53.2 cm from the reading glasses lens, is to produce a virtual image 125 cm from the eye, or 123.2 cm from the lens. Find the power of the lens from Eqs. 23–7 and 23–8. P=

14.

1 1 1 1 1 = + = + = 1.1 D f do di 0.532 m −1.232 m

(a)

Since the lens power is negative, the lens is diverging, so it produces images closer than the object. Thus the person is nearsighted.

(b)

We find the far point by finding the image distance for an object at infinity. Since the lens is 2.0 cm in front of the eye, the far point is 2.0 cm farther than the absolute value of the image distance. Use Eqs. 23–7 and 23–8. 1 1 1 + = =P → d o di f

1 1 1 + = −5.50 D → di = − = −0.182 m = −18.2 cm ∞ di 5.50 D

Far point =| −18.2 cm| + 2.0 cm = 20.2 cm from eye

15.

(a)

The lens should put the image of an object at infinity at the person’s far point of 85 cm. Note that the image is still in front of the eye, so the image distance is negative. Use Eqs. 23–7 and 23–8. P=

(b)

1 1 1 1 1 = + = + = −1.176 D ≈ −1.2 D f do di ∞ (−0.85 m)

To find the near point with the lens in place, we find the object distance to form an image 25 cm in front of the eye. di 1 1 1 (−0.25 m) + = = P → do = = = 0.354 m = 35 cm d o di f Pdi − 1 (−1.176 D)(−0.25 m) − 1

16.

The 2.0 cm of a normal eye is the image distance for an object at infinity; thus it is the focal length of the lens of the eye. To find the length of the nearsighted eye, find the image distance (distance from lens to retina) for an object at the far point of the eye. Use Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

→ di =

fd o (2.0 cm)(17 cm) = = 2.27 cm do − f 15 cm

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞ 1 , which gives di = 2.27 cm ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ = ⎝ 17 cm ⎠ ⎝ di ⎠ 2.0 cm

Thus the difference is 2.27 cm − 2.0 cm = 0.27 cm ≈ 0.3 cm . 17.

The image of an object at infinity is to be formed 14 cm in front of the eye. So for glasses, the image distance is to be di = 212 cm, and for contact lenses, the image distance is to be di = −14 cm. 1 1 1 1 1 + = = + d o di f ∞ di Pglasses =

→

1 = −8.3 D ; −0.12 m

f = di

→ P=

Pcontacts =

1 1 = f di

1 = −7.1 D −0.14 m

Optical Instruments

18.

25-9

Find the far point of the eye by finding the image distance FROM THE LENS for an object at infinity, using Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = do1 di1 f1

→

1 1 1 + = ∞ di1 f1

→ di1 = f1 = −26.0 cm

Since the image is 26.0 cm in front of the lens, the image is 27.8 cm in front of the eye. The contact lens must put the image of an object at infinity at this same location. Use Eq. 23–8 for the contact lens with an image distance of –27.8 cm and an object distance of infinity. 1 1 1 + = do2 di2 f2

19.

(a)

→

1 1 1 + = ∞ 2.0 cm f

→

f = 2.0 cm

f =

d o di (34 cm)(2.0 cm) = = 1.9 cm d o + di (34 cm) + (2.0 cm)

The diagram shows rays from each of the two points as they pass directly through the cornea and onto the lens. These two rays, the distance between the objects (A), and the distance between the images (4 μ m) create similar triangles. We set the ratio of the bases and altitudes of these two triangles equal to solve for l. A 4 μm = 25 cm 2.0 cm

21.

f1 = di2 = −27.8 cm

We find the focal length of the lens for an object distance of 38 cm and an image distance of 2.0 cm. Again use Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

20.

→

We find the focal length of the lens for an object at infinity and the image on the retina. The image distance is thus 2.0 cm. Use Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

(b)

1 1 1 + = ∞ di2 f1

→ A = 25 cm

4 μm

25cm

2.0cm

4 μm = 50 μ m 2.0 cm

Find the object distance for the contact lens to form an image at the eye’s near point, using Eqs. 23–7 and 23–8. di 1 1 1 −0.106 m + = = P → do = = = 0.184 m = 18.4 cm d o di f Pdi − 1 (−4.00 D)(−0.106 m) − 1

Likewise, find the object distance for the contact lens to form an image at the eye’s far point. do =

22.

di −0.200 m = = 1.00 m = 100 cm Pdi − 1 (−4.0 D)(−0.200 m) − 1

(3 significant figures)

We find the focal length from Eq. 25–2a. M =

N f

→

f =

N 25 cm = = 7.8 cm 3.2 M

25-10

23.

Chapter 25

Find the magnification from Eq. 25–2a. M =

24.

(a)

N (25 cm) = = 1.6 × (16 cm) f

We find the focal length with the image at the near point from Eq. 25–2b. M = 1+

(b)

N f

→

M = 1+

25 cm N = = 10 cm M − 1 3.5 − 1

(2 significant figures)

f =

N 25 cm = = 7.1 cm 3.5 M

(a)

(b)

→ di =

fd o (5.00 cm)(4.85 cm) = = −162 cm ≈ −160 cm do − f 4.85 cm − 5.00 cm

The angular magnification is found from the definition given in the text.

θ′ N 25 cm = = = 5.155 ≈ 5.2 × θ do 4.85 cm

Use Eq. 25–2b to calculate the angular magnification, since the eye is focused at the near point. M = 1+

(b)

di f (−25 cm)(8.20 cm) = = 6.17 cm ≈ 6.2 cm di − f (−25 cm) − (8.20 cm)

We find the image distance from Eq. 23–8.

M =

(a)

→ do =

N 25 cm = 1+ = 4.049 ≈ 4.0 × f 8.20 cm

1 1 1 + = d o di f

27.

f =

Maximum magnification is obtained with the image at the near point (which is negative). We find the object distance from Eq. 23–8 and the magnification from Eq. 25–2b. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

26.

→

If the eye is relaxed, then the image is at infinity, so we use Eq. 25–2a. M =

25.

N f

(25 cm) N = 1+ = 3.6 × (9.60 cm) f

The image is at the near point, so the image distance is –25 cm. Use Eq. 23–8 to find the object distance, and then calculate the image size from Eq. 23–3. 1 1 1 + = d o di f hi = − ho

→ do =

fdi (9.60 cm)(−25 cm) = = 6.94 cm −25 cm − 9.60 cm di − f

di (−25 cm) = −(3.80 mm) = 13.7 mm do (6.94 cm)

It can be seen from Fig. 25–17 in the text that, for small angles, M = hi /ho so hi = Mho = 3.6(3.80 mm) = 13.7 mm. (c)

As found above, do = 6.9 cm .

Optical Instruments

28.

(a)

We find the image distance using Eq. 23–8. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

(b)

→ di =

fd o (9.2 cm)(8.0 cm) = = −61.3 cm ≈ −61 cm do − f 8.0 cm − 9.2 cm

The angular magnification is found using Eq. 25–1, with the angles given as defined in Fig. 25–17. M =

29.

25-11

θ ′ (ho /do ) N 25 cm = = = = 3.1× θ (ho /N ) d o 8.0 cm

The focal length is 12 cm. First, find the object distance for an image at infinity. Then find the object distance for an image 25 cm in front of the eye. Use Eq. 23–8. Initial:

1 1 1 + = d o di f

→

1 1 1 + = do ∞ f

Final:

1 1 1 + = d o di f

→ do =

→ d o = f = 12 cm

di f (−25 cm)(12 cm) = = 8.1 cm di − f (−25 cm) − (12 cm)

The lens was moved 12 cm − 8.1 cm = 3.9 cm ≈ 4 cm toward the fine print . 30.

First, find the focal length of the magnifying glass from Eq. 25–2a for a relaxed eye (focused at infinity). M =

(a)

N f

→

N 25.0 cm = = 8.33 cm 3.0 M

Again use Eq. 25–2a for a different near point. M1 =

(b)

f =

N1 (75 cm) = = 9.0 × f (8.33 cm)

Again use Eq. 25–2a for a different near point. M2 =

(15cm ) N2 = = 1.8 × f (8.33cm )

Without the lens, the closest an object can be placed is the near point. A farther near point means a smaller angle subtended by the object without the lens, and thus greater magnification. 31.

The magnification of the telescope is given by Eq. 25–3. M =−

fo (82 cm) =− = −29 × fe (2.8 cm)

For both object and image far away, the separation of the lenses is the sum of the focal lengths. f o + f e = 82 cm + 2.8 cm = 84.8 cm ≈ 85 cm

32.

We find the focal length of the eyepiece from the magnification by Eq. 25–3. M =−

fo fe

→

fe = −

fo 88 cm =− = 3.52 cm ≈ 3.5 cm M −25 ×

25-12

Chapter 25

For both object and image far away, the separation of the lenses is the sum of the focal lengths. f o + f e = 88 cm + 3.52 cm = 91.52 ≈ 92 cm

33.

We find the focal length of the objective from Eq. 25–3. M = − f o /f e

34.

→

f o = − Mf e = (7.0)(3.5 cm) = 24.5 cm ≈ 25 cm

The magnification is given by Eq. 25–3. M = − f o /f e = − f o Pe = −(0.75 m)(+ 25 D) = −18.75 × ≈ −19 ×

35.

For a distant object and a relaxed eye (which means the image is at infinity), the separation of the eyepiece and objective lenses is the sum of their focal lengths. Use Eq. 25–3 to find the magnification. A = fo + fe ;

36.

M =−

37.

fo f 39.0 cm =− o =− = 17.72 ≈ −18 × A − fo fe 36.8 cm − 39.0 cm

1r 1 (6.1 m) fo =−2 =−2 = −108.9 × ≈ −110 × 0.028 m fe fe

The focal length of the mirror is found from Eq. 25–3. The radius of curvature is twice the focal length. M =−

39.

M =−

The focal length of the objective is just half the radius of curvature. Use Eq. 25–3 for the magnification. M =−

38.

fo f 78.5 cm =− o =− = −22.4 ≈ −22 × A − fo fe 82.0 cm − 78.5 cm

fo fe

→

f o = − Mf e = −(150)(0.031 m) = 4.65 m ≈ 4.7 m ;

r = 2 f = 9.3 m

The relaxed eye means that the image is at infinity, so the distance between the two lenses is the sum of the focal lengths. Use that relationship with Eq. 25–3 to solve for the focal lengths. Note that the magnification for an astronomical telescope is negative. M =−

fe =

fo fe

→

f o = − Mf e ;

A = f o + f e = (1 − M )f e

→

A 1.10 m = = 9.09 × 10−3 m = 9.09 mm (1 − M ) 1 − (−120)

f o = − Mf e = −(−120)(9.09 × 10−3 m) = 1.09 m

40.

We use Eq. 25–2a and the magnification of the eyepiece to calculate the focal length of the eyepiece. We set the sum of the focal lengths equal to the length of the telescope to calculate the focal length of the objective. Then, using both focal lengths in Eq. 25–3, we calculate the maximum magnification. N 25 cm = = 5 cm; A = f e + f o 5 M f 45 cm M =− o =− = −9 × fe 5 cm fe =

→

f o = A − f e = 50 cm − 5 cm = 45 cm

Optical Instruments

41.

25-13

Since the star is very far away, the image of the star from the objective mirror will be at the focal length of the objective, which is equal to one-half its radius of curvature (Eq. 23–1). We subtract this distance from the separation distance to determine the object distance for the second mirror. Then, using Eq. 23–8, we calculate the final image distance, which is where the sensor should be placed. Ro 3.00 m = = 1.50 m; do2 = A − di1 = 0.90 m − 1.50 m = −0.60 m 2 2 Re do2 1 1 1 2 (−1.50 m)(− 0.60 m) + = = → di = = = 3.0 m do2 di2 f e Re 2do2 − Re 2(− 0.60 m) − (−1.50 m)

di1 = f o =

42.

We assume a prism binocular so the magnification is positive, but simplify the diagram by ignoring the prisms. We find the focal length of the eyepiece using Eq. 25–3, with the design magnification. fe =

f o 26 cm = = 4.0 cm M 6.5

Using Eq. 23–8 and the objective focal length, we calculate the intermediate image distance. With the final image at infinity (relaxed eye), the secondary object distance is equal to the focal length of the eyepiece. We calculate the angular magnification using Eq. 25–1, with the angles shown in the diagram. 1 1 1 + = do1 di1 f o M =

43.

f o do` (26 cm)(400 cm) = = 27.81 cm do1 − f o 400 cm − 26 cm

θ ′ h /f e di1 27.81 cm = = = = 6.95 ≈ 7.0 × θ h /di1 f e 4.0 cm

The magnification of the microscope is given by Eq. 25–6b. M =

44.

→ di1 =

NA (25 cm)(17.5 cm) = = 395.9 × ≈ 400 × (2 significant figures) f o f e (0.65 cm)(1.70 cm)

We find the focal length of the eyepiece from the magnification of the microscope, using the approximate results of Eq. 25–6b. We already know that f o A. M ≈

NA fo fe

→

fe =

N A (25 cm)(17.5 cm) = = 1.5 cm Mf o (720)(0.40 cm)

Note that this also satisfies the assumption that f e A. 45.

We use Eq. 25–6b. M =

46.

(a)

NA (25 cm)(17 cm) = = 515.2 ≈ 520 × f e f o (2.5 cm)(0.33 cm)

The total magnification is found from Eq. 25–6a. M = M o M e = (60.0)(14.0) = 840 × (3 significant figures)

25-14

Chapter 25

(b)

With the final image at infinity, we find the focal length of the eyepiece using Eq. 25–5. Me =

N fe

→

fe =

N 25 cm = = 1.79 cm ≈ 1.8 cm Me 14.0

Since the image from the objective is at the focal point of the eyepiece, we set the image distance from the objective as the distance between the lenses less the focal length of the eyepiece. Using the image distance and magnification in Eq. 23–9, we calculate the initial object distance. Then using the image and object distance in Eq. 23–8, we calculate the objective focal length. di = A − f e = 20.0 cm − 1.79 cm = 18.21 cm m=

di d 18.21 cm → do = i = = 0.3035 cm do m 60.0

d d 1 1 1 (0.3035 cm)(18.21 cm) = + → fo = o i = = 0.2985 cm ≈ 0.299 cm f o d o di d o + di 0.3035 cm + 18.21 cm

47.

(c)

We found the object distance, in part (b), do = 0.304 cm .

(a)

The total magnification is the product of the magnification of each lens, with the magnification of the eyepiece increased by one, as in Eq. 25–2b. M = M o (M e + 1) = (60.0)(14.0 + 1.0) = 900 × (3 significant figures)

(b)

We find the focal length of the eyepiece using Eq. 25–2b. (M e + 1) =

N +1 → fe

fe =

N 25 cm = = 1.79 cm ≈ 1.8 cm Me 14.0

Since the image from the eyepiece is at the near point, we use Eq. 23–8 to calculate the location of the object. This object distance is the location of the image from the objective. Subtracting this object distance from the distance between the lenses gives us the image distance from the objective. Using the image distance and magnification in Eq. 23–9, we calculate the initial object distance. Then using the image and object distance in Eq. 23–8 we calculate the objective focal length. 1 1 1 = + f e d o 2 di2

→ do2 =

f e di2 (1.79 cm)(− 25 cm) = = 1.67 cm di2 − f e −25 cm − 1.79 cm

di1 = A − d o2 = 20.0 cm − 1.67 cm = 18.33 cm m=

di do

→ do =

1 1 1 = + f o d o di

48.

→

di 18.33 cm = = 0.3055 cm m 60.0 fo =

d o di (0.3055 cm)(18.33 cm) = = 0.300 cm d o + di 0.3055 cm + 18.33 cm

(c)

We found the object distance, in part (b), do = 0.306 cm .

(a)

Since the final image is at infinity (relaxed eye), the image from the objective is at the focal point of the eyepiece. We subtract this distance from the distance between the lenses to calculate the objective image distance. Then using Eq. 23–8, we calculate the object distance. di1 = A − f e = 14.8 cm − 1.8 cm = 13.0 cm 1 1 1 = + f o do1 di1

→ do1 =

f o di1 (0.80 cm)(13.0 cm) = = 0.8525 cm ≈ 0.85 cm di1 − f o 13.0 cm − 0.80 cm

Optical Instruments

(b)

With the final image at infinity, the magnification of the eyepiece is given by Eq. 25–6a. M =

49.

(a)

25-15

N fe

⎛ A − fe ⎜ ⎝ do

⎞ (25 cm) ⎛ 14.8 cm − 1.8 cm ⎞ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 212 × ≈ 210 × ⎠ (1.8 cm) ⎝ 0.8525 cm ⎠

We find the image distance from the objective using Eq. 23–8. For the final image to be at infinity (viewed with a relaxed eye), the objective image distance must be at the focal distance of the eyepiece. We calculate the distance between the lenses as the sum of the objective image distance and the eyepiece focal length. 1 1 1 + = do1 di1 f o

→ di1 =

f o d o1 (0.740 cm)(0.790 cm) = = 11.69 cm d o1 − f o 0.790 cm − 0.740 cm

A = di1 + f e = 11.69 cm + 2.80 cm = 14.49 cm ≈ 14 cm (b)

We use Eq. 25–6a to calculate the total magnification. M =

50.

N ⎛ A − f e ⎞ (25 cm) ⎛ 14.49 cm − 2.80 cm ⎞ ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 132 × ≈ 130 × 0.790 cm f e ⎝ d o ⎠ (2.80 cm) ⎝ ⎠

For each objective lens we set the image distance equal to the sum of the focal length and 160 mm. Then using Eq. 23–8 we write a relation for the object distance in terms of the focal length. Using this relation in Eq. 23–9, we write an equation for the magnification in terms of the objective focal length. The total magnification is the product of the magnification of the objective and focal length. 1 1 1 + = d o di fo mo =

→

1 1 1 = − do f o di

→

1 1 1 = − do f o f o + 160 mm

→ do =

f o ( f o + 160 mm) 160 mm

f o + 160 mm di 160 mm = = d o ⎡ f o ( f o + 160 mm) ⎤ fo ⎢ ⎥ 160 mm ⎣ ⎦

Since the objective magnification is inversely proportional to the focal length, the objective with the smallest focal length ( f o = 3.9 mm) combined with the largest eyepiece magnification (M e = 15 ×) yields the largest overall magnification. The objective with the largest focal length ( f o = 32 mm) coupled with the smallest eyepiece magnification (M e = 5 ×) yields the smallest overall magnification. M largest =

51.

160 mm (15 ×) = 615.4 × ≈ 620 × ; 3.9 mm

M smallest =

160 mm (5 ×) = 25 × 32 mm

From Chapter 23, Problem 87, we have a relationship between the individual focal lengths and the focal length of the combination. fT =

f1 f 2 (25.3 cm)(− 27.8 cm) = = 281 cm f1 + f 2 (25.3 cm) + (− 27.8 cm)

(a)

The combination is converging, since f T is positive. The converging lens is “stronger” than the diverging lens since it has a smaller absolute focal length (or higher absolute power).

(b)

From above, f T = 281 cm .

25-16

52.

Chapter 25

We use Eq. 23–10 to find the focal length for each color and then Eq. 23–8 to find the image distance. For the planoconvex lens, R1 > 0 and R2 = ∞. ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ = (nred − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ = (1.5106 − 1) ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎥ → ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 14.5 cm ⎠ ⎝ ∞ ⎠ ⎦

1 f red 1

f yellow

f red = 28.398 cm

⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ = (nyellow − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ = (1.5226 − 1) ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎥ → ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 14.5 cm ⎠ ⎝ ∞ ⎠ ⎦

f orange = 27.746 cm

We find the image distances from the following: 1 1 1 + = d o di f red 1 1 + do di

→ di = 1

f yellow

yellow

d o f red (66.0 cm)(28.398 cm) = = 49.845 cm ≈ 49.8 cm d o − f red (66.0 cm) − (28.398 cm)

→ di

yellow

do f yellow do − f yellow

(66.0 cm)(27.746 cm) = 47.870 cm ≈ 47.9 cm (66.0 cm) − (27.746 cm)

The images are 1.9 cm apart, an example of chromatic aberration. 53.

The angular resolution is given by Eq. 25–7.

θ= 54.

⎛ 180° ⎞ 1.22 λ (1.22)(560 × 10−9 m) −5 = = 2.69 × 10−7 rad ⎜ ⎟ = 1.54 × 10 ° D (100 in)(0.0254 m/in) ⎝ π rad ⎠

(

The resolving power is given by Eq. 25–8. Resolving power = 1.22

55.

57.

λf D

= 1.22

(500 nm)(9 mm) = 1098 nm ≈ 1000 nm (5 mm)

The angular resolution is given by Eq. 25–7. The distance between the stars (A) is the angular resolution (θ ) times the distance to the stars from the Earth (r ).

θ = 1.22 56.

)

λ D

;

⎛ 9.46 × 1015 m ⎞ −9 (18 ly) ⎜ ⎟⎟ (550 × 10 m) ⎜ 1 ly rλ ⎝ ⎠ A = rθ = 1.22 = 1.22 = 1.7 × 1011 m D (0.66 m)

Find the angle subtended by the planet by dividing the orbit radius by the distance of the star to the Earth. Use Eq. 25–7 to calculate the minimum aperture diameter needed to resolve this angle.

θ=

r 1.22 λ = d D

1.22 λ d 1.22(550 × 10−9 m)(4 ly)(9.461× 1015 m/ly) = = 0.17 m ≈ 20 cm r (1 AU)(1.496 × 1011 m/AU)

→

We find the angular half-width of the flashlight beam using Eq. 25–7 with D = 5 cm and λ = 550 nm. We set the diameter of the beam equal to twice the radius, where the radius of the beam is equal to the angular half-width multiplied by the distance traveled, 3.84 × 108 m.

θ=

1.22λ 1.22(550 × 10−9 m) = = 1.3 × 10−5 rad D 0.050 m

d = 2(rθ ) = 2(3.84 × 108 m)(1.3 × 10−5 rad) = 1.0 × 104 m © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Optical Instruments

58.

25-17

We set the resolving power (RP) as the focal length of the lens multiplied by the angular resolution, as in Eq. 25–8. The resolution is the inverse of the resolving power. 1 ⎡1.22λ f ⎤ =⎢ RP( f /2) ⎣ D ⎥⎦

−1

D 25 mm = = 730 lines/mm 1.22λ f 1.22(560 × 10−6 mm)(50.0 mm)

1 3.0 mm = = 88 lines/mm RP( f /16) 1.22(560 × 10−6 mm)(50.0 mm)

59.

To find the focal length of the eyepiece we use Eq. 25–3, where the objective focal length is 2.00 m, θ ′ is the ratio of the minimum resolved distance and 25 cm, and θ is the ratio of the object on the Moon and the distance to the Moon. We ignore the inversion of the image. fo θ ′ (d /A) (6.5 km/384,000 km) θ = → fe = fo = fo o = (2.0 m) = 0.0846 m ≈ 8.5 cm ′ θ fe θ (d /N ) (0.10 mm/250 mm)

We use Eq. 35–10 to determine the resolution limit.

θ = 1.22

λ D

= 1.22

560 × 10−9 m = 6.2 × 10−6 rad 0.11 m

This corresponds to a minimum resolution distance of r = (384,000 km)(6.2 × 10−6 rad) = 2.4 km , which is smaller than the 6.5-km object we wish to observe. 60.

We use Eq. 25–10 with m = 1. mλ = 2d sin φ

61.

→ φ = sin −1

We use Eq. 25–10 for X-ray diffraction. (a)

Apply Eq. 25–10 to both orders of diffraction. mλ = 2d sin φ

(b)

→

m1 sin φ1 = m2 sin φ2

⎛m ⎞ ⎛2 ⎞ → φ2 = sin −1 ⎜ 2 sin φ1 ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ sin 23.8° ⎟ = 53.8° ⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ m1 ⎠

Use the first-order data. mλ = 2d sin φ

62.

(1)(0.138 nm) mλ = sin −1 = 14.0° 2d 2(0.285 nm)

→ λ=

2d sin φ 2(0.24 nm) sin 23.8° = = 0.19 nm 1 m

For each diffraction peak, we can measure the angle and count the order. Consider Eq. 25–10. mλ = 2d sin φ

→ λ = 2d sin φ1 ;

2λ = 2d sin φ2 ;

3λ = 2d sin φ3

= 2sin φ = sin φ2 = 32 sin φ3 . No, we cannot d separately determine the wavelength or the spacing.

From each equation, all we can find is the ratio

25-18

63.

Chapter 25

(a)

Because X-ray images are shadows, the image will be the same size as the object, so the magnification is 1.

(b)

The rays from the point source will not refract, so use similar triangles to compare the image size to the object size for the front of the body: m1 =

∗

h o1

(d + d 2 ) (15 cm + 25 cm) hi = 1 = = 2.7 ho1 d1 (15 cm)

For the back of the body, the image and object have the same size, so the magnification is 1. 64.

h o2

We use similar triangles, created from the distances between the centers of the two objects (H) and their ray traces to the hole (L1 ) and the distance between the centers of the two images (h) and the distance of the screen to the hole (L2 ) to determine h. Note that the diagram is not to scale, since L1 should be 50 × the size of H. L 7.0 cm H h = → h = H 2 = (2.0 cm) = 0.14 cm = 1.4 mm 100 cm L1 L2 L1

Now consider similar triangles from the two rays from just one of the two sources. The base of one triangle is equal to the diameter of the hole (d), and the base of the second triangle is equal to the diameter of the image circle (D). The heights for these two triangles are the distance from object to hole (L1 ) and the distance from object to image (L1 + L2 ).

L + L2 100 cm + 7.0 cm d D = →D=d 1 = (1.0 mm) = 1.07 mm 100 cm L1 L1 + L2 L1

Since the separation distance of the two images (1.4 mm) is greater than their diameters, the two circles do not overlap. 65.

We calculate the effective f-number for the pinhole camera by dividing the focal length by the diameter of the pinhole. The focal length is equal to the image distance. Setting the exposures equal for both cameras, where the exposure is proportional to the product of the exposure time and the area of the lens opening (which is inversely proportional to the square of the f-stop number), we solve for the exposure time. f -stop 2 =

(70 mm) f f = = D (1.0 mm) 70

Exposure1 = Exposure 2

t1 f 2

4 ( f -stop1 )2

→

t2 f 2

4 ( f -stop 2 ) 2

A1t1 = A2t2

→

π 4

D12t1 =

π 4

D22t2

→

2 ⎛ f -stop 2 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 70 ⎞ → t2 = t1 ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.16 s ≈ 250 s ⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ f -stop1 ⎠

1 6

Optical Instruments

66.

25-19

We use Eq. 25–3, which relates the magnification to the focal lengths, to write the focal length of the objective lens in terms of the magnification and focal length of the eyepiece. Then setting the sum of the focal lengths equal to the length of the telescope, we solve for the focal length of the eyepiece and the focal length of the objective. M =−

fo fe

→

f o = − Mf e ;

A = f e + f o = f e (1 − M ) →

fe =

A 28 cm = = 3.3 cm 1 − M 1 − (− 7.5)

f o = A − f e = 28 cm − 3.3 cm = 24.7 cm ≈ 25 cm

67.

(a)

This is very similar to Example 25–11. We use the same notation as in that Example, and solve for the distance l . s = Aθ = A

(b)

1.22λ D

→ A=

Ds (6.0 × 10−3 m)(2.0 m) = = 1.8 × 104 m = 18 km ≈ 11 miles −9 1.22λ 1.22(560 × 10 m)

We use the same data for the eye and the wavelength.

θ=

⎛ 180° ⎞ ⎛ 3600′′ ⎞ 1.22λ 1.22(560 × 10−9 m) = = 1.139 × 10−4 rad ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 23′′ −3 D (6.0 × 10 m) ⎝ π rad ⎠ ⎝ 1° ⎠

This is less than the actual resolution because of atmospheric effects and aberrations in the eye. 68.

Since the distance to the sun is much larger than the telescope’s focal length, the image distance is about equal to the focal length. Rays from the top and bottom edges of the Sun pass through the lens unrefracted. These rays form similar triangles along with the object and image heights. Calculate the focal length of the telescope by setting the ratio of height to base for each triangle equal.

d f do 1.5 × 108 km = → f = hi o = (15 mm) = 1607 mm ≈ 1.6 m hi ho ho 1.4 × 106 km

69.

This is very similar to Example 25–11. We use the same notation as in that Example and solve for the separation s. We use 450 nm for the wavelength of the blue light. s = Aθ = A

70.

1.22λ 1.22(450 × 10−9 m) = (15 m) = 8.2 × 10−4 m −2 D 1.0 × 10 m

We use Eq. 23–9 to write the image distance in terms of the object distance, image height, and object height. Then using Eq. 23–8, we solve for the object distance, which is the distance between the photographer and the subject. m=

hi d =− i ho do

→

h 1 1 =− o di hi d o

1 1 1 1 ⎛ ho 1 ⎞ ⎛ ho ⎞ 1 = + = +⎜− ⎟ = ⎜1 − ⎟ f d o di d o ⎝ hi d o ⎠ ⎝ hi ⎠ do

→

⎛ h ⎞ ⎛ 1650 mm ⎞ do = ⎜1 − o ⎟ f = ⎜1 − ⎟ (220 mm) = 44,220 mm ≈ 44 m hi ⎠ ⎝ −8.25 mm ⎠ ⎝

25-20

71.

Chapter 25

The exposure is proportional to the intensity of light, the area of the shutter, and the time. The area of the shutter is proportional to the square of the diameter or inversely proportional to the square of the f-stop. Setting the two proportionalities equal, with constant time, we solve for the change in intensity. I1t ( f -stop1 ) 2

72.

I 2t ( f -stop 2 ) 2

→

2 I 2 ⎛ f -stop 2 ⎞ ⎛ 16 ⎞ =⎜ = ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 8.2 I1 ⎝ f -stop1 ⎠ ⎝ 5.6 ⎠

The maximum magnification is achieved with the image at the near point, using Eq. 25–2b. M1 = 1 +

N1 (15 cm) = 1+ = 2.6 × (9.5 cm) f

For an adult, we set the near point equal to 25.0 cm. M2 = 1+

N2 (25 cm) = 1+ = 3.6 × (9.5 cm) f

The person with the normal eye (adult) sees more detail. 73.

The actual far point of the person is 135 cm. With the lens, an object far away is to produce a virtual image 135cm from the eye, or 133cm from the lens. We calculate the power of the upper part of the bifocals using Eq. 23–8 with the power equal to the inverse of the focal length in meters. P1 =

⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛ 1 =⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ = −0.75 D (upper part) f1 ⎝ d o1 ⎠ ⎝ di1 ⎠ ⎝ ∞ ⎠ ⎝ −1.33 m ⎠

The actual near point of the person is 45 cm. With the lens, an object placed at the normal near point, 25 cm, or 23 cm from the lens, is to produce a virtual image 45cm from the eye, or 43 cm from the lens. We again calculate the power using Eq. 23–8. P2 =

74.

⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 =⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ = + 2.0 D (lower part) f 2 ⎝ d o2 ⎠ ⎝ di2 ⎠ ⎝ 0.23 m ⎠ ⎝ −0.43 m ⎠

The magnification for a relaxed eye is given by Eq. 25–2a. M = N /f = NP = (0.25 m)( + 4.0 D) = 1.0 ×

75.

(a) The magnification of the telescope is given by Eq. 25–3. The focal lengths are expressed in terms of their powers, from Eq. 23–7. M =−

(b)

76.

fo P (5.5 D) =− e =− = −2.75 × ≈ − 2.8 × fe Po (2.0 D)

To get a magnification greater than 1, for the eyepiece we use the lens with the smaller focal length, or greater power: 5.5 D.

Since the microscope is adjusted for a good image with a relaxed eye, the image must be at infinity. Thus the object distance for the camera should be set to infinity.

Optical Instruments

77.

78.

25-21

We calculate the man’s near point (di ) using Eqs. 23–7 and 23–8, with the initial object at 0.38 m with a 2.5-D lens. To give him a normal near point, we set the final object distance as 0.25 m and calculate the power necessary to have the image at his actual near point.

(a)

P1 =

1 1 + di d o1

P2 =

1 1 1 1 + = + = + 3.9 D di d o2 −7.6 m 0.25 m

→

1 1 = P1 − di d o1

→ di =

d o1 0.38 m = = −7.6 m P1d o1 − 1 (2.5 D)(0.38 m) − 1

The length of the telescope is the sum of the focal lengths. The magnification is the ratio of the focal lengths (Eq. 25–3). For a magnification greater than 1, the lens with the smaller focal length should be the eyepiece. Therefore, the 4.0-cm lens should be the eyepiece. A = f o + f e = 4.0 cm + 48 cm = 52 cm M =−

(b)

fo (48cm) =− = −12 × fe (4.0 cm)

We use Eq. 25–6b to solve for the length, l, of the microscope. M =−

NA fe fo

⇒ A=

− Mf e f o −(25)(4.0 cm)(48 cm) = = 192 cm = 1.9 m N 25 cm

This is far too long to be practical. 79.

We assume that all of the electrical energy input to the tube becomes heat energy. The unit of amps times volts is joules per second, and the kcal units of the specific heat need to be converted to joules. P = IV =

Q mcΔT = t t

→

ΔT IV (25 × 10−3 A)(95 × 103 V)(60 s/min) = = = 4.8 × 103 C°/min t mc (0.065 kg)(0.11 kcal/kg ⋅ C°)(4186 J/kcal)

This is an enormous rate of temperature increase. The cooling water is essential. 80.

Consider an object located a distance d o from a converging lens of focal length f and its real image formed a distance di from the lens. If the distance do is much greater than the focal length, then the lens equation tells us that the focal length and image distance are equal. 1 1 1 + = d o di f

→ di =

20° 20°

fd o fd ≈ o = f do − f do

Thus, in a camera, the recording medium of spatial extent x is placed a distance equal to f behind the lens to form a focused image of a distant object. Assume the distant object subtends an angle of 40° at the position of the lens, so that the half-angle subtended is 20°, as shown in the figure. We then use the tangent of this angle to determine the relationship between the focal length and half the image height. tan 20° =

1 2

→

f =

x 2 tan 20°

25-22

Chapter 25

(a)

For a 35-mm camera, we set x = 36 mm to calculate the focal length. f =

(b)

For a digital camera, we set x = 1.60 cm = 16.0 mm. f =

81.

36 mm = 49 mm 2 tan 20°

16.0 mm = 22 mm 2 tan 20°

The focal length of the eyepiece is found using Eq. 23–7. fe =

1 1 = = 5.26 ×10−2 m ≈ 5.3 cm Pe 19 D

For both object and image far away, find the focal length of the objective from the separation of the lenses. A = f o + f e → f o = A − f e = 85 cm − 5.3 cm = 79.7 cm

The magnification of the telescope is given by Eq. 25–3. M =−

82.

(a)

The focal length of the lens is the inverse of the power. f =

(b)

fo (79.7 cm) =− = −15 × (5.3 cm) fe

1 1 = = 0.286 m = 28.6 cm P 3.50 D

The lens produces a virtual image at Sam’s near point. We set the object distance at 23 cm from the glasses (25 cm from the eyes) and solve for the image distance. We add the 2 cm between the glasses and eyes to determine the near point. P=

1 1 1 = + f d o di

⎛ 1 ⎞ → di = ⎜ P − ⎟ d o ⎠ ⎝

−1

⎛ 1 ⎞ = ⎜ 3.50 D − ⎟ 0.23 m⎠ ⎝

−1

= −1.18 m

N = di + 0.02 m = 1.18 m + 0.02 m = 1.20 m ≈ 1.2 m

(c)

For Pam, find the object distance that has an image at her near point, –0.23 m from the lens. P=

1 1 1 = + f d o di

⎛ 1⎞ → do = ⎜ P − ⎟ di ⎠ ⎝

−1

⎛ ⎞ 1 = ⎜ 3.50 D − ⎟ −0.23 m ⎠ ⎝

−1

= 0.13 m

Pam’s near point with the glasses is 13 cm from the glasses, or 15 cm from her eyes. 83.

For the minimum aperture, the angle subtended at the lens by the smallest feature is the angular resolution, given by Eq. 25–7. We let A represent the spatial separation and r represent the altitude of the camera above the ground.

θ=

1.22λ A = D r

→ D=

1.22λ r 1.22(580 × 10−9 m)(25, 000 m) = = 0.3538 m ≈ 0.4 m (0.05 m) A

Optical Instruments

84.

We find the spacing from Eq. 25–10. mλ = 2d sin φ

85.

25-23

→ d=

mλ (2)(9.73 × 10−11 m) = = 2.69 × 10−10 m 2sin φ 2sin 21.2°

From Eq. 25–7 we calculate the minimum resolvable separation angle. We then multiply this angle by the distance between the Earth and Moon to obtain the minimum distance between two objects on the Moon that the Hubble can resolve.

θ=

1.22λ 1.22(550 × 10−9 m) = = 2.796 × 10−7 rad D 2.4 m

A = sθ = (3.84 × 108 m)(2.796 × 10−7 rad) = 107.4 m ≈ 110 m

86.

From Eq. 25–7 we calculate the minimum resolvable separation angle. We then multiply this angle by the distance between Mars and Earth to obtain the minimum distance between two objects that can be resolved by a person on Mars.

θ=

1.22λ 1.22(550 × 10−9 m) = = 1.34 × 10−4 rad D 0.005 m

A = sθ = (8 × 1010 m)(1.34 × 10−4 rad) = 1.07 × 107 m

Since the minimum resolvable distance is much less than the Earth–Moon distance, a person standing on Mars could resolve the Earth and Moon as two separate objects without a telescope. 87.

s The required angular resolution from the geometry is θ = . This must equal the resolution from the A Rayleigh criterion, Eq. 25–7.

θ= 88.

(a)

s 1.22λ 1.22 λ A 1.22(550 × 10−9 m)(130 × 103 m) = →D= = = 1.74 m ≈ 2 m A D s (0.05 m)

For this microscope both the objective and eyepiece have focal lengths of 12 cm. Since the final image is at infinity (relaxed eye), the image from the objective must be at the focal length of the eyepiece. The objective image distance must therefore be equal to the distance between the lenses less the focal length of the objective. We calculate the object distance by inserting the objective focal length and image distance into Eq. 23–8. di1 = A − f e = 55 cm − 12 cm = 43 cm 1 1 1 = + f o d o di1

(b)

f o di1 (12 cm)(43 cm) = = 16.65 cm ≈ 17 cm di1 − f o 43 cm − 12 cm

We calculate the magnification using Eq. 25–6a. M =

(c)

→ do =

N ⎛ A − f e ⎞ (25 cm) ⎛ 55 cm − 12 cm ⎞ ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 5.38 × ≈ 5.4 × f e ⎝ d o ⎠ (12 cm) ⎝ 16.65 cm ⎠

We calculate the magnification using Eq. 25–6b and divide the result by the answer to part (b) to determine the percent difference. M approx ≈

M approx − M 9.55 − 5.38 NA (25 cm)(55 cm) = = 9.55 × ; = = 0.775 ≈ 78% f e f o (12 cm)(12 cm) M 5.38

25-24

89.

Chapter 25

We use Eq. 23–10 with Eq. 23–7 to find the desired radius. ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ = P = (n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟→ f R R 2⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎡ P 1⎤ − ⎥ R2 = ⎢ − ( n 1) R 1⎦ ⎣

−1

⎡ (−3.5 m −1 ) 1 ⎤ =⎢ − ⎥ ⎣⎢ (1.62 − 1) 0.160 m ⎦⎥

−1

= −8.41× 10−2 m ≈ −8.41 cm

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

The optical zoom is preferable because it uses all of the available pixels to maximize the resolution. When a digital zoom is used to take a picture, the size of the pixels is enlarged on the final print, so there is a loss of sharpness.

(a)

(b) (c) (d) 3.

False. Contact lenses are placed on your eye, while glasses are typically placed about 2.0 cm in front of the eyes. This extra distance is taken into account when determining the power of the prescription. True. Farsighted people have a large near point and therefore cannot see close objects clearly. False. Nearsighted people can see close objects clearly but have a relatively near “far point,” preventing them from seeing objects beyond their far point clearly. False. Astigmatism is corrected by using a nonspherical lens to correct the asymmetric shape of the cornea.

Example 25–3 assumes that the sensor has 12 MP. The 6-MP lens will have half as many total pixels, so the number of pixels in each direction would be decreased by the square root of 2, making the pixel dimensions 2828 pixels by 2121 pixels. We calculate the new resolution. 2828 pixels = 88 pixels/mm 32 mm

For the enlargement to 8 × 10 , as in Example 25–4, the size would be magnified by a factor of 8, which 88 pixels/mm = 11 pixels/mm , which is right at the reduces the resolution by a factor of 8, giving 8 limit of creating a sharp image. 4. (i) A reflecting telescope can be built with a much larger diameter, as the mirror can be made of many small mirrors connected together. The lens, being one single piece of glass, is more difficult to manufacture. (ii) A lens must be supported around the outer edge; therefore, due to the large weight of the lens, its size is limited. A mirror can be supported everywhere behind the mirror and is much lighter. Therefore, the mirrors can be much larger in diameter. (iii) A lens experiences spherical aberrations, while the shape of a mirror can be adjusted to eliminate spherical aberrations. (iv) A lens experiences chromatic aberrations since different colors of light refract in the lens at slightly different angles. The image created by a mirror does not depend upon an index of refraction, since the light does not travel through a different material when reflecting from a telescope mirror.

Optical Instruments

25-25

Use the 150-cm lens as the objective and the 1.5-cm lens as the eyepiece. These two lenses produce the magnification of 100 × , according to Eq. 25–3. The third lens is placed between the objective and the eyepiece to invert the image. The objective lens creates an image of a distance object at its focal point. The image becomes the object of the intermediate lens. The intermediate lens is placed so that this object is twice the lens’ focal length away. The lens then creates a real, inverted image located at twice its focal length with no magnification. This image becomes the object of the eyepiece, which is placed at its focal distance away from the image. The image of the eyepiece is virtual and infinitely far away.

Calculate the length of the telescope from the figure. A = f o + 4 f3 + f e = 150 cm + 4(10 cm) + 1.5 cm = 191.5 cm ≈ 190 cm

Assume that the pupil is 3.0 mm in diameter and we use light of wavelength 550 nm. The minimum angular separation that we could observe is given near Fig. 25–30.

θ=

1.22λ 1.22(550 × 10−9 m) ⎛ 180° ⎞ ⎛ 60 arc min ⎞ = = 2.24 × 10−4 rad ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 0.77 arc min − 3 D 1° ⎝ π rad ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 3.0 × 10 m

Since this is smaller than the angular separation of Alcor and Mizar, they are resolvable by the naked eye.

THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Responses to Questions 1.

No. Since the windowless car in an exceptionally smooth train moving at a constant velocity is an inertial reference frame and the basic laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames, there is no way for you to tell if you are moving or not. The first postulate of the special theory of relativity can be phrased as “No experiment can tell you if an inertial reference frame is at rest or moving uniformly at constant velocity.”

The fact that you instinctively think you are moving is consistent with the relativity principle applied to mechanics. Even though you are at rest relative to the ground, when the car next to you creeps forward, you are moving backward relative to that car.

The ball will land back in the worker’s hand. Both the ball and the car are already moving forward (relative to the ground), so when the ball is thrown straight up into the air with respect to the car, it will continue to move forward at the same rate as the car and fall back down to land in his hand.

Whether you say that the Earth goes around the Sun or the Sun goes around the Earth depends on your reference frame. It is valid to say either one, depending on which frame you choose. The laws of physics, though, won’t be the same in each of these reference frames, since the Earth is accelerating as it goes around the Sun. The Sun is nearly an inertial reference frame, but the Earth is not.

The starlight would pass you at a speed of c. The speed of light has the same speed in any reference frame in empty space, according to the second postulate of special relativity.

The clocks are not at fault and they are functioning properly. Time itself is actually measured to pass more slowly in moving reference frames when compared to a rest frame. Any measurement of time (heartbeats or decay rates, for instance) would be measured as slower than normal when viewed by an observer outside the moving reference frame.

Time actually passes more slowly in the moving reference frame, including aging and other life processes. It is not just that it seems this way—time has been measured to pass more slowly in the moving reference frame, as predicted by special relativity.

26-1

26-2

Chapter 26

This is an example of the “twin paradox.” This situation would be possible if the woman was traveling at high enough speeds during her trip. Time would have passed more slowly for her so she would have aged less than her son, who stayed on Earth. (Note that the situations of the woman and son are not symmetric; she must undergo acceleration during her journey.)

You would not notice a change in your own heartbeat, mass, height, or waistline. No matter how fast you are moving relative to Earth, you are at rest in your own reference frame. Thus, you would not notice any changes in your own characteristics. To observers on Earth, you are moving away at 0.6c, which gives γ = 1.25. If we assume that you are standing up, so that your body is perpendicular to the direction of motion, then to the observers on Earth, it would appear that your heartbeat has slowed by a factor of 1/1.25 = 0.80, that your mass has increased by a factor of 1.25, and that your waistline has decreased by a factor of 0.80 (all due to the relativity equations for time dilation, mass increase, and length contraction), but that your height would be unchanged (since there is no relative motion between you and Earth in that direction). Also see the section of the text on “rest mass and relativistic mass” for comments about mass change and relativity.

10.

Yes. However, at a speed of only 90 km/h, υ /c is very small, and therefore γ is very close to 1, so the effects would not be noticeable.

11.

Length contraction and time dilation would not occur. If the speed of light were infinite, then υ /c would be zero for all finite values of υ , and therefore γ would always be 1, resulting in Δt = Δt0 and A = A 0 .

12.

Both the length contraction and time dilation formulas include the term 1 − υ 2 /c 2 . If c were not the limiting speed in the universe, then it would be possible to have a situation with υ > c. However, this would result in a negative number under the square root, which gives an imaginary number as a result, indicating that c must be the limiting speed. Also, assuming that the relativistic formulas were still correct, as υ gets very close to c, an outside observer should be able to show that A = A o 1 − υ 2 /c 2 is getting smaller and smaller and that the limit as υ → c is A → 0. This would show that c is a limiting speed, since nothing can get smaller than having a length of 0. A similar analysis for time dilation Δto shows that Δt = is getting longer and longer and that the limit as υ → c is Δt → ∞. This 1 − υ 2 /c 2 would show that c is a limiting speed, since the slowest that time can pass is that it comes to a stop.

13.

If the speed of light were 25 m/s, then we would see relativistic effects all the time, something like the Chapter-Opening Figure or Figure 26–12 with Question 14. Everything moving relative to us would look length contracted, and time dilation would have to be taken into account for many events. There would be no “absolute time” on which we would all agree, so it would be more difficult, for instance, to plan to meet friends for lunch at a certain time. Many “twin paradox” kind of events would occur, and the momentum of moving objects would become very large, making it very difficult to change their motion. One of the most unusual changes for today’s modern inhabitants of Earth would be that nothing would be able to move faster than 25 m/s, which is only about 56 mi/h.

14.

Mr Tompkins appears shrunk in the horizontal direction, since that is the direction of his motion, and normal size in the vertical direction, perpendicular to his direction of motion. This length contraction is a result of the fact that, to the people on the sidewalk, Mr Tompkins is in a moving frame of reference. If the speed of light were only 20 mi/h, then the amount of contraction, which depends on γ, would be enough to be noticeable. Therefore, Mr Tompkins and his bicycle appear very skinny. (Compare to the Chapter-Opening Figure, which is shown from Mr Tompkins’ viewpoint. In this case, Mr Tompkins sees himself as “normal,” but all the objects moving with respect to him are contracted.)

The Special Theory of Relativity

26-3

mυ

15.

No. The relativistic momentum of the electron is given by p = γ mυ =

16.

No. Accelerating a particle with nonzero mass up to the speed of light would require an infinite amount mc 2 of energy, since KE = − mc 2 , so that is not possible. 2 2 1 − υ /c

17.

No, E = mc 2 does not conflict with the conservation of energy; it actually completes it. Since this equation shows us that mass and energy are interconvertible, it says it is now necessary to include mass as a form of energy in the analysis of physical processes.

18.

Yes. One way to describe the energy stored in the compressed spring is to say it is a mass increase (although it would be so small that it could not be measured). This mass will convert back to energy when the spring is uncompressed.

19.

Matter and energy are interconvertible (matter can be converted into energy and energy can be converted into matter), thus we should say “energy can neither be created nor destroyed.”

20.

No, our intuitive notion that velocities simply add is not completely wrong. Our intuition is based on our everyday experiences, and at these everyday speeds our intuition regarding how velocities add is correct. Our intuition does break down, though, at very high speeds, where we have to take into account relativistic effects. Relativity does not contradict classical mechanics, but it is a more general theory, whereas classical mechanics is a limiting case.

. At low speeds 1 − υ 2 /c 2 (compared to c), this reduces to the classical momentum, p = mυ. As υ approaches c, γ approaches infinity, so there is no upper limit to the electron’s momentum.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(a)

Proper length is the length measured by a person at rest with the object measured. The ship’s captain is at rest with the ship, so that measurement is the proper length.

(c)

A common misconception is that the distance between the objects is important when measuring relativistic effects. The important parameter is the relative velocity. The ship’s captain is at rest with the flashlight and therefore measures the proper time. The space-dock personnel measure the dilated time, which is always longer than the proper time. Since the dilated time is 1.00 s, the proper time must be shorter, or 0.87 s.

(c)

The proper time interval is measured at rest with respect to the flashlight, or the 0.87-s measurement.

(b)

The ship’s captain will have aged less. While the ship is moving at constant speed, both the captain and the space-dock personnel record that the other’s clock is running slowly. However, the ship must accelerate (and therefore change frames of reference) when it turns around. The space-dock personnel do not accelerate; therefore, they are correct in their measurement that they have aged more than the ship’s captain.

(f)

A common misconception is that the person on the spacecraft would observe the change in her measurement of time, or that the person on the spacecraft would see the Earth clocks running fast. Actually, the person on the spacecraft would observe her time running normally. Since the spacecraft and Earth are moving relative to each other, observers on the spacecraft and observers on the Earth would both see the others’ clocks running slowly.

26-4

Chapter 26

(c)

It might be assumed that the speed of the ship should be added to the speed of light to obtain a relative speed of 1.5c. However, the second postulate of relativity is that the speed of light is 1.0c, as measured by any observer.

(d)

A common misconception is that the relativistic formulas are only valid for speeds close to the speed of light. The relativistic formulas are always valid. However, for speeds much smaller than the speed of light, time dilations, length contractions, and changes in mass are insignificant.

(d, e) Due to relativistic effects, the observers will not necessarily agree on the time an event occurs, the distance between events, the time interval between events, or the simultaneity of two events. However, the postulates of relativity state that both observers agree on the validity of the laws of physics and on the speed of light.

(d)

It is common to think that one frame of reference is preferable to another. Due to relativistic effects, observers in different frames of reference may make different time measurements. However, each measurement is correct in that frame of reference.

10.

(e)

Even though the rocket ship is going faster and faster relative to some stationary frame, you remain at rest relative to the rocket ship. Therefore, in your frame of reference, your mass, length, and time remain the same.

11.

(d)

A common misconception is that there is a stationary frame of reference and that motion relative to this frame can be measured. Special relativity demonstrates that a stationary frame does not exist, but all motion is relative. If the spaceship has no means to observe the outside (and make a reference to another object), then there is no way to measure your velocity.

12.

(b)

To an observer on Earth, the pendulum would appear to be moving slowly. Therefore, the period would be longer than 2.0 seconds.

13.

(a)

A common misconception is to add the velocities together to obtain a speed of 1.5c. However, due to relativistic effects, the relative speed between two objects must be less than the speed of light. Since the objects are moving away from each other the speed must be greater than the speed of each object, so it must be greater than 0.75c. The only option that is greater than 0.75c and less than 1.0c is 0.96c.

Solutions to Problems 1.

You measure the contracted length. Find the rest length from Eq. 26–3a. A0 =

A 1 − υ 2 /c 2

44.2 m 1 − (0.850) 2

= 83.9 m

We find the lifetime at rest from Eq. 26–1a. 2

⎛ 2.70 × 108 m/s ⎞ Δt0 = Δt 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = (4.76 × 10−6 s) 1 − ⎜ = 2.07 × 10−6 s ⎜ 3.00 × 108 m/s ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠

The measured distance is the contracted length. Use Eq. 26–3a. 2

⎛ 2.90 × 108 m/s ⎞ A = A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = (135 ly) 1 − ⎜ = 34.6 ly ≈ 35 ly ⎜ 3.00 × 108 m/s ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠ © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

The Special Theory of Relativity

The speed is determined from the time dilation relationship, Eq. 26–1a. Δt0 = Δt 1 − υ 2 /c 2

→

⎛ 2.60 × 10−8 ⎛ Δt ⎞ υ = c 1 − ⎜ 0 ⎟ = c 1 − ⎜⎜ −8 ⎝ Δt ⎠ ⎝ 4.40 × 10

s⎞ 8 ⎟ = 0.807c = 2.42 × 10 m/s s ⎟⎠

The speed is determined from the length contraction relationship, Eq. 26–3a. 2

A = A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2

26-5

⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ 35 ly ⎞ 8 → υ = c 1− ⎜ ⎟ = c 1− ⎜ ⎟ = 0.70c = 2.1× 10 m/s ⎝ 49 ly ⎠ ⎝ A0 ⎠

The speed is determined from the length contraction relationship, Eq. 26–3a. 2

A = A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2

(a)

⎛ A ⎞ → υ = c 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = c 1 − (0.900) 2 = 0.436c = 1.31× 108 m/s ⎝ A0 ⎠

We use Eq. 26–3a for length contraction with the contracted length 99.0% of the rest length. 2

⎛ A ⎞ → υ = c 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = c 1 − (0.990) 2 = 0.141c ⎝ A0 ⎠

A = A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2

(b)

We use Eq. 26–1a for time dilation with the time as measured from a relative moving frame 1.00% greater than the rest time. Δt0 = Δt 1 − υ 2 /c 2

⎛ Δt ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ → υ = c 1− ⎜ 0 ⎟ = c 1− ⎜ ⎟ = 0.140c ⎝ 1.0100 ⎠ ⎝ Δt ⎠

We see that a speed of 0.14c results in about a 1% relativistic effect. 8.

The speed is determined from the length contraction relationship, Eq. 26–3a. Then the time is found from the speed and the contracted distance. A = A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2

→

⎛ A ⎞ A υ = c 1− ⎜ ⎟ ; t = = υ ⎝ A0 ⎠

⎛ A ⎞ c 1− ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ A0 ⎠

25 ly

⎛ 25 ly ⎞ c 1− ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 62 ly ⎠

(25 yr)c = 27 yr c(0.915)

That is the time according to you, the traveler. The time according to an observer on Earth would be as follows. t=

(a)

(62 yr)c = 68 yr c(0.915)

The measured length is the contracted length. We find the rest length from Eq. 26–3a. A0 =

A 1 − υ 2 /c 2

4.80 m 1 − (0.720) 2

= 6.92 m

Distances perpendicular to the motion do not change, so the rest height is 1.35 m .

26-6

Chapter 26

(b)

The time in the spacecraft is the proper time, found from Eq. 26–1a. Δt0 = Δt 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = (20.0 s) 1 − (0.720) 2 = 13.9 s

10.

(c)

To your friend, you moved at the same relative speed: 0.720c .

(d)

She would measure the same time dilation: 13.9 s .

(a)

To an observer on Earth, 21.6 ly is the rest length, so the time will be the distance divided by the speed. tEarth =

(b)

(21.6 ly) = 22.74 yr ∼ 22.7 yr 0.950c

We find the proper time (the time that passes on the spacecraft) from Eq. 26–1a.

Δt0 = Δt 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = (22.74 yr) 1 − (0.950) 2 = 7.101 yr ≈ 7.10 yr (c)

To the spacecraft observer, the distance to the star is contracted. Use Eq. 26–3a. A = A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = (21.6 ly) 1 − (0.950) 2 = 6.7446 ly ≈ 6.74 ly

(d)

To the spacecraft observer, the speed of the spacecraft is as follows:

υ= 11.

(a)

A (6.745 ly) = = 0.95c , as expected. 7.101 yr Δt

In the Earth frame, the clock on the Enterprise will run slower. Use Eq. 26–1a. Δt0 = Δt 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = (5.0 yr) 1 − (0.70) 2 = 3.6 yr

(b)

Now we assume that the 5.0 years is the time as measured on the Enterprise. Again use Eq. 26–1a. Δt0 = Δt 1 − υ 2 /c 2

12.

→ Δt =

Δt0 2

1 − υ /c

(5.0 yr) 1 − (0.70) 2

= 7.0 yr

The dimension along the direction of motion is contracted, and the other two dimensions are unchanged. Use Eq. 26–3a to find the contracted length. A = A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2 ; V = A(A 0 ) 2 = (A 0 )3 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = (2.6 m)3 1 − (0.80) 2 = 10.55 m3 ≈ 11 m3

13.

The change in length is determined from the length contraction relationship, Eq. 26–3a. The speed is very small compared to the speed of light, so we use the binomial expansion. A = A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2

→

⎛ υ2 A = 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎜ c A0 ⎝

1/2

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

≈ 1 − 12

3 ⎛ ⎞ −10 1 11.2 × 10 m/s = − 1 ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1 − 6.97 × 10 2⎜ 2 8 c ⎝ 3.00 × 10 m/s ⎠

υ2

So the percent decrease is (6.97 × 10−8 )% . 14.

We find the speed of the particle in the lab frame and use that to find the rest frame lifetime and distance.

υ=

Δxlab 1.00 m = = 2.941× 108 m/s = 0.9803c Δtlab 3.40 × 10−9 s

The Special Theory of Relativity

(a)

26-7

Find the rest frame lifetime from Eq. 26–1a. Δt0 = Δtlab 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = (3.40 × 10−9 s) 1 − (0.9803)2 = 6.715 × 10−10 s ≈ 6.7 × 10−10 s

(b)

In its rest frame, the particle will travel the distance given by its speed and the rest lifetime. Δx0 = υΔt0 = (2.941× 108 m/s)(6.715 × 10−10 s) = 0.20 m

This could also be found from the length contraction relationship: Δx0 = 15.

Δxlab 1 − υ 2 /c 2

In the Earth frame, the average lifetime of the pion will be dilated according to Eq. 26–1a. The speed of the pion will be the distance moved in the Earth frame times the dilated time.

υ=

d d = 1 − υ 2 /c 2 Δt Δt0

υ =c

1 ⎛ cΔt0 ⎞ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ d ⎠

→ 1

⎛ (3.00 × 108 m/s)(2.6 × 10−8 s) ⎞ 1+ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ (32 m) ⎝ ⎠

= 0.9716c

Note that the significant figure addition rule gives 4 significant figures for the value under the radical sign. 16.

The momentum of the proton is given by Eq. 26–4. p = γ mυ =

17.

(a)

mυ 2

1 − υ /c

(1.67 × 10−27 kg)(0.68)(3.00 × 108 m/s)

= 4.6 × 10−19 kg ⋅ m/s

We compare the classical momentum to the relativistic momentum (Eq. 26–4). pclassical mυ = prelativistic ⎛ mυ ⎜ ⎜ 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c

(b)

1 − 0.68

⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠

= 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = 1 − (0.15) 2 = 0.989

The classical momentum is about 21.1% in error. The negative sign means that the classical momentum is smaller than the relativistic momentum. We again compare the two momenta. mυ mυ

pclassical = prelativistic

= 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = 1 − (0.75) 2 = 0.66

1 − υ 2 /c 2

The classical momentum is 234, in error. 18.

The momentum at the higher speed is to be twice the initial momentum. We designate the initial state with the subscript 0 and the final state with the subscript f. ⎛ mυf ⎜ 2 2 ⎜ pf ⎝ 1 − υf /c = p0 ⎛ mυ0 ⎜ ⎜ 1 − υ 2 /c 2 0 ⎝

⎞ ⎛ υf2 ⎞ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 2 2⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎠ = 2 → ⎝ 1 − υ f /c ⎠ = 4 → ⎞ ⎛ υ02 ⎞ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ 2 2⎟ ⎟ ⎝ 1 − υ 0 /c ⎠ ⎠

26-8

Chapter 26

⎛ υf2 2 2 ⎜⎜ ⎝ 1 − υ f /c

19.

⎛ υ02 ⎞ ⎟⎟ = 4 ⎜⎜ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 − υ 0 /c

⎞ ⎡ (0.22c) 2 ⎤ ⎛ 0.203 ⎞ 2 = 0.203c 2 → υf2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 4⎢ ⎟ c → υf = 0.41c 2⎥ ⎟ ⎝ 1.203 ⎠ ⎢⎣1 − (0.22) ⎥⎦ ⎠

The two momenta, as measured in the frame in which the particle was initially at rest, will be equal to each other in magnitude. The lighter particle is designated with the subscript 1 and the heavier particle with the subscript 2. m1υ1

p1 = p2 →

υ12

(1 − υ12 /c2 )

1 − υ12 /c 2 ⎛m ⎞ =⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎝ m1 ⎠

m2υ2

1 − υ22 /c 2

υ22

→ 2

(1 − υ22 /c2 )

⎛ 6.68 × 10−27 kg ⎞ ⎡ (0.60c) 2 ⎤ =⎜ = 9.0c 2 ⎜ 1.67 × 10−27 kg ⎟⎟ ⎢⎢1 − (0.60) 2 ⎥⎥ ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦

→

υ1 = 0.90c = 0.95c 20.

We find the proton’s momenta using Eq. 26–4. mpυ1

p0.45 =

1− p0.98 =

mp (0.45c) 1 − (0.45) 2

= 0.5039mp c;

p0.85 =

υ22

mp (0.98c) 1 − (0.98) 2

mpυ2 1−

21.

υ12

υ22

mp (0.85c) 1 − (0.85) 2

= 1.6136mp c

= 4.9247 mp c

(a)

⎛ 1.6136mp c − 0.5039mp c ⎞ ⎛ p2 − p1 ⎞ ⎟100 = 220.2 ≈ 220% ⎜ ⎟100 = ⎜⎜ ⎟ 0.5039mp c ⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

(b)

⎛ 4.9247mp c − 1.6136mp c ⎞ ⎛ p2 − p1 ⎞ ⎟100 = 205.2 ≈ 210% ⎜ ⎟100 = ⎜⎜ ⎟ 1.6136mp c ⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

The rest energy of the electron is given by Eq. 26–7. E = mc 2 = (9.11× 10−31 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 = 8.199 × 10−14 J ≈ 8.20 × 10−14 J =

(8.199 × 10−14 J) (1.60 × 10−13 J/MeV)

= 0.5124 MeV ≈ 0.512 MeV

This does not agree with the value inside the front cover of the book because of significant figures. If more significant digits were used for the given values, then a value of 0.511 MeV would be obtained. 22.

We find the loss in mass from Eq. 26–7. m=

23.

E c

(200 MeV)(1.60 × 10−13 J/MeV) 8

(3.00 × 10 m/s)

= 3.56 × 10−28 kg ≈ 4 × 10−28 kg

We find the mass conversion from Eq. 26–7. m=

E c

(1× 1020 J) (3.00 × 108 m/s) 2

= 1111 kg ≈ 1000 kg

The Special Theory of Relativity

24.

26-9

We calculate the mass from Eq. 26–7. m=

E c

1 c

(mc 2 ) =

1 (1.67 × 10−27 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 c

(1.60 × 10

−13

J/MeV)

= 939 MeV/c 2

To get the same answer as inside the front cover of the book, we would need more significant figures for each constant. 25.

This increase in mass is found from Eq. 26–8. Δm =

ΔE c2

(4.82 × 104 J) (3.00 × 108 m/s) 2

= 5.36 × 10−13 kg

Note that this is so small, most chemical reactions are considered to have mass conserved. 26.

We find the speed in terms of c. The kinetic energy is given by Eq. 26–5b and the momentum by Eq. 26–4. υ=

(2.90 × 108 m/s) (3.00 × 108 m/s)

= 0.9667c

⎛ ⎞ 1 = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ (938.3 MeV) = 2728.2 MeV ≈ 2.7 GeV ⎜ ⎟ 2 ⎝ 1 − 0.9667 ⎠ 1 p = γ mυ = (938.3 MeV/c 2 )(0.9667 c) = 3544 MeV/c ≈ 3.5 GeV/c 2 1 − 0.9667

27.

The total energy of the proton is the kinetic energy plus the mass energy. Use Eq. 26–9 to find the momentum. E = KE + mc 2 ; (pc) 2 = E 2 − (mc 2 ) 2 = ( KE + mc 2 ) 2 − (mc 2 ) 2 = KE 2 + 2KE(mc 2 ) pc =

+ 2KE(mc 2 ) = KE 1 + 2

mc 2 KE

= (950 MeV) 1 + 2

938.3 MeV = 1638 MeV 950 MeV

p = 1638 MeV/c ≈ 1.6 GeV/c

28.

We use Eq. 26–5b to find the speed from the kinetic energy. KE

⎛ ⎞ 1 = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc 2 ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠

υ = c 1−

29.

(a)

⎛ KE ⎞ ⎜ 2 + 1⎟ ⎝ mc ⎠

= c 1−

→

⎛ 1.12 MeV ⎞ + 1⎟ ⎜ ⎝ 0.511 MeV ⎠

= 0.9497c

The work is the change in kinetic energy. Use Eq. 26–5b. The initial kinetic energy is 0. ⎛ ⎞ 1 − 1⎟ (938.3 MeV) = 4.499 ×103 MeV W = ΔKE = KE final = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ 2 ⎝ 1 − 0.985 ⎠ ≈ 4.5 GeV

26-10

Chapter 26

(b)

The momentum of the proton is given by Eq. 26–4. 1

p = γ mυ =

30.

(938.3 MeV/c 2 )(0.985c) = 5.36 × 103 MeV/c ≈ 5.4 GeV/c

The relationship between kinetic energy and mass energy is given in Eq. 26–5b. KE

31.

1 − 0.985

= (γ − 1)mc 2 = 0.33mc 2

→

1 − υ /c

− 1 = 0.33 → υ = c 1 −

1 (1.33) 2

= 0.659c

The kinetic energy is equal to the rest energy. We use Eq. 26–5b. KE

= (γ − 1)mc 2 = mc 2

→

1 2

1 − υ /c

−1 = 1 → υ = c 1−

1 (2) 2

= 0.866c

The momentum is found from Eq. 26–6a and Eq. 26–9. E = KE + mc 2 = 2mc 2 E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m2 c 4

→ E 2 = 4m 2 c 4

→

p 2 c 2 = E 2 − m 2 c 4 = 3m 2 c 4

→

p = 3mc = 3(9.11× 10−31 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = 4.73 × 10−22 kg ⋅ m/s ⎛ 3.0 × 108 m/s ⎞ ⎛ 1 eV 4.73 × 10−22 kg ⋅ m/s ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ −19 ⎜ c ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 × 10

32.

⎞ 1 MeV = 0.887 MeV/c ⎟ J ⎟⎠ 106 eV

Use Eq. 26–5b to calculate the kinetic energy of the proton. Note that the classical answer would be that a doubling of speed would lead to a fourfold increase in kinetic energy. Subscript 1 represents the

(

)

(

)

lower speed υ = 13 c and subscript 2 represents the higher speed υ = 23 c .

33.

= (γ − 1)mc 2

→

KE 2 KE1

⎛1 − ⎜ (γ 2 − 1)mc ⎝ = = 2 (γ 1 − 1)mc ⎛1 − ⎜ ⎝ 2

( 32 )

2 ⎞ −1/2

⎟ ⎠

−1/2 1 2⎞ 3 ⎟

()

⎠

−1

(5/9) −1/2 − 1 (8/9)

−1/2

−1

0.3416 = 5.6 0.0607

We find the energy equivalent of the mass from Eq. 26–7. E = mc 2 = (1.0 × 10−3 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 = 9.0 × 1013 J We assume that this energy is used to increase the gravitational potential energy. E = mgh → m =

34.

9.0 × 1013 J E = = 9.2 × 109 kg hg (1.0 × 103 m)(9.80 m/s 2 )

The work is the change in kinetic energy. Use Eq. 26–5b. The initial kinetic energy is 0. W1 = (γ 0.90 − 1)mc 2 ;

W2 = KE 0.99c − KE 0.90c = (γ 0.99 − 1)mc 2 − (γ 0.90 − 1)mc 2 1

γ −γ W2 (γ 0.99 − 1)mc − (γ 0.90 − 1)mc = = 0.99 0.90 = 1 − 0.99 2 1 W1 γ (γ 0.90 − 1)mc 0.90 − 1 2

−

1 1 − 0.902 = 3.7 −1

1 − 0.902

The Special Theory of Relativity

35.

26-11

Each photon has momentum 0.65 MeV/c. Thus each photon has an energy of 0.65 MeV. Assuming that the photons have opposite initial directions, then the total momentum is 0, so the product mass will not be moving. Thus all of the photon energy can be converted into the mass energy of the particle. Thus the heaviest particle would have a mass of 1.30 MeV/c 2 , which is 2.32 × 10−30 kg.

36.

Since the proton was accelerated by a potential difference of 165 MV, its potential energy decreased by 165 MeV, so its kinetic energy increased from 0 to 165 MeV. Use Eq. 26–5b to find the speed from the kinetic energy. KE

⎛ ⎞ 1 = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc 2 ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠

υ = c 1−

37.

⎛ KE ⎞ ⎜ 2 + 1⎟ ⎝ mc ⎠

= c 1−

1 ⎛ 165 MeV ⎞ + 1⎟ ⎜ ⎝ 938.3 MeV ⎠

= 0.5261c

Since the electron was accelerated by a potential difference of 31 kV, its potential energy decreased by 31 keV, so its kinetic energy increased from 0 to 31 keV. Use Eq. 26–5b to find the speed from the kinetic energy. KE

⎛ ⎞ 1 = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc 2 ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠

υ = c 1−

38.

→

1 ⎛ KE ⎞ ⎜ 2 + 1⎟ ⎝ mc ⎠

= c 1−

→

1 ⎛ 0.031 MeV ⎞ + 1⎟ ⎜ ⎝ 0.511 MeV ⎠

= 0.333c

We use Eqs. 26–6a and 26–9 in order to find the mass. E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 = (KE + mc 2 ) 2 = KE 2 + 2KE mc 2 + m 2 c 4 m=

2 2

p c − KE 2 KE c

2 2

(121 MeV/c) c − (45 MeV)

→

= 140 MeV/c 2 ≈ 2.5 × 10−28 kg

2(45 MeV)c 2

The particle is most likely a π 0 meson. 39.

(a)

(b)

Since the kinetic energy is half the total energy and the total energy is the kinetic energy plus the rest energy, the kinetic energy must be equal to the rest energy. We also use Eq. 26–5b. KE

= 12 E = 12 (KE + mc 2 ) → KE = mc 2

= (γ − 1)mc 2 = mc 2

→ γ =2=

1 − υ /c

→ υ=

3 4

c = 0.866c

In this case, the kinetic energy is half the rest energy. KE

= (γ − 1)mc 2 = 12 mc 2

→ γ =

3 2

1 2

1 − υ /c

→ υ=

5 9

c = 0.745c

26-12

40.

Chapter 26

We use Eq. 26–5b for the kinetic energy and Eq. 26–4 for the momentum.

υ c

8.65 × 107 m/s

= 0.2883

3.00 × 108 m/s

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1 1 = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ (938.3 MeV) = 41.6 MeV ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎜ 1 − (0.2883) 2 ⎟ ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

p = γ mυ =

mυ 1 − υ 2 /c 2

1 mc 2 (υ /c) 1 (938.3 MeV)(0.2883) = = 283 MeV/c c 1 − υ 2 /c 2 c 1 − (0.2883) 2

Evaluate with the classical expressions. 2

⎛υ ⎞ = 12 mυ 2 = 12 mc 2 ⎜ ⎟ = 12 (938.3 MeV)(0.2883) 2 = 39.0 MeV ⎝c⎠ 1 2 ⎛υ ⎞ pc = mυ = mc ⎜ ⎟ = (938.3 MeV/c)(0.2883) = 271 MeV/c c ⎝c⎠

KE c

Calculate the percent error. − KE

39.0 − 41.6 × 100 = −6.3% 41.6 p −p 271 − 283 Errorp = c × 100 = × 100 = −4.2% 283 p ErrorKE =

41.

(a)

KE c

× 100 =

The kinetic energy is found from Eq. 26–5b. KE

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1 1 = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ (1.7 × 104 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠ ⎝ 1 − 0.15 ⎠ = 1.751× 1019 J ≈ 1.8 × 1019 J

(b)

Use the classical expression and compare the two results. KE

= 12 mυ 2 = 12 (1.7 × 104 kg)[(0.15)(3.00 × 108 m/s)]2 = 1.721× 1019 J

% error =

(1.721× 1019 J) − (1.751× 1019 J) (1.751× 1019 J)

× 100 = −1.7%

The classical value is 1.7% too low. 42.

All of the energy, both rest energy and kinetic energy, becomes electromagnetic energy. We use Eq. 26–6b. The masses are the same. ⎛ 1 1 + Etotal = E1 + E2 = γ 1mc 2 + γ 2 mc 2 = (γ 1 + γ 2 )mc 2 = ⎜ ⎜ 2 1 − 0.652 ⎝ 1 − 0.53

⎞ ⎟ (105.7 MeV) ⎟ ⎠

= 263.7 MeV ≈ 260 MeV

The Special Theory of Relativity

43.

26-13

We let M represent the mass of the new particle. The initial energy is due to both incoming particles, and the final energy is the rest energy of the new particle. Use Eq. 26–6b for the initial energies. E = 2(γ mc 2 ) = Mc 2

→ M = 2γ m =

2m 1 − υ 2 /c 2

We assumed that energy is conserved, so there was no loss of energy in the collision. The final kinetic energy is 0, so all of the kinetic energy was lost. KE lost

44.

⎛ ⎞ 1 = KE initial = 2(γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ 2mc 2 ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠

By conservation of energy, the rest energy of the americium nucleus is equal to the rest energies of the other particles plus the kinetic energy of the alpha particle. mAm c 2 = (mNp + mα )c 2 + KEα mNp = mAm − mα −

45.

KEα

→

= 241.05682 u − 4.00260 u −

⎞ 5.5 MeV ⎛ 1u ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 237.04832 u 2 2⎟ c ⎝ 931.49 MeV/c ⎠

We use Eqs. 26–6a and 26–9. E = KE + mc 2 ; (pc) 2 = E 2 − (mc 2 ) 2 = (KE + mc 2 ) 2 − (mc 2 )2 = KE 2 + 2KE(mc 2 ) → p=

46.

+ 2KE(mc 2 ) c

The kinetic energy of 998 GeV is used to find the speed of the protons. Since the energy is 1000 times the mass, we expect the speed to be very close to c. Use Eq. 26–5b. KE

⎛ ⎞ 1 = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc 2 ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠

υ = c 1−

⎛ KE ⎞ ⎜ 2 + 1⎟ ⎝ mc ⎠

= c 1−

→

⎛ 998 GeV ⎞ + 1⎟ ⎜ 0.938 GeV ⎝ ⎠

= c (to 7 significant figures)

⎛ 998 GeV ⎞ ⎛ K ⎞ − 1⎟ (1.673 × 10−27 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s) − 1⎟ mc ⎜ ⎜ 2 0.938 GeV γ mυ γ mυ ⎝ mc ⎠ ⎠ = ≈ =⎝ = 3.3 T B= rqυ rq rq (1.0 × 103 m)(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2

47.

Take the positive direction to be the direction of motion of the person’s rocket. Consider the Earth as reference frame S and the person’s rocket as reference frame S′. Then the speed of the rocket relative to Earth is υ = 0.40c, and the speed of the meteor relative to the rocket is u ′ = 0.40c. Calculate the speed of the meteor relative to the rocket using Eq. 26–10. u=

(υ + u ′) (0.40c + 0.40c) = = 0.69c ⎛ υ u ′ ⎞ [1 + (0.40)(0.40)] 1 + ⎜ ⎟ c2 ⎠ ⎝

26-14

48.

Chapter 26

(a)

Take the positive direction to be the direction of motion of spaceship 1. Consider spaceship 2 as reference frame S and the Earth as reference frame S′. The velocity of the Earth relative to spaceship 2 is υ = 0.60c. The velocity of spaceship 1 relative to the Earth is u′ = 0.60c. Solve for the velocity of spaceship 1 relative to spaceship 2, u, using Eq. 26–10. u=

(b)

(υ + u′) (0.60c + 0.60c) = = 0.882c u ′ υ [1 + (0.60)(0.60)] ⎛ ⎞ ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ c ⎠ ⎝

Now consider spaceship 1 as reference frame S. The velocity of the Earth relative to spaceship 1 is υ = − 0.60c. The velocity of spaceship 2 relative to the Earth is u′ = −0.60c. Solve for the velocity of spaceship 2 relative to spaceship 1, u, using Eq. 26–10. u=

(υ + u′) (−0.60c − 0.60c) = = −0.882c ⎛ υ u′ ⎞ [1 + (−0.60)(−0.60)] 1 + ⎜ ⎟ c2 ⎠ ⎝

As expected, the two relative velocities are the opposite of each other. 49.

(a)

We take the positive direction in the direction of the first spaceship. We choose reference frame S as the Earth and reference frame S′ as the first spaceship. So υ = 0.65c. The speed of the second spaceship relative to the first spaceship is u ′ = 0.82c. We use Eq. 26–10 to solve for the speed of the second spaceship relative to the Earth, u. u=

(b)

(υ + u′) (0.82c + 0.65c) = = 0.959c ⎛ υ u′ ⎞ [1 + (0.65)(0.82)] ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ c ⎠ ⎝

The only difference is now that u′ = −0.82c. u=

(υ + u′) (−0.82c + 0.65c) = = −0.36c ⎛ υ u′ ⎞ [1 + (0.65)(−0.82)] 1 + ⎜ ⎟ c2 ⎠ ⎝

The Problem asks for the speed, which is 0.36c . 50.

We take the positive direction as the direction of the Enterprise. Consider the alien vessel as reference frame S and the Earth as reference frame S′. The velocity of the Earth relative to the alien vessel is υ = −0.60c. The velocity of the Enterprise relative to the Earth is u′ = 0.90c. Solve for the velocity of the Enterprise relative to the alien vessel, u, using Eq. 26–10. u=

(υ + u′) (0.90c − 0.60c) = = 0.65c ⎛ υ u′ ⎞ [1 + (−0.60)(0.90)] ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ c ⎠ ⎝

We could also have made the Enterprise reference frame S, with υ = −0.90c, and the velocity of the alien vessel relative to the Earth as u′ = 0.60c. The same answer would result. Choosing the two spacecraft as the two reference frames would also work. Let the alien vessel be reference frame S and the Enterprise be reference frame S′. Then we have the velocity of the Earth relative to the alien vessel as u = −0.60c and the velocity of the Earth relative to the Enterprise as u′ = −0.90c. We solve for υ , the velocity of the Enterprise relative to the alien vessel.

The Special Theory of Relativity

51.

→ υ=

u − u′ (−0.60c) − (−0.90c) = = 0.65c ⎛ u′u ⎞ ⎛ (−0.90c)(−0.60c) ⎞ ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟ c ⎠ ⎝ c2 ⎝ ⎠

We take the positive direction as the direction of the motion of the second pod. Consider the first pod as reference frame S and the spacecraft as reference frame S′. The velocity of the spacecraft relative to the first pod is υ = 0.70c. The velocity of the second pod relative to the spacecraft is u′ = 0.80c. Solve for the velocity of the second pod relative to the first pod, u, using Eq. 26–10. u=

52.

(u′ + υ ) ⎛ υ u′ ⎞ ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ c ⎠ ⎝

26-15

(υ + u′) (0.80c + 0.70c) = = 0.962c ⎛ υ u′ ⎞ [1 + (0.70)(0.80)] ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ c ⎠ ⎝

We take the positive direction as the direction of motion of rocket A. Consider rocket A as reference frame S and the Earth as reference frame S′. The velocity of the Earth relative to rocket A is υ = −0.65c. The velocity of rocket B relative to the Earth is u′ = 0.95c. Solve for the velocity of rocket B relative to rocket A, u, using Eq. 26–10. u=

(υ + u′) (0.95c − 0.65c) = = 0.78c ⎛ υ u′ ⎞ [1 + (−0.65)(0.95)] ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ c ⎠ ⎝

Note that a Galilean analysis would have resulted in u = 0.30c. 53.

We assume that the given speed of 0.90c is relative to the planet that you are approaching. We take the positive direction as the direction that you are traveling. Consider your spaceship as reference frame S and the planet as reference frame S′. The velocity of the planet relative to you is υ = −0.90c. The velocity of the probe relative to the planet is u′ = 0.95c. Solve for the velocity of the probe relative to your spaceship, u, using Eq. 26–10. u=

54.

(υ + u′) (0.95c − 0.90c) = = 0.34c ≈ 0.3c ⎛ υ u′ ⎞ [1 + (−0.90)(0.95)] 1 + ⎜ ⎟ c2 ⎠ ⎝

The kinetic energy is given by Eq. 26–5b. KE

= (γ − 1)mc 2 = mc 2

→ γ =2=

1 2

1 − υ /c

→ υ=

3 c = 0.866c 4

Notice that the mass of the particle does not affect the result. 55.

(a)

To travelers on the spacecraft, the distance to the star is contracted, according to Eq. 26–3a. This contracted distance is to be traveled in 4.9 years. Use that time with the contracted distance to find the speed of the spacecraft.

υ=

Δxspacecraft Δtspacecraft

υ =c

ΔxEarth 1 − υ 2 /c 2 Δtspacecraft

1 ⎛ cΔtspacecraft ⎞ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ΔxEarth ⎠

→ 1

⎛ 4.9 ly ⎞ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 4.3 ly ⎠

= 0.6596c ≈ 0.66c

26-16

Chapter 26

(b)

Find the elapsed time according to observers on Earth, using Eq. 26–1a. Δtspaceship 4.9 yr ΔtEarth = = = 6.5 yr 2 2 1 − υ /c 1 − 0.65962 Note that this agrees with the time found from distance and speed. tEarth =

56.

ΔxEarth

4.3 ly = 6.5 yr 0.6596c

The numerical values and graph were generated in a spreadsheet. The graph is shown also.

υ /c 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 0.95 0.99 γ 1.000 1.000 1.001 1.005 1.021 1.048 1.091 1.155 1.250 1.400 1.667 2.294 3.203 7.089 57.

Time dilation effects have changed the proper time for one heartbeat, which is given as 1 second, to a dilated time of 2.4 seconds as observed on Earth. Use Eq. 26–1a.

58.

(a)

⎛ 1.0 s ⎞ ⎛ Δt ⎞ → = c 1− ⎜ 0 ⎟ = c 1− ⎜ ⎟ = 0.91c Δ t ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2.4 s ⎠

Δt0 = Δt 1 − υ 2 /c 2

We find the speed from Eq. 26–5b. KE

⎛ ⎞ 1 = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc 2 = 14,000mc 2 ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠ ⎛

⎞

c⎛

⎞

υ = c 1− ⎜ ⎟ ≈c− ⎜ ⎟ 2 ⎝ 14,001 ⎠ ⎝ 14,001 ⎠ 2

→

→ 2

c⎛ 1 ⎞ (3.00 × 108 m/s) ⎛ 1 ⎞ c −υ = ⎜ = ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 0.77 m/s 2 ⎝ 14,001 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 14,001 ⎠

(b)

The tube will be contracted in the rest frame of the electron, according to Eq. 26–3a. ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞2 ⎤ A 0 = A 1 − υ /c = (3.0 × 10 m) 1 − ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 0.21 m ⎢⎣ ⎝ 14,001 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2

The Special Theory of Relativity

59.

26-17

The minimum energy required would be the energy to produce the pair with no kinetic energy, so the total energy is their rest energy. They both have the same mass. Use Eq. 26–7. E = 2mc 2 = 2(0.511 MeV) = 1.022 MeV(1.637 × 10−13 J)

60.

The wattage times the time is the energy required. We use Eq. 26–7 to calculate the mass. E = Pt = mc 2

61.

(75 W)(3.16 × 107 s) ⎛ 1000 g ⎞ −5 ⎜ ⎟ = 2.6 × 10 g (3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 ⎝ 1 kg ⎠

= mn c 2 − (mp c 2 + me c 2 + mν c 2 ) = 939.57 MeV − (938.27 MeV + 0.511 MeV + 0) = 0.79 MeV

The increase in kinetic energy comes from the decrease in potential energy. KE

⎛ ⎞ 1 = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc 2 ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠

⎛ ⎜ 1 υ = c ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎜ ⎛ KE + 1⎞ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ mc

63.

The kinetic energy available comes from the decrease in rest energy. KE

62.

→ m=

(a)

1/2

⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠

→ 1/2

⎛ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 1 = c ⎜1 − ⎟ 2 −14 ⎜ ⎛ ⎟ ⎞ 6.20 × 10 J + 1⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜⎜ 31 8 2 − ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ (9.11× 10 kg)(3.00 × 10 m/s)

= 0.822c

We find the rate of mass loss from Eq. 26–7. E = mc 2

→ ΔE = ( Δ m ) c 2

→

4 × 10 J/s Δm 1 ⎛ ΔE ⎞ = 2⎜ = 4.44 × 109 kg/s ≈ 4 × 109 kg/s ⎟= Δt c ⎝ Δt ⎠ (3.00 × 108 m/s)2

(b)

Find the time from the mass of the Sun and the rate determined in part (a). Δt =

(c)

We find the time for the Sun to lose all of its mass at this same rate. Δt =

64.

mEarth (5.98 × 1024 kg) = = 4.27 × 107 yr ≈ 4 × 107 yr Δm /Δt (4.44 × 109 kg/s)(3.156 × 107 s/yr) mSun (1.99 × 1030 kg) = = 1.42 × 1013 yr ≈ 1× 1013 yr Δm /Δt (4.44 × 109 kg/s)(3.156 × 107 s/yr)

The total binding energy is the energy required to provide the increase in rest energy. E = [(2mp + e + 2mn ) − mHe ]c 2 ⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎞ = [2(1.00783 u) + 2(1.00867 u) − 4.00260 u]c 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 28.32 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

65.

The momentum is given by Eq. 26–4, and the energy is given by Eq. 26–6b and Eq. 26–9. p = γ mυ =

γ mc 2υ c

Eυ c

→ υ=

pc 2 = E

pc 2 2 4

2 2

m c +p c

pc 2 2

m c + p2

26-18

66.

Chapter 26

(a)

The magnitudes of the momenta are equal. Use Eq. 26–4. p = γ mυ =

mυ 1 − υ 2 /c 2

1 mc 2 (υ /c) 1 (938.3 MeV)(0.990) = = 6585 MeV/c c 1 − υ 2 /c 2 c 1 − 0.9902

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 1.602 × 10−10 J/GeV ⎞ 1c ≈ 6.59 GeV/c = (6.585 GeV/c) ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ 3.00 × 108 m/s ⎟⎟⎜⎜ 1 GeV ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ = 3.52 × 10−18 kg ⋅ m/s

(b)

Because the protons are moving in opposite directions, the vector sum of the momenta is 0.

(c)

In the reference frame of one proton, the laboratory is moving at 0.990c. The other proton is moving at + 0.990c relative to the laboratory. We find the speed of one proton relative to the other, and then find the momentum of the moving proton in the rest frame of the other proton by using that relative velocity. (υ + u′) [0.990c + (0.990c)] ⎛ 2(0.990)c ⎞ = =⎜ ⎟ ≈ 0.99995c u υ ′ ⎛ ⎞ [1 + (0.990)(0.990)] ⎝ 1 + 0.9902 ⎠ ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ c ⎠ ⎝ ⎛ 2(0.990) ⎞ (938.3 MeV) ⎜ ⎟ mu 1 mc 2 (u /c) 1 ⎝ 1 + 0.9902 ⎠ = 93358 MeV/c = = p = γ mu = 2 1 − u 2 /c 2 c 1 − u 2 /c 2 c ⎛ 2(0.990) ⎞ 1− ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 1 + 0.9902 ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 1.602 × 10−10 J/GeV ⎞ 1c ≈ 93.4 GeV/c = (93.358 GeV/c) ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ 8 ⎜ 1 GeV ⎝ 3.00 × 10 m/s ⎠⎝ ⎠ = 4.99 × 10−17 kg ⋅ m/s

67.

We find the loss in mass from Eq. 26–8. Δm =

ΔE c2

484 × 103 J (3.00 × 108 m/s) 2

= 5.38 × 10−12 kg

Two moles of water has a mass of 36.0 × 10−3 kg. Find the percentage of mass lost. 5.38 ×10−12 kg 36.0 × 10−3 kg

68.

= 1.49 × 10−10 = 1.49 × 10−8 %

Use Eq. 26–5b for kinetic energy and Eq. 26–7 for rest energy. KE

= (γ − 1)mEnterprise c 2 = mconverted c 2

→

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1 1 − 1⎟ mEnterprise = ⎜ − 1⎟ (6 × 109 kg) = 3 × 107 kg mconverted = ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠ ⎝ 1 − 0.10 ⎠

The Special Theory of Relativity

69.

(a)

26-19

For a particle of nonzero mass, we derive the following relationship between kinetic energy and momentum. E = KE + mc 2 ; ( pc) 2 = E 2 − (mc 2 ) 2 = ( KE + mc 2 ) 2 − (mc 2 ) 2 KE

→

= ( pc) 2 + (mc 2 )2 − mc 2

This is the relationship that is graphed. But note the two extreme regions. If the momentum is small, then we have the classical relationship. KE

⎛ pc ⎞ = −mc 2 + (mc 2 ) 2 + ( pc) 2 = − mc 2 + mc 2 1 + ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎝ mc ⎠

2 ⎛ ⎛ pc ⎞ ⎞ p 2 ≈ −mc 2 + mc 2 ⎜ 1 + 12 ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎝ mc ⎠ ⎟⎠ 2m ⎝

If the momentum is large, then we have this relationship, which is linear. KE

70.

= −mc 2 + (mc 2 ) 2 + ( pc) 2 ≈ pc − mc 2

(b)

For a particle of zero mass, the relationship is simply KE = pc. See the adjacent graph.

(a)

We set the kinetic energy of the spacecraft equal to the rest energy of an unknown mass, m. Use Eqs. 26–5a and 26–7. KE

= (γ − 1)mship c 2 = mc 2

→

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1 1 m = (γ − 1)mship = ⎜ − 1⎟ mship = ⎜ − 1⎟ (1.6 × 105 kg) = 6.4 × 104 kg ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠ ⎝ 1 − 0.70 ⎠

(b)

From the Earth’s point of view, the distance is 35 ly and the speed is 0.70c. Those data are used to calculate the time from the Earth frame, and then Eq. 26–1a is used to calculate the time in the spaceship frame. Δt =

71.

(35 yr)c = 50 yr; 0.70c

Δt0 = Δt 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = (50 yr) 1 − 0.702 = 36 yr

We assume that one particle is moving in the negative direction in the laboratory frame and the other particle is moving in the positive direction. We consider the particle moving in the negative direction as reference frame S and the laboratory as reference frame S′. The velocity of the laboratory relative to the negative-moving particle is υ = 0.82c, and the velocity of the positive-moving particle relative to the laboratory frame is u′ = 0.82c. Solve for the velocity of the positive-moving particle relative to the negative-moving particle, u. Use Eq. 26–10. u=

(υ + u′) (0.82c + 0.82c) = = 0.981c ⎛ υ u′ ⎞ [1 + (0.82)(0.82)] 1 + ⎜ ⎟ c2 ⎠ ⎝

26-20

72.

Chapter 26

We consider the motion from the reference frame of the spaceship. The passengers will see the trip distance contracted, as given by Eq. 26–3a. They will measure their speed to be that contracted distance divided by the years of travel time (as measured on the ship). Use that speed to find the work done (the kinetic energy of the ship).

υ=

A 1 − υ 2 /c 2 A = 0 Δt0 Δt 0

→

⎛ W = ΔKE = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ ⎜ ⎝

1 2 ⎛ ⎜ 1 + ⎛ cΔt0 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎝ A0 ⎠ ⎝ ⎞ 1 − 1⎟ mc 2 ⎟ 1 − υ 2 /c 2 ⎠ =

⎞ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎠

1 = 0.9887c 2⎞ ⎛ ⎜ 1 + ⎛ 1.0 ly ⎞ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎝ 6.6 ly ⎠ ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞ 1 =⎜ − 1⎟ (3.6 × 104 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 = 1.8 × 1022 J ⎜ ⎟ 2 ⎝ 1 − 0.9887 ⎠

Note that, according to Problem 73, this is about 100 × the annual energy consumption of the United States. 73.

The kinetic energy is given by Eq. 26–5b. KE

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1 1 = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ (14,500 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎜ 1 − (0.90) 2 ⎟ ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ = 1.7 × 1021 J

The spaceship’s kinetic energy is approximately 20 times as great as the annual U.S. energy use. 74.

The pi meson decays at rest, so the momentum of the muon and the neutrino must each have the same magnitude (and opposite directions). The neutrino has no mass, and the total energy must be conserved. We combine these relationships using Eq. 26–9. Ev = ( pv2 c 2 + mv2 c 4 )1/2 = pv c; Eπ = Eμ + Ev

pμ = pv = p

→ mπ c 2 = ( pμ2 c 2 + mμ2 c 4 )1/2 + pv c = ( p 2 c 2 + mμ2 c 4 )1/2 + pc →

mπ c 2 − pc = ( p 2 c 2 + mμ2 c 4 )1/2

→ (mπ c 2 − pc) 2 = ( p 2 c 2 + mμ2 c 4 )

Solve for the momentum. mπ2 c 4 − 2mπ c 2 pc + p 2 c 2 = p 2 c 2 + mμ2 c 4

→

pc =

mπ2 c 2 − mμ2 c 2 2mπ

Write the kinetic energy of the muon using Eqs. 26–6b and 26–9. K μ = Eμ − mμ c 2 ;

Eμ = Eπ − Ev = mμ c 2 − pc →

K μ = (mπ c 2 − pc) − mμ c 2 = mπ c 2 − mμ c 2 − = =

2mπ (mπ c 2 − mμ c 2 ) 2mπ

−

2mπ

(mπ2 c 2 − mμ2 c 2 ) 2mπ

(2mπ2 − 2mμ mπ − mπ2 + mμ2 )c 2 2mπ

(mπ2 c 2 − mμ2 c 2 )

(mπ2 − 2mμ mπ + mμ2 )c 2 2mπ

(mπ − mμ ) 2 c 2 2mπ

The Special Theory of Relativity

75.

(a)

26-21

Earth observers see the ship as contracted, as given by Eq. 26–3a. A = A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = (23 m) 1 − (0.75) 2 = 15.2 m ≈ 15 m

(b)

Earth observers see the launch as dilated (lengthened) in time, as given by Eq. 26–1a. Δt =

76.

(a)

Δt0 2

1 − υ /c

28 min 1 − (0.75) 2

= 42.3 min ≈ 42 min

The relative speed can be calculated in either frame and will be the same in both frames. The time measured on Earth will be longer than that measured on the spaceship, by Eq. 26–1a.

υ=

Δtspaceship ΔxEarth ; ΔtEarth = = ΔtEarth 1 − υ 2 /c 2

Δtspaceship ⎛ Δx ⎞ 1 − ⎜ Earth ⎟ ⎝ cΔtEarth ⎠

→

⎛ Δx ⎞ (ΔtEarth ) 2 − ⎜ Earth ⎟ = (Δtspaceship ) 2 c ⎝ ⎠

⎛ Δx ⎞ → (ΔtEarth ) 2 − ⎜ Earth ⎟ = (Δtspaceship ) 2 c ⎝ ⎠

→

⎛ Δx ⎞ ΔtEarth = ⎜ Earth ⎟ + (Δtspaceship ) 2 = (6.0 yr) 2 + (3.50 yr) 2 = 6.946 yr ≈ 6.9 yr ⎝ c ⎠

(b)

The distance as measured by the spaceship will be contracted.

υ=

ΔxEarth Δxspaceship = ΔtEarth Δtspaceship

Δxspaceship =

Δtspaceship ΔtEarth

→

ΔxEarth =

3.50 yr (6.0 ly) = 3.023 ly ≈ 3.0 ly 6.946 yr

This distance is the same as that found using the length contraction relationship. 77.

(a)

The kinetic energy is 5.00 times greater than the rest energy. Use Eq. 26–5b. KE

(b)

= (γ −1)mc 2 = 5.00mc 2

1 1 − υ 2 /c 2

= 6.00 → υ = c 1 −

1 (6.00) 2

= 0.986c

The kinetic energy is 999 times greater than the rest energy. We use the binomial expansion. KE

= (γ − 1)mc 2 = 999mc 2

υ = c 1− 78.

→

1 1 − υ 2 /c 2

= 1000 →

2⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎟ = c (1 − 5.0 × 10−7 ) ⎜ ≈ − 1 c ⎜ 2 ⎜⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠ ⎟ (1000) 2 ⎝ ⎠

Every observer will measure the speed of a beam of light to be c. Check it with Eq. 26–10. u=

υ + u′ (−c) + 0.70c = = −c 1 + υ u′ 1 + (0.70)(−1)

The beam’s speed as a positive value, relative to Earth, is c.

26-22

79.

Chapter 26

From the boy’s frame of reference, the pole remains at rest with respect to him. As such, the pole will always remain 13.0 m long. As the boy runs toward the barn, relativity requires that the (relatively moving) barn contract in size, making the barn even shorter than its rest length of 13.0 m. Thus it is impossible, in the boy’s frame of reference, for the barn to be longer than the pole. So according to the boy, the pole will never completely fit within the barn. In the frame of reference at rest with respect to the barn, it is possible for the pole to be shorter than the barn. We use Eq. 26–3a to calculate the speed that the boy would have to run for the contracted length of the pole, A, to equal the length of the barn. A = A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2

80.

→ υ = c 1 − A 2 /A 20 = c 1 − (10.0 m) 2 /(13.0 m) 2 = 0.6390c

At the North Pole the clock is at rest, while the clock on the Equator travels the circumference of the Earth each day. We divide the circumference of the Earth by the length of the day to determine the speed of the equatorial clock. We set the dilated time equal to 2.0 years and solve for the change in rest times for the two clocks.

υ=

2π R 2π (6.38 × 106 m) = = 464 m/s T (24 h)(3600 s/h)

Δt = Δt =

Δt0,eq

⎛ υ2 ⎞ → Δt0,eq = Δt 1 − υ 2 /c 2 ≈ Δt ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2c ⎟ ⎝ ⎠

1 − υ 2 /c 2 Δt0,pole 1− 0

→ Δt0,pole = Δt

⎛ υ2 Δt0,eq − Δt0,pole = Δt ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎜ 2c ⎝ = Δt

81.

υ2 2c 2

⎞ ⎟⎟ − Δt ⎠

(2.0 yr)(464 m/s) 2 (3.156 × 107 s/yr) 2(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2

= 75 μ s

We treat the Earth as the stationary frame and the airplane as the moving frame. The elapsed time in the airplane will be dilated to the observers on the Earth. Use Eq. 26–1a. tEarth =

2π rEarth

;

tplane = tEarth 1 − υ 2 /c 2 =

Δt = tEarth − tplane =

2π rEarth

⎡

(1 −

)

1 − υ 2 /c 2 ≈ ⎛ 1 m/s ⎞ ⎤ ⎟⎥ ⎝ 3.6 km/h ⎠ ⎦

π (6.38 ×106 m) ⎢1300 km/h ⎜ =

2π rEarth

⎣ (3.00 × 108 m/s) 2

1 − υ 2 /c 2

2π rEarth ⎡ ⎛ 1 υ 2 ⎞ ⎤ π rEarthυ ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ 1 − 2 2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ = υ c ⎠ ⎦⎥ c2 ⎣⎢ ⎝ = 8.0 × 10−8 s

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

To determine Mr Tompkins’ speed, examine the clock at Lloyd’s Bank. It should be circular, so measure the height of the clock to find the proper length (260 units) and the width of the clock to find the contracted length (120 units). Use these lengths in Eq. 26–3a with c = 10 m/s to find his speed. A = A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2

→ υ = c 1 − (A /A 0 ) 2 = 10 m/s 1 − (120/260)2 = 8.9 m/s

The Special Theory of Relativity

26-23

This is not how he would see the world, because there would be additional distortions due to the time it takes light to travel from objects to him. More distant objects would appear rotated. 2.

In O 2 ’s frame of reference, O 2 observes that both trains are the same length. But O 2 is observing the contracted length of O1’s train. Thus the proper length of O1’s train is longer than O 2 ’s train. In O1’s frame of reference, O 2 is moving; therefore, O 2 ’s train is length contracted, making it even shorter. When the end of O 2 ’s train passes the end of O1’s train, the first lightning bolt strikes, and both observers record the strike as occurring at the end of their train. A short while later, O1 observes that O 2 ’s train moves down the track until the front ends of the trains are at the same location. When this occurs, the second lightning bolt strikes, and both observers note that it occurs at the front of their train. Since to observer O 2 the trains are the same length, the strikes occurred at the same time. To observer O1 , the trains are not the same length; therefore, train O 2 had to move between strikes so that the ends were aligned during each strike.

The change in length is the difference between the initial length and the contracted length. The binomial expansion is used to simplify the square root expression.

(

ΔA = A 0 − A = A 0 − A 0 1 − υ 2 /c 2 = A 0 1 − 1 − υ 2 /c 2

(

)

≈ A 0 ⎡1 − 1 − 12 υ 2 /c 2 ⎤ = 12 A 0υ 2 /c 2 ⎣ ⎦ ⎛ m/s ⎞ = 12 (500 m)(100 km/h) 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 3.6 km/h ⎠

(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 = 2.14 × 10−12 m

This length contraction is less than the size of an atom. 4.

If the ship travels 0.90c at 30° above the horizontal, then we can consider the motion in two stages: horizontal motion of 0.90c cos 30° = 0.779c and vertical motion of 0.90c sin 30° = 0.45c. The length of the painting will be contracted due to the horizontal motion, and the height will be contracted due to the vertical motion. A = A 0 1 − υ x2 /c 2 = 1.50 m 1 − 0.7792 = 0.94 m h = h0 1 − υ y2 /c 2 = 1.00 m 1 − 0.452 = 0.89 m

Using nonrelativistic mechanics, we would find that the muon could only travel a distance of (3.00 × 108 m/s)(2.20 × 10−6 s) = 660 m before decaying. But from an Earth-based reference frame, the muon’s “clock” would run slowly, so the time to use is the dilated time. The speed in the Earth’s reference frame is then the distance of 10 km divided by the dilated time.

26-24

Chapter 26

υ= υ c

ΔA 0 ΔA 0 ΔA 0 (1 − υ 2 /c 2 ) = = Δt γΔt0 Δt0

→

(3.0 ×10 m ) 4

ΔA 0 c 2 (Δt0 ) 2 + (ΔA 0 ) 2

= 0.9997581c →

(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 (2.20 × 10−6 s)2 + (3.0 × 104 m) 2

υ = 0.99976c

Alternatively, we could find the speed for the muon to travel a contracted length during its “normal” ΔA ΔA ⎛ ΔA 0 ⎞ 1 lifetime. The contracted length is ΔA = ΔA 0 /γ , so the speed would be υ = =⎜ = 0, ⎟ Δt0 ⎝ γ ⎠ Δt0 γΔt0 which is the same as the earlier expression. The kinetic energy is found from Eq. 26–5b. KE

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1 1 = (γ − 1)mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟ (105.7 MeV) ⎜ (1 − υ 2 /c 2 ) ⎟ ⎜ (1 − (0.9997581) 2 ) ⎟ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ = 4700 MeV

The electrostatic force provides the radial acceleration, so those two forces are equated. We solve that relationship for the speed of the electron. Felectrostatic = Fcentripetal

υ=

4πε 0 melectron r

→

4πε 0 r 2

melectronυ 2 r

→

(8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) (1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 9.11× 10

−31

(0.53 × 10

−10

= 2.18 × 106 m/s = 0.0073c

Because this is much less than 0.1c, the electron is not relativistic.

EARLY QUANTUM THEORY AND MODELS OF THE ATOM

Responses to Questions 1.

The lightbulb will not produce light as white as the Sun, since the peak of the lightbulb’s emitted light is in the infrared. The lightbulb will appear more yellowish than the Sun. The Sun has a spectrum that peaks in the visible range.

The difficulty with seeing objects in the dark is that although all objects emit radiation, only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum can be detected by our eyes. Usually objects are so cool that they only give off very long wavelengths of light (infrared), which our eyes are unable to detect.

Bluish stars are the hottest, whitish-yellow stars are hot, and reddish stars are the coolest. This follows from Wien’s law, which says that stars with the shortest wavelength peak in their spectrum have the highest temperatures. Blue is the shortest visible wavelength and red is the longest visible wavelength, so blue is the hottest and red is the coolest.

The red bulb used in black-and-white film darkrooms is a very “cool” filament. Thus it does not emit much radiation in the range of visible wavelengths (and the small amount that it does emit in the visible region is not very intense), which means that it will not develop the black-and-white film but will still allow a person to see what’s going on. A red bulb will not work very well in a darkroom that is used for color film. It will expose and develop the film during the process, especially at the red end of the spectrum, ruining the film.

If the threshold wavelength increases for the second metal, then the second metal has a smaller work function than the first metal. Longer wavelength corresponds to lower energy. It will take less energy for the electron to escape the surface of the second metal.

According to the wave theory, light of any frequency can cause electrons to be ejected as long as the light is intense enough. A higher intensity corresponds to a greater electric field magnitude and more energy. Therefore, there should be no frequency below which the photoelectric effect does not occur. According to the particle theory, however, each photon carries an amount of energy which depends upon its frequency. Increasing the intensity of the light increases the number of photons but does not increase the energy of the individual photons. The cutoff frequency is that frequency at which the energy of the photon equals the work function. If the frequency of the incoming light is below the cutoff, then the electrons will not be ejected because no individual photon has enough energy to eject an electron.

27-1

27-2

Chapter 27

Individual photons of ultraviolet light are more energetic than photons of visible light and will deliver more energy to the skin, causing burns. UV photons also can penetrate farther into the skin and, once at the deeper level, can deposit a large amount of energy that can cause damage to cells.

Cesium will give a higher maximum kinetic energy for the ejected electrons. Since the incident photons bring in a given amount of energy, and in cesium less of this energy goes to releasing the electron from the material (the work function), it will give off electrons with a higher kinetic energy.

(a)

(b)

(c)

10.

A light source, such as a laser (especially an invisible one), could be directed on a photocell in such a way that as a burglar opened a door or passed through a window, the beam would be blocked from reaching the photocell. A burglar alarm could then be triggered to sound when the current in the ammeter went to 0. A light source could be focused on a photocell in a smoke detector. As the density of smoke particles in the air becomes thicker and thicker, more and more of the light attempting to reach the photocell would be scattered away from the photocell. At some set minimum level the alarm could be triggered to sound. The amount of current in the circuit with the photocell depends on the intensity of the light, as long as the frequency of the light is above the threshold frequency of the photocell material. The ammeter in the light meter’s circuit could be calibrated to reflect the light intensity.

(a)

No. The energy of a beam of photons depends not only on the energy of each individual photon but also on the total number of photons in the beam. It is possible that there could be many more photons in the IR beam than in the UV beam. In this instance, even though each UV photon has more energy than each IR photon, the IR beam could have more total energy than the UV beam.

(b)

Yes. A photon’s energy depends on its frequency: E = hf . Since infrared light has a lower frequency than ultraviolet light, a single IR photon will always have less energy than a single UV photon.

11.

No, fewer electrons are emitted, but each one is emitted with higher kinetic energy, when the 400-nm light strikes the metal surface. The intensity (energy per unit time) of both light beams is the same, but the 400-nm photons each have more energy than the 450-nm photons. Thus there are fewer photons hitting the surface per unit time. This means that fewer electrons will be ejected per unit time from the surface with the 400-nm light. The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons leaving the metal surface will be greater, though, since the incoming photons have shorter wavelengths and more energy per photon, and it still takes the same amount of energy (the work function) to remove each electron. This “extra” energy goes into higher kinetic energy of the ejected electrons.

12.

Yes, an X-ray photon that scatters from an electron does have its wavelength changed. The photon gives some of its energy to the electron during the collision and the electron recoils slightly. Thus, the photon has less energy and its wavelength is longer after the collision, since the energy and wavelength are inversely proportional to each other ( E = hf = hc /λ ).

13.

In the photoelectric effect, the photons (typically visible frequencies) have only a few eV of energy, whereas in the Compton effect, the energy of the photons (typically X-ray frequencies) is more than 1000 times greater and their wavelength is correspondingly smaller. In the photoelectric effect, the incident photons eject electrons completely out of the target material, while the photons are completely absorbed (no scattered photons). In the Compton effect, the photons are not absorbed but are scattered from the electrons.

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

27-3

14.

Light demonstrates characteristics of both waves and particles. Diffraction, interference, and polarization are wave characteristics and are demonstrated, for example, in Young’s double-slit experiment. The photoelectric effect and Compton scattering are examples of experiments in which light demonstrates particle characteristics. We can’t say that light IS a wave or a particle, but it has properties of each.

15.

We say that electrons have wave properties since we see them act like waves when they are diffracted or exhibit two-slit interference. We say that electrons have particle properties since we see them act like particles when they are bent by magnetic fields or accelerated and fired into materials where they scatter other electrons.

16.

Both a photon and an electron have properties of waves and properties of particles. They can both be associated with a wavelength and they can both undergo scattering. An electron has a negative charge and has mass, obeys the Pauli exclusion principle, and travels at less than the speed of light. A photon is not charged, has no mass, does not obey the Pauli exclusion principle, and travels at the speed of light. Property

Photon

Electron

Mass

None

9.11× 10−31 kg

Charge

None

−1.60 × 10−19 C

Speed

3 × 108 m/s

< 3 × 108 m/s

There are other properties, such as spin, that will be discussed in later chapters. 17.

The proton will have the shorter wavelength, since it has a larger mass than the electron and therefore a larger momentum for the same speed (λ = h /p).

18.

The particles will have the same kinetic energy. But since the proton has a larger mass, it will have a larger momentum than the electron (KE = p 2 /2m). Wavelength is inversely proportional to momentum, so the proton will have the shorter wavelength.

19.

In Rutherford’s planetary model of the atom, the Coulomb force (electrostatic force) keeps the electrons from flying off into space. Since the protons in the center are positively charged, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the center by the Coulomb force and orbit the center just like the planets orbiting a sun in a solar system due to the attractive gravitational force.

20.

At room temperature, nearly all the atoms in hydrogen gas will be in the ground state. When light passes through the gas, photons are absorbed, causing electrons to make transitions to higher states and creating absorption lines. These lines correspond to the Lyman series since that is the series of transitions involving the ground state or n = 1 level. Since there are virtually no atoms in higher energy states, photons corresponding to transitions from n ≥ 2 to higher states will not be absorbed.

21.

To determine whether there is oxygen near the surface of the Sun, you need to collect light coming from the Sun and spread it out using a diffraction grating or prism so you can see the spectrum of wavelengths. If there is oxygen near the surface, then there will be dark (absorption) lines at the wavelengths corresponding to electron transitions in oxygen.

27-4

22.

Chapter 27

(a)

(b)

The Bohr model successfully explains why atoms emit line spectra; it predicts the wavelengths of emitted light for hydrogen; it explains absorption spectra; it ensures the stability of atoms (by decree); and it predicts the ionization energy of hydrogen. The Bohr model did not give a reason for orbit quantization; it was not successful for multielectron atoms; it could not explain why some emission lines are brighter than others; and it could not explain the “fine structure” of some very closely spaced spectral lines.

23.

The two main difficulties of the Rutherford model of the atom were that (1) it predicted that light of a continuous range of frequencies should be emitted by atoms and (2) it predicted that atoms would be unstable.

24.

It is possible for the de Broglie wavelength (λ = h /p ) of a particle to be bigger than the dimension of the particle. If the particle has a very small mass and a slow speed (like a low-energy electron or proton), then the wavelength may be larger than the dimension of the particle. It is also possible for the de Broglie wavelength of a particle to be smaller than the dimension of the particle if it has a large momentum and a moderate speed (like a baseball). There is no direct connection between the size of a particle and the size of the de Broglie wavelength of a particle. For example, you could also make the wavelength of a proton much smaller than the size of the proton by making it go very fast.

25.

Even though hydrogen only has one electron, it still has an infinite number of energy states for that one electron to occupy, and each line in the spectrum represents a transition between two of those possible energy levels. So there are many possible spectral lines. And seeing many lines simultaneously would mean that there would have to be many hydrogen atoms undergoing energy level transitions—a sample of gas containing many H atoms, for example.

26.

The closely spaced energy levels in Fig. 27–29 correspond to the different transitions of electrons from one energy state to another—specifically to those that start from closely packed high energy levels, perhaps with n = 10 or even higher. When these transitions occur, they emit radiation (photons) that creates the closely spaced spectral lines shown in Fig. 27–24.

27.

On average, the electrons of helium are closer to the nucleus than are the electrons of hydrogen. The nucleus of helium contains two protons (positive charges) so attracts each electron more strongly than the single proton in the nucleus of hydrogen. (There is some shielding of the nuclear charge by the “other” electron, but each electron still feels an average attractive force of more than one proton’s worth of charge.)

28.

The Balmer series spectral lines are in the visible light range and could be seen by early experimenters without special detection equipment. It was only later that the UV (Lyman) and IR (Paschen) regions were explored thoroughly, using detectors other than human sight.

29.

When a photon is emitted by a hydrogen atom as the electron makes a transition from one energy state to a lower one, not only does the photon carry away energy and momentum, but to conserve momentum, the atom must also take away some momentum. If the atom carries away some momentum, then it must also carry away some of the available energy, which means that the photon takes away less energy than Eq. 27–10 predicts.

30.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

continuous line, emission continuous line, absorption continuous with absorption lines (like the Sun)

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

31.

27-5

No. At room temperature, virtually all the atoms in a sample of hydrogen gas will be in the ground state. Thus, the absorption spectrum will contain primarily the Lyman lines, as photons corresponding to transitions from the n = 1 level to higher levels are absorbed. Hydrogen at very high temperatures will have atoms in excited states. The electrons in the higher energy levels will fall to all lower energy levels, not just the n = 1 level. Therefore, emission lines corresponding to transitions to levels higher than n = 1 will be present as well as the Lyman lines. In general, you would expect to see only Lyman lines in the absorption spectrum of room temperature hydrogen, but you would find Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, and other lines in the emission spectrum of high-temperature hydrogen.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(b)

A common misconception is that the maximum wavelength increases as the temperature increases. However, the temperature and maximum wavelength are inversely proportional. As the temperature increases, the intensity increases and the wavelength decreases.

(a)

A higher work function requires more energy per photon to release the electrons. Blue light has the shortest wavelength and therefore the largest energy per photon.

(b)

The blue light has a shorter wavelength and therefore more energy per photon. Since the beams have the same intensity (energy per unit time per unit area), the red light will have more photons.

(d)

A common misconception is that violet light has more energy than red light. However, the energy is the product of the energy per photon and the number of photons. A single photon of violet light has more energy than a single photon of red light, but if a beam of red light has more photons than the beam of violet light, then the red light could have more energy.

(d)

The energy of the photon E is equal to the sum of the work function of the metal and the kinetic energy of the released photons. If the energy of the photon is more than double the work function, then cutting the photon energy in half will still allow electrons to be emitted. However, if the work function is more than half of the photon energy, then no electrons would be emitted if the photon energy were cut in half.

(b)

The momentum of a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength. Therefore, doubling the momentum would cut the wavelength in half.

(d)

A commons misconception is that only light behaves as both a particle and a wave. De Broglie postulated, and experiments have confirmed, that in addition to light, electrons and protons (and many other particles) have both wave and particle properties that can be observed or measured.

(d)

A thrown baseball has a momentum on the order of 1 kg ⋅ m/s. The wavelength of the baseball is Planck’s constant divided by the momentum. Due to the very small size of Planck’s constant, the wavelength of the baseball would be much smaller than the size of a nucleus.

(d)

This Chapter demonstrates the wave-particle duality of light and matter. Both electrons and photons have momentum that is related to their wavelength by p = h /λ . Young’s double-slit experiment demonstrated diffraction with light, and later experiments demonstrated electron diffraction. Therefore, all three statements are correct.

10.

(a, c, d) Alpha particles are positive. To produce large angle scattering, the nucleus of the atom would have to repel the alpha particle. Thus the nucleus must be positive. If the nuclear charge was spread out over a large area, then there would be more small-angle scattering but insufficient

27-6

Chapter 27

force to create large-angle scattering. With a small nucleus, large scattering forces are possible. Since most of the alpha particles pass through the foil undeflected, most of the atom must be empty space. The scattering does not require quantized charge, but it would be possible with a continuous charge distribution. Therefore, answer (b) is incorrect. 11.

(d)

A photon is emitted when the electron transitions from a higher state to a lower state. Photons are not emitted when an electron transitions from 2 → 5 or from 5 → 8. The other two transitions are to states that are three states below the original state. The energy levels change more rapidly for lower values of n, so the 5 → 2 transition will have a higher energy and therefore a shorter wavelength than the 8 → 5 transition.

12.

(b)

The lowest energy cannot be zero, if zero energy has been defined as when the electron and proton are infinitely far away. As the electron and proton approach each other, their potential energy decreases. The energy levels are quantized and therefore cannot be any value. As shown in the text after Eq. 27–15b, the lowest energy level of the hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV.

13.

(d)

The current model of the atom is the quantum mechanical model. The plum-pudding model was rejected, as it did not explain Rutherford scattering. The Rutherford atom was rejected, as it did not explain the spectral lines emitted from atoms. The Bohr atom did not explain fine structure. Each of these phenomena are explained by the quantum mechanical model.

14.

(a)

Light is a massless particle. Even though it has no mass, it transports energy and therefore has kinetic energy and momentum. Light is also a wave with frequency and wavelength.

Solutions to Problems In several problems, the value of hc is needed. We often use the result of Problem 29, hc = 1240 eV ⋅ nm. 1.

This scenario fits the experiment that results in Eq. 27–1.

e E (640 V/m) = 2 = = 6.2 × 104 C/kg m rB (14 × 10−3 m)(0.86 T) 2 2.

(a)

The velocity relationship is given right before Eq. 27–1 in the text.

υ= (b)

For the radius of the path in the magnetic field, use an expression derived in Example 20–6. r=

E (1.88 × 104 V/m) = = 7.23 × 106 m/s −3 B (2.60 × 10 T)

mυ (9.11×10−31 kg)(7.23 × 106 m/s) = = 1.58 × 10−2 m = 1.58 cm qB (1.60 × 10−19 C)(2.90 × 10−3 T)

The force from the electric field must balance the weight, and the electric field is the potential difference divided by the plate separation. qE = ne

V = mg d

→

dmg (1.0 × 10−2 m)(2.8 × 10−15 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) = = 5.04 ≈ 5 electrons eV (1.60 × 10−19 C)(340 V)

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

Use Wien’s law, Eq. 27–2, to find the temperature. T=

27-7

(2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K)

λP

(2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) (520 × 10−9 m)

= 5577 K ≈ 5600 K

Use Wien’s law, Eq. 27–2. (a)

λP =

(2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) (2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) = = 1.06 × 10−5 m = 10.6 μ m, far infrared T (273 K)

(b)

λP =

(2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) (2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) = = 9.35410−7 m ≈ 940 nm, near infrared T (3100 K)

(c)

λP =

(2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) (2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) = = 7.25 ×10−4 m ≈ 0.7 mm, microwave T (4 K)

Use Wein’s law, Eq. 27–2. (2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K)

(a)

(b)

λP =

λP

(2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) (18.0 × 10

−9

= 1.61× 105 K

(2.90 × 10−3 m.K) (2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) = = 1.318 × 10−6 m ≈ 1.3 μ m T (2200 K)

Because the energy is quantized according to Eq. 27–3, the difference in energy between adjacent levels is simply ΔE = hf . ΔE = hf = (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(8.1×1013 Hz) = 5.37 × 10−20 J ≈ 5.4 × 10−20 J

⎛ 1 eV 5.37 ×10−20 J ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝

The potential energy is “quantized” in units of mgh. (a)

PE1

= mgh = (62.0 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )(0.200 m) = 121.52 J ≈ 122 J

(b)

PE 2

= mg 2h = 2PE1 = 2(121.52 J) = 243 J

(c)

PE 3

= mg 3h = 3PE1 = 3(121.52 J) = 365 J

(d)

PE n

= mgnh = nPE1 = n(121.52 J) = (122n) J

(e)

ΔE = PE 2 − PE 6 = (2 − 6)(121.52 J) = −486 J

Use Eq. 27–2 with a temperature of 98°F = 37°C = (273 + 37)K = 310 K (3 significant figures).

λP = 10.

⎞ ⎟ = 0.34 eV J ⎟⎠

(2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) (2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) = = 9.35 × 10−6 m = 9.35 μ m T (310 K)

We use Eq. 27–4 to find the energy of the photons. E = hf = (6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(91.7 × 106 Hz) = 6.08 ×10−26 J

27-8

11.

Chapter 27

We use Eq. 27–4 along with the fact that f = c /λ for light. The longest wavelength will have the lowest energy. E1 = hf1 =

E2 = hf 2 =

λ1 hc

λ2

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s)

(400 × 10

−9

⎛ 1 eV = 4.97 ×10−19 J ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (750 × 10−9 m)

⎛ 1 eV = 2.65 × 10−19 J ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝

⎞ ⎟⎟ = 3.11 eV J⎠ ⎞ ⎟ = 1.66 eV J ⎟⎠

Thus the range of energies is 2.7 × 10−19 J < E < 5.0 × 10−19 J , or 1.7 eV < E < 3.1 eV . 12.

Use Eq. 27–4 with the fact that f = c /λ for light.

λ=

c hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = = 3.88 × 10−12 m ≈ 3.9 × 10−3 nm f E (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(320 × 103 eV)

Significant diffraction occurs when the opening is on the order of the wavelength. Thus there would be insignificant diffraction through the doorway. 13.

Use Eq. 27–6. p=

14.

16.

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (5.80 × 10−7 m)

= 1.14 × 10−27 kg ⋅ m/s

The momentum of the photon is found from Eq. 27–6. p=

15.

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (0.014 × 10

−9

= 4.7 × 10−23 kg ⋅ m/s

Particle Theory

Wave Theory

(1) If the light intensity is increased, the number of electrons ejected should increase.

(2) If the light intensity is increased, the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons ejected should not increase.

(2) If the light intensity is increased, the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons ejected should increase.

(3) If the frequency of the light is increased, the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons should increase.

(3) If the frequency of the light is increased, the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons should not be affected.

(4) There is a “cutoff” frequency, below which no electrons will be ejected, no matter how intense the light.

(4) There should be no lower limit to the frequency—electrons will be ejected for all frequencies.

We use Eq. 27–4 with the fact that f = c /λ for light. Emin = hf min

→

f min =

Emin (0.1eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) = = 2.41× 1013 Hz ≈ 2 × 1013 Hz h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

λmax = 17.

f min

= hf min − W0 = 0 →

f min =

W0 4.8 × 10−19 J = = 7.2 × 1014 Hz −34 h 6.63 × 10 J ⋅s

→ n=

Emin Emin λ (10−18 J)(550 × 10−9 m) = = = 2.77 ≈ 3 photons hf hc (6.63 × 10234 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s)

The longest wavelength corresponds to the minimum frequency. That occurs when the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is 0. Use Eq. 27–5a. KE

= hf min − W0 = 0 →

λmax = 20.

= 1.24 × 10−5 m ≈ 1× 10−5 m

We divide the minimum energy by the photon energy at 550 nm to find the number of photons. E = nhf = Emin

19.

(2.41× 1013 Hz)

At the minimum frequency, the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is 0. Use Eq. 27–5a. KE

18.

(3.00 × 108 m/s)

27-9

f min =

λmax

W0 h

→

ch (3.00 × 108 m/s)(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = 4.29 × 10−7 m = 429 nm −19 W0 (2.90 eV)(1.60 × 10 J/eV)

The photon of visible light with the maximum energy has the least wavelength. We use 400 nm as the lowest wavelength of visible light and calculate the energy for that wavelength. hf max =

λmin

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(400 × 10−9 m)

= 3.11 eV

Electrons will not be emitted if this energy is less than the work function. The metals with work functions greater than 3.11 eV are copper and iron. 21.

(a)

At the threshold wavelength, the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is zero, so the work function is equal to the energy of the photon. W0 = hf − KE max = hf =

(b)

1240 eV ⋅ nm = 2.255 eV ≈ 2.3 eV 550 nm

The stopping voltage is the voltage that gives a potential energy change equal to the maximum kinetic energy. We use Eq. 27–5b to calculate the maximum kinetic energy. KE max

= hf − W0 =

V0 =

22.

KE max

− W0 =

1240 eV ⋅ nm − 2.255 eV = 0.845 eV 400 nm

0.845 eV ≈ 0.85 V e

The photon of visible light with the maximum energy has the minimum wavelength. We use Eq. 27–5b to calculate the maximum kinetic energy. KE max

= hf − W0 =

− W0 =

1240 eV ⋅ nm − 2.48 eV = 0.62 eV 400 nm

27-10

23.

Chapter 27

We use Eq. 27–5b to calculate the maximum kinetic energy. Since the kinetic energy is much less than the rest energy, we use the classical definition of kinetic energy to calculate the speed. KE max

= hf − W0 =

KE max

= 12 mυ 2

− W0 =

→ υ=

1240 eV ⋅ nm − 2.48 eV = 0.92 eV 365 nm

2KE max = m

2(0.92 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) 9.11× 10−31 kg

= 5.7 × 105 m/s

This speed is only about 0.2% of the speed of light, so the classical kinetic energy formula is correct. 24.

We use Eq. 27–5b to calculate the work function. W0 = hf − KE max =

25.

− KE max =

1240 eV ⋅ nm − 1.40 eV = 3.46 eV 255 nm

Electrons emitted from photons at the threshold wavelength have no kinetic energy. Use Eq. 27–5b with the threshold wavelength to determine the work function. W0 =

(a)

− KE max =

(b)

λmax

1240 eV ⋅ nm = 3.647 eV 340 nm

Now use Eq. 27–5b again with the work function determined above to calculate the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted by 280-nm light. KE max

26.

− W0 =

1240 eV ⋅ nm − 3.647 eV ≈ 0.78 eV 280 nm

Because the wavelength is greater than the threshold wavelength, the photon energy is less than the work function, so there will be no ejected electrons.

The energy required for the chemical reaction is provided by the photon. We use Eq. 27–4 for the energy of the photon, where f = c /λ . E = hf =

1240 eV ⋅ nm = 1.968 eV ≈ 2.0 eV 630 nm

Each reaction takes place in a molecule, so we use the appropriate conversions to convert eV/molecule to kcal/mol. −19 ⎛ 1.968 eV ⎞ ⎛ 1.60 × 10 E =⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ eV ⎝ molecule ⎠ ⎝

27.

J ⎞ ⎛ 6.02 ×10 23 molecules ⎞ ⎛ kcal ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 45 kcal/mol mol ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 4186 J ⎠

The stopping voltage is the voltage that gives a potential energy change equal to the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons. We use Eq. 27–5b to calculate the work function, where the maximum kinetic energy is the product of the stopping voltage and electron charge. W0 =

− KE max =

− eV0 =

1240 eV ⋅ nm − (1.64 V)e = 3.32 eV 250 nm

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

27-11

29.

We plot the maximum (kinetic) energy of the emitted electrons vs. the frequency of the incident radiation. Eq. 27–5b says KE max = hf − W0 . The best-fit straight line is determined by linear regression in Excel. The slope of the best-fit straight line to the data should give Planck’s constant, the x-intercept is the cutoff frequency, and the y-intercept is the opposite of the work function.

2.5

E = 0.4157 f - 2.3042

2.0

R = 0.9999

1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 6.0

7.0

8.0

(b)

hf cutoff = W0

(c)

W0 = 2.3 eV

f cutoff =

10.0

11.0

12.0

h = (0.4157 eV/1014 Hz)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) = 6.7 × 10−34 J ⋅ s →

9.0

Frequency (10 Hz)

(a)

W0 2.3042 eV = = 5.5 × 1014 Hz h (0.4157 eV/1014 Hz)

Since f = c /λ , the energy of each emitted photon is E = hc /λ . We insert the values for h and c and convert the resulting units to eV ⋅ nm. E=

30.

Energy (eV)

3.0

28.

(6.626 ×10−34 J ⋅ s)(2.998 ×108 m/s) (1 eV/1.602 × 10−19 J)

(10

−9

m/1 nm)

1240 eV ⋅ nm λ (in nm)

Use Eq. 27–7.

λ′ = λ +

h h (1 − cos φ ) → Δλ = (1 − cos φ ) → me c me c ⎛

φ = cos −1 ⎜1 −

me cΔλ ⎞ h ⎟⎠

⎝ ⎛ (9.11× 10−31 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s)(1.7 × 10−13 m) ⎞ = cos −1 ⎜ 1 − ⎟⎟ = 21.58° ≈ 22° ⎜ (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) ⎝ ⎠

31.

The Compton wavelength for a particle of mass m is h /mc. (a)

h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = 2.43 × 10−12 m me c (9.11× 10−31 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s)

(b)

h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = 1.32 × 10−15 m mp c (1.67 × 10−27 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s)

(c)

The energy of the photon is given by Eq. 27–4. Ephoton = hf =

hc = mc 2 = rest energy (h /mc)

27-12

32.

Chapter 27

We find the Compton wavelength shift for a photon scattered from an electron, using Eq. 27–7. The Compton wavelength of a free electron is calculated in Problem 31 above. ⎛ h ⎞ −3 ⎟ (1 − cos θ ) = λC (1 − cos θ ) = (2.43 × 10 nm)(1 − cos θ ) ⎝ me c ⎠

λ′ − λ = ⎜

33.

(a)

λ ′a − λ = (2.43 × 10−3 nm)(1 − cos 45°) = 7.12 × 10−4 nm

(b)

λ ′b − λ = (2.43 × 10−3 nm)(1 − cos 90°) = 2.43 × 10−3 nm

(c)

λ ′c − λ = (2.43 ×10−3 nm)(1 − cos180°) = 4.86 × 10−3 nm

The photon energy must be equal to the kinetic energy of the products plus the mass energy of the products. The mass of the positron is equal to the mass of the electron. Ephoton = KE products + mproducts c 2 KE products

34.

→

= Ephoton − mproducts c = Ephoton − 2melectron c 2 = 3.64 MeV − 2(0.511 MeV) = 2.62 MeV

The photon with the longest wavelength has the minimum energy in order to create the masses with no additional kinetic energy. Use Eq. 27–6.

λmax =

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) hc hc h = = = = 6.62 × 10−16 m 2 27 8 − Emin 2mc 2mc 2(1.67 × 10 kg)(3.00 × 10 m/s)

This must take place in the presence of some other object in order for momentum to be conserved. 35.

The minimum energy necessary is equal to the rest energy of the two muons. Emin = 2mc 2 = 2(207)(0.511 MeV) = 212 MeV

The wavelength is given by Eq. 27–6.

λ= 36.

hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 5.86 × 10−15 m E (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(212 × 106 eV)

Since υ = 0.001c, the total energy of the particles is essentially equal to their rest energy. The particles have the same rest energy of 0.511 MeV. Since the total momentum is 0, each photon must have half the available energy and equal momenta. Ephoton = melectron c 2 = 0.511 MeV ;

37.

pphoton =

Ephoton c

= 0.511 MeV/c

The energy of the photon is equal to the total energy of the two particles produced. The particles have the same kinetic energy and the same mass. Ephoton = 2(KE + mc 2 ) = 2(0.285 MeV + 0.511 MeV) = 1.592 MeV

The wavelength is found from Eq. 27–6.

λ=

hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 7.81× 10−13 m E (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(1.592 × 106 eV)

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

38.

We find the wavelength from Eq. 27–8.

λ= 39.

h h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = = 3.2 × 10−32 m p mυ (0.21 kg)(0.10 m/s)

The neutron is not relativistic, so use p = mυ . Also use Eq. 27–8.

λ= 40.

27-13

h h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = = 4.7 × 10−12 m p mυ (1.67 × 10−27 kg)(8.5 × 104 m/s)

We assume that the electron is nonrelativistic, and check that with the final answer. We use Eq. 27–8.

λ=

h h = p mυ

→ υ=

h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = 2.695 × 106 m/s = 0.0089c mλ (9.11× 10−31 kg)(0.27 × 10−9 m)

The use of classical expressions is justified. The kinetic energy is equal to the potential energy change. eV = KE = 12 mυ 2 =

1 (9.11 × 10 −31 2

kg)(2.695 × 106 m/s) 2

(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

= 20.7 eV

Thus the required potential difference is 21 V. 41.

Since the particles are not relativistic, we may use KE = p 2 /2m. We then form the ratio of the kinetic energies, using Eq. 27–8. KE

42.

(a)

p2 h2 = ; 2m 2mλ 2

h 2 /2me λ 2 h 2 /2mp λ 2

mp me

1.67 × 10−27 kg 9.11× 10−31 kg

= 1840

6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s 4.5 × 10−10 m

= 1.5 × 10−24 kg ⋅ m/s

We assume the speed is nonrelativistic.

λ= (c)

KE p

We find the momentum from Eq. 27–8. p=

(b)

KE e

h h = p mυ

→ υ=

h 6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s = = 1.6 × 106 m/s mλ (9.11× 10−31 kg)(4.5 × 10−10 m)

We calculate the kinetic energy classically. KE

= 12 mυ 2 = 12 (mc 2 )(υ /c )2 = 12 (0.511 MeV)(5.39 × 10−3 ) 2 = 7.43 ×10 −6 MeV = 7.43 eV

This is the energy gained by an electron if accelerated through a potential difference of 7.4 V. 43.

Because all of the energies to be considered are much less than the rest energy of an electron, we can use nonrelativistic relationships. We use Eq. 27–8 to calculate the wavelength. KE

p2 2m

→

p = 2m(KE ); λ =

h = p

h 2m(KE )

27-14

Chapter 27

(a)

(b)

(c)

44.

λ=

2m(KE ) h

λ=

2(9.11× 10

kg)(10 eV)(1.60 × 10

−31

kg)(100 eV)(1.60 × 10

2(9.11× 10

−31

h = p

J/eV)

−19

= 3.88 × 10−10 m ≈ 4 × 10−10 m

J/eV)

kg)(1.0 × 10 eV)(1.60 × 10

Since the particles are not relativistic, use Eq. 27–8.

λ=

−19

= 1.23 × 10−10 m ≈ 1× 10−10 m

6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s

2m(KE )

−31

6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s

2m(KE )

λ=

6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s

h 2mKE

;

λp λe

h 2mp KE

h 2me KE

−19

J/eV)

= 3.9 × 10−11 m

= p 2 /2m. Form the ratio of the wavelengths, using

me <1 mp

Thus the proton has the shorter wavelength, since me < mp . 45.

The final KE of the electron equals the negative change in its PE as it passes through the potential difference. Compare this energy to the electron’s rest energy to determine if it is relativistic. KE

= −qΔV = (1 e)(35 × 103 V) = 35 × 103 eV

Because this is greater than 1% of the electron rest energy, the electron is relativistic. We use Eq. 26–9 to determine the electron momentum and then Eq.27–6 to determine the wavelength. E 2 = [ KE + mc 2 ]2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4

λ=

h = p

hc KE

Because λ 46.

+ 2( KE )mc

⇒

p= 3

+ 2(KE )mc 2 c 1240 eV ⋅ nm

(35 × 10 eV) + 2(35 × 10 eV)(511× 10 eV)

= 6.4 × 10−3 nm

5 cm, diffraction effects are negligible.

For diffraction, the wavelength must be on the order of the opening. Find the speed from Eq. 27–8.

λ=

h h = p mυ

→ υ=

h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = 3.9 × 10−38 m/s mλ (1400 kg)(12 m)

This is on the order of 10−39 times ordinary highway speeds. 47.

We relate the kinetic energy to the momentum with a classical relationship, since the electrons are nonrelativistic. We also use Eq. 27–8. We then assume that the kinetic energy was acquired by electrostatic potential energy. KE

p2 h2 = = eV 2m 2mλ 2 h2

2meλ 2

→

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2 2(9.11× 10−31 kg)(1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.26 × 10−9 m) 2

= 22 V

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

48.

27-15

The kinetic energy is 2850 eV. That is small enough compared to the rest energy of the electron for the electron to be nonrelativistic. We use Eq. 27–8.

λ=

h h hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (3.00 × 108 m/s) = = = 1/2 2 1/2 p (2mKE ) (2mc KE ) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)[2(0.511×106 eV)(2850 eV)]1/2

= 2.30 × 10−11 m = 23.0 pm

49.

The energy of a level is En = − (a)

(13.6 eV) n2

, from Eq. 27–15b for Z = 1.

The transition from n = 1 to n′ = 3 is an absorption, because the final state, n′ = 3, has a higher energy. The photon energy is the difference between the energies of the two states. ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ hf = En′ − En = −(13.6 eV) ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ = 12.1 eV ⎣⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎦

(b)

The transition from n = 6 to n′ = 2 is an emission, because the initial state, n′ = 2, has a higher energy. The photon energy is the difference between the energies of the two states. ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ hf = −( En′ − En ) = (13.6 eV) ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ = 3.0 eV ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎦

(c)

The transition from n = 4 to n′ = 5 is an absorption, because the final state, n′ = 5, has a higher energy. The photon energy is the difference between the energies of the two states. ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ hf = En′ − En = −(13.6 eV) ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ = 0.31 eV ⎣⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎦

The photon for the transition from n = 1 to n′ = 3 has the largest energy. 50.

Ionizing the atom means removing the electron, or raising it to zero energy. Eionization = 0 − En = 0 −

(−13.6 eV) n

(13.6 eV) 32

= 1.51 eV

51.

From ΔE =

52.

Doubly ionized lithium is similar to hydrogen, except that there are three positive charges ( Z = 3) in the nucleus. Use Eq. 27–15b with Z = 3.

, we see that the second longest wavelength comes from the transition with the second λ smallest energy: n = 5 to n′ = 3 .

En = 2 Eionization

Z 2 (13.6 eV) n

32 (13.6 eV) 2

=−

n ⎡ (122 eV) ⎤ = 0 − E1 = 0 − ⎢ − ⎥ = 122 eV (1) 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣

(122 eV) n2

27-16

53.

Chapter 27

We use Eq. 27–10 and Eq. 27–15b. Note that E1 , E2 , and E3 are calculated in the textbook. We also need E4 = (a)

−(13.6 eV)

= −0.54 eV.

hc 1240 eV ⋅ nm = = 486 nm ( E4 − E2 ) [−0.85 eV − (−3.40 eV)]

hc 1240 eV ⋅ nm = = 103 nm ( E3 − E1 ) [−1.51 eV − (−13.6 eV)]

The third Balmer line is the transition from n = 5 to n = 2.

λ= 54.

The second Lyman line is the transition from n = 3 to n = 1.

λ= (c)

−(13.6 eV)

The second Balmer line is the transition from n = 4 to n = 2.

λ= (b)

= −0.85 eV and E5 =

hc 1240 eV ⋅ nm = = 434 nm ( E5 − E2 ) [−0.54 eV − (− 3.40 eV)]

We evaluate the Rydberg constant using Eq. 27–9 and 27–16. We use hydrogen so Z = 1. We also 1 . substitute k = 4πε 0

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 2π 2 Z 2 e 4 mk 2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ = R⎜ − = − 2⎟ → ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ 3 2 λ ( n) ⎠ hc ⎝ (n′) ⎝ ( n′) ( n) ⎠ 2π 2 Z 2 e 4 mk 2 2π 2 Z 2 e 4 m = R= 16π 2ε 02 h3c h3c 1

(1) 2 (1.602176 × 10−19 C) 4 (9.109382 × 10−31 kg) 8(8.854188 × 10−12 C 2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) 2 (6.626069 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)3 (2.997925 × 108 m/s)

= 1.097361 × 107

55.

hc 1240 eV ⋅ nm = = 91.2 nm 13.6 eV Eion

The energy of the photon is the sum of the ionization energy of 13.6 eV and the kinetic energy of 11.5 eV. The wavelength is found from Eq. 27–4. hf =

57.

C J 3s3 m/s N 2 ⋅ m4

≈ 1.0974 × 107 m −1

The longest wavelength corresponds to the minimum energy, which is the ionization energy.

λ= 56.

C 4 ⋅ kg 4

= Etotal

→ λ=

hc 1240 eV ⋅ nm = = 49.4 nm Etotal 25.1 eV

Singly ionized helium is like hydrogen, except that there are two positive charges ( Z = 2) in the nucleus. Use Eq. 27–15b. En = −

Z 2 (13.6 eV) n

=−

22 (13.6 eV) n

=−

(54.4 eV) n2

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

27-17

We find the energy of the photon from the n = 5 to n = 2 transition in singly ionized helium. ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ΔE = E5 − E2 = −(54.4 eV) ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ = 12.1 eV ⎣⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦

Because this is the energy difference for the n = 1 to n = 3 transition in hydrogen, the photon can be absorbed by a hydrogen atom which will jump from n = 1 to n = 3 . 58.

Singly ionized helium is like hydrogen, except that there are two positive charges ( Z = 2) in the nucleus. Use Eq. 27–15b. En = 2

Z 2 (13.6 eV) 2

=−

22 (13.6 eV) 2

=−

(54.4 eV)

n n n2 E1 = −54.5 eV, E2 = −13.6 eV, E3 = −6.0 eV, E4 = −3.4 eV, E5 = −2.2 eV, E6 = −1.5 eV, …

59.

Doubly ionized lithium is like hydrogen, except that there are three positive charges ( Z = 3) in the nucleus. The square of the product of the positive and negative charges appears in the energy term for the energy levels. We can use the results for hydrogen, if we replace e2 with Ze2 : En = −

Z 2 (13.6 eV)

=−

32 (13.6 eV)

=−

(122.4 eV)

−7.65 −13.6 −30.6

n2 n2 n2 E1 = −122 eV, E2 = −30.6 eV, E3 = −13.6 eV, E4 = −7.65 eV, E5 = −4.90 eV, E6 = −3.40 eV, …

60.

The potential energy for the ground state is given by the charge of the electron times the electric potential caused by the proton. PE

= (−e)Vproton = (−e)

−122

e (9.00 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C 2 )(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 (1 eV/1.60 × 10−19 J) =− 4πε 0 r1 (0.529 × 10−10 m) 1

= −27.2 eV

The kinetic energy is the total energy minus the potential energy. KE

61.

= E1 − PE = −13.6 eV − (−27.2 eV) = +13.6 eV

The angular momentum can be used to find the quantum number for the orbit, and then the energy can be found from the quantum number. Use Eqs. 27–11 and 27–15b. L=n

h 2π

→ n=

En = −(13.6 eV)

Z2 n

2π L 2π (5.273 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 /s ) = = 5.000 ≈ 5 h (6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)

=−

13.6 eV = −0.544 eV 25

27-18

62.

Chapter 27

The value of n is found from rn = n 2 r1 , and then the energy can be found from Eq. 27–15b. rn = n 2 r1 E=−

63.

rn 1.00 × 10−2 m = = 13, 749 ≈ 13, 700 r1 0.529 × 10−10 m

→ n=

(13.6 eV) n

=−

(13.6 eV) (13, 749)

= −7.19 × 10−8 eV

The velocity is found from Eq. 27–11 evaluated for n = 1. mυ rn =

υ= Since υ

nh 2π

→

h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = 2.190 × 106 m/s = 7.30 × 10−3 c 2π r1me 2π ( 0.529 × 10−10 m )(9.11× 10−31 kg )

c, we say yes , nonrelativistic formulas are justified. The relativistic factor is as follows. 2

1 − υ /c ≈ 1 −

1 (υ 2 /c 2 ) 2

6 ⎛ 1 2.190 × 10 ⎜ 2⎜ 8

m/s ⎞ −5 = 1− ⎟⎟ = 1 − 2.66 × 10 ≈ 0.99997 . × 3 00 10 m/s ⎝ ⎠

We see that 1 − υ 2 /c 2 is essentially 1. Yes, nonrelativistic formulas are justified. 64.

The electrostatic potential energy is given by Eq. 17–2a. Note that the charge is negative. The kinetic energy is given by the total energy, Eq. 27–15a, minus the potential energy. The Bohr radius is given by Eq. 27–12. PE

65.

= −eV = −

Ze 2 1 Ze 2π mZe 2 Z 2 e4 m =− =− 2 2 2 2 2 4πε 0 rn 4πε 0 n h ε 0 4n h ε 0 1

= E − PE = −

Z 2e 4 m ⎛ Z 2 e 4 m ⎞ Z 2 e 4 m ; −⎜− ⎟= 8ε 02 h 2 n 2 ⎝ 4n 2 h 2ε 02 ⎠ 8n 2 h 2ε 02

PE KE

Z 2 e4 m 4n 2 h 2 ε 2 Z 2 e 4 m 8n 2 h 2ε 2 = 2 4 0 = 2 2 2 2 4 0 = 2 Z em 4n h ε 0 Z e m 8n 2 h 2ε 02

When we compare the gravitational and electric forces, we see that we can use the same expression for the Bohr orbits, Eq. 27–12 and 27–15a, if we replace kZe2 with Gme mp . r1 = r1 =

h 2ε 0

→

4π 2 me kZe2 h2 4π 2 Gme2 mp

(6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2 4π 2 (6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(9.11× 10−31 kg) 2 (1.67 × 10−27 kg)

= 1.20 × 1029 m E1 = − =−

2π 2 Z 2 e 4 me k 2 h2

= − (kZe 2 ) 2

2π 2 me h2

→ E1 = −

2π 2 G 2 me3 mp 2 h2

2π 2 (6.67 ×10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 ) 2 (9.11×10−31 kg)3 (1.67 × 10−27 kg) 2 (6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2

= −4.22 × 10−97 J

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

66.

Find the peak wavelength from Wien’s law, Eq. 27–2.

λP = 67.

(2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) (2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K) = = 1.1× 10−3 m = 1.1 mm T (2.7 K)

To produce a photoelectron, the hydrogen atom must be ionized, so the minimum energy of the photon is 13.6 eV. We find the minimum frequency of the photon from Eq. 27–4. E = hf

68.

→

p2 h2 = 2m 2mλ 2 2sin θ 2mKE

→

f min =

Emin (13.6 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) = = 3.28 × 1015 Hz h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)

2mKE

= 2d sin θ

→

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2(sin 38°) 2(9.11×10

−31

kg)(72 eV)(1.60 × 10

−19

J/eV)

= 1.2 × 10−10 m

The power rating is the energy produced per second. If this is divided by the energy per photon, then the result is the number of photons produced per second. Use Eq. 27–4. hc

;

P Ephoton

Pλ (720 W)(12.2 × 10−2 m) = = 4.4 ×1026 photons/s hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s)

The intensity is the amount of energy per second per unit area reaching the Earth. If that intensity is divided by the energy per photon, then the result will be the photons per second per unit area reaching the Earth. We use Eq. 27–4. Ephoton = hf = I photons =

71.

E h

→ λ=

Ephoton = hf =

70.

f =

From Section 25–11, the spacing between planes, d, for the first-order peaks is given by Eq. 25–10, λ = 2d sin θ . The wavelength of the electrons can be found from their kinetic energy. The electrons are not relativistic at the given energy. KE

69.

27-19

Isunlight Ephoton

Isunlight λ hc

(1300 W/m2 )(550 ×10−9 m) (6.63 ×10

−34

J ⋅ s)(3.00 ×10 m/s)

= 3.595 ×1021 ≈ 3.6 ×1021

photons s ⋅ m2

The impulse on the wall is due to the change in momentum of the photons. Each photon is absorbed, so its entire momentum is transferred to the wall. Fon wall Δt = Δpwall = −Δpphotons = −(0 − npphoton ) = npphoton =

→

n F λ (5.8 × 10−9 N)(633 × 10−9 m) = = = 5.5 × 1018 photons/s Δt h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)

72.

As light leaves the flashlight, it gains momentum. The momentum change is given by Eq. 22–9a. Dividing the momentum change by the elapsed time gives the force the flashlight must apply to the light to produce the momentum, which is equal to the force that the light applies to the flashlight. Δp ΔU P 2.5 W = = = = 8.3 × 10−9 N Δt cΔt c 3.00 × 108 m/s

27-20

73.

Chapter 27

(a)

Since f = c /λ , the photon energy is E = hc /λ and the largest wavelength has the smallest energy. In order to eject electrons for all possible incident visible light, the metal’s work function must be less than or equal to the energy of a 750-nm photon. Thus the maximum value for the metal’s work function W0 is found by setting the work function equal to the energy of the 750-nm photon. W0 =

(b)

(a)

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) ⎛ 1 eV ⎜⎜ −9 −19 (750 × 10 m) ⎝ 1.60 × 10

⎞ ⎟ = 1.7 eV J ⎟⎠

If the photomultiplier is to function only for incident wavelengths less than 410 nm, then we set the work function equal to the energy of the 410-nm photon. W0 =

74.

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) ⎛ 1 eV ⎜⎜ −9 −19 (410 × 10 m) ⎝ 1.60 × 10

⎞ ⎟ = 3.0 eV J ⎟⎠

Calculate the energy from the lightbulb that enters the eye by calculating the intensity of the light at a distance of = 1.0 m by dividing the power in the visible spectrum by the surface area of a sphere of radius = 1.0 m. Multiply the intensity of the light by the area of the pupil (diameter = D) to determine the energy entering the eye per second. Divide this energy by the energy of a photon (Eq. 27–4) to calculate the number of photons entering the eye per second. I=

P 4π

Pe = I (π D 2 /4) =

P ⎛D⎞ ⎜ ⎟ 16 ⎝ ⎠

2 ⎛ 4.0 × 10−3 m ⎞ P 0.030(100 W)(550 × 10−9 m) Pλ ⎛ D ⎞ = n= e = ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ hc /λ 16hc ⎝ ⎠ 16(6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) ⎜⎝ 1.0 m ⎠

= 8.3 × 1012 photons/s

(b)

Repeat the above calculation for a distance of I= n=

P 4π

Pe = I (π D 2 /4) =

P ⎛D⎞ ⎜ ⎟ 16 ⎝ ⎠

= 1.0 km instead of 1.0 m. 2

2 ⎛ 4.0 × 10−3 m ⎞ Pe Pλ ⎛ D ⎞ 0.030(100 W)(550 × 10−9 m) = = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ hc /λ 16hc ⎝ ⎠ 16(6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) ⎜⎝ 1.0 × 103 m ⎟⎠

= 8.3 × 106 photons/s

75.

The total energy of the two photons must equal the total energy (kinetic energy plus mass energy) of the two particles. The total momentum of the photons is 0, so the momentum of the particles must have been equal and opposite. Since both particles have the same mass and had the same initial momentum, they each had the same initial kinetic energy. Ephotons = Eparticles = 2(me c 2 + KE ) → KE

76.

= 12 Ephotons − me c 2 = 0.85 MeV − 0.511 MeV = 0.34 MeV

We calculate the required momentum from de Broglie’s relation, Eq. 27–78. p=

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (4.0 × 10−12 m)

= 1.658 × 10−22 kg ⋅ m/s

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

(a)

(b)

27-21

For the proton, we use the classical definition of momentum to determine its speed and kinetic energy. We divide the kinetic energy by the charge of the proton to determine the required potential difference.

υ=

p 1.658 × 10−22 kg ⋅ m/s = = 9.93 × 105 m/s ≈ 0.01c −27 m 1.67 × 10 kg

K mυ 2 (1.67 × 10−27 kg)(9.93 × 105 m/s) 2 = = = 51 V 2e e 2(1.60 × 10−19 C)

For the electron, if we divide the momentum by the electron mass we obtain a speed that is about 60% of the speed of light. Therefore, we must use Eq. 26–9 to determine the energy of the electron. We then subtract the rest energy from the total energy to determine the kinetic energy of the electron. Finally, we divide the kinetic energy by the electron charge to calculate the potential difference. 1

E = [( pc) 2 + (mc 2 ) 2 ] 2 1

= [(1.658 × 10 −22 kg ⋅ m/s) 2 (3.00 ×108 m/s) 2 + (9.11× 10 −31 kg) 2 (3.00 × 108 m/s) 4 ] 2 = 9.950 × 10 −14 J KE

= E − mc 2 = 9.950 × 10−14 J − (9.11× 10−31 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 = 1.391× 10 −14 J

77.

1.391× 10−14 J = 86,925 V ≈ 87 kV 1.60 × 10−19 C

If we ignore the recoil motion, then at the closest approach the kinetic energy of both particles is zero. The potential energy of the two charges must equal the initial kinetic energy of the α particle. KEα

=U =

rmin =

( Zα e)( Z Ag e)

4πε 0

rmin

( Zα e)( Z Ag e)

4πε 0

KEα

→

(9.00 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C 2 )(2)(79)(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 (4.8 MeV)(1.60 × 10−13 J/MeV)

= 4.74 × 10−14 m

The distance to the “surface” of the gold nucleus is then 4.74 ×10−14 m − 7.0 ×10−15 m = 4.0 × 10−14 m . 78.

The decrease in mass occurs because a photon has been emitted. We calculate the fractional change. Since we are told to find the amount of decrease, we use the opposite of the change. ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ −ΔE ⎞ (13.6 eV) ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟ 2 −Δm ⎝ c ⎠ −ΔE ⎣⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦ = 1.29 × 10−8 = = = 2 m m (939 × 106 eV) mc

79.

We calculate the ratio of the forces. Fgravitational Felectric

⎛ Gme mp ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ r 2 ⎠ Gme mp (6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(9.11× 10−31 kg)(1.67 × 10−27 kg) =⎝ = = ke 2 (9.00 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 ⎛ ke 2 ⎞ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎝ r ⎠ = 4.40 × 10−40

Yes, the gravitational force may be safely ignored. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

27-22

80.

81.

Chapter 27

The potential difference gives the electrons a kinetic energy of 12.3 eV, so it is possible to provide this much energy to the hydrogen atom through collisions. From the ground state, the maximum energy of the atom is −13.6 eV + 12.3 eV = −1.3 eV. From the energy level diagram, Fig. 27–29, we see that this means that the atom could be excited to the n = 3 state, so the possible transitions when the atom returns to the ground state are n = 3 to n = 2, n = 3 to n = 1, and n = 2 to n = 1. We calculate the wavelengths from the equation above and Eq. 27–16.

λ3 → 2 =

1240 eV ⋅ nm hc = = 650 nm ( E3 − E2 ) [−1.5 eV − (−3.4 eV)]

λ3 → 1 =

1240 eV ⋅ nm hc = = 102 nm ( E3 − E1 ) [−1.5 eV − (−13.6 eV)]

λ2 → 1 =

hc 1240 eV ⋅ nm = = 122 nm ( E2 − E1 ) [− 3.4 eV − (−13.6 eV)]

The stopping potential is the voltage that gives a potential energy change equal to the maximum kinetic energy. We use Eq. 27–5b to first find the work function and then find the stopping potential for the higher wavelength. KE max

= eV0 =

eV1 = =

λ1

− W0

− W0 =

→ W0 =

λ0

− eV0

⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞ hc ⎛ hc − ⎜ − eV0 ⎟ = hc ⎜ − ⎟ + eV0 λ1 ⎝ λ0 ⎠ ⎝ λ1 λ0 ⎠

⎞ (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) ⎛ 1 1 − ⎜ ⎟ + 2.10 eV = 0.32 eV −19 −9 −9 (1.60 × 10 J/ev) ⎝ 440 × 10 m 270 × 10 m ⎠

The potential difference needed to oppose an electron kinetic energy of 0.32 eV is 0.32 V. 82.

We assume that the neutron is not relativistic. If the resulting velocity is small, then our assumption will be valid. We use Eq. 27–8.

λ=

h h = p mυ

→ υ=

h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = 1323 m/s ≈ 1000 m/s mλ (1.67 × 10−27 kg)(0.3 × 10−9 m)

This is not relativistic, so our assumption was valid. 83.

The intensity is the amount of energy hitting the surface area per second. That is found from the number of photons per second hitting the area and the energy per photon, from Eq. 27–4. I=

(1.0 × 1012 photons) hc 2

(1 m )(1 s)

(1.0 × 1012 ) (6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2

(1 m )(1 m )

(497 × 10

−9

= 4.0 × 10−7 W/m 2

The magnitude of the electric field is found from Eq. 22–8. I = 12 ε 0 cE02

→ E0 =

2I 2(4.0 × 10−7 W/m 2 ) = = 1.7 × 10−2 V/m 2 8 −12 2 ε 0c (8.85 × 10 C /N ⋅ m )(3.00 × 10 m/s)

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

84.

The average force on the sail is equal to the impulse (change in momentum) on the sail divided by the time. Since the photons bounce off the mirror, the impulse is equal to twice the incident momentum. We use Eq. 27–6 to write the momentum of the photon in terms of the photon energy. The total photon energy is the intensity of the sunlight multiplied by the area of the sail. F=

85.

Δp 2( E /c) 2( E /Δt ) 2 IA 2(1350 W/m 2 )(1.0 × 103 m) 2 = = = = = 9.0 N Δt Δt c c 3.00 × 108 m/s

The electrons will be nonrelativistic at that low energy. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is given by Eq. 27–5b. The kinetic energy determines the momentum, and the momentum determines the wavelength of the emitted electrons. The shortest electron wavelength corresponds to the maximum kinetic energy. KE electron

− W0 =

p2 h2 = 2 2m 2mλelectron

→ λelectron =

⎛ hc ⎞ 2m ⎜ − W0 ⎟ ⎝λ ⎠

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)

= 2(9.11× 10−31

86.

27-23

⎛ 1240 eV ⋅ nm ⎞ − 2.2 eV ⎟ (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) kg) ⎜ ⎝ 280 nm ⎠

= 8.2 × 10−10 m

We first find the work function from the given data. A photon energy of 6.0 eV corresponds to a stopping potential of 3.8 V. eV0 = hf − W0

→ W0 = hf − eV0 = 6.0 eV − 3.8 eV = 2.2 eV

If the photons’ wavelength is doubled, then the energy is halved, from 6.0 eV to 3.0 eV. The maximum kinetic energy would be 0.8 eV. If the photon’s wavelength is tripled, then the energy is only 2.0 eV. Since this is less than the work function, no current flows. 87.

The theoretical resolution limit is the wavelength of the electron. We find the wavelength from the momentum and find the momentum from the kinetic energy and rest energy. We use the result from Chapter 26, Problem 45. The kinetic energy of the electron is 110 keV.

λ= =

88.

hc = p

hc KE

+ 2mc 2 KE (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s)

(1.60 × 10

−19

J/eV) (110 × 10 eV) + 2(0.511× 10 eV)(110 × 10 eV)

= 3.5 × 10−12 m

Hydrogen atoms start in the n = 1 orbit (ground state). Using Eq. 27–10 and Eq. 27–15b, we determine the state to which the atom is excited when it absorbs a photon of 12.75 eV via collision with an electron. Then, using Eq. 27–16, we calculate all possible wavelengths that can be emitted as the electron cascades back to the ground state. ΔE = Eu − E

→ Eu = 2

13.6 eV n

= E + ΔE → n =

−13.6 eV = E + ΔE

−13.6 eV =4 −13.6 eV + 12.75 eV

Starting with the electron in the n = 4 orbit, the following transitions are possible: n = 4 to n = 3; n = 4 to n = 2; n = 4 to n = 1; n = 3 to n = 2; n = 3 to n = 1; n = 2 to n = 1.

27-24

Chapter 27

⎛1 1 ⎞ = (1.097 × 107 m −1 ) ⎜ 2 – 2 ⎟ = 5.333 × 105 m −1 λ ⎝3 4 ⎠

→ λ = 1875 nm

1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 = (1.097 × 107 m −1 ) ⎜ 2 – 2 ⎟ = 2.057 × 106 m −1 λ 4 ⎠ ⎝2

→ λ = 486.2 nm

⎛1 1 ⎞ = (1.097 × 107 m −1 ) ⎜ 2 – 2 ⎟ = 1.028 × 107 m −1 λ ⎝1 4 ⎠ 1

1 ⎛ 1 = (1.097 ×107 m −1 ) ⎜ 2 − 2 λ 3 ⎝2 1

λ 1

λ 89.

→ λ = 102.6 nm

⎞ 6 −1 → λ = 121.5 nm ⎟ = 8.228 × 10 m ⎠

The wavelength is found from Eq. 24–4. The velocity of electrons with the same wavelength (and thus the same diffraction pattern) is found from their momentum, assuming they are not relativistic. We use Eq. 27–8 to relate the wavelength and momentum. d sin θ = nλ

υ= 90.

⎞ 6 −1 → λ = 656.3 nm ⎟ = 1.524 × 10 m ⎠

⎛1 1 ⎞ = (1.097 × 107 m −1 ) ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ = 9.751×106 m −1 ⎝1 3 ⎠ ⎛1 1 = (1.097 × 107 m −1 ) ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎝1 2

→ λ = 97.23 nm

(a) (b)

→ λ=

d sin θ h h = = n p mυ

→

hn (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(1) = = 1159 m/s ≈ 1200 m/s md sin θ (9.11× 10−31 kg)(0.010 × 10−3 m)(sin 3.6°)

See the adjacent figure. Absorption of a 5.1-eV photon represents a transition from the ground state to the state 5.1 eV above that, the third excited state. Possible photon emission energies are found by considering all the possible downward transitions that might occur as the electron makes its way back to the ground state. 4 → 3:

− 6.4 eV − (−6.8 eV) = 0.4 eV

4 → 2:

− 6.4 eV − (−9.0 eV) = 2.6 eV

4 → 1:

− 6.4 eV − (−11.5 eV) = 5.1 eV

3 → 2:

− 6.8 eV − (−9.0 eV) = 2.2 eV

3 → 1:

− 6.8eV − (−11.5 eV) = 4.7 eV

2 → 1:

− 9.0 eV − (−11.5 eV) = 2.5 eV

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

91.

27-25

Find the energy of the photon from Eq. 27–4 and Eq. 27–8. E = hf = h

⎛ 1 eV = pc = (3.53 × 10−28 kg ⋅ m/s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 λ ⎝

⎞ ⎟ = 0.662 eV J ⎟⎠

From Fig. 27–29, the Lyman series photons have 13.6 eV ≥ E ≥ 10.2 eV. The Balmer series photons have 3.4 eV ≥ E ≥ 1.9 eV. The Paschen series photons have 1.5 eV ≥ E ≥ 0.65 eV. It appears that this photon belongs to the Paschen series, ejected from energy level 4. 92.

(a)

Use Eq. 27–5b to calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the electron and set this equal to the product of the stopping voltage and the electron charge. hf − W0 hc /λ − W0 = e e (1240 eV ⋅ nm)/(464 nm) − 2.28 eV V0 = = 0.3924 V ≈ 0.39 V e KE max

(b)

= hf − W0 = eV0

→ V0 =

Calculate the speed from the nonrelativistic kinetic energy equation and the maximum kinetic energy found in part (a). KE max

2 = 12 mυmax

υmax =

→

2KE max = m

2(0.3924 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) 9.11× 10

−31

= 3.713 × 105 m/s ≈ 3.7 × 105 m/s

This is only about 0.001c, so we are justified in using the classical definition of kinetic energy. (c)

We use Eq. 27–8 to calculate the de Broglie wavelength.

λ= 93.

6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s h h = = = 1.96 × 10−9 m ≈ 2.0 nm p mυ (9.11× 10−31 kg)(3.713 × 105 m/s)

The electron acquires a kinetic energy of 96 eV, which is used to find the speed. We use the classical expression. KE

= 12 mυ 2

→ υ=

2KE = m

2(96 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) (9.11× 10

−31

kg)

= 5.807 × 106 m/s

This is about 2% of the speed of light. The charge-to-mass ratio can be calculated using an expression derived in Example 20–6. r=

94.

mυ qB

→

5.807 × 106 m/s q υ = = = 1.7 × 1011 C/kg m Br (3.67 × 10−4 T)(9.0 × 10−2 m)

First find the area of a sphere whose radius is the Earth–Sun distance. A = 4π r 2 = 4π (150 × 109 m )2 = 2.83 × 1023 m 2

Multiply this by the given intensity to find the Sun’s total power output. (2.83 × 1023 m 2 )(1350 W/m 2 ) = 3.82 × 1026 W

27-26

Chapter 27

Multiplying by the number of seconds in a year gives the annual energy output. E = (3.82 × 1026 W)(3600 s/h)(24 h/d)(365.25 d/yr) = 1.20 × 1034 J/yr

Finally, we divide by the energy of one photon to find the number of photons per year. (1.20 × 1034 J/yr)(550 × 10−9 m) E Eλ = = = 3.3 × 1052 photons/yr hf hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s)

95.

Use Bohr’s analysis of the H atom, replacing the proton mass with Earth’s mass, the electron mass GmE mM ke 2 . with the Moon’s mass, and the electrostatic force Fe = 2 with the gravitational force, Fg = r2 r To account for the change in force, replace ke2 with GmE mM and set Z = 1. With these replacements, write expressions similar to Eq. 27–12 and Eq. 27–15a for the Bohr radius and energy. rn = rn =

h2 n2 4π 2 mke 2

→

h2 n2 4π

2 GmM mE

(6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2

4π (6.67 × 10

−11

N ⋅ m /kg )(7.35 × 10

kg) (5.98 × 10

kg)

= n 2 (5.16 × 10−129 m) En = 2 En = 2 = −

2π 2 e 4 mk 2 n2 h2

→

3 2π 2G 2 mE2 mM

n2 h2

2π 2 (6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 ) 2 (5.98 × 1024 kg) 2 (7.35 × 1022 kg)3 n 2 (6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2

2.84 × 10165 J n2

Insert the known masses and Earth–Moon distance into the Bohr radius equation to determine the Bohr state. n= =

2 4π 2GmM mE rn

h2 4π 2 (6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(7.35 × 1022 kg) 2 (5.98 × 1024 kg)(3.84 × 108 m) (6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2

= 2.73 × 1068

Since n ≈ 1068 , a value of Δn = 1 is negligible compared to n. Hence the quantization of energy and radius is not apparent. 96.

The kinetic energy of the hydrogen gas would have to be the difference between the n = 1 and n = 2 states of the hydrogen atom, 10.2 eV. Use Eq. 13–8. KE

= 32 kT

→ T=

2KE 2(10.2 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) = = 7.88 × 104 K 3k 3(1.38 × 10−23 J/K)

Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom

27-27

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

J. J. Thomson Robert A. Millikan Max Planck A. H. Compton Louis de Broglie C. J. Davisson, L. H. Germer, G. P. Thomson Ernest Rutherford

The principle of complementarity states that to understand an experiment, sometimes you must use the wave theory and sometimes you must use the particle theory. That is, to have a full understanding of various phenomena (like light), you must accept that they have both wave and particle characteristics. For example, to understand Young’s double-slit experiment for photons or electrons, you must apply wave theory with interference of the two waves. To understand the photoelectric effect for light or Compton scattering for electrons, you must use particle theory.

(a)

We solve Eq. 24–2a for the slit separation with the wavelength given in terms of the electron momentum from Eq. 27–6. The electron momentum is written in terms of the kinetic energy. mλ = d sin θ d=

λ sin θ

→ h = p sin θ

h 2meV sin θ

6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s sin10° 2(9.11× 10−31 kg)(1.602 × 10−19 C)(12 V)

= 2.0 × 10−9 m = 2.0 nm

(b)

No. The slit separation distance is the same size as the atoms.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

particle wave particle wave

(a)

The minimum energy necessary to initiate the chemical process on the retina is the energy of a single photon of red light. Red light has a wavelength of approximately 750 nm. Emin = hf = h

(b)

⎛ 3.00 × 108 m/s ⎞ ⎛ 1 eV = (6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ − −19 9 ⎜ λ ⎝ 750 × 10 m ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 × 10 c

The maximum energy is the energy of a photon of violet light of wavelength 400 nm ⎛ 3.00 × 108 m/s ⎞⎛ 1 eV Emax = (6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) ⎜ ⎜ 400 × 10−9 m ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝ ⎠⎝

(a)

⎞ ⎟ = 1.7 eV J ⎟⎠

⎞ ⎟ = 3.1 eV J ⎟⎠

Apply conservation of momentum before and after the emission of the photon to determine the recoil speed of the atom, where the momentum of the photon is given by Eq. 27–6. The initial momentum is 0. 0=

− mυ

→ υ=

h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = 6.0 × 10−3 m/s mλ 85(1.66 × 10−27 kg)(780 × 10−9 m)

27-28

Chapter 27

(b)

We solve Eq. 18–5 for the lowest achievable temperature, where the recoil speed is the rms speed of the rubidium gas.

υ= 7.

3kT m

→ T=

mυ 2 85(1.66 × 10−27 kg)(6.0 × 10−3 m/s) 2 = = 1.2 × 10−7 K = 0.12 μ K −23 3k 3(1.38 × 10 J/K)

(a)

Here are standing wave diagrams for the first three modes of vibration.

(b)

From the diagram we see that the wavelengths are given by λn = momentum is pn =

(c)

p 2 n2 h2 nh , so the kinetic energy is KE n = n = . 2L 2m 8mL2

Because the potential energy is zero inside the box, the total energy is the kinetic energy. The ground state energy has n = 1. E1 =

(d)

n2 h2

8mL2

(1) 2 (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2 8(9.11× 10−31 kg)(0.50 × 10−10

⎛ 1 eV ⎜ 2⎜ m) ⎝ 1.60 × 10−19

⎞ ⎟ = 150 eV J ⎟⎠

Do the same calculation for the baseball, and then find the speed from the kinetic energy. E1 =

n2 h2

8mL2

E1 = 12 mυ 2 (e)

2L , n = 1, 2, 3, … . The n

(1) 2 (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2 8(0.140 kg)(0.65 m) 2

2KE1 = m

→ υ=

Find the width of the box from E1 = E1 = L=

n2 h2 8mL2 nh 8mE1

n2 h2 8mL2

= 9.289 × 10−67 J ≈ 9.3 × 10−67 J

2(9.289 × 10−67 J) = 3.6 × 10−33 m/s (0.140 kg)

→ =

(1)(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 8(9.11× 10

−31

kg)(22 eV)(1.60 × 10

−19

J/eV)

= 1.3 × 10−10 m = 0.13 nm

QUANTUM MECHANICS OF ATOMS

Responses to Questions 1.

(a)

(b)

A matter wave Ψ does not need a medium, but a wave on a string does. The square of the wave function Ψ for a matter wave describes the probability of finding a particle within a certain spatial range. The function for a wave on a string describes the displacement of a piece of the string from its equilibrium position as a function of location and time. Neither an EM nor a matter wave needs a medium in which to exist. The EM wave describes the amplitudes and directions of the electric and magnetic fields as a function of location and time. An EM wave represents a vector field and can be polarized. A matter wave is a scalar and cannot be polarized.

According to Bohr’s theory, each electron in an atom travels in a circular orbit and has a precise position and momentum at any point in time. This view is inconsistent with the postulates of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle, which does not allow both the position and momentum to be known precisely. According to quantum mechanics, the “orbitals” of electrons do not have precise radii, but describe the probability of finding an electron in a given spatial range.

As a particle becomes more massive, the uncertainty of its momentum (Δp = mΔυ ) becomes larger, which reduces the uncertainty of its position (due to Δx ≥ /Δp ). Thus, with a small uncertainty of its position, we can do a better job of predicting its future position.

Because of the very small value of , the uncertainties in both a baseball’s momentum and position can be very small compared to typical macroscopic positions and momenta without being close to the limit imposed by the uncertainty principle. For instance, the uncertainty in the baseball’s position could be 10−10 m, and the uncertainty in the baseball’s momentum 10−10 kg ⋅ m/s, and still easily satisfy the uncertainty principle. Yet we never try to measure the position or momentum of a baseball to that precision. For an electron, however, typical values of uncertainty in position and momentum can be close to the uncertainty principle limit, so the relative uncertainty can be much higher for that small object.

No. According to the uncertainty principle, if the needle were balanced, then the position of the center of mass would be known exactly, and there would have to be some uncertainty in its momentum. The center of mass of the needle could not have a zero momentum and therefore would fall over. If the initial momentum of the center of mass of the needle were exactly zero, then there would be uncertainty in its position, and the needle could not be perfectly balanced (with the center of mass over the tip).

28-1

28-2

Chapter 28

No. The hot soup will warm the thermometer when they come in contact. Thus the final temperature of the thermometer/soup system will be less than the initial temperature of the soup. Accordingly, the final thermometer reading will be lower than the original temperature of the soup. This is a situation where making a measurement affects the physical situation and causes uncertainty in the measurement.

No. However, the greater the precision of the measurement of position, the greater the uncertainty in the measurement of the momentum of the object will be.

If you knew the position precisely, then you would know nothing about the momentum.

Yes, some of the air escapes the tire (and goes into the tire gauge) in the act of measuring the pressure. It is impossible to avoid this escape. The act of measuring the air pressure in a tire therefore actually changes the pressure, although not by much since very little air escapes compared to the total amount of air in the tire. This is similar to the uncertainty principle, in which one of the two factors limiting the precision of measurement is the interaction between the object being observed, or measured, and the observing instrument. By making the measurement, you have affected the state of the system.

10.

Yes, this is consistent with the uncertainty principle for energy (ΔE Δt ≥ ). The ground-state energy can be very precisely known because the electrons remain in that state for a very long time. Thus, as Δt → ∞, ΔE → 0. However, the electrons do not remain in the excited states for very long, thus the Δt in this case is relatively small, making the ΔE , the energy width, relatively large.

11.

The quantum-mechanical model predicts that the electron spends more time near the nucleus. In the Bohr model, the electron in the ground state is in a fixed orbit of definite radius. The electron cannot come any closer to the nucleus than that distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, the most probable location for the electron is the Bohr radius, but it can also be found closer to the nucleus (and farther away). See Fig. 28–6 for a visual representation of this question.

12.

As the number of electrons goes up, the number of protons in the nucleus increases, which increases the attraction of the electrons to the center of the atom. Even though the outer electrons are partially screened from the increased nuclear charge by the inner electrons, they are all pulled closer to the more positive nucleus. Also, more states are available in the upper shells to accommodate many more electrons at approximately the same radius.

13.

Because the nuclei of hydrogen and helium are different, the energy levels of the atoms are different. The presence of the second electron in helium will also affect its energy levels. If the energy levels are different, then the energy difference between the levels will be different and the spectra will be different.

14.

If there were no electron spin, then, according to the Pauli exclusion principle, s subshells would be filled with one electron, p subshells with three electrons, and d subshells with five electrons. The first 20 elements of the Periodic Table would look like the following: H 1 1s1 He 2

Li 3

Be 4

B 5

2s1

2p1

2p 2

2p3

C 6

N 7

O 8

F 9

3p1

3p 2

3p3

S 16

Cl 17

Ar 18

Ne 10

Na 11

Mg 12

Al 13

K 19

Ca 20

Si 14

P 15

4p3

4d 1

Quantum Mechanics of Atoms

28-3

15.

(a) and (c) are allowed for atoms in an excited state. (b) is not allowed. Only six electrons are allowed in the 2p state.

16.

(a)

Group VII. Outer electrons are 2s 2 2p5 : fluorine.

(b)

Group II. Outer electrons are 3s 2 : magnesium.

(c)

Group VIII. Outer electrons are 3s 2 3p 6 : argon.

(d)

Group I. Outer electron is 4s1: potassium.

17.

Both chlorine and iodine are in the same column of the Periodic Table (column VII). Thus, both of their outer electron configurations are p5 (5 electrons in their outer p shell), which makes them both halogens. Halogens lack one electron from a filled shell, so their outer electron orbit shapes are similar and can readily accept an additional electron from another atom. This makes their chemical reaction properties extremely similar.

18.

Both sodium and potassium are in the same column of the Periodic Table (column I). Thus, both of their outer electron configurations are s1 (1 electron in their outer s shell), which makes them both alkali metals. Alkali metals have one lone electron in their outermost shell, so their outer electron orbit shapes are similar and they can readily share this electron with another atom (especially since this outermost electron spends a considerable amount of time very far away from the nucleus). This makes their chemical reaction properties extremely similar.

19.

Rare-earth elements have similar chemical properties because the electrons in the filled 6s or 7s suborbitals serve as the valence electrons for all these elements. They all have partially filled inner f suborbitals, which are very close together in energy. The different numbers of electrons in the f suborbitals have little effect on the chemical properties of these elements.

20.

Neon is a “closed shell” atom—a noble gas. All of its shells are completely full and spherically symmetric, so its electrons are not readily ionized. Sodium is a Group I atom (an alkali metal) that has one lone electron in the outermost shell, and this electron spends a considerable amount of time far away from the nucleus and also shielded from the nucleus. The result is that sodium can be ionized much easier than neon, which the two ionization energies demonstrate very well.

21.

The difference in energy between n = 1 and n = 2 levels is much bigger than between any other combination of energy levels. Thus, electron transitions between the n = 1 and n = 2 levels produce photons of higher energy and frequency, which means that these photons have shorter wavelengths (since frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional to each other).

22.

The Bohr model does violate the uncertainty principle, specifically by saying that an electron in a given orbit has a precise radius and a precise momentum. The uncertainty principle says that knowing both the location and the momentum precisely is not possible.

23.

Noble gases are nonreactive because they have completely filled shells or subshells. In that configuration, other electrons are not attracted, nor are electrons readily lost. Thus they do not react (share or exchange electrons) with other elements. Alkali metals all have a single outer s electron. This outer electron is easily removed and can spend much of its time around another atom, forming a molecule. Thus alkali metals are highly reactive.

28-4

Chapter 28

24.

Spontaneous emission occurs when an electron is in an excited state of an atom and it spontaneously (with no external stimulus) drops back down to a lower energy level. To do this, it emits a photon to carry away the excess energy. Stimulated emission occurs when an electron is in an excited state of an atom but a photon strikes the atom and causes or stimulates the electron to make its transition to a lower energy level sooner than it would have done so spontaneously. The stimulating photon has to have the same energy as the difference in energy levels of the transition. The result is two photons of the same frequency—the original one and the one due to the emission.

25.

Laser light is coherent (all of the photons are in the same phase) and ordinary light is not coherent (the photons have random phases relative to each other). Laser light is nearly a perfect plane wave, while ordinary light is spherically symmetric (which means that the intensity of laser light remains nearly constant as it moves away from the source, while the intensity of ordinary light drops off as 1/r 2 ). Laser light is always monochromatic, while ordinary light can be monochromatic, but it usually is not. However, both travel at c and both display the wave–particle duality of photons. Both are created when electrons fall to lower energy levels and emit photons. Both are electromagnetic waves.

26.

The 0.0005-W laser beam’s intensity is nearly constant as it travels away from its source since it is approximately a plane wave. The street lamp’s intensity drops off as 1/r 2 as it travels away from its source since it is a spherically symmetric wave. So, at a distance, the power from the lamp light actually reaching the camera is much less than 1000 W. Also, the street lamp’s intensity is spread out over many wavelengths (many of which are probably not in the visible range), whereas the laser’s intensity is all at one (assumed visible) wavelength.

27.

No, the intensity of light from a laser beam does not drop off as the inverse square of the distance. Laser light is much closer to being a plane wave than a spherically symmetric wave, so its intensity is nearly constant along the entire beam. It does spread slightly over long distances, so it is not a perfect plane wave.

28.

The continuous portion of the X-ray spectrum is due to the “bremsstrahlung” radiation. An incoming electron gives up energy in the collision and emits light. Electrons can give up all or part of their kinetic energy. The maximum amount of energy an electron can give up is its total amount of kinetic energy. In the photon description of light, the maximum electron kinetic energy will correspond to the energy of the shortest-wavelength (highest-energy) photons that can be produced in the collisions. The result is the existence of a “cutoff ” wavelength in the X-ray spectrum. An increase in the number of electrons will not change the cutoff wavelength. According to wave theory, an increase in the number of electrons could result in the production of shorter-wavelength photons, which is not observed experimentally.

29.

When we use the Bohr theory to calculate the X-ray line wavelengths, we estimate the nuclear charge seen by the transitioning electron as Z –1, assuming that the second electron in the ground state is partially shielding the nuclear charge. This is only an estimate, so we do not expect the calculated wavelengths to agree exactly with the measured values.

30.

To figure out which lines in an X-ray spectrum correspond to which transitions, you would use the Bohr model to estimate the differences in the sizes of the energy level jumps that the falling electrons will make. Then, you just need to match the n = 2 → n = 1 energy to the K α line, the n = 3 → n = 1 energy to the K β line, the n = 3 → n = 2 jump energy to the Lα line, and so on.

Quantum Mechanics of Atoms

28-5

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(b)

A common error is to add up the coefficients (principal quantum numbers), which would give an answer of 15. However, the exponents represent the number of electrons in each subshell. In this case there are 19 electrons.

(b)

The orbital quantum numbers are represented by the subshell letters: s = 0 and p = 1. Since only s and p subshells are present, only the orbital quantum numbers 0 and 1 are in the electron configuration.

(a)

In considering electrons, if only the particle property of electrons is considered, then the electron is viewed as a point particle passing through the slit. The electron also has wave properties and therefore undergoes diffraction as it passes through the slit.

(c)

A common misconception is that all of the electrons have their lowest quantum numbers when in the ground state. However, due to the Pauli exclusion principle, no two electrons can have the same quantum numbers. The ground state of an atom is when each electron occupies the lowest energy state available to it without violating the exclusion principle.

(e)

The Pauli exclusion principle applies to all electrons within the same atom. No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. Electrons from different atoms can have the same set of quantum numbers (for example, two separate atoms in the same container or two atoms from different parts of the Periodic Table).

(c)

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle deals with our inability to know the position and momentum of a particle precisely. The more precisely you can determine the position, the less precisely you can determine the momentum, and vice versa.

(a)

In an atom, multiple electrons will be in the same shell and can therefore have the same value of n. Electrons in different shells can have the same value of m . Electrons in different atoms can also have the same set of four quantum numbers. The Pauli exclusion principle does not allow electrons within the same atom to have the same set of four quantum numbers.

(e)

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle prohibits the exact measurement of position and velocity at the same time; the product of their uncertainties will always be greater than a constant value.

(c)

The uncertainty principle allows for a precise measurement of the position, provided that there is a large uncertainty in the momentum. It also allows for a precise measurement of the momentum, provided that the simultaneous measurement of the position has a large uncertainty. It does not allow for the precise measurement of position and momentum at the same time.

10.

(d)

Laser light is monochromatic (all photons have nearly identical frequencies), is coherent (all photons have the same phase), moves as a beam, and is created by a population inversion. A laser beam usually is intense, but it does not have to be brighter than other sources of light.

Solutions to Problems 1.

We find the wavelength of the neutron from Eq. 27–8, using the classical relationship between momentum and kinetic energy for the low energy neutrons. The peaks of the interference pattern are given by Eq. 24–2a and Fig. 24–10. For small angles, we have sin θ = tan θ.

28-6

Chapter 28

h = p

λ=

h 2mn KE

sin θ = tan θ

→

Δx =

d sin θ = mλ ,

;

mλ x = d

d 2mn KE

m = 1, 2, … ;

→ x=

mλ , d

x = tan θ

m = 1, 2, … →

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(1.0 m) (4.0 × 10−4 m) 2(1.67 × 10−27 kg)(0.025 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

= 4.5 × 10−7 m

We find the wavelength of a pellet from Eq. 27–8. The half-angle for the central circle of the 1.22λ diffraction pattern is given in Section 25–7 as sin θ = , where D is the diameter of the opening. D Assuming the angle is small, the diameter of the spread of the bullet beam is d = 2 tan θ = 2 sin θ . h h = ; p mυ

λ= =

d = 2 tan θ = 2 sin θ = 2

1.22λ 1.22h =2 D Dmυ

→

Dmυ d (3.0 × 10−3 m)(2.0 × 10−3 kg)(120 m/s)(0.010 m) = = 4.5 × 1027 m 2.44h 2.44(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)

This is more than 1011 light-years. 3.

The uncertainty in the velocity is given, so the uncertainty in the momentum can be calculated. Use Eq. 28–1 to find the minimum uncertainty in the position. Δx ≥

Δp

m Δυ

kg)(1200 m/s)

= 5.3 × 10−11 m

Δx

→ Δυ ≥

m Δx

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (9.11× 10

−31

kg)(2.4 × 10

−8

= 4825 m/s ≈ 4.8 × 103 m/s

Δt

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (1× 10

−8

⎛ 1 eV = 1.055 × 10−26 J ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝

⎞ −8 −8 ⎟ = 6.59 × 10 eV ≈ 7 × 10 eV J ⎟⎠

We find the lifetime of the particle from Eq. 28–2. Δt ≥

(1.67 × 10

−27

The minimum uncertainty in the energy is found from Eq. 28–2. ΔE ≥

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)

The uncertainty in position is given. Use Eq. 28–1 to find the uncertainty in the momentum. Δp = mΔυ ≥

ΔE

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (2.5 GeV)(1.60 × 10−10 J/GeV)

= 2.6 × 10−25 s

We find the uncertainty in the energy of the muon from Eq. 28–2, and then find the uncertainty in the mass. ΔE ≥ Δm ≥

Δt 2

; ΔE = ( Δm ) c 2

c Δt

→

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2

c (2.20 × 10

−6

J ⎞⎛ 1 eV ⎛ = ⎜ 4.7955 × 10−29 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ c ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 × 10−19 s) ⎝

⎞ −10 eV/c 2 ⎟ = 3.00 × 10 J ⎟⎠

Quantum Mechanics of Atoms

We find the uncertainty in the energy of the free neutron from Eq. 28–2, and then the mass uncertainty from Eq. 26–7. We assume that the lifetime of the neutron is good to 2 significant figures. The current experimental lifetime of the neutron is between 881 and 882 seconds. ΔE ≥

28-7

Δt

ΔE = (Δm)c 2

;

→ Δm ≥

c Δt

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 8

(3.00 × 10 m/s) (880 s)

= 1.3 × 10−54 kg

The uncertainty in the position is found from the uncertainty in the velocity and Eq. 28–1. The uncertainty in velocity is found by multiplying the velocity by its precision. Δxelectron ≥ Δxbaseball ≥

Δp Δp

= =

m Δυ m Δυ

= =

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (9.11× 10

−31

−4

kg)(120 m/s)(6.5 × 10 )

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (0.14 kg)(120 m/s)(6.5 × 10−4 )

= 1.485 ×10−3 m ≈ 1.5 × 10−3 m

= 9.661× 10−33 m ≈ 9.7 × 10−33 m

Δxelectron melectron Δυ mbaseball (0.14 kg) = = = = 1.5 × 1029 Δxbaseball melectron (9.11× 10−31 kg) mbaseball Δυ

The uncertainty for the electron is greater by a factor of 1.5 × 1029. 10.

The uncertainty in the energy is found from the lifetime and the uncertainty principle. ΔE =

Δt

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) ⎛ 1 eV ⎜⎜ −6 (12 × 10 s) ⎝ 1.60 × 10−19

⎞ −11 ⎟ = 5.49 × 10 eV J ⎟⎠

ΔE 5.49 ×10−11 eV = = 1.0 × 10−17 6 E 5.5 × 10 eV

11.

The uncertainty in position is given. Use Eq. 28–1 to find the uncertainty in the momentum. Δp = mΔυ ≥

Δx

→ Δυ ≥

mΔx

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (9.11× 10

−31

kg)(15 × 10

−9

= 7720 m/s ≈ 7.7 × 103 m/s

The speed is low enough that the electron may be treated with classical mechanics instead of relativistic mechanics. We calculate the minimum kinetic energy from the speed calculated above. KE

⎛ 1 eV = 12 mυ 2 = 12 (9.11× 10−31 kg)(7720 m/s) 2 = 2.715 × 10−23 J ⎜ ⎜ 1.602 × 10−19 ⎝

⎞ −4 ⎟ = 1.694 × 10 eV J ⎟⎠

= 2.7 × 10−23 J, or 1.7 × 10−4 eV

12.

We use the radius as the uncertainty in position for the neutron. We find the uncertainty in the momentum from Eq. 28–1. If we assume that the lowest value for the momentum is the least uncertainty, then we can estimate the lowest possible kinetic energy (nonrelativistic) as the following: 2

2 ⎛ 1.055 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m/s ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 1.2 × 10−15 m (Δp) 2 ⎜⎝ Δx ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ = 2.314 × 10−12 E= = = − 27 2m 2m 2(1.67 × 10 kg)

⎛ 1 MeV J⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−13 ⎝

⎞ ⎟ J ⎟⎠

= 14.46 MeV ≈ 14 MeV

28-8

13.

Chapter 28

The momentum of the electron is found from the energy by the classical relationship. p = [ 2m( KE ) ] 2 = [2(9.11× 10−31 kg)(5.00 keV)(1.60 × 10−16 J/keV)] 2 = 3.817 × 10−23 kg ⋅ m/s 1

If the uncertainty in the energy is 1.00%, then the uncertainty in momentum can be found using the binomial expansion. Then use Eq. 28–1 to find the uncertainty in position. 1

p′ = [2m(1.0100 KE )] 2 = [2m(KE )] 2 (1 + 0.0100) 2 ≈ p[1 + 12 (0.0100)] Δp = p ′ − p = p Δx ≥

14.

Δp

( 12 ) (0.0100) = (3.8127 ×10−23 kg ⋅ m/s) ( 12 ) (0.0100) = 1.909 ×10−25 kg ⋅ m/s

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (1.909 × 10−25 kg ⋅ m/s)

= 5.53 × 10−10 m

Use the radius as the uncertainty in position for the electron. We find the uncertainty in the momentum from Eq. 28–1, and then find the energy associated with that momentum from Eq. 26–9. Δp ≥

Δx

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (1.0 × 10−15 m)

= 1.055 × 10−19 kg ⋅ m/s

If we assume that the lowest value for the momentum is the least uncertainty, then we can estimate the lowest possible energy. E = ( p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 )1/2 = [(Δp) 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 ]1/2 = [(1.055 × 10−19 kg ⋅ m/s) 2 (3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 + (9.11× 10−31 kg) 2 (3.00 × 108 m/s) 4 ]1/2 ⎛ 1 MeV = 3.175 × 10−11 J ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−13 ⎝

⎞ ⎟ ≈ 200 MeV J ⎟⎠

ranges from 0 to n − 1. Thus, for n = 6,

15.

The value of

16.

The value of m can range from − to + . Thus, for

= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 .

= 3, m = −3, − 2, − 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 .

The possible values of ms are − 12 , + 12 . 17.

The number of electrons in the subshell is determined by the value of . For each , the value of m can range from − to + , which is 2 + 1 values. For each m value, there are two values of ms . Thus the total number of states for a given is N = 2(2 + 1). N = 2(2 + 1) = 2[2(3) + 1] = 14 electrons

18.

The value of ranges from 0 to n − 1. Thus for n = 4, = 0, 1, 2, 3. For each , the value of m can range from − to + , or 2 + 1 values. For each m , there are two values of ms . Thus the number of states for each is 2(2 + 1). The number of states is therefore given by the following: N = 2(0 + 1) + 2(2 + 1) + 2(4 + 1) + 2(6 + 1) = 32 states

We start with

= 0, and list the quantum numbers in the order (n, , m , ms ).

Quantum Mechanics of Atoms

28-9

(4, 0, 0, − 12 ), (4, 0, 0, + 12 ), (4, 1, –1, − 12 ), (4, 1, –1, + 12 ), (4, 1, 0, − 12 ), (4, 1, 0, + 12 ), (4, 1, 1, − 12 ), (4, 1, 1, + 12 ), (4, 2, – 2, − 12 ), (4, 2, – 2, + 12 ), (4, 2, –1, − 12 ), (4, 2, –1, + 12 ), (4, 2, 0, − 12 ), (4, 2, 0, + 12 ), (4, 2, 1, − 12 ), (4, 2, 1, + 12 ), (4, 2, 2, − 12 ), (4, 2, 2, + 12 ), (4, 3, – 3, − 12 ), (4, 3, – 3, + 12 ), (4, 3, – 2, − 12 ), (4, 3, – 2, + 12 ), (4, 3, −1, − 12 ), (4, 3, – 1, + 12 ), (4, 3, 0, − 12 ), (4, 3, 0, + 12 ), (4, 3, 1, − 12 ), (4, 3, 1, + 12 ), (4, 3, 2, − 12 ), (4, 3, 2, + 12 ), (4, 3, 3, − 12 ), (4, 3, 3, + 12 ) 19.

(a)

For carbon, Z = 6. We start with the n = 1 shell, and list the quantum numbers in the order (n, , m , ms ). (1, 0, 0, − 12 ), (1, 0, 0, + 12 ), (2, 0, 0, − 12 ), (2, 0, 0, + 12 ), (2, 1, − 1, − 12 ) , (2, 1, − 1,1 12 )

Note that, without additional information, there are other possibilities for the last two electrons. The third quantum number for the last two electrons could be –1, 0, or 1. (b)

For aluminum, Z = 13. We start with the n = 1 shell, and list the quantum numbers in the order (n, , m , ms ). (1, 0, 0, − 12 ), (1, 0, 0, + 12 ), (2, 0, 0, − 12 ), (2, 0, 0, + 12 ), (2, 1, −1, − 12 ), (2, 1, − 1, + 12 ), (2, 1, 0, − 12 ), (2, 1, 0, + 12 ), (2, 1, 1, − 12 ), (2, 1, 1, + 12 ), (3, 0, 0, − 12 ), (3, 0, 0, + 12 ), (3, 1, − 1, − 12 )

Note that, without additional information, there are other possibilities for the last electron. The third quantum number could be –2, –1, 0, 1, or 2, and the fourth quantum number could be either + 12 or − 12 . 20.

For oxygen, Z = 8. We start with the n = 1 shell, and list the quantum numbers in the order (n, , m , ms ). (1, 0, 0, − 12 ), (1, 0, 0, + 12 ), (2, 0, 0, − 12 ), (2, 0, 0, + 12 ), (2, 1, − 1, − 12 ), (2, 1, −1, + 12 ), (2, 1, 0, − 12 ), (2, 1, 0, + 12 )

Note that, without additional information, there are two other possibilities that could substitute for any of the last four electrons. The third quantum number could be changed to 1. 21.

The magnitude of the angular momentum depends only on . L=

22.

( + 1)

= 12(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = 3.65 × 10−34 J ⋅ s

The value of m can range from − to + , so we have m = −4 , − 3, − 2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 . The value of

can range from 0 to n − 1. Thus we have n ≥ 5 .

There are two values of ms : ms = − 12 , + 12 .

28-10

23.

Chapter 28

The value of

can range from 0 to n − 1. Thus we have n ≥ 4 .

The value of m can range from − to + , so

≥ 3 , and

≤ n − 1. So 3 ≤ ≤ n − 1.

There are two values of ms : ms = − 12 , + 12 . 24.

The “g” subshell has = 4. The value of m can range from − to + , so there are 9 values of m : m = − 4, − 3, − 2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 . Each of the 9 m values represents two states, so the “g” subshell can hold 18 electrons .

25.

The configurations can be written with the subshells in order by energy (4s before 3d, for example) or with the subshells in principal number order (3d before 4s, for example, as in Table 28–4). Both are shown here. (a) Z = 26 is iron. 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 6 4 s 2 or 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4s 2 3d 6 (b)

Z = 34 is selenium. 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 10 4 s 2 4 p 4 or 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4s 2 3d 10 4 p 4

(c)

Z = 38 is strontium. 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 10 4 s 2 4 p 6 5s 2 or 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3d 10 4 p 6 5s 2

26.

The configurations can be written with the subshells in order by energy (4s before 3d, for example) or with the subshells in principal number order (3d before 4s, for example, as in Table 28–4). Both are shown here. (a) Silver has Z = 47. 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 10 4 s 2 4 p 6 4d 10 5s1 or 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3d 10 4 p 6 5s1 4d 10 (b)

Gold has Z = 79. 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 10 4 s 2 4 p 6 4d 10 4 f 14 5s 2 5 p 6 5d 10 6 s1 or 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3d 10 4 p 6 5s 2 4d 10 5 p 6 4 f 14 6s1 5d 10

(c)

Uranium has Z = 92. 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 10 4 s 2 4 p 6 4d 10 4 f 14 5s 2 5 p 6 5d 10 6s 2 6 p 6 5 f 3 6d 1 7 s 2 or 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3d 10 4 p 6 5s 2 4d 10 5 p 6 4 f 14 6s 2 5d 10 6 p 6 7 s 2 5 f 3 6d 1

27.

(a)

The principal quantum number is n = 5 .

(b)

The energy of the state is found from Eq. 27–15b. E7 = −

(13.6 eV) n

=−

(13.6 eV) 52

= −0.544 eV

Quantum Mechanics of Atoms

(c)

The d subshell has L=

(d)

= 2 . The magnitude of the angular momentum depends on

( + 1) =

only.

the value of m can range from −

For each

28-11

to + .

m = −2, − 1, 0, 1, 2

28.

The third electron in lithium is in the 2s subshell, which is outside the more tightly bound filled 1s shell. This makes it appear as if there is a “nucleus” with a net charge of + 1e. Use the energy of the hydrogen atom, Eq. 27–15b. E2 = −

(13.6 eV) n

=−

(13.6 eV) 22

= −3.4 eV

We predict the binding energy to be 3.4 eV. Our assumption of complete shielding of the nucleus by the 2s electrons is evidently not correct. The partial shielding means the net charge of the “nucleus” is higher than +1e, so it holds the outer electron more tightly, requiring more energy to remove it. 29.

In a filled subshell, there are an even number of electrons. Those electrons have m values of − , − + ,… , − 1, 0,1,… , −1, . For each of those electrons, Lz = m . When all of those Lz values are calculated and summed, the total is − + (− + 1) + + ( − 1) + = 0. Half of the electrons have spin angular momentum of “up,” and the other half have spin angular momentum of “down.” The sum of those spin angular momenta is also 0. Thus the total angular momentum is 0.

30.

(a)

The 4 p → 3 p transition is forbidden, because Δ = 0 ≠ ±1.

(b)

The 3 p → 1s transition is allowed, because Δ = −1.

(c)

The 4d

→ 2d transition is forbidden, because Δ = 0 ≠ ±1.

(d)

The 5d

→ 3s transition is forbidden, because Δ = −2 ≠ ±1.

(e)

The 4s → 2 p transition is allowed, because Δ = +1.

31.

Since the electron is in its lowest energy state, we must have the lowest possible value of n. Since m = 2, the smallest possible value of is = 2 , and the smallest possible value of n is n = 3 .

32.

Photon emission means a jump to a lower state, so n = 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. For a d subshell, because Δ = ±1, the new value of must be 1 or 3. (a)

= 2, and

= 1 corresponds to a p subshell, and = 3 corresponds to an f subshell. Keeping in mind that 0 ≤ ≤ n − 1, we find the following possible destination states: 2 p, 3 p, 4 p, 5 p, 4 f , 5 f . In the

format requested, these states are: (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (5, 1), (4, 3), (5, 3) . (b)

In a hydrogen atom, has no appreciable effect on energy, so for energy purposes there are four possible destination states, corresponding to n = 2, 3, 4, and 5. Thus, there are four different photon wavelengths corresponding to four possible changes in energy.

28-12

33.

Chapter 28

The smallest wavelength X-ray has the most energy, which is the maximum KE of the electron in the tube. A 28.5-kV potential difference means that the electrons have 28.5 keV of KE.

λ=

hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 4.362 × 10−11 m = 0.0436 nm E (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(28.5 × 103 eV)

The longest wavelength of the continuous spectrum would be at the limit of the X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum, generally on the order of 1 nm. 34.

The shortest wavelength X-ray has the most energy, which is the maximum kinetic energy of the electron in the tube: E=

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(0.035 × 10−9 m)

= 3.552 ×104 eV ≈ 36 keV

Thus the operating voltage of the tube is 36 kV . 35.

The energy of the photon with the shortest wavelength must equal the maximum kinetic energy of an electron. We assume that V is in volts. E = hf 0 =

λ0 = 36.

λ0

= eV

→

hc (6.63 ×10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 ×108 m/s)(109 nm/m) 1243 nm 1240 nm = = ≈ eV V V (1.60 × 10−19 C)(V V)

The maximum energy is emitted when the shortest wavelength is emitted. That appears to be about 0.025 nm. The minimum energy is emitted when the longest wavelength is emitted. That appears to be about 0.2 nm. Use Eq. 27–4. Emax = hf max =

λmin

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (0.025 × 10

−9

(1 eV) (1.60 × 10−19 J)

= 49, 725 eV

≈ 5.0 × 104 eV Emin = hf min =

37.

λmax

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (0.2 × 10

(1 eV) (1.60 × 10−19 J)

= 6215 eV ≈ 6 × 103 eV

We follow Example 28–7, using the Bohr formula, Eq. 27–16, with Z replaced by Z – 1. ⎛ 2π 2 e 4 mk 2 ⎞ 1 2⎛ 1 =⎜ ⎟⎟ ( Z − 1) ⎜ 2 − 2 3 ⎜ λ ⎝ h c n ⎝ n′ ⎠ 1

= 5.562 × 109 m −1

38.

−9

→ λ=

1 ⎞ ⎞ −1 7 2⎛ 1 ⎟ = (1.097 × 10 m )(27 − 1) ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ ⎝1 2 ⎠ ⎠ 1

5.562 × 109 m −1

= 1.798 × 10−10 m

We follow Example 28–7, using the Bohr formula, Eq. 27–16, with Z replaced by Z – 1. ⎛ 2π 2 e 4 mk 2 ⎞ 1 2⎛ 1 =⎜ ⎟⎟ ( Z − 1) ⎜ 2 − 2 3 ⎜ λ ⎝ h c n ⎝ n′ ⎠ 1

= 9.523 × 109 m −1 → λ =

1 ⎞ ⎞ −1 7 2⎛ 1 ⎟ = (1.097 × 10 m )(26 − 1) ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ 3 ⎠ ⎠ ⎝2 1

9.523 × 109 m −1

= 1.050 × 10−9 m

Quantum Mechanics of Atoms

39.

28-13

We assume that there is “shielding” provided by the 1s electron that is already at that level. Thus the effective charge “seen” by the transitioning electron is 42 – 1 = 41. We use Eqs. 27–10 and 27–15b. 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 hf = ΔE = (13.6 eV)( Z − 1) 2 ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ n ⎠ ⎝ n′ hc = ΔE

λ=

hc 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 (13.6 eV)( Z − 1) 2 ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ ′ n ⎠ ⎝n

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) ⎛1 1 ⎞ (13.6 eV)(412 ) ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ (1.60 ×10−19 J/ev) ⎝1 3 ⎠

= 6.12 × 10−11 m = 0.0612 nm

We do not expect perfect agreement because there is some partial shielding provided by the n = 2 shell, which was ignored when we replaced Z with Z – 1. That would make the effective atomic number a little smaller, which would lead to a larger wavelength. The amount of shielding could be estimated by using the actual wavelength and solving for the effective atomic number. 40.

The wavelength of the Kα line is calculated for molybdenum in Example 28–7. We use that same procedure. Note that the wavelength is inversely proportional to ( Z − 1) 2 .

λunknown ( Z Fe − 1) 2 = λFe ( Z unknown − 1) 2

⎡ 194 pm ⎤ → Z unknown = ⎢(26 − 1) ⎥ + 1 = 24 229 pm ⎦ ⎣

The unknown material has Z = 24, so it is chromium. 41.

The energy of a pulse is the power of the pulse times the duration in time. E = P Δt = (0.68 W)(25 ×10−3 s) = 0.017 J

The number of photons in a pulse is the energy of a pulse divided by the energy of a photon as given in Eq. 27–4. E Eλ (0.017 J)(640 × 10−9 m) = = = 5.5 × 1016 photons hf hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s)

42.

Intensity equals power per unit area. The area of the light from the laser is assumed to be in a circular area, while the area intercepted by the light from a lightbulb is the surface area of a sphere. (a)

(b)

πr

P 4π r

0.50 × 10−3 W

π (1.5 × 10

−3

100 W 4π (2.0 m) 2

= 70.74 W/m 2 ≈ 71 W/m 2

= 1.989 W/m 2 ≈ 2.0 W/m 2

The laser beam is more intense by a factor of 43.

70.74 W/m 2 1.989 W/m 2

= 35.57 ≈ 36 .

Transition from the E3 ′ state to the E2 ′ state releases photons with energy 1.96 eV, as shown in Fig. 28–20. The wavelength is determined from the energy.

λ=

hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 6.34 × 10−7 m = 634 nm − 19 ΔE (1.60 × 10 J/eV)(1.96 eV)

28-14

44.

Chapter 28

The angular half-width of the beam is given in r 1.22λ , where d is the diameter Eq. 25–7, θ1/2 = D θ d of the diffracting circle. The angular width of the beam is twice this. The linear diameter of the beam is then the angular width times the distance from the source of the light to the observation point, D = rθ , for small angles. See the diagram.

θ1/2 = (a)

1.22 λ 1.22(694 × 10−9 m) = = 2.822 × 10−4 rad → θ = 5.644 × 10−4 rad ≈ 5.6 × 10−4 rad d (3.0 × 10−3 m)

The diameter of the beam when it reaches the satellite is as follows: D = rθ = (340 × 103 m)(5.644 × 10−4 rad) = 190 m

(b)

The diameter of the beam when it reaches the Moon is as follows: D = rθ = (384 × 106 m)(5.644 × 10−4 rad) = 2.2 × 105 m

45.

We use Eq. 28–3 to find l and the unnumbered equation following it to find m . L= 2

( + 1)

46.

(a)

→ m =

= Lz

L2 2

(6.84 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2 (1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2

= 42

−1 ± 1 − 4(1)(−42) −1 ± 13 = = 6, −7 → 2 2 =

2.11× 10−34 J ⋅ s 1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s

= 2

= 6, we must have n ≥ 7 .

The minimum uncertainty in the energy is found from Eq. 28–2. ΔE ≥

(b)

( + 1) =

+ − 42 = 0 →

Lz = m

Since

→

Δt

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (1× 10

−8

⎛ 1 eV = 1.055 ×10 −26 J ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝

⎞ −8 −7 ⎟⎟ = 6.59 ×10 eV ≈ 10 eV J⎠

The transition energy can be found from the Bohr hydrogen atom energies, Eq. 27–15b, with Z = 1 for hydrogen. En = −(13.6 eV)

Z2 n2

⎡ 12 ⎤ ⎡ 12 ⎤ → E2 − E1 = ⎢ −(13.6 eV) 2 ⎥ − ⎢ −(13.6 eV) 2 ⎥ = 10.2 eV 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 1 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢

6.59 ×10−8 eV ΔE = = 6.46 × 10−9 ≈ 10−8 E2 − E1 10.2 eV

The uncertainty in the energy is a very small fraction of the actual transition energy. (c)

The wavelength is given by Eq. 27–4. E = hf =

→ λ=

hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 1.22 × 10−7 m = 122 nm E ⎛ 1.60 × 10−19 J ⎞ (10.2 eV) ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ eV ⎝ ⎠

Quantum Mechanics of Atoms

28-15

Take the width in the line to be the uncertainty in the line’s value, based on the uncertainty in the energy. We will use Eq. 27–4 with the binomial expansion.

47.

hc hc ⎛ ΔE ⎞ = ⎜1 + ⎟ Δ E E ⎠ ⎛ ⎞ E⎝ E ⎜1 + ⎟ E ⎠ ⎝

−1

hc ⎛ ΔE ⎞ ⎛ ΔE ⎞ ⎜1 − ⎟ = λ ⎜1 − ⎟ → E⎝ E ⎠ E ⎠ ⎝

λ + Δλ =

hc = ( E + ΔE )

| Δλ | = λ

ΔE 6.59 × 10−8 eV = (122 nm) = 8 × 10−7 nm 10.2 eV E

≈

can range from 0 to n − 1. Thus for n = 6, we have 0 ≤ ≤ 5. The magnitude of the

The value of

angular momentum is given by Eq. 28–3, L =

( + 1) .

Lmin = 0; Lmax = 30

48.

(a)

We find the wavelength from Eq. 27–8.

λ= (b)

h h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = = 3.683 × 10−34 m ≈ 3.7 × 10−34 m p mυ (0.012 kg)(150 m/s)

Use Eq. 28–1 to find the uncertainty in momentum. Δpx ≥

49.

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = 1.758 × 10−32 kg ⋅ m/s ≈ 1.8 × 10−32 kg ⋅ m/s (0.0060 m)

Use Eq. 28–1 (the uncertainty principle) and Eq. 27–8 (the de Broglie wavelength). Δp ≥

λ=

50.

Δx

(a)

Δx

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (2.0 × 10−8 m)

= 5.275 × 10−27 kg ⋅ m/s ≈ 5.3 × 10−27 kg ⋅ m/s

h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = 1.257 ×10−7 m ≈ 1.3 × 10−7 m p 5.275 × 10−27 kg ⋅ m/s

Boron has Z = 4, with an electron configuration of 1s 2 2 s 2 , so the outermost electron has n = 2. We use the Bohr result with an effective Z. We might naively expect to get Z eff = 1, indicating that the other three electrons shield the outer electron from the nucleus, or Z eff = 2, indicating that only the inner two electrons accomplish the shielding. E2 = −

(13.6 eV)( Z eff ) 2 n2

→ − 8.26 eV = −

(13.6 eV)( Z eff ) 2 22

→ Z eff = 1.56

This indicates that the other electron in the n = 2 shell does partially shield the electron that is to be removed. (b)

We find the average radius from Eq. 27–14. r=

n 2 r1 22 (0.529 × 10−10 m) = = 1.36 × 10−10 m Z eff (1.56)

28-16

51.

Chapter 28

Use Eq. 27–14, which says that the radius of a Bohr orbit is inversely proportional to the atomic number. Also use Eq. 27–15b, which says that the energy of a Bohr orbit is proportional to the square of the atomic number. The energy to remove the electron is the opposite of the total energy. A simple approximation is used in which the electron “feels” the full effect of all 92 protons in the nucleus. rn =

n2 1 (0.529 × 10−10 m) = (0.529 × 10−10 m) = 5.75 × 10−13 m Z 92

| En | = (13.6 eV)

52.

Z2 n

= (13.6 eV)

922 2

= 1.15 ×105 eV = 115 keV

We find the wavelength of the protons from their kinetic energy, using nonrelativistic mechanics and Eq. 27–8, and then use Eq. 24–21 for two-slit interference, with a small-angle approximation. If the protons were accelerated by a 480-V potential difference, then they will have 480 eV of kinetic energy.

λ=

h = p

sin θ = tan θ Δx =

λ d

h 2mp KE →

; d sin θ = mλ ,

mλ x = d

h d 2mp KE

→ x=

m = 1, 2, … ; mλ , d

x = tan θ

m = 1, 2, … → (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(28 m)

(7.0 × 10−4 m) 2(1.67 × 10−27 kg)(480 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/ev)

= 5.2 × 10−8 m

53.

An h subshell has

= 5. For a given

value, m ranges from − to + , taking on 2 + 1 different

values. For each m , there are two values of ms . Thus the number of states for a given

value is

2(2 + 1). Thus there are 2(2 + 1) = 2(11) = 22 possible electron states.

54.

(a)

For each , the value of m can range from − to + , or 2 + 1 values. For each of these, there are two values of ms . Thus the total number of states in a subshell is N = 2(2 + 1) .

(b) 55.

= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, N = 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, and 26 , respectively.

For

For a given n, 0 ≤ ≤ n − 1. Since for each , the number of possible states is 2(2 + 1), as shown in Problem 54, the number of possible states for a given n is as follows: n −1

Ä 2(2 =0

n −1

⎛ n(n − 1) ⎞ 2 + 1) = 4 Ä + Ä 2 = 4 ⎜ ⎟ + 2n = 2n 2 ⎝ ⎠ =0 =0

The summation formulas can be found (and proven) in a pre-calculus mathematics textbook. 56.

We find the wavelength of the electrons from their kinetic energy, using nonrelativistic mechanics. Classical formulas are justified because the kinetic energy of 45 keV = 0.045 MeV is much less than the rest energy of 0.511 MeV. Eq. 27–8 is used to find the wavelength, and Eq. 24–21 is used for the two-slit interference, with a small-angle approximation.

Quantum Mechanics of Atoms

λ=

h = p

h 2me KE

sin θ = tan θ

→

Δx =

; d sin θ = mλ , mλ x = d

d 2me KE

28-17

m = 1, 2, … ; x = tan θ

→ x=

mλ , d

m = 1, 2, … →

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(0.450 m) (2.0 × 10−6 m) 2(9.11× 10−31 kg)(45 × 103 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/ev)

= 1.30 × 10−6 m ≈ 1.3 μ m

57.

In the Bohr model, LBohr = n or

58.

h = 2 . In quantum mechanics, Lqm = 2π

= 1, so that Lqm = 0(0 + 1) = 0 or Lqm = 1(1 + 1) =

( + 1) . For n = 2,

The fractional uncertainty in the energy is found from the lifetime and the uncertainty principle, Eq. 28–2. Also use Eq. 27–4. ΔE =

Δt

h hc ; E = hf = λ 2πΔt

h λ ΔE 2πΔt 500 × 10−9 m = = = = 2.65 × 10−8 ≈ 3 × 10−8 hc E 2π cΔt 2π (3.00 × 108 m/s)(10 × 10−9 s)

Use the binomial expansion to find the wavelength’s fractional uncertainty.

59.

hc = ( E + ΔE )

| Δλ | = λ

ΔE E

−1

≈

hc ⎛ ΔE ⎞ ⎛ ΔE ⎞ ⎜1 − ⎟ = λ ⎜1 − ⎟ → E⎝ E ⎠ E ⎠ ⎝

Find the uncertainty in the position from Eq. 28–1. Δx =

60.

hc hc ⎛ ΔE ⎞ = ⎜1 + ⎟ E ⎠ ⎛ ΔE ⎞ E ⎝ E ⎜1 + ⎟ E ⎠ ⎝ Δλ ΔE → | = 3 × 10−8 |= λ E

λ + Δλ =

mΔυ

1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s = 3.7 × 10−37 m (1300 kg)(0.22 m/s)

The difference in measured energies is found from Eq. 27–4. ΔE = E2 − E1 =

λ2

−

λ1

⎛ ⎞ 1 1 = (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) ⎜ − = 1.670 × 10−21 J ⎜ 487 × 10−9 m 489 × 10−9 m ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠

The lifetime of the excited state is determined from Eq. 28–2. ΔE Δt ≥

→ Δt ≥

ΔE

1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s 1.670 × 10−21 J

= 6.317 × 10−14 s ≈ 6.32 × 10−14 s

This solution assumes that the entire spread in energy is the uncertainty. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

28-18

61.

Chapter 28

We assume that the particles are not relativistic. Conservation of energy is used to find the speed of each particle. That speed then can be used to find the momentum and finally the de Broglie wavelength. We let the magnitude of the accelerating potential difference be V. → eV = 12 mυ 2

PE initial = KE final

ΔxΔp =

h 2π

Δpproton Δpelectron

→ Δp =

→ υ=

h h 2eV ; λ= = = m p mυ

h 2eV m m

h 2meV

= Δx

2π h Δx

2π h Δxproton Δx = = electron = 2π h Δxproton Δxelectron

h 2melectron eV = h 2mproton eV

mproton melectron

1.67 × 10−27 kg 9.11× 10−31 kg

= 42.8

62.

Limiting the number of electron shells to six would mean that the Periodic Table stops with radon (Rn), since the next element, francium (Fr), begins filling the seventh shell. Including all elements up through radon, there would be 86 elements.

63.

The de Broglie wavelength is determined by Eq. 27–8.

λ=

h h = p mυ

→ υ=

h 6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s = = 1.95 × 10−35 m/s ≈ 2.0 × 10−35 m/s mλ (68.0 kg)(0.50 m)

Since λ is comparable to the width of a typical doorway, yes, you would notice diffraction effects. However, assuming that walking through the doorway requires travel through a distance of 0.2 m, the time Δt required is huge.

υΔt = d → Δt =

64.

0.20 m 1.95 × 10

−35

m/s

= 1.0 × 1034 s ≈ 3 × 1026 yr

1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ∝ Z 2 ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ , we seek Z and n′X so that for every fourth value of nX n ⎠ ⎝ n′ there is an nH such that the Lyman formula equals the formula for the unknown element.

Since from Eq. 27–16,

⎛ 1 1 1 1 ⎞ Z2 Z2 − 2 = Z2 ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ = 2 − 2 ⎜ n′ ⎟ 1 nH ⎝ X nX ⎠ n′X nX

Consider atoms (with Z > 1) for which Z 2 /n′2X = 1 → n′X = Z , and for which nX2 = Z 2 nH2 → nX = ZnH for every fourth line. This last condition is obviously met when Z = 4 and n′X = 4. The resulting spectral lines for nX = 4, 8, 12, … match the hydrogen Lyman series lines for n = 1, 2, 3, … . The element is beryllium.

Quantum Mechanics of Atoms

65.

28-19

The K α line is from the n = 2 to n = 1 transition. We use the energies of the hydrogen atom with Z replaced by Z − 1, as in Example 28–7, using Eq. 27–16. ⎛ 2π 2 e 4 mk 2 ⎞ 1 ⎞ 2⎛ 1 =⎜ ⎟⎟ ( Z − 1) ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ → 3 ⎜ λ ⎝ h c n ⎠ ⎝ n′ ⎠

−1

1 ⎛ 2π 2 e 4 mk 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ Z = 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ 3 λ⎝ h c n ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ n′ = 1 + 28.09 ≈ 29

−1

= 1+

1 (0.154 × 10−9

⎛1 1 ⎞ (1.097 × 107 m −1 ) −1 ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ ⎝1 2 ⎠ m)

−1

The element is copper.

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

We use Eq. 27–11, Bohr’s quantum condition, with n = 1 for the ground state. mυ rn = n

ΔxΔp ≈

h 2π

→ mυ r1 =

→ Δx ≈

Δp

→ mυ = p =

/r1

= Δp

= r1

The uncertainty in position is comparable to the Bohr radius. 2.

The periodicity of the Periodic Table depends on the number and arrangement of the electrons in the atom. The Pauli exclusion principle requires that each electron have distinct values for the principal quantum number, angular orbital quantum number, magnetic quantum number, and spin quantum number. As electrons are added to the atom, the electrons fill the lowest available energy states. Atoms with the same number of electrons in the outer shells have similar properties, which accounts for the periodicity of the Periodic Table. The quantization of the angular momentum determines the number of angular momentum states allowed in each shell. These are represented by the letters s, p, d, f, etc. The magnitude of the angular momentum also limits the number of magnetic quantum states available for each orbital angular state. Finally, the electron spin allows for two electrons (one spin up and one spin down) to exist in each magnetic quantum state. So the Pauli exclusion principle, quantization of angular momentum, direction of angular momentum, and spin all play a role in determining the periodicity of the Periodic Table.

(a)

(b)

(a)

The quantum-mechanical theory retained the aspect that electrons only exist in discrete states of definite energy levels. It also retained the feature that an electron absorbs or emits a photon when it changes from one energy state to another. In the Bohr model the electrons moved in circular orbits around the nucleus. In the quantummechanical model the electrons occupy orbitals about the nucleus and do not have exact, welldefined orbits. We treat the Earth as a particle in rotation about the Sun. The angular momentum of a particle is given in Eq. 27–11 as L = mυ rn , where r is the orbit radius. We equate this to the quantummechanical expression in Eq. 28–3. We anticipate that the quantum number will be very large, so ( + 1) as . we approximate

28-20

Chapter 28

L = M Earthυ rSun- = M Earth

(b)

1 2π r r = [ ( + 1)] 2 = T

→

M Earth 2π r 2 (5.98 × 1024 kg)2π (1.496 × 1011 m) 2 = = 2.5255 × 1074 ≈ 2.53 × 1074 T (1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.156 × 107 s)

There are 2 + 1 values of m for a value of , so the number of orientations is as follows: N = 2 + 1 = 2(2.5255 × 1074 ) + 1 = 5.051× 1074 ≈ 5.05 × 1074

The “location” of the beam is uncertain in the transverse (y) direction by an amount equal to the aperture opening, D. This gives a value for the uncertainty in the transverse momentum. The momentum must be at least as big as its uncertainty, so we obtain a value for the transverse momentum. Δp y Δy ≥

→ Δp y ≥

Δy

→

py ≈

The momentum in the forward direction is related to the h wavelength of the light by px = . See the diagram to

relate the momentum to the angle.

θ≈ 6.

py px

≈

/D λ λ λ ; “spread” = 2θ = = ≈ h /λ 2π D πD D

For noble gases, the electrons fill all available states in the outermost shell. Helium has two electrons which fill the 1s shell. For the other noble gases, there are six electrons in the p subshells, filling each of those shells. For each of these gases, the next electron would have to be added to an s subshell at much higher energy. Since the noble gases have a filled shell, they do not react chemically with other elements. Lithium, which has three electrons and is the first alkali metal, has its third electron in the 2s shell. This shell has significantly higher energy than the 1s shell. All of the alkali metals have one electron in their outer s subshell and therefore react well with halogens. Halogens all have five electrons in their outer p subshell. They react well with atoms that have a donor electron in their outer shell, like the alkali metals.

The uncertainty in the electron position is Δx = r1. The minimum uncertainty in the velocity, Δυ , can be found by solving Eq. 28–1, where the uncertainty in the momentum is the product of the electron mass and the uncertainty in the velocity. ΔxΔpmin = r1 (mΔυ ) ≥ Δυ ≥

mr1

1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s (9.11× 10−31 kg)(0.529 × 10−10 m)

= 2.19 × 106 m/s

According to the uncertainty principle, it is impossible to measure a system without disturbing, or affecting, the system. The more precisely you measure the position, the greater the disturbance in the momentum, and hence the greater the uncertainty in the momentum. The more precisely you measure the momentum, the greater the disturbance in the position, and hence the greater the uncertainty in the position. When measuring position and momentum, there is a minimum value for the product of the uncertainties in momentum and position.

MOLECULES AND SOLIDS

Responses to Questions 1.

(a)

The bond in an N 2 molecule is expected to be covalent.

(b) (c)

The bond in the HCl molecule is expected to be ionic. The bond between Fe atoms in a solid is expected to be metallic.

Ca has two s subshell electrons in the outer shell, and each Cl is only missing one electron from its outer shell. These three atoms share their electrons in such a way as to have filled outer shells. Look at Fig. 29–4 and Fig. 29–5. Each of the two outer electrons of Ca will fit into the “extra electron” position of the two Cl atoms, forming strong ionic bonds.

Neither the H 2 nor the O 2 molecule has a permanent dipole moment. The outer electrons are shared equally between the two atoms in each molecule, so there are no polar ends that are more positively or negatively charged. The H 2 O molecule does have a permanent dipole moment. The electrons associated with the hydrogen atoms are pulled toward the oxygen atom, leaving each hydrogen with a small net positive charge and the oxygen with a small net negative charge. Because of the shape of the H 2 O molecule (see Fig. 29–6), one end of the molecule will be positive and the other end will be negative, resulting in a permanent dipole moment.

The H3 molecule has three electrons, and only two of them can be in the 1s state (and then only if they have opposite spins, according to the Pauli exclusion principle). Accordingly, the third electron cannot be in the 1s state, so it is farther from the nucleus and not held as tightly as the other two electrons. This contributes to the instability of H3 . On the other hand, the H3+ ion only has two electrons, and, if they have opposite spins, the Pauli exclusion principle will allow them to both be in the lower energy 1s state, resulting in a 1s 2 closed shell and a spherically symmetric distribution. This makes H3+ relatively more stable than H3 .

Yes, H +2 should be stable. The two positive nuclei share the one negative electron. The electron spends most of its time between the two positive nuclei (basically holding them together).

29-1

29-2

Chapter 29

The electron configuration of carbon is 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2 . The inner two electrons are held tightly and closely bound to the nucleus. The four remaining electrons are basically spread around the outside of the atom in four different directions (they repel each other). These four electrons can each form a simple hydrogen-like bond with four atoms that each have only one electron in an s orbital. Another way to consider this is that the C atom has two electrons in the outer 2p subshell. That subshell would be “full,” so would be stable, if it had six electrons in it. Therefore, the C atom has the capability to share electrons in its outer shell with four hydrogen atoms.

The four categories of molecular energy are translational kinetic energy, electrostatic potential energy, rotational kinetic energy, and vibrational kinetic energy.

The conduction electrons are not strongly bound to particular nuclei, so a metal can be viewed as a collection of positive ions and a negative electron “gas.” (The positive ions are just the metal atoms without their outermost electrons, since these “free” electrons make up the gas.) The electrostatic attraction between the freely roaming electrons and the positive ions keeps the electrons from leaving the metal.

As temperature increases, the thermal motion of ions in a metal lattice will increase. More electrons collide with the ions, increasing the resistivity of the metal. When the temperature of a semiconductor increases, more electrons are able to move into the conduction band, making more charge carriers available and thus decreasing the resistivity. The thermal motion also increases the resistance in semiconductors, but the increase in the number of charge carriers is a larger effect.

10.

From Fig. 29–30, it takes about 0.6 V to get a significant current to flow through the diode in the forward bias direction and about 12 V to get current to flow through the diode in the reverse bias direction. Thus, to get the same current to flow in either direction: Vforward = IRforward

Vreverse = IRreverse

Rreverse /Rforward = 12 V/0.6 V = 20

Thus, reverse bias resistance is approximately 20 × larger than the forward bias resistance. This is very approximate based on estimates from reading the graph. 11.

The base current (between the base and the emitter) controls the collector current (between the collector and the emitter). If there is no base current, then no collector current flows. Thus, controlling the relatively small base current allows the transistor to act as a switch, turning the larger collector current on and off.

12.

When the top branch of the input circuit is at the high voltage (current is flowing in this direction for half the cycle), the bottom branch of the output is at the high voltage. The current follows the path through the bridge in the diagram on the left. When the bottom branch of the input circuit is at the high voltage (current is flowing in this direction during the other half of the cycle), the bottom branch of the output is still at high voltage. The current follows the path through the bridge in the diagram on the right.

Molecules and Solids

29-3

13.

The main difference between n-type and p-type semiconductors is the type of atom used for the doping impurity. When a semiconductor such as Si or Ge, each atom of which has four electrons to share, is doped with an element that has five electrons to share (such as As or P), then it is an n-type semiconductor since an extra electron has been inserted into the lattice. When a semiconductor is doped with an element that has three electrons to share (such as Ga or In), then it is a p-type semiconductor since an extra hole (the lack of an electron) has been inserted into the lattice.

14.

The partially filled shell in Na is the 3s shell, which has one electron in it. The partially filled shell in Cl is the 2p shell, which has five electrons in it. In NaCl the electron from the 3s shell in Na is transferred to the 2p shell in Cl, which results in filled shells for both ions. Thus when many ions are considered, the resulting bands are either completely filled (the valence band) or completely empty (the conduction band). Thus a large energy is required to create a conduction electron by raising an electron from the valence band to the conduction band.

15.

In the circuit shown in Fig. 29–41, the base–emitter junction is forward biased (the current will easily flow from the base to the emitter) and the base–collector junction is reverse biased (the current will not easily flow from the base to the collector).

16.

The energy comes from the power supplied by the collector/emitter voltage source, % C. The input signal to the base just regulates how much current, and therefore how much power, can be drawn from the collector’s voltage source.

17.

The phosphorus atoms will be donor atoms. Phosphorus has five valence electrons. It will form four covalent bonds with the silicon atoms around it and will have one “extra” electron that is weakly bound to the atom and can be easily excited up to the conduction band. This process results in extra electrons in the conduction band, so silicon doped with phosphorus is an n-type semiconductor.

18.

They do not obey Ohm’s law. Ohmic devices (those that obey Ohm’s law) have a constant resistance and therefore a linear relationship between voltage and current. The voltage–current relationship for diodes is not linear (Fig. 29–30). The resistance of a diode operated in reverse bias is very large. The same diode operated in a forward-bias mode has a much smaller resistance. Since a transistor can be thought of as made up of diodes, it is also non-ohmic.

19.

A diode cannot be used to amplify a signal. A diode does let current flow through it in one direction easily (forward biased) and it does not let current flow through it in the other direction (reverse bias), but there is no way to connect a source of power to use it to amplify a signal (which is how a transistor amplifies a signal).

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(c)

Due to the small masses of the atoms, the gravitational force is much too weak to hold them together. Most atoms have very small magnetic fields and therefore could not be held together by magnetic forces. Nuclear forces hold the nuclei of the atoms together but do not act on a molecular scale. The exchange and sharing of electrons by the electric force hold molecules together.

(c)

In the H 2 molecule the two electrons orbit both atoms. In order for those two electrons to not violate the Pauli exclusion principle, they must have different quantum numbers. Each atom initially had one electron and the molecule has two, so no electrons are lost. When the atoms are separated by one bond length, the energy is a minimum (not a maximum) and the molecule has less total energy than the two atoms separately. This decrease in energy is the binding energy.

29-4

Chapter 29

(c)

The shared electrons cannot have the same spin state. One electron must be spin up and the other spin down.

(b)

Covalent bonding is the sharing of atoms between molecules. When one atom has excess electrons in its outer shell and another atom lacks electrons in the outer shell, the atom with excess transfers the electrons to the other atom, making a positive ion and a negative ion, and thus creating an ionic “bond”—an attraction between the two ions.

(a, d) Because the ADP molecule has a positive activation energy, as the phosphate group approaches the ADP molecule it is first repelled and then attracted. The phosphate group must initially have kinetic energy to overcome the repulsion. Some of this kinetic energy is stored as potential energy in the ATP molecule. The binding energy is negative, as some of the initial kinetic energy is stored as positive potential energy. When the ATP molecule is broken apart, this energy is released and is available to instigate other reactions.

(d)

For the DNA to replicate properly, the bond holding the two strands together must be a very weak bond. Ionic and covalent bonds are strong bonds. The van der Waals bond is a weak bond that hold the DNA together.

(d)

A hole is a positive region in the semiconductor that is formed when an electron is missing from the periodic molecular structure.

(c)

A common misconception is that the resistance of materials decreases because fewer electrons collide with the crystal lattice. As a conductor is heated, the electrons actually collide more frequently with the lattice, which results in a greater resistance. In a semiconductor, the resistance also increases with heating because the collisions are more frequent. However, as a semiconductor is heated, additional electrons can jump the band gap and increase the number of conduction electrons available. This has the net effect of decreasing the resistance.

(a)

To be used for doping silicon, the element should have one more or one less electron in its outer shell than silicon. Silicon has two electrons in its outer p shell. Boron and gallium each have one electron in their outer p shell, one fewer than silicon. Phosphorus and arsenic each have three electrons in their outer p shells, one more than silicon. Germanium has two electrons in its outer p shell (the same as silicon), so it would not be a good choice as a doping impurity.

10.

(a)

A common misconception is that metals have free electrons because they have more electrons than protons. Actually, metals are electrically neutral in that they have the same number of electrons as protons. In metals, the outer electrons are not tightly bound to a single atom but can move between atoms in the metal lattice. Since the electrons can move easily between atoms, metals make good conductors of electricity.

Solutions to Problems Note: The following factor appears in the analysis of electron energies: e2 = ke 2 = (9.00 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 = 2.30 × 10−28 J ⋅ m 4πε 0

Molecules and Solids

29-5

We calculate the binding energy as the opposite of the electrostatic potential energy. We use a relationship from Section 29–2 for the potential energy. Binding energy = − PE = −k

q1 q2 (+1.0e)(−1.0e) 2.30 × 10−28 J ⋅ m = 2k = r 0.28 ×10−9 m 0.28 × 10−9 m

= 8.214 × 10−19 J ≈ 8.2 × 10−19 J

⎛ 1 eV = 8.214 ×10−19 J ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝

⎞ ⎟ = 5.134 eV ≈ 5.1 eV J ⎟⎠

From Problem 1, the “point electron” binding energy is 5.1 eV (only 2 significant figures). With the repulsion of the electron clouds included, the actual binding energy is 4.43 eV. Use these values to calculate the contribution of the electron clouds. 5.134 eV − 4.43 eV = 0.704 eV ≈ 0.7 eV

We follow the procedure outlined in the statement of the Problem. HN:

1 (d 2 H2

+ d N 2 ) = 12 (74 pm + 145 pm) = 110 pm

CN:

1 (d 2 C2

+ d N 2 ) = 12 (154 pm + 145 pm) = 150 pm

NO:

1 (d 2 N2

+ d O2 ) = 12 (145 pm + 121 pm) = 133 pm

We convert the units from kcal/mole to eV/molecule. 1

kcal 4186 J 1 eV 1 mole eV × × × = 4.339 × 10−2 mole 1 kcal 1.602 ×10−19 J 6.022 × 1023 molecules molecule

Now convert 4.43 eV per molecule of KCl into kcal per mole.

4.43 5.

eV 1 kcal/mol × = 102 kcal/mol molecule 4.339 × 10−2 eV/molecule

−0.66e We calculate the binding energy as the difference between the energy of two isolated hydrogen atoms and the energy of the p p bonded combination of particles. We estimate the energy of d the bonded combination as the negative potential energy of the two electron–proton combinations plus the positive potential energy of the proton–proton combination. We approximate the electrons as a single object with a charge of 0.33 of the normal charge of two electrons, since the electrons only spend that fraction of time between the nuclei. A simple picture illustrating our bonded model is shown. When the electrons are midway between the protons, each electron will have a potential energy PE ep due to the two protons. PE ep =

−(2)(0.33)ke2

( 12 d )

=−

(4)(0.33)(2.30 × 10−28 J ⋅ m) (0.074 × 10−9 m)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

= −25.6 eV

The protons themselves have this potential energy: PE pp = +

ke2 (2.30 × 10−28 J ⋅ m) =+ = +19.4 eV r (0.074 ×10−9 m)(1.60 ×10−19 J/eV)

29-6

Chapter 29

When the bond breaks, each hydrogen atom will be in the ground state with an energy E1 = −13.6 eV. Thus, the binding energy is as follows: Binding energy = 2 E1 − (2 PE ep + PE pp ) = 2(−13.6 eV) − [ 2(−25.6 eV) + 19.4 eV ] = 4.6 eV

This is close to the actual value of 4.5 eV quoted in the text. 6.

(a)

The neutral He atom has two electrons in the ground state, n = 1, = 0, m = 0. Thus the two electrons have opposite spins, ms = ± 12 . If we try to form a covalent bond, then we see that an

electron from one of the atoms will have the same quantum numbers as one of the electrons on the other atom. From the exclusion principle, this is not allowed, so the electrons cannot be shared. (b)

We consider the He2+ molecular ion to be formed from a neutral He atom and an He+ ion. It will have three electrons. If the electron on the ion has a certain spin value, then it can have the opposite spin of one of the electrons on the neutral atom. Thus those two electrons can be in the same spatial region (because their quantum numbers are not identical), so a bond can be formed. (J ⋅ s) 2

The MKS units of

are

(kg ⋅ m 2 )

J2 (kg ⋅ m/s 2 )m

J2 J2 = = J. The final unit is joules, which (N ⋅ m) J

is an energy unit. 8.

(a)

We first write an expression for the moment of inertia of O 2 about its CM and then calculate the characteristic rotational energy. I = 2mO 2

( 12 r )

mO r

= 12 mO r 2 (1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2

(16.0 u)(1.66 ×10

−27

kg/u)(0.121× 10−9 m) 2 (1.60 ×10−19 J/eV)

= 1.789 ×10−4 eV ≈ 1.79 × 10−4 eV

(b)

From Fig. 29–16, the energy involved in the l = 3 to l = 2 transition is 3 ΔE =

ΔE = h

3 I

Erot mN

( 12 r ) =

/I .

= 6(1.789 × 10−4 eV) = 1.0734 × 10−3 eV ≈ 1.07 ×10−3 eV

→ λ=

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) hc = = 1.16 × 10−3 m ΔE (1.0734 ×10−3 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

Use the rotational energy and the moment of inertia of N 2 about its CM to find the bond length. See the adjacent diagram. I = 2mN

= 12 mN r 2 ; Erot =

mN r

→

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) (2.48 × 10

−4

eV)(1.60 × 10

−19

J/eV)(14.01 u)(1.66 ×10

−27

kg/u)

= 1.10 × 10−10 m

Molecules and Solids

10.

The moment of inertia of H 2 about its CM is I = 2mH

( 12 r )

= 12 mH r 2 . See the adjacent diagram. The

mH r 2

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2 (1.67 × 10−27 kg)(0.074 × 10−9 m) 2

= 1.217 × 10−23 J = 7.607 × 10−3 eV

The rotational energy change (equal to the photon energy) is given in Eq. 29–2, ΔErot = ⎛ 2 =2 ⎜ ⎜ 2I ⎝

(a)

⎞ ⎟⎟ , where ⎠

is the value for the upper state. Note that λ =

=1 →

λ=

c hc hc = = . f hf ΔE

=2 →

⎞ −3 −2 ⎟⎟ = 2(7.607 × 10 eV) = 1.5 × 10 eV ⎠

hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 8.17 ×10−5 m = 0.082 mm ΔE (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(1.52 × 10−2 eV) = 1:

⎛ 2 ΔE = 2(2) ⎜ ⎜ 2I ⎝

λ= (c)

= 0:

⎛ 2 ΔE = 2(1) ⎜ ⎜ 2I ⎝

(b)

characteristic rotational energy, as mentioned in Problem 9, is

29-7

=3 →

⎞ −3 −2 ⎟⎟ = 4(7.607 × 10 eV) = 3.0 × 10 eV ⎠

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) hc = = 4.08 × 10−5 m = 0.041 mm ΔE (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(3.04 × 10−2 eV) = 2:

⎛ 2⎞ ΔE = 2(3) ⎜ ⎟ = 6(7.607 × 10−3 eV) = 4.6 × 10−2 eV ⎜ 2I ⎟ ⎝ ⎠

λ= 11.

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) hc = = 2.73 × 10−5 m = 0.027 mm ΔE (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(4.56 × 10−2 eV)

Use the value of the rotational inertia as calculated in Example 29–2. We also use Eq. 29–2. ΔE =

λ=

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2 2

4π (1.46 × 10

−46

kg ⋅ m )

(5) = 3.813 × 10−22 J

−34

J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) c hc hc (6.63 × 10 = = = = 5.22 × 10−4 m f hf ΔE (3.813 × 10−22 J)

29-8

12.

Chapter 29

First find the energies of the transitions represented by the wavelengths. ΔE1 = ΔE2 = ΔE3 =

λ hc

= =

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.60 × 10

−19

−34

J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 m/s)

−19

J/eV)(11.6 × 10−3 m)

(6.63 × 10 (1.60 × 10

J/eV)(23.1× 10

−3

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(7.71× 10−3 m)

= 5.381× 10−5 eV = 10.717 × 10−5 eV = 16.124 × 10−5 eV

ΔE3 16.124 ΔE2 10.717 = = 1.992 ≈ 2 and = = 2.996 ≈ 3, from the energy levels indicated in ΔE1 5.381 ΔE1 5.381 Fig. 29–16, and from the selection rule that Δ = ± , we see that these three transitions must represent the = 1 to = 0 transition, the = 2 to = 1 transition, and mNa mCl CM the = 3 to = 2 transition. Thus ΔE1 = 2 /I . We use that × relationship along with the rotational inertia about the center r1 r2 of mass to calculate the bond length. Use the adjacent diagram r to help in the calculation of the rotational inertia.

Since

r1 =

[mNa (0) + mCl r ] (35.5 u)r = = 0.607 r (mNa + mCl ) (23.0 u + 35.5 u)

r2 = r − r1 = 0.393r I = mNa r12 + mCl r2 2 = ⎡ (23.0 u)(0.607r ) 2 + (35.5 u)(0.393r ) 2 ⎤ (1.66 × 10−27 kg/u) ⎣ ⎦ = (2.317 × 10−26 r 2 ) kg ⋅ m 2 ΔE1 = r=

13.

(a)

→ (5.381× 10−5 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) =

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2 (2.317 × 10−26 r 2 )kg ⋅ m 2

(1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2 (2.317 ×10−26 kg)( 5.381× 10−5 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

→

= 2.36 × 10210 m

The curve for PE = 12 kx 2 is shown in Fig. 29–17 as a dashed line. This line crosses the PE = 0 axis at about 0.120 nm. To fit the expression PE = 12 kx 2 , which is always positive, we shift the graph upward by 4.5 eV so that the potential energy is 0 at the lowest point and 4.5 eV for the radial positions where it currently crosses the axis. We also need to make the vertex point be at r = r0 .

4.5eV

0 eV

Thus the equation should be parameterized as PE = 12 k (r − r0 ) 2 . A data point that fits this graph is r = 0.120 nm and PE = 4.5 eV. See the diagram, which is a modified version of Fig. 29–17. There may be some variance due to differences in reading the graph. 2 PE = 1 k ( r − r0 ) 2

2 PE (r − r0 ) 2

→ 2(4.5 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) ⎡ (0.120 nm − 0.074 nm)(10−9 m/nm) ⎤ ⎣ ⎦

= 680 N/m

Molecules and Solids

(b)

The classical formula for the frequency of the oscillator is ω = 2π f = k /m . The statement of the problem says to only use half the mass of a hydrogen atom. One H atom has a mass of one atomic mass unit.

λ=

14.

29-9

c c m = = 2π c = 2π (3.00 × 108 m/s) f k 1 k 2π m

1 (1.66 × 10−27 2

kg)

680 N/m

= 2.1× 10−6 m

Each ion is at the corner of a cube of side length s, the distance between ions. From Fig. 29–20, a cube of side length s would have four NaCl pairs. But each ion is part of eight cubes that share a common corner. So any one “cube” has only the equivalent of one-half of an NaCl molecule. Use this to find the density, which is mass per unit volume. 1 (m NaCl ) 2 3

ρ=

→

1/3

⎛ 1 mNaCl ⎞ s =⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ ρ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠

⎡ =⎢ ⎢ ⎣

( 12 molecule/cube) (58.44 g/mole) ⎛ 3

(2.165 g/cm )

1/3

⎞⎤ ⎟⎥ molecules ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦

1 mole

⎜⎜ 23 ⎝ 6.02 ×10

= 2.82 ×10−8 m

Note that Problem 16 quotes this value as 2.4 × 10−8 m. 15.

Each ion is at the corner of a cube of side length s, the distance between ions. From Fig. 29–20, a cube of side length s would have four KCl pairs. But each ion is part of eight cubes that share a common corner. So any one “cube” has only the equivalent of one-half of a KCl molecule. Use this to find the density, which is mass per unit volume. From the Periodic Table, the molecular weight of KCl is 74.55.

ρ=

1 2

( mKCl )

⎛ 1 mKCl s=⎜ 2 ⎜ ρ ⎝

16.

→

s3 1/3

⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠

⎡ =⎢ ⎢ ⎣

( 12 molecule/cube ) (74.55 g/mole) ⎛ (1.99 g/cm3 )

1/3

⎞⎤ ⎟⎥ molecules ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦

1 mole

⎜⎜ 23 ⎝ 6.02 × 10

= 3.15 ×10−8 m

The NaCl crystal is illustrated in Fig. 29–20. Consider four of the labeled ions Na + from Fig. 29–20. See the adjacent diagram. The distance from an Na ion to a Cl ion is labeled as d, and the distance from an Na ion to the nearest neighbor Na ion is the diagonal distance D.

–

D = d 2 = (0.24 nm) 2 = 0.34 nm

17.

The photon with the minimum frequency for conduction must have an energy equal to the energy gap. Eg = hf =

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(620 × 10−9 m)

–

= 2.0 eV

29-10

18.

Chapter 29

The photon with the longest wavelength or minimum frequency for conduction must have an energy equal to the energy gap.

λ= 19.

c hc hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = = = 1.11× 10−6 m = 1.11 μ m −19 f hf Eg (1.60 × 10 J/eV)(1.12 eV)

The energy of the photon must be greater than or equal to the energy gap. The lowest energy corresponds to the longest wavelength that will excite an electron.

λ=

c hc hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = = = 1.7 × 10−6 m = 1.7 μ m −19 f hf Eg (1.60 × 10 J/eV)(0.72 eV)

Thus, the wavelength range is λ ≤ 1.7 μ m . 20.

(a)

For the glass to be transparent to the photon, the photon’s energy must be < 1.12 eV, so the wavelength of the photon must be longer than the wavelength corresponding to 1.12 eV. Eband gap =

λmin =

→

λmin

hc Eband gap

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.12 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

= 1.11× 10−6 m →

λ > 1.11× 10−6 m

The minimum wavelength for transparency is in the infrared region of the spectrum. Since IR has longer wavelengths than visible light, the silicon would not be transparent for visible light. The silicon would be opaque, as in Example 29–5. (b)

The minimum possible band gap energy for light to be transparent would mean that the band gap energy would have to be larger than the most energetic visible photon. The most energetic photon corresponds to the shortest wavelength, which is 400 nm in this Problem. We treat the wavelength as being accurate to 2 significant figures. Eband gap > Eλmin =

21.

λmin

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (400 × 10−9 m)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

= 3.1078 eV ≈ 3.1 eV

The minimum energy provided to an electron must be equal to the energy gap. Divide the total available energy by the energy gap to estimate the maximum number of electrons that can be made to jump. N=

22.

(a)

hf (830 × 103 eV) = = 1.2 × 106 electrons Eg (0.72 eV)

In the 2s shell of an atom,

= 0, so there are two states: ms = ± 12 . When N atoms form bands,

each atom provides two states, so the total number of states in the band is 2N . (b)

In the 2p shell of an atom,

= 1, so there are three states from the m values: m = 0, ± 1; each

of which has two states from the ms values: ms = ± 12 , for a total of six states. When N atoms form bands, each atom provides six states, so the total number of states in the band is 6N .

Molecules and Solids

(c)

In the 3p shell of an atom,

29-11

= 1, so there are three states from the m values: m = 0, ± 1; each

of which has two states from the ms values: ms = ± 12 , for a total of six states. When N atoms form bands, each atom provides six states, so the total number of states in the band is 6N . (d)

In general, for a value of , there are 2 + 1 states from the m values: m = 0, ± 1,… , ± . For each of these, there are two states from the ms values: ms = ± 12 , for a total of 2(2 + 1) states. When N atoms form bands, each atom provides 2(2 + 1) states, so the total number of states in the band is 2 N (2 + 1).

23.

Calculate the number of conduction electrons in a mole of pure silicon. Also calculate the additional conduction electrons provided by the doping, and then take the ratio of those two numbers of conduction electrons. ⎡ (28.09 × 10−3 kg/mol) ⎤ 16 3 11 NSi = ⎢ ⎥ (10 electrons/m ) = 1.206 × 10 electrons/mol (2330 kg/m3 ) ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

(6.02 × 1023 atoms)

N doping = N doping NSi

24.

(4.013 × 1017 )

(1.206 × 1011 )

The photon will have an energy equal to the energy gap. hc

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(730 × 10−9 m)

= 1.7 eV

The band gap is the energy corresponding to the emitted wavelength. E=

27.

= 3.33 × 106 ≈ 3 × 106

c hc hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = = = 9.56 × 10−7 m = 0.96 μ m f hf Eg (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(1.3 eV)

Eg = hf =

26.

= 4.013 ×1017 added conduction electrons/mol

The wavelength is found from the energy gap.

λ= 25.

1.5 ×106

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.3 × 10−6 m)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

= 0.96 eV

From the current–voltage characteristic graph in Fig. 29–30, we see that a current of 14 mA means a voltage of about 0.68 V across the diode. The battery voltage is the sum of the voltages across the diode and the resistor. Vbattery = Vdiode + VR = 0.68 V + (0.014 A)(960 Ω) = 14.12 V ≈ 14 V

28.

(a)

For a half-wave rectifier without a capacitor, the current is zero for half the time. We approximate the average current as half of the full rms current. I avg =

1 Vrms 2 R

1 2

(120 V) = 1.9 mA (31 kΩ)

29-12

Chapter 29

(b)

For a full-wave rectifier without a capacitor, the current is positive all the time. We approximate the average current as equal to the full rms current. I avg =

29.

Vrms (120 V) = = 3.9 mA R (31 kΩ)

The battery voltage is the sum of the voltages across the diode and the resistor. Vbattery = Vdiode + VR ; 2.0 V = Vdiode + I (180 Ω) → I = −

Vdiode 2.0 V + 180 Ω 180 Ω

This is the equation for a straight line passing through the points (0 V, 11.1 mA) and (0.8 V, 6.67 mA). The line has a y intercept of 11.1 mA and a slope of –5.6 mA/V. If the operating voltage of the diode is about 0.68 V, then the current is about 7.3 mA. There is some approximation involved in reading the graph. 30.

31.

R (Ω) In the first diagram we have copied the graph 0.8 V ( volts ) for V > 0 and rotated it so that it shows V as a function of I. The resistance is the slope of 0.6 20 that first graph. The slope, and thus the 15 0.4 resistance, is very high for low currents and decreases for larger currents, approaching 0. 10 0.2 As an approximate value, we see that the 5 I ( mA ) voltage changes from about 0.55 V to 0.65 V as the current goes from 0 to 10 mA. That 30 10 20 10 20 30 makes the resistance about 10 ohms when the I (mA) current is about 5 mA. The second diagram is a sketch of the resistance. (a)

The time constant for the circuit is τ1 = RC1 = (33 × 103 Ω)(28 × 10−6 F) = 0.924 s. As seen in Fig. 29–32c, there are two peaks per cycle. The period of the rectified voltage is 1 s = 0.0083 s. Because τ T , the voltage across the capacitor will be essentially T = 120 1 constant during a cycle, so the average voltage is the same as the peak voltage. The average current is basically constant. I avg =

(b)

Vavg R

Vpeak R

2Vrms 2(120 V) = = 5.1 mA R (33 × 103 Ω)

With a different capacitor, the time constant for the circuit changes.

τ 2 = RC2 = (33 × 103 Ω)(0.10 × 10−6 F) = 0.0033 s Now the period of the rectified voltage is about 2.5 time constants, so the voltage across the capacitor will be “rippled,” decreasing to almost 0 during each half cycle, so that the average voltage will be close to the rms voltage. I avg =

Vrms (120 V) = = 3.6 mA R (33 × 103 Ω)

Molecules and Solids

32.

29-13

The arrow at the emitter terminal, E, indicates the direction of current I E . The current into the transistor must equal the current out of the transistor. IB + IC = I E

33.

For a pnp transistor, both the collector and the base voltages are negative, and holes move from the emitter to the collector. The diagram for a pnp amplifier looks just like Fig. 29–41, with the polarity of % B and % C reversed, I B and I C flowing in opposite directions, and the emitter arrow pointing toward the base.

34.

By Ohm’s law, the ac output (collector) current times the output resistor will be the ac output voltage. Vout = iC RC

35.

→ RC =

Vout Vout 0.42 V = = = 4421 Ω ≈ 4400 Ω iC β I iB 95(1.0 × 10−6 A)

By Ohm’s law, the ac output (collector) current times the output resistor will be the ac output voltage. Vout = iC RC = β I iB RC = (85)(2.0 × 10−6 A)(3800 Ω) = 0.646 V ≈ 0.65 V

36.

By Ohm’s law, the ac output (collector) current times the output resistor will be the ac output voltage. βV Vinput 75(0.080 V) V Vout = iC R → iC = out = = = 2.4 × 10−4 A = 0.24 mA 3 R R 25 × 10 Ω

37.

(a)

The voltage gain is the collector ac voltage divided by the base ac voltage.

βV = (b)

38.

⎛ 7.8 kΩ ⎞ VC iC RC R = = β I C = 65 ⎜ ⎟ = 133.4 ≈ 130 VB iB RB RB ⎝ 3.8 kΩ ⎠

The power amplification is the output power divided by the input power. i V β P = C C = β I βV = (65)(133.4) = 8672 ≈ 8700 iBVB

For an electron confined in one dimension, we find the uncertainty in the momentum from the uncertainty principle, Δp ≈

Δx

. The momentum of the electron must be at least as big as the

uncertainty in the momentum, so we approximate p ≈ KE =

Δx

. Finally, we calculate the kinetic energy by

p2 . Find the difference in the two kinetic energies based on the two position uncertainties. 2m

KE =

2 p2 = 2m 2m(Δx) 2

ΔKE = KE in atoms − KE molecule = =

⎡ ⎤ 1 1 − ⎢ ⎥ 2 2m ⎢⎣ (Δx)in (Δx) 2molecule ⎥⎦ atoms 2

⎤⎛ (1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2 ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎞ − ⎢ ⎥⎜ ⎟ −31 −9 −9 −19 2 2 2(9.11× 10 kg) ⎣⎢ (0.053 × 10 m)in atoms (0.074 × 10 m) molecule ⎦⎥ ⎝ 1.60 ×10 J/eV ⎠

= 6.62 eV

29-14

Chapter 29

There are two electrons, and each one has this kinetic energy difference, so the total kinetic energy difference is 2(6.62 eV) = 13.2 eV ≈ 13 eV . 39.

40.

41.

We find the temperature from the given relationship. (a)

KE = 3 kT

→ T=

2 KE 2(4.0 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) = = 3.1× 104 K −23 3k 3(1.38 × 10 J/K)

(b)

KE = 3 kT

→ T=

2 KE 2(0.12 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) = = 930 K 3k 3(1.38 × 10−23 J/K)

The diagram here is similar to Fig. 29–10. The activation energy is the energy needed to get the (initially) stable system over the barrier in the potential energy. The activation energy is 1.4 eV for this molecule. The dissociation energy is the energy that is released when the bond is broken. The dissociation energy is 1.6 eV for this molecule. (a)

1.3eV

1.6eV

The potential energy for the point charges is found in Section 29–2. PE = −

(b)

e2 (2.30 × 10−28 J ⋅ m) =− = −5.32 eV ≈ −5.3 eV 4πε 0 r (0.27 × 10−9 m)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) 1

Because the potential energy of the ions is negative, 5.32 eV is released when the ions are brought together. The other energies quoted involve the transfer of the electron from the K atom to the F atom. A total of 3.41 eV is released, and 4.34 eV is absorbed in the individual electron transfer processes. Thus, the total binding energy is as follows: Binding energy = 5.32 eV + 3.41 eV − 4.34 eV = 4.39 eV ≈ 4.4 eV

42.

From Fig. 29–16, a rotational absorption spectrum would show peaks at energies of 3 2 /I , etc. Adjacent peaks are separated by an energy of energy to determine the rotational inertia. ΔE =

43.

→ I=

ΔE

h 4π 2 f

/I , 2

/I ,

/I . We use the photon frequency at that

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 4π 2 (8.9 × 1011 Hz)

= 1.9 × 10−47 kg ⋅ m 2

An O 2 molecule can be treated as two point masses, 16 u each, and each having a distance of 6.05 × 10−11 m from the molecule’s center of mass.

I = ∑ mr 2 = 2[(16 u)(1.66 ×10−27 kg/u)](6.05 × 10−11 m) 2 = 1.94 × 10−46 kg ⋅ m 2

44.

The kinetic energy of the baton is

1 2

I ω 2 , and the quantum number can be found from Eq. 29–1. Let

the length of the baton be d. We assume that the quantum number will be very large. The rotational

Molecules and Solids

inertia about the center of mass is the sum of the inertias for a uniform rod masses 2mend 1 2

( 12 d )

29-15

( 121 mbar d 2 ) and two point

2 2 ( + 1) 2 ≈ 2I 2I Iω ⎡ = = ⎢ 2mend 12 d ⎣

Iω 2 =

( )

→ 2

1 m d2⎤ + 12 bar ⎥⎦

2π f

2π (1.8 s −1 ) 1 (0.23 kg)(0.32 m) 2 ⎤ = ⎡ 2(0.38 kg)(0.16 m)2 + 12 = 2.30 × 1033 ⎣ ⎦ (1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)

The spacing between rotational energy levels is given by Eq. 29–2. We compare that value to the rotational kinetic energy. 2

ΔE = E

2 2

2 33

(2.30 × 10 )

= 8.7 × 10−34

This is such a small difference that it would not be detectable, so no, we do not need to consider quantum effects. 45.

The photon with the maximum wavelength for absorption has an energy equal to the energy gap. Eg = hf =

46.

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(2.06 × 10−3 m)

= 6.03 ×10−4 eV

The photon with the maximum wavelength for conduction has an energy equal to the energy gap. Eg = hf =

47.

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(226 × 10−9 m)

= 5.50 eV

The longest wavelength will be for the photon with the minimum energy, which corresponds to the gap energy. Eg =

λmax

→ λmax =

hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 3.5 × 10−7 m −19 Eg (3.6 eV)(1.60 × 10 J/eV)

So the photon must have λ ≤ 3.5 × 10−7 m . 48.

The photon with the longest wavelength has the minimum energy, which should be equal to the gap energy. Eg =

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 ×108 m/s) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(1100 × 10−9 m)

= 1.130 eV ≈ 1.1 eV

If the energy gap is any larger than this, then some solar photons will not have enough energy to cause an electron to jump levels. Those photons will not be absorbed, making the solar cell less efficient.

29-16

49.

Chapter 29

To use silicon to filter the wavelengths, wavelengths below the IR should cause the electron to be raised to the conduction band, so the photon is absorbed in the silicon. We find the shortest wavelength that will cause the electron to jump.

λ=

c hc hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = > = = 1.11× 10−6 m = 1.11 μ m −19 f hf Eg (1.60 × 10 J/eV)(1.12 eV)

Because this is in the IR region of the spectrum, the shorter wavelengths of visible light will excite the electron and the photon would be absorbed. So silicon can be used as a window. 50.

51.

The energy gap is related to photon wavelength by Eg = hf = hc /λ. Use this for both colors of LED. Green:

Eg =

Blue:

Eg =

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(525 × 10−9 m) (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)(465 × 10−9 m)

= 2.37 eV = 2.67 eV

From the diagram of the cubic lattice, we see that an atom inside the cube is bonded to the six nearest neighbors. Because each bond is shared by two atoms, the number of bonds per atom is three (as long as the sample is large enough that most atoms are in the interior and not on the boundary surface). We find the heat of fusion from the energy required to break the bonds: ⎛ number of bonds ⎞ ⎛ number of atoms ⎞ LF = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ Ebond atom mol ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ = (3)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol)(3.4 × 10−3 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) = 982 J/mol ≈ 980 J/mol

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

Metallic bond theory says that the free electrons in metallic elements can vibrate at any frequency, so when light of a range of frequencies falls on a metal, the electrons can vibrate in response and re-emit light of those same frequencies. Hence, the reflected light will consist largely of the same frequencies as the incident light, so it will not have a distinct color.

The H 2 molecule does not have an activation energy. The two hydrogen atoms do not need an initial kinetic energy to get close enough to bond. The potential energy of the H 2 molecule is less than the potential energy of the atoms when they are infinitely apart. For the formation of ATP from ADP and P, an activation energy is necessary. The two initial molecules must have an initial kinetic energy to overcome the repulsion between them. It is part of the initial kinetic energy that is released causing the ATP molecule to bond. Part of the initial kinetic energy of the atoms remains as potential energy of the ATP molecule. That is, the potential energy of the ATP is greater than the potential energy when the ADP and P are far apart.

(a) (b)

Weak bonds enable molecular structure to be modified easily, even by simple molecular collisions. These can be accomplished at relatively low temperatures. Heating the protein excessively will disassociate many of the weak bonds and may even disassociate some of the stronger bonds, thereby changing the shape of the protein.

Molecules and Solids

(a)

The hydrogen bond is the strongest because the hydrogen atom is the smallest atom and can therefore be approached the closest. If these bonds were stronger, then the bonds could not be broken by simple molecular collisions. That is, it would be difficult to break apart the DNA chain, which would prevent protein synthesis from occurring at low temperatures. The electrons will not be moving fast enough at this low temperature to use relativistic expressions, so the momentum is just the mass times the speed. The kinetic energy of the electrons can be found from the temperature, by Eq. 13–8. The kinetic energy is used to calculate the momentum, and the momentum is used to calculate the wavelength. p KE = 3 kT = 2

λ= (b)

29-17

→

p = 3mkT

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) h h = = = 6.27 × 10−9 m ≈ 6 nm − − 31 23 p 3mkT 3(9 × 10 kg)(1.38 × 10 J/K)(300 K)

The wavelength is much longer than the opening, so electrons at this temperature would experience diffraction when passing through the lattice.

From Eq. 18–10, the number of charge carriers per unit volume in a current is given by n =

I , eυd A

where υd is the drift speed of the charge carriers and A is the cross-sectional area through which the VHall , where VHall is the Hall Bd effect voltage and d is the width of the strip carrying the current (see Fig. 20–21). The distance d is the shorter dimension on the “top” of Fig. 29–45. We combine these equations to find the density of charge carriers. We define the thickness of the current-carrying strip as t = A/d .

carriers move. From Section 20–4, the drift speed is given by υd =

I eυd A

IBd IB (0.28 × 10−3 A)(1.5 T) = = eVHall A eVHall t (1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.018 V)(1.0 × 10−3 m)

= 1.458 × 1020 electrons/m3

The actual density of atoms per unit volume in the silicon is found from the density and the atomic weight. We let that density be represented by N. That density is used to find the number of charge carriers per atom. ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 6.02 × 1023 atoms ⎞ 1 mole 28 3 N = (2330 kg/m3 ) ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 4.994 × 10 atoms/m ⎜ 28.0855 × 10−3 kg ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 1 mole ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠

n 1.458 ×1020 electrons/m3 = = 2.9 ×10−9 electrons/atom 28 3 N 4.994 × 10 atoms/m

In a dielectric, Coulomb’s law becomes F =

ke2 2

e2 2

. Thus wherever e2 appears in an

r 4π K ε 0 r equation, we divide by K. The arsenic ion has a charge of +1, since we consider the ion as having been formed by removing one electron from the arsenic atom. Thus the effective Z will be 1, and we can use the Bohr theory results for hydrogen.

29-18

Chapter 29

(a)

The energy of the electron is calculated by taking Eq. 27–15a and Eq. 27–15b and dividing the expression by K 2 since it has a factor of e4 in the numerator. E=−

2π 2 Z 2 e4 mk 2 2 2 2

K h n

=−

(13.6 eV) Z 2 2 2

K n

=−

(13.6 eV)(1)2 (12) 2 (1) 2

= −0.094 eV

Thus the binding energy is 0.094 eV. (b)

The radius of the electron orbit is found from Eqs. 27–12 and 27–13, with the expression multiplied by K. r=

Kh 2 n 2 4π 2 Ze 2 mk

Kn 2 (0.0529 nm) (12)(1) 2 (0.0529 nm) = = 0.63 nm Z (1) 2

NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIOACTIVITY

Responses to Questions 1.

Different isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons and electrons. Because they have the same number of electrons, they have almost identical chemical properties. Each isotope has a different number of neutrons from other isotopes of the same element. Accordingly, they have different atomic masses and mass numbers. Since the number of neutrons is different, they may have different nuclear properties, such as whether they are radioactive or not.

Identify the element based on the atomic number. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Uranium Nitrogen Hydrogen Strontium Fermium

(Z = 92) (Z = 7) (Z = 1) (Z = 38) (Z = 100)

The number of protons is the same as the atomic number, and the number of neutrons is the mass number minus the number of protons. (a) Uranium: 92 protons, 140 neutrons (b) Nitrogen: 7 protons, 11 neutrons (c) Hydrogen: 1 proton, 0 neutrons (d) Strontium: 38 protons, 48 neutrons (e) Fermium: 100 protons, 152 neutrons

With 87 nucleons and 50 neutrons, there must be 37 protons. This is the atomic number, so the element is rubidium. The nuclear symbol is

87 37 Rb.

The atomic mass of an element as shown in the Periodic Table is the average atomic mass of all 35 37 naturally occurring isotopes. For example, chlorine occurs as roughly 75% 17 Cl and 25% 17 Cl, so its atomic mass is about 35.5 (= 0.75 × 35 + 0.25 × 37). Other smaller effects would include the fact that the masses of the nucleons are not exactly 1 atomic mass unit and that some small fraction of the mass energy of the total set of nucleons is in the form of binding energy.

30-1

30-2

Chapter 30

The alpha particle is a very stable nucleus. It has less energy when bound together than when split apart into separate nucleons.

The strong force and the electromagnetic (EM) force are two of the four fundamental forces in nature. They are both involved in holding atoms together: the strong force binds quarks into nucleons and binds nucleons together in the nucleus; the EM force is responsible for binding negatively charged electrons to positively charged nuclei and for binding atoms into molecules. The strong force is the strongest fundamental force; the EM force is about 100 times weaker at distances on the order of 10−17 m. The strong force operates at short range and is negligible for distances greater than about the size of the nucleus. The EM force is a long-range force that decreases as the inverse square of the distance between the two interacting charged particles. The EM force operates only between charged particles. The strong force is always attractive; the EM force can be attractive or repulsive. Both of these forces have mediating field particles associated with them—the gluon for the strong force and the photon for the EM force.

Quoting from Section 30–3, “… radioactivity was found in every case to be unaffected by the strongest physical and chemical treatments, including strong heating or cooling and the action of strong chemical reagents.” Chemical reactions are a result of electron interactions, not nuclear processes. The absence of effects caused by chemical reactions is evidence that the radioactivity is not due to electron interactions. Another piece of evidence is the fact that the α particle emitted in many radioactive decays is much heavier than an electron and has a different charge than the electron, so it can’t be an electron. Therefore, it must be from the nucleus. Finally, the energies of the electrons or photons emitted from radioactivity are much higher than those corresponding to electron orbital transitions. All of these observations support radioactivity being a nuclear process.

The resulting nuclide for gamma decay is the same isotope in a lower energy state. 64 29 Cu*

→

64 29 Cu + γ

The resulting nuclide for β − decay is an isotope of zinc, 64 29 Cu

→

64 − 30 Zn + e

64 30 Zn.

The resulting nuclide for β + decay is an isotope of nickel, 64 29 Cu

→

64 + 28 Ni + e

64 28 Ni.

10.

238 92 U

11.

Alpha (α) particles are helium nuclei. Each α particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons and therefore has a charge of +2e and an atomic mass value of 4 u. They are the most massive of the three.

decays by alpha emission into

234 90Th,

which has 144 neutrons.

Beta (β) particles are electrons ( β − ) or positrons ( β + ). Electrons have a charge of –e and positrons have a charge of +e. In terms of mass, beta particles are much lighter than protons or neutrons, by a factor of about 2000, so are lighter than alpha particles by a factor of about 8000. Their emission is always accompanied by either an antineutrino ( β − ) or a neutrino ( β + ). Gamma (γ) particle are photons. They have no mass and no charge.

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

12.

(a)

45 20 Ca

→

45 − 21Sc + e

(b)

58 29 Cu

→

58 29 Cu + γ

(c)

46 24 Cr

→

46 + 23 V + e

(d)

234 94 Pu

→

230 92 U + α

(e)

239 93 Np

→

239 − 94 Pu + e

30-3

Scandium-45 is the missing nucleus. Copper-58 is the missing nucleus.

The positron and the neutrino are the missing particles. Uranium-230 is the missing nucleus. + v The electron and the antineutrino are the missing particles.

13.

The two extra electrons held by the newly formed thorium will be very loosely held, as the number of protons in the nucleus will have been reduced from 92 to 90, reducing the nuclear charge. It will be easy for these extra two electrons to escape from the thorium atom through a variety of mechanisms. They are in essence “free” electrons. They do not gain kinetic energy from the decay. They might get captured by the alpha nucleus, for example.

14.

When a nucleus undergoes either β − or β + decay, it becomes a different element, since it has converted either a neutron to a proton or a proton to a neutron. Thus its atomic number (Z) has changed. The energy levels of the electrons are dependent on Z, so all of those energy levels change to become the energy levels of the new element. Photons (with energies on the order of tens of eV) are likely to be emitted from the atom as electrons change energies to occupy the new levels.

15.

In alpha decay, assuming the energy of the parent nucleus is known, the unknowns after the decay are the energies of the daughter nucleus and the alpha. These two values can be determined by energy and momentum conservation. Since there are two unknowns and two conditions, the values are uniquely determined. In beta decay, there are three unknown postdecay energies since there are three particles present after the decay. The conditions of energy and momentum conservation are not sufficient to exactly determine the energy of each particle, so a range of values is possible.

16.

In electron capture, the nucleus will effectively have a proton change to a neutron. This isotope will then lie to the left and above the original isotope. Since the process would only occur if it made the nucleus more stable, it must lie BELOW the line of stability in Fig. 30–2.

17.

Neither hydrogen nor deuterium can emit an α particle. Hydrogen has only one nucleon (a proton) in its nucleus, and deuterium has only two nucleons (one proton and one neutron) in its nucleus. Neither one has the necessary four nucleons (two protons and two neutrons) to emit an α particle.

18.

Many artificially produced radioactive isotopes are rare in nature because they have decayed away over time. If the half-lives of these isotopes are relatively short in comparison with the age of Earth (which is typical for these isotopes), then there won’t be any significant amount of these isotopes left to be found in nature. Also, many of these isotopes have a very high energy of formation, which is generally not available under natural circumstances.

19.

After two months the sample will not have completely decayed. After one month, half of the sample will remain, and after two months, one-fourth of the sample will remain. Each month, half of the remaining atoms decay.

20.

For Z > 92, the short range of the attractive strong nuclear force means that no number of neutrons is able to overcome the long-range electrostatic repulsion of the large concentration of protons.

30-4

21.

Chapter 30

There are a total of 4 protons and 3 neutrons in the reactant. The α particle has 2 protons and 2 neutrons, so 2 protons and 1 neutron are in the other product particle. It must be 32 He. 6 1 3 Li + 1 p

→

4 2α

+ 23 He

22.

The technique of 146 C would not be used to measure the age of stone walls and tablets. Carbon-14 dating is only useful for measuring the age of objects that were living at some earlier time.

23.

The decay series of Fig. 30–11 begins with a nucleus that has many more neutrons than protons and lies far above the line of stability in Fig. 30–2. The alpha decays remove both 2 protons and 2 neutrons, but smaller stable nuclei have a smaller percentage of neutrons. In β + decay, a proton is converted to a neutron, which would take the nuclei in this decay series even farther from the line of stability. Thus, β + decay is not energetically preferred.

24.

There are four alpha particles and four β − particles (electrons) emitted, no matter which decay path is 206 chosen. The nucleon number drops by 16 as 222 86 Rn decays into 82 Pb, indicating that four alpha decays occurred. The proton number only drops by four, from Z = 86 to Z = 82, but four alpha decays

would result in a decrease of eight protons. Four β − decays will convert four neutrons into protons, making the decrease in the number of protons only four, as required. (See Fig. 30–11.) 25.

(i)

Since the momentum before the decay was 0, the total momentum after the decay will also be 0. Since there are only two decay products, they must move in opposite directions with equal magnitude of momentum. Thus, (c) is the correct choice: both the same. (ii) Since the products have the same momentum, the one with the smallest mass will have the greater velocity. Thus (b) is the correct choice: the alpha particle. (iii) We assume that the products are moving slowly enough that classical mechanics can be used. In that case, KE = p 2 /2m. Since the particles have the same momentum, the one with the smallest mass will have the greater kinetic energy. Thus, (b) is the correct choice: the alpha particle.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(a)

A common misconception is that the elements of the Periodic Table are distinguished by the number of electrons in the atom. This misconception arises because the number of electrons in a neutral atom is the same as the number of protons in its nucleus. Elements can be ionized by adding or removing electrons, but this does not change what type of element it is. When an element undergoes a nuclear reaction that changes the number of protons in the nucleus, the element does transform into a different element.

(b)

The role of energy in binding nuclei together is often misunderstood. As protons and neutrons are added to the nucleus, they release some mass energy, which usually appears as radiation or kinetic energy. This lack of energy is what binds the nucleus together. To break the nucleus apart, the energy must be added back in. As a result, a nucleus will have less energy than the protons and neutrons that made up the nucleus.

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

(c)

30-5

Large nuclei are typically unstable, so increasing the number of nuclei does not necessarily make the nucleus more stable. Nuclei such as stable as

16 8 O.

14 8O

have more protons than neutrons, yet

14 8O

is not as

Therefore, having more protons than neutrons does not necessarily make a

nucleus more stable. Large unstable nuclei, such as

238 94 Pu,

have a much larger total binding

energy than small stable nuclei such as 42 He, so the total binding energy is not a measure of stability. However, stable nuclei typically have large binding energies per nucleon, which means that each nucleon is more tightly bound to the others. 4.

(e)

The Coulomb repulsive force does act inside the nucleus, pushing the protons apart. Another larger attractive force is thus necessary to keep the nucleus together. The force of gravity is far too small to hold the nucleus together. Neutrons are not negatively charged. It is the attractive strong nuclear force that overcomes the Coulomb force to hold the nucleus together.

(b)

The exponential nature of radioactive decay is a concept that can be misunderstood. It is sometimes thought that the decay is linear, such that the time for a substance to decay completely is twice the time for half of the substance to decay. However, radioactive decay is not linear but exponential. That is, during each half-life, half of the remaining substance decays. If half the original decays in the first half-life, then half remains. During the second half-life, half of what is left decays, which would be one-quarter of the initial substance. In each subsequent half-life, half of the remaining substance decays, so it takes many half-lives for a substance to effectively decay away. The decay constant is inversely related to the half-life.

(e)

The half-life is the time it takes for half of the substance to decay away. The half-life is a constant determined by the composition of the substance and not by the quantity of the initial substance. As the substance decays away, the number of nuclei is decreasing and the activity (number of decays per second) is decreasing, but the half-life remains constant.

(d)

A common misconception is that it would take twice the half-life, or 20 years, for the substance to completely decay. This is incorrect because radioactive decay is an exponential process. That is, during each half-life, 1/2 of the remaining substance decays. After the first 10 years, 1/2 remains. After the second 10-year period, 1/4 remains. After each succeeding half-life another half of the remaining substance decays, leaving 1/8, then 1/16, then 1/32, and so forth. The decays stop when none of the substance remains, and this time cannot be exactly determined.

(e)

During each half-life, 1/2 of the substance decays, leaving 1/2 remaining. After the first day, 1/2 remains. After the second day, 1/2 of 1/2, or 1/4, remains. After the third day, 1/2 of 1/4, or 1/8, remains. Since 1/8 remains, 7/8 of the substance has decayed.

(c)

A common misconception is that after the second half-life none of the substance remains. However, during each half-life, 1/2 of the remaining substance decays. After one half-life, 1/2 remains. After two half-lives, 1/4 remains. After three half-lives, 1/8 remains.

10.

(a)

The decay constant is proportional to the probability of a particle decaying and is inversely proportional to the half-life. Therefore, the substance with the larger half-life (Tc) will have the smaller decay constant and smaller probability of decaying. The activity is proportional to the amount of the substance (number of atoms) and the decay constant, so the activity of Tc will be smaller than the activity of Sr.

30-6

11.

Chapter 30

(d)

The element with the largest decay constant will have the shortest half-life. Converting each of the choices to decays per second yields the following: (a) 100/s, (b) 1.6 × 108 /s, (c) 2.5 × 1010 /s, (d) 8.6 × 1013 /s. Answer (d) has the largest decay rate, so it will have the smallest half-life.

12.

(d)

If U-238 only decayed by beta decay, the number of nucleons would not change. Pb-206 has 32 nucleons less than U-238, so all decays cannot be beta decays. In each alpha decay, the number of nucleons decreases by four and the number of protons decreases by two. U-238 has 92 protons and Pb-206 has 82 protons, so if only alpha decays occurred, then the number of nucleons would need to decrease by 20. But Pb-206 has 32 fewer nucleons than U-238. Therefore, the sequence is a combination of alpha and beta decays. Gamma decays are common, since some of the alpha and beta decays leave the nuclei in excited states where energy needs to be released.

13.

(d)

A common misconception is that carbon dating is useful for very long time periods. C-14 has a half-life about 6000 years. After about 10 half-lives only about 1/1000 of the substance remains. It is difficult to obtain accurate measurements for longer time periods. For example, after 600,000 years, or about 100 half-lives, only one part in 1030 remains.

14.

(b)

The half-life of radon remains constant and is not affected by temperature. Radon that existed several billion years ago will have completely decayed away. Small isotopes, such as carbon-14, can be created from cosmic rays, but radon is a heavy element. Lightning is not energetic enough to affect the nucleus of the atoms. Heavy elements such as plutonium and uranium can decay into radon and thus are the source of present-day radon gas.

15.

(d)

The gravitational force between nucleons is much weaker (about 50 orders of magnitude weaker) than the repulsive Coulomb force; therefore, gravity cannot hold the nucleus together. Neutrons are electrically neutral and therefore cannot overcome the Coulomb force. Covalent bonds exist between the electrons in molecules, not among the nucleons. The actual force that holds the nucleus together is the strong nuclear force, but this was not one of the options.

16.

(a)

The nature of mass and energy in nuclear physics is often misunderstood. When the neutron and proton are close together, they bind together by releasing mass energy that is equivalent to the binding energy. This energy comes from a reduction in their mass. Therefore, when the neutron and proton are far from each other, their net mass is greater than their net mass when they are bound together.

Solutions to Problems 1.

Convert the units from MeV/c 2 to atomic mass units. ⎛ ⎞ 1u m = (139 MeV/c 2 ) ⎜ = 0.149 u 2 ⎜ 931.5 Me V/c ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠

The α particle is a helium nucleus and has A = 4. Use Eq. 30–1. r = (1.2 × 10−15 m) A 3 = (1.2 × 10−15 m)(4) 3 = 1.9 × 10−15 m = 1.9 fm 1

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

30-7

The radii of the two nuclei can be calculated with Eq. 30–1. Take the ratio of the two radii. 1/3

r238 (1.2 × 10−15 m)(238)1/3 ⎛ 238 ⎞ = =⎜ ⎟ r232 (1.2 × 10−15 m)(232)1/3 ⎝ 232 ⎠

So the radius of 4.

238 92 U

= 1.00855

is 0.855% larger than the radius of

232 92 U.

Use Eq. 30–1 for both parts of this problem. (a)

r = (1.2 × 10−15 m) A1/3 = (1.2 × 10−15 m)(112)1/3 = 5.8 × 10−15 m = 5.8 fm

(b)

r = (1.2 × 10−15 m) A1/3

→

3 r ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 3.7 × 10−15 m ⎞ A=⎜ ⎟ = 29.3 ≈ 29 ⎟ =⎜ ⎝ 1.2 × 10−15 m ⎠ ⎜⎝ 1.2 × 10−15 m ⎟⎠

To find the mass of an α particle, subtract the mass of the two electrons from the mass of a helium atom: mα = mHe − 2me

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 = (4.002603 u) ⎜ ⎜ 1u ⎝

⎞ 2 2 ⎟⎟ − 2(0.511 MeV/c ) = 3727 MeV/c ⎠

Each particle would exert a force on the other through the Coulomb electrostatic force (given by Eq. 16–1). The distance between the particles is twice the radius of one of the particles. 2

(8.988 ×109 N ⋅ m 2 /C 2 ) ⎡(2)(1.60 × 10−19 C) ⎤ ⎣ ⎦ = 63.41 N ≈ 63 N = F =k 2 2 (2rα ) ⎡ (2) 41/3 (1.2 × 10−15 m) ⎤ ⎣ ⎦ Qα Qα

( )

The acceleration is found from Newton’s second law. We use the mass of a “bare” alpha particle as calculated in Problem 5. F = ma → a =

F = m

63.41 N = 9.5 × 1027 m/s 2 −27 ⎛ ⎞ 1.6605 × 10 kg 3727 MeV/c 2 ⎜ ⎜ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠

First, we calculate the density of nuclear matter. The mass of a nucleus with mass number A is approximately (A u) and its radius is r = (1.2 × 10−15 m) A1/3 . Calculate the density.

ρ=

m A(1.6605 × 10−27 kg/u) A(1.6605 × 10−27 kg/u) = = = 2.294 × 1017 kg/m3 4 π r3 4 π (1.2 × 10 −15 m)3 A V 3 3

We see that this is independent of A. The value has 2 significant figures. (a)

We set the density of the Earth equal to the density of nuclear matter.

ρ Earth = ρ nuclear = matter

REarth

M Earth 4 π R3 Earth 3 1/3

⎛ ⎜ M = ⎜ 4 Earth ⎜ 3 πρ nuclear matter ⎝

⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠

→ 1/3

⎛ ⎞ 5.98 × 1024 kg ⎟ =⎜ 17 3 4 ⎜ π (2.294 × 10 kg/m ) ⎟ ⎝3 ⎠

= 183.9 m ≈ 180 m

30-8

Chapter 30

(b)

Set the density of Earth equal to the density of uranium, and solve for the radius of the uranium. Then compare that with the actual radius of uranium, using Eq. 30–1, with A = 238.

ρ=

M Earth 3 4πR Earth 3

mU 4πr 3 U 3 1/3

⎛ mU ⎞ rU = REarth ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ M Earth ⎠ 2.58 × 10−10 m (1.2 × 10−15 )(238)1/3

M Earth

→

REarth

1/3

⎡ (238 u)(1.6605 × 10−27 kg/u) ⎤ = (6.38 × 106 m) ⎢ ⎥ (5.98 × 1024 kg) ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢

= 2.58 × 10−10 m

= 3.5 × 104

Use Eq. 30–1 to find the value for A. We use uranium-238 since it is the most common isotope. runknown (1.2 × 10−15 m) A1/3 = = 0.5 → rU (1.2 × 10−15 m)(238)1/3

From Appendix B, a stable nucleus with A ≈ 30 is 9.

→

rU3

A = 238(0.5)3 = 29.75 ≈ 30

31 15 P .

Use conservation of energy. Assume that the centers of the two particles are located a distance from each other equal to the sum of their radii, and use that distance to calculate the initial electrical PE. Then we also assume, since the nucleus is much heavier than the alpha, that the alpha has all of the final KE when the particles are far apart from each other (so they have no PE). KE i

KEα

+ PE i = KE f + PE f

→ 0+

= (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )

qα qFm = KEα + 0 → 4πε 0 (rα + rFm ) 1

(2)(100)(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 (41/3 + 2571/3 )(1.2 × 10−15 m)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

= 3.017 × 107 eV

≈ 3.0 × 107 eV = 30 MeV

10.

(a)

The hydrogen atom is made of a proton and an electron. Use values from Appendix B.

mp mH (b)

1.007276 u = 0.9994553 ≈ 99.95% 1.007825 u

Compare the volume of the nucleus to the volume of the atom. The nuclear radius is given by Eq. 30–1. For the atomic radius we use the Bohr radius, given in Eq. 27–13. 3

3 ⎡ (1.2 × 10−15 m) ⎤ Vnucleus 34 π rnucleus ⎛ rnucleus ⎞ −14 = = = ⎢ ⎥ = 1.2 × 10 ⎜ ⎟ −10 4 π r3 Vatom r × (0.53 10 m) ⎢ ⎥ ⎝ atom ⎠ ⎣ ⎦ atom 3

11.

Electron mass is negligible compared to nucleon mass, and one nucleon weighs about 1.0 atomic mass unit. Therefore, in a 1.0-kg object, we find the following: N=

(1.0 kg)(6.02 × 1026 u/kg) ≈ 6.0 × 1026 nucleons 1.0 u/nucleon

No, it does not matter what the element is, because the mass of one nucleon is essentially the same for all elements. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

12.

30-9

The initial kinetic energy of the alpha must be equal to the electrical potential energy when the alpha just touches the uranium. The distance between the two particles is the sum of their radii. KE i

KEα

+ PE i = KE f + PE f

→

KEα

= (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )

+0 = 0+k

Qα QU (rα + rU )

→

(2)(92)(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 1/3

1/3

+ 232

)(1.2 ×10

−15

m)(1.60 × 10

−19

J/eV)

= 2.852 × 107 eV

≈ 29 MeV

13.

The text states that the average binding energy per nucleon between A ≈ 40 and A ≈ 80 is about 8.7 MeV. Multiply this by the number of nucleons in the nucleus. (63)(8.7 MeV) = 548.1 MeV ≈ 550 MeV

14.

From Fig. 30–1, we see that the average binding energy per nucleon at A = 238 is 7.5 MeV. Multiply this by the 238 nucleons.

(a)

(238)(7.5 MeV) = 1.8 × 103 MeV

From Fig. 30–1, we see that the average binding energy per nucleon at A = 84 is 8.7 MeV. Multiply this by the 84 nucleons.

(b)

(84)(8.7 MeV) = 730 MeV 15.

15 7N

consists of seven protons and eight neutrons. We find the binding energy from the masses of the components and the mass of the nucleus, from Appendix B.

( )

Binding energy = ⎡ 7m 11 H + 8m ⎣

( 01n ) − m ( 157 N )⎤⎦ c2

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎞ = [7(1.007825 u) + 8(1.008665 u) − (15.000109 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠ = 115.49 MeV Binding energy per nucleon = (115.49 MeV)/15 = 7.699 MeV

16.

Deuterium consists of one proton, one neutron, and one electron. Ordinary hydrogen consists of one proton and one electron. We use the atomic masses from Appendix B, and the electron masses cancel.

( ) ( 01n ) − m ( 21H )⎤⎦ c2

Binding energy = ⎡ m 11 H + m ⎣

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 = [(1.007825 u) + (1.008665 u) − (2.014102 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

= 2.224 MeV

30-10

17.

Chapter 30

We find the binding energy of the last neutron from the masses of the isotopes. Binding energy = ⎡ m ⎣

( 2211 Na ) + m ( 01n ) − m ( 2311 Na )⎤⎦ c2

= [(21.994437 u) + (1.008665 u) − (22.989769 u)]c 2 (931.5 MeV/c 2 ) = 12.42 MeV

18.

(a)

7 3 Li

consists of three protons and three neutrons. We find the binding energy from the masses, using hydrogen atoms in place of protons so that we account for the mass of the electrons.

( )

Binding energy = ⎡3m 11 H + 4m ⎣

( n ) − m ( Li )⎤⎦ c 1 0

7 3

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎞ = [3(1.007825 u) + 4(1.008665 u) − (7.016003 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠ = 39.25 MeV Binding energy 39.25 MeV = = 5.607 MeV/nucleon nucleon 7 nucleons

(b)

195 78 Pt

consists of 78 protons and 117 neutrons. We find the binding energy as in part (a).

( )

Binding energy = ⎡78m 11 H + 117 m ⎣

( n) − m( 1 0

195 78 Pt

)⎤⎦ c

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 = [78(1.007825 u) + 117(1.008665 u) − (194.964792 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

= 1545.7 MeV ≈ 1546 MeV Binding energy 1545.7 MeV = = 7.927 MeV/nucleon nucleon 195 nucleons

19.

23 11 Na

consists of 11 protons and 12 neutrons. We find the binding energy from the masses.

( )

Binding energy = ⎡11m 11 H + 12m ⎣

( n) − m( 1 0

23 11 Na

)⎤⎦ c

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎞ = [11(1.007825 u) + 12(1.008665 u) − (22.989769 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠ = 186.6 MeV Binding energy 186.6 MeV = = 8.113 MeV/nucleon nucleon 23

We do a similar calculation for

24 11 Na,

( )

consisting of 11 protons and 13 neutrons.

Binding energy = ⎡11m 11 H + 13m ⎣

( n) − m( 1 0

24 11 Na

)⎤⎦ c

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎞ = [11(1.007825 u) + 13(1.008665 u) − (23.990963 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠ = 193.5 MeV Binding energy 193.5 MeV = = 8.063 MeV/nucleon nucleon 24 © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

By this measure, the nucleons in 23 11 Na

20.

to be more stable than

23 11 Na

are more tightly bound than those in

24 11 Na.

30-11

Thus we expect

24 11 Na.

We find the required energy by calculating the difference in the masses. (a) Removal of a proton creates an isotope of carbon. To balance electrons, the proton is included as a hydrogen atom:

15 7N

→ 11H + 146 C.

Energy needed = ⎡ m ⎣

( 146 C ) + m ( 11 H ) − m ( 157 N )⎦⎤ c2

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 = [(14.003242 u) + (1.007825 u) − (15.000109 u)] ⎜ ⎜ u ⎝ = 10.21 MeV

(b)

Removal of a neutron creates another isotope of nitrogen: Energy needed = ⎡ m ⎣

15 7N

( N ) + m ( n ) − m ( N )⎤⎦ c 14 7

1 0

15 7

→

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

1 14 0 n + 7 N.

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 = [(14.003074 u) + (1.008665 u) − (15.000109 u)] ⎜ ⎜ u ⎝ = 10.83 MeV

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

The nucleons are held by the attractive strong nuclear force. It takes less energy to remove the proton because there is also the repulsive electric force from the other protons. 21.

(a)

We find the binding energy from the masses. Binding energy = ⎡ 2m ⎣

(

4 2 He

) − m ( Be )⎤⎦ c 8 4

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 = [2(4.002603 u) − (8.005305 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎜ u ⎝ = −0.092 MeV

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

Because the binding energy is negative, the nucleus is unstable. It will be in a lower energy state as two alphas instead of a beryllium. (b)

We find the binding energy from the masses. Binding energy = ⎡3m ⎣

(

4 2 He

) − m ( C)⎤⎦ c 12 6

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 = [3(4.002603 u) − (12.000000 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ ⎟⎟ = +7.3 MeV ⎠

Because the binding energy is positive, the nucleus is stable. 22.

The wavelength is determined from the energy change between the states. ΔE = hf = h

→ λ=

hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 2.6 × 10−12 m ΔE (0.48 MeV)(1.60 × 10−13 J/MeV)

30-12

23.

Chapter 30

For the decay 116 C → 105 B + 11 p, we find the difference of the initial and the final masses. We use hydrogen so that the electrons are balanced. Δm = m

( C) − m ( B) − m ( H ) 11 6

10 5

1 1

= (11.011434 u) − (10.012937 u) − (1.007825 u) = −0.009328 u

Since the final masses are more than the original mass, energy would not be conserved. 24.

The decay is 13H →

3 0 2 He + −1 e + v .

When we add one electron to both sides to use atomic masses, we

see that the mass of the emitted β particle is included in the atomic mass of 23 He. The energy released is the difference in the masses. Energy released = ⎡ m ⎣

( H) − m ( 3 1

3 2 He

)⎤⎦ c

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎞ = [(3.016049 u) − (3.016029 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.019 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

25.

The decay is 01 n → 11 p + −01e + v . The electron mass is accounted for if we use the atomic mass of 11 H as a product. If we ignore the recoil of the proton and the neutrino, and any possible mass of the neutrino, then we get the maximum kinetic energy. KE max

= ⎡m ⎣

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎞ − m 11 H ⎤ c 2 = [(1.008665 u) − (1.007825 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎦ u ⎝ ⎠

( ) ( ) 1 0n

= 0.782 MeV

26.

For each decay, we find the difference of the final masses and the initial mass. If the final mass is more than the initial mass, then the decay is not possible. (a)

Δm = m

(

232 92 U

) + m( n) − m( 1 0

232 92 U

) = 232.037156 u + 1.008665 u − 233.039636 u = 0.006185 u

Because an increase in mass is required, the decay is not possible. (b)

Δm = m

( 137 N ) + m ( 01n ) − m ( 137 N ) = 13.005739 u + 1.008665 u − 14.003074 u = 0.011330 u

Because an increase in mass is required, the decay is not possible. (c)

Δm = m

( K) + m( n) − m( 39 19

1 0

40 19 K

) = 38.963706 u + 1.008665 u − 39.963998 u = 0.008373 u

Because an increase in mass is required, the decay is not possible. 27.

24 11Na

(a)

From Appendix B,

(b)

The decay reaction is

is a β − emitter .

24 11 Na

→

24 − 12 Mg + β

+ v . We add 11 electrons to both sides in order to

use atomic masses. Then the mass of the beta is accounted for in the mass of the magnesium. The maximum kinetic energy of the β − corresponds to the neutrino having no kinetic energy (a limiting case). We also ignore the recoil of the magnesium. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

β−

= ⎡m ⎣

(

24 11 Na

) − m(

24 12 Mg

)⎤⎦ c

30-13

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎞ = [(23.990963 u) − (23.985042 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 5.515 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

28.

(a)

We find the final nucleus by balancing the mass and charge numbers. Z ( X ) = Z (U) − Z (He) = 92 − 2 = 90 A( X ) = A(U) − A(He) = 238 − 4 = 234 234 90 Th

Thus the final nucleus is (b)

If we ignore the recoil of the thorium, then the kinetic energy of the α particle is equal to the difference in the mass energies of the components of the reaction. The electrons are balanced.

( 23892 U ) − m ( 23490Th ) − m ( 24 He )⎤⎦ c2 KE 238 4 m ( 234 90Th ) = m ( 92 U ) − m ( 2 He ) − 2 c KE

= ⎡m ⎣

→

⎡ 4.20 MeV ⎛ 1u = ⎢ 238.050788 u − 4.002603 u − ⎜⎜ 2 c 931 5 . MeV/c 2 ⎝ ⎣⎢

⎞⎤ ⎟⎟ ⎥ ⎠ ⎦⎥

= 234.043676 u

This answer assumes that the 4.20-MeV value does not limit the significant figures of the answer. 29.

60 − − The reaction is 60 27 Co → 28 Ni + β + v . The kinetic energy of the β will be maximum if the (essentially) massless neutrino has no kinetic energy. We also ignore the recoil of the nickel. KE β

= ⎡m ⎣

(

60 27 Co

) − m(

60 28 Ni

)⎤⎦ c

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 = [(59.933816 u) − (59.930786 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎜ u ⎝

30.

We add three electron masses to each side of the reaction 74 Be +

⎞ ⎟⎟ = 2.822 MeV ⎠

0 −1 e

→ 37 Li + v. Then for the mass of

the product side, we may use the atomic mass of 37 Li. For the reactant side, including the three electron masses and the mass of the emitted electron, we may use the atomic mass of 74 Be. The energy released is the Q-value. Q = ⎡m ⎣

( Be ) − m ( Li )⎤⎦ c 7 4

7 3

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 = [(7.016929 u) − (7.016003 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ ⎟⎟ = 0.863 MeV ⎠

30-14

31.

Chapter 30

For alpha decay we have Q = ⎡m ⎣

218 84 Po

→

214 4 82 Pb + 2 He.

We find the Q-value, which is the energy released.

( 21884 Po ) − m ( 21482 Pb ) − m ( 24 He )⎤⎦ c2

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎞ = [218.008973 u − 213.999806 u − 4.002603 u]c 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠ = 6.114 MeV 218 0 For beta decay we have 218 84 Po → 82 At + −1 e + v . We assume that the neutrino is massless, and find the Q-value. The original 84 electrons plus the extra electron created in the beta decay means that there are 85 total electrons on the right side of the reaction, so we can use the mass of the astatine atom and “automatically” include the mass of the beta decay electron.

Q = ⎡m ⎣

(

218 84 Po

) − m(

218 85 At

)⎤⎦ c

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 = [218.008973 u − 218.008695 u]c 2 ⎜ ⎜ u ⎝

32.

(a)

⎞ ⎟⎟ = 0.259 MeV ⎠

We find the final nucleus by balancing the mass and charge numbers. Z ( X ) = Z (P) − Z (e) = 15 − (−1) = 16 A( X ) = A(P) − A(e) = 32 − 0 = 32

Thus the final nucleus is (b)

32 16 S .

If we ignore the recoil of the sulfur and the energy of the neutrino, then the maximum kinetic 32 − energy of the electron is the Q-value of the reaction. The reaction is 32 15 P → 16 S + β + v . We add 15 electrons to each side of the reaction, and then we may use atomic masses. The mass of the emitted beta is accounted for in the mass of the sulfur. KE

33.

= ⎡m ⎣

( P ) − m ( S)⎤⎦ c 32 15

32 16

( S) = m ( P ) − c 32 16

32 15

KE 2

→

⎡ ⎤ 1.71 MeV 1u = ⎢ (31.973908 u) − ⎥ = 31.97207 u c2 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢

We find the energy from the wavelength. E=

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1.15 × 10−13 m)(1.602 × 10−13 J/MeV)

= 10.8 MeV

This has to be a γ ray from the nucleus rather than a photon from the atom. Electron transitions do not involve this much energy. Electron transitions involve energies on the order of a few eV. 34.

The emitted photon and the recoiling nucleus have the same magnitude of momentum. We find the recoil energy from the momentum. We assume that the energy is small enough that we can use classical relationships.

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

pγ = KE K

35.

Eγ c =

= pK = 2mK KE K Eγ2

2mK c 2

30-15

→

(1.46 MeV) 2 = 2.86 × 10−5 MeV = 28.6 eV 2 ⎛ 931.5 MeV/c ⎞ 2 2(39.963998 u) ⎜ ⎟⎟ c ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

The kinetic energy of the β + particle will be its maximum if the (almost massless) neutrino has no kinetic energy. We ignore the recoil of the boron. Note that if the mass of one electron is added to the mass of the boron, then we may use atomic masses. We also must include the mass of the β + . (See Problem 36 for details.)

( 115 B + −01e ) + 10β + + v 11 11 0 0 + 2 11 11 0 2 KE = ⎡ m ( 6 C ) − m ( 5 B ) − m ( −1 e ) − m ( 1 β ) ⎤ c = ⎡ m ( 6 C ) − m ( 5 B ) − 2m ( −1 e ) ⎤ c ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

11 6C

→

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ⎞ = [(11.011434 u) − (11.009305 u) − 2(0.00054858 u)]c 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.9612 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

If the β + has no kinetic energy, then the maximum kinetic energy of the neutrino is also 0.9612 MeV . The minimum energy of each is 0, when the other has the maximum. 36.

For the positron emission process, ZA N → Z −A1 N′ + e + + v. We must add Z electrons to the nuclear mass of N to be able to use the atomic mass, so we must also add Z electrons to the reactant side. On the reactant side, we use Z − 1 electrons to be able to use the atomic mass of N′. Thus we have 1 “extra” electron mass and the β particle mass, which means that we must include 2 electron masses on the right-hand side. We find the Q-value given this constraint. Q = [ M P − ( M D + 2me )]c 2 = ( M P − M D − 2me )c 2

37.

We assume that the energies are low enough that we may use classical kinematics. In particular, we will use p = 2m KE . The decay is

238 92 U

→

234 4 90Th + 2 He.

If the uranium nucleus is at rest when it

decays, then the magnitude of the momentum of the two daughter particles must be the same. pα = pTh ;

KE Th

p 2 2m K m pTh 2 = α = α α = α 2mTh 2mTh 2mTh mTh

KEα

⎛ 4u ⎞ =⎜ ⎟ (4.20 MeV) = 0.0718 MeV ⎝ 234 u ⎠

The Q-value is the total kinetic energy produced.

Q = KEα + KE Th = 4.20 MeV + 0.0718 MeV = 4.27 MeV

30-16

38.

Chapter 30

(a)

The decay constant can be found from the half-life, using Eq. 30–6.

λ= (b)

ln 2 ln 2 = = 1.5 × 10−10 yr −1 = 4.9 × 10−18 s −1 T1/2 4.5 × 109 yr

The half-life can be found from the decay constant, using Eq. 30–6. ln 2

T1/2 = 39.

ln 2 3.2 × 10−5 s −1

= 21, 660 s = 6.0 h

We find the half-life from Eq. 30–5 and Eq. 30–6. 2

R = R0 e− λt = R0 e

40.

ln 2 t T1/ 2

→ T1/2 = −

ln 2 ln 2 (3.6 h) = 1.2 h t=− 140 R ln ln 1120 R0

We use Eq. 30–4 and Eq. 30–6 to find the fraction remaining. ln 2

N = N0 e

− λt

→

⎡ (ln 2)(2.5 yr)(12 mo/yr) ⎤ ⎥ 9 mo ⎦

−⎢ t − N = e −λt = e T1/ 2 = e ⎣ N0

= 0.0992 ≈ 0.1 ≈ 10%

Only 1 significant figure was kept since the Problem said “about” 9 months. 41.

The activity at a given time is given by Eq. 30–3b. We also use Eq. 30–6. The half-life is found in Appendix B. dN ln 2 ln 2 N= (6.5 ×1020 nuclei) = 2.5 ×109 decays/s = λN = 7 dt T1/2 (5730 yr)(3.16 × 10 s/yr)

42.

For every half-life, the sample is multiplied by one-half. N = N0

43.

( 12 ) = ( 12 ) n

= 0.03125 = 1/32 = 3.125%

We need the decay constant and the initial number of nuclei. The half-life is found in Appendix B. Use Eq. 30–6 to find the decay constant.

λ=

ln 2 ln 2 = = 9.99668 × 10−7 s −1 T1/2 (8.0252 days)(24 h/day)(3600 s/h)

⎡ (782 × 10−6 g) ⎤ 23 18 N0 = ⎢ ⎥ (6.02 × 10 atoms/mol) = 3.5962 × 10 nuclei (130.906 g/mol) ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥

(a)

We use Eq. 30–3b and Eq. 30–4 to evaluate the initial activity. Activity = λ N = λ N 0 e− λt = (9.99668 × 10−7 s −1 )(3.5962 × 1018 )e−0 = 3.5950 ×1012 decays/s ≈ 3.60 × 1012 decays/s

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

(b)

30-17

We evaluate Eq. 30–5 at t = 1.5 h. R = R0 e

−λt

= (3.5950 ×10

⎛ 3600 s ⎞ − (9.99668 × 10−7 s −1 )(1.5 h)⎜ ⎟ ⎝ h ⎠ decays/s)e

≈ 3.58 × 1012 decays/s

(c)

We evaluate Eq. 30–5 at t = 3.0 months. We use a time of 1/4 year for the 3.0 months. R = R0 e− λt = (3.5950 ×1012 decays/s)e−(9.99668 × 10

−7

s −1 )(0.25yr)(3.156×107 s/yr)

= 1.3497 decays/s ≈ 1.34 × 109 decays/s

44.

We find the number of nuclei from the activity of the sample, using Eq. 30–3b and Eq. 30–6. The halflife is found in Appendix B. ΔN ln 2 N = λN = T1/2 Δt N=

45.

→

T1/2 ΔN (4.468 × 109 yr)(3.156 × 107 s/yr) = (420 decays/s) = 8.5 × 1019 nuclei ln 2 Δt ln 2

Each α emission decreases the mass number by 4 and the atomic number by 2. The mass number changes from 235 to 207, a change of 28. Thus there must be 7 α particles emitted. With the 7 α emissions, the atomic number would have changed from 92 to 78. Each β − emission increases the atomic number by 1, so to have a final atomic number of 82, there must be 4 β − particles emitted.

46.

We use the decay constant often, so we calculate it here: λ = (a)

We find the initial number of nuclei from an estimate of the atomic mass. N0 =

(b)

(8.7 × 10−6 g) (6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol) = 4.223 × 1016 ≈ 4.2 ×1016 nuclei (124 g/mol)

Evaluate Eq. 30–4 at t = 2.6 min . N = N 0 e− λt = (4.223 × 1016 )e −(0.022505 s

(c)

ln 2 ln 2 = = 0.022505 s −1. T1/2 30.8 s

−1

)(2.6 min)(60 s/ min)

= 1.262 × 1015 ≈ 1.3 ×1015 nuclei

The activity is found from using the absolute value of Eq. 30–3b.

λ N = (0.022505 s −1 )(1.262 × 1015 ) = 2.840 ×1013 decays/s ≈ 2.8 ×1013 decays/s (d)

We find the time from Eq. 30–4.

λ N = λ N 0 e − λt

→

⎡ ⎤ 1 decay/s ⎛ λN ⎞ ln ⎢ ln ⎜ ⎥ ⎟ −1 16 λ N0 ⎠ ⎢ (0.022505 s )(4.223 ×10 ) decays/s ⎦⎥ ⎝ ⎣ t=− =− = 1532 s ≈ 26 min λ 0.022505 s −1 © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

30-18

47.

Chapter 30

Find the initial number of nuclei from the initial decay rate (activity) and then the mass from the number of nuclei. ln 2 N0 → initial decay rate = 2.0 × 105 decays/s = λ N 0 = T1/2 N0 =

T1/2 (1.248 × 109 yr)(3.156 × 107 s/yr) (2.4 × 105 s −1 ) = (2.4 ×105 s −1 ) = 1.364 × 1022 nuclei ln 2 ln 2

m = N0

48.

(atomic weight) g/mol 6.02 × 10

nuclei/mol

= (1.364 × 1022 nuclei)

(39.963998 g) (6.02 × 1023 )

= 0.91 g

The number of nuclei is found from the mass and the atomic weight. The activity is then found from the number of nuclei and the half-life. ⎡ (6.7 × 10−6 g) ⎤ 23 17 N=⎢ ⎥ (6.02 × 10 atoms/mol) = 1.261× 10 nuclei ⎢⎣ (31.9739 g/mol) ⎥⎦

λN = 49.

(a)

⎡ ⎤ ln 2 ln 2 17 10 N=⎢ ⎥ (1.261× 10 ) = 7.1× 10 decays/s 6 T1/2 ⎢⎣ (1.23 × 10 s) ⎦⎥

The decay constant is found from Eq. 30–6.

λ= (b)

ln 2 ln 2 = = 1.381× 10−13 s −1 ≈ 1.38 ×10−13 s −1 T1/2 (1.59 × 105 yr)(3.156 × 107 s/yr)

The activity is the decay constant times the number of nuclei. ⎛ 60 s ⎞ ⎟ ⎝ 1 min ⎠

λ N = (1.381× 10−13 s −1 )(4.50 × 1018 ) = 6.215 × 105 decays/s ⎜ = 3.73 ×107 decays/ min

50.

We use Eq. 30–5. R = 16 R0 = R0 e − λt T1/2 = 2

51.

ln 2 ln

( ) 1 6

t=−

→ ln 2 ln

( 16 )

1 6

= e − λt

→ ln

( 16 ) = −λt = 2 Tln 2 t

→

1/2

(9.4 min) = 3.6 min

Because the fraction of atoms that are 146 C is so small, we use the atomic weight of number of carbon atoms in the sample. The activity is found from Eq. 30–3b. ⎛ 1.3 N 14 C = ⎜ 12 6 ⎝ 10

λN =

12 6C

to find the

⎞ ⎛ 1.3 ⎞ ⎡ (345 g) ⎤ 23 13 ⎟ N 126 C = ⎜ 12 ⎟ ⎢ (12 g/mol) ⎥ (6.02 × 10 nuclei/mol) = 2.250 × 10 nuclei 10 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦

⎡ ⎤ ln 2 ln 2 13 N=⎢ ⎥ (2.250 × 10 ) = 86 decays/s 7 T1/2 ⎣⎢ (5730 yr)(3.156 × 10 s/yr) ⎦⎥

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

52.

30-19

We first find the number of nuclei from the activity and then find the mass from the number of nuclei and the atomic weight. The half-life is found in Appendix B. ln 2 N = 4.20 × 102 decays/s → Activity = λ N = T1/2 N=

(4.468 × 109 yr)(3.156 × 107 s/yr)(4.20 × 102 decays/s) = 8.544 × 1019 nuclei ln 2

⎡ (8.544 × 1019 nuclei) ⎤ −2 m=⎢ ⎥ (238.05 g/mol) = 3.38 × 10 g = 33.8 mg 23 ⎣⎢ (6.02 × 10 atoms/mol) ⎦⎥

53.

We assume that the elapsed time is much smaller than the half-life, so we can approximate the decay rate as being constant. We also assume that the 87 37 Rb

rocks were formed. Thus every atom of NSr = −ΔN Rb = λ N Rb Δt

→ Δt =

87 38 Sr

is stable, and there was none present when the

that decayed is now an atom of

87 38 Sr.

NSr T1/2 4.75 × 1010 yr = (0.0260) = 1.78 ×109 yr N Rb ln 2 ln 2

This is ≈ 4% of the half-life, so our original assumption is valid. 54.

We are not including the neutrinos that will be emitted during beta decay. First sequence:

232 90Th

→

228 88 Ra

+ 42α ;

228 90Th

→

224 88 Ra

+ 42α ;

235 92 U

Second sequence:

227 89 Ac

55.

231 90Th

→

+ 42α ;

227 90Th

→

Because the fraction of atoms that are

→

224 88 Ra 231 90Th

+ β −;

14 6C

228 88 Ra

→

227 90Th

→

228 89 Ac

→

+ β −;

220 86 Rn

231 91 Pa

→

228 90Th

+ β −;

+ 24α

+ β −;

223 88 Ra

228 89 Ac

231 91 Pa

→

227 89 Ac

+ 24α ;

+ 42α

is so small, we use the atomic weight of

12 6C 14 6C

to find the

number of carbon atoms in 73 g. We then use the given ratio to find the number of atoms present when the club was made. Finally, we use the activity as given in Eq. 30–5 to find the age of the club. ⎡ (73 g) ⎤ 23 24 N 12 C = ⎢ ⎥ (6.02 × 10 atoms/mol) = 3.662 × 10 atoms 6 (12 g/mol) ⎣ ⎦ N 14 C = (1.3 ×10−12 )(3.662 × 1024 ) = 4.761× 1012 nuclei 6

(λ N C ) 14 6

t=−

=−

today

(

= λ N 14 C 6

(λ N C ) (λ N C ) 14 6

today

14 6

− λt

=−

→

(

)

λ N 14 C 6 T1/2 today ln ln 2 ⎛ ln 2 ⎞ N 14 C ⎟ ⎜ ⎝ T1/2 6 ⎠0

5730 yr (7.0 decays/s) ln = 7921 yr ≈ 7900 yr ln 2 ⎡ ⎤ ln 2 12 (4.761× 10 nuclei) ⎥ ⎢ 7 ⎢⎣ (5730 yr)(3.156 × 10 s/yr) ⎥⎦ 0

30-20

56.

Chapter 30

The decay rate is given by Eq. 30–3b,

α emission.

ΔN = −λ N . We assume equal numbers of nuclei decaying by Δt

⎛ ΔN ⎞ T1/2 ⎜ ⎟ (1.6 × 10−4 s) 214 ⎝ Δt ⎠218 −λ218 N 218 λ218 = = = = = 8.6 × 10−7 N Δ −λ214 N 214 λ214 T1/2 (3.1 min)(60 s/ min) ⎛ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ 218 ⎝ Δt ⎠ 214

57.

The activity is given by Eq. 30–5. The original activity is λ N 0 , so the activity 31.0 hours later is 0.945λ N 0 . 0.945λ N 0 = λ N 0 e−λt T1/2 = −

58.

→ ln 0.945 = −λ t = −

⎛ 1d ⎞ ln 2 (31.0 h) = 379.84 h ⎜ ⎟ = 15.8 d ln 0.945 ⎝ 24 h ⎠

The activity is given by Eq. 30–5.

T R R 53 d ⎛ 25 decays/s ⎞ 2 = − 1/2 ln =− ⎜ ln ⎟ = 201.79 d ≈ 2.0 ×10 d R0 ln 2 R0 ln 2 ⎝ 350 decays/s ⎠

(a)

R = R0e−λt

(b)

We find the mass from the activity. Note that N A is used to represent Avogadro’s number, and A is the atomic weight.

→ t=−

R0 = λ N 0 = m=

59.

ln 2 t → T1/2

ln 2 m0 N A T1/2 A

→

R0T1/2 A (350 decays/s)(53 d)(86, 400 s/d)(7.017 g/mole) = = 2.7 × 10−14 g N A ln 2 (6.02 × 1023 nuclei/mole) ln 2

The number of radioactive nuclei decreases exponentially, and every radioactive nucleus that decays becomes a daughter nucleus. N = N 0 e−λt ; N D = N 0 − N = N 0 (1 − e−λt )

60.

The activity is given by Eq. 30–5, with R = 0.01050 R0 . R = R0 e−λt

→ λ=−

ln R /R0 ln 2 = t T1/2

→ T1/2 = −

From Appendix B we see that the isotope is 61.

t ln 2 (4.00 h) ln 2 =− = 0.6085 h = 36.5 min ln R /R0 ln 0.01050

211 82 Pb .

Because the carbon is being replenished in living trees, we assume that the amount of 146 C is constant until the wood is cut, and then it decays. Use Eq. 30–4 and Eq. 30–7 to find the age of the tool. N = N0e

−λt

= N0e

−

0.693t T1/ 2

= 0.045 N 0

→ t=−

T1/2 ln(0.045) (5730 yr) ln (0.045) =− = 2.6 × 104 yr 0.693 0.693

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

62.

(a)

The mass number is found from the radius, using Eq. 30–1. 3

r = (1.2 × 10

(b)

30-21

−15

1/3

m) A

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 5000 m ⎞ r = = 7.23 × 1055 ≈ 7 × 1055 A=⎜ ⎜ 1.2 × 10−15 m ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 1.2 × 10−15 m ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

→

The mass of the neutron star is the mass number times the atomic mass unit conversion in kg. m = A(1.66 × 10−27 kg/u) = (7.23 × 1055 u)(1.66 × 10−27 kg/u) = 1.20 × 1029 kg ≈ 1× 1029 kg

Note that this is about 6% of the mass of the Sun. (c)

The acceleration of gravity on the surface of the neutron star is found from Eq. 5–5 applied to the neutron star. g=

63.

Gm r2

(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(1.20 × 1029 kg) (5000 m) 2

Because the tritium in water is being replenished, we assume that the amount is constant until the wine is made, and then it decays. We use Eq. 30–4.

N = N 0 e − λt

64.

= 3.20 × 1011 m/s 2 ≈ 3 × 1011 m/s 2

(a)

ln → λ=−

N N 0 ln 2 = t T1/2

→ t=−

T1/2 N (12.3 yr) ln 0.10 =− = 41 yr ln ln 2 N 0 ln 2

We assume a mass of 70 kg of water and find the number of protons, given that there are 10 protons in a water molecule. ⎡ (70 × 103 g water) ⎤ ⎛ ⎞ 23 molecules water ⎞⎛ 10 protons N protons = ⎢ ⎥ ⎜ 6.02 × 10 ⎟⎜ ⎟ (18 g water/mol water) mol water water molecule ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎝

= 2.34 × 1028 protons

We assume that the time is much less than the half-life so that the rate of decay is constant. ⎛ ln 2 ⎞ ΔN = λN = ⎜ ⎟N Δt ⎝ T1/2 ⎠

Δt =

→

⎛ 1033 yr ⎞ ΔN ⎛ T1/2 ⎞ 1 proton 4 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 6.165 × 10 yr ≈ 60, 000 yr ⎜ ⎟= 28 N ⎝ ln 2 ⎠ 2.34 × 10 protons ⎝ ln 2 ⎠

This is about 880 times a normal life expectancy. (b)

Instead of waiting 61,650 consecutive years for one person to experience a proton decay, we could interpret that number as there being 880 people, each living 70 years, to make that 61,650 years (since 880 × 70 ≈ 61, 650). We would then expect one person out of every 880 to experience a proton decay during their lifetime. Divide 7 billion by 880 to find out how many people on Earth would experience proton decay during their lifetime. 7 × 109 = 7.95 × 106 ≈ 8 million people 880

30-22

65.

Chapter 30

We assume that all of the kinetic energy of the alpha particle becomes electrostatic potential energy at the distance of closest approach. Note that the distance found is the distance from the center of the alpha to the center of the gold nucleus. KE i

+ PE i = KE f + PE f

r=k

Qα QAu KEα

→

KEα

+0 = 0+k

= (8.988 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )

Qα QAu r

→

(2)(79)(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 (7.7 MeV)(1.60 × 10

−13

J/MeV)

= 2.951× 10−14 m

≈ 3.0 × 10−14 m

We use Eq. 30–1 to compare to the size of the gold nucleus. rapproach

rAu

2.951× 10−14 m 1971/3 (1.2 × 10−15 m)

= 4.2

So the distance of approach is about 4.2 × the radius of the gold nucleus. 66.

Use Eq. 30–5 and Eq. 30–6. R = R0 e

− λt

= R0 e

−

t ln 2 T1/ 2

= 0.0200 R0

→

t ln (0.0200) =− = 5.64 ln 2 T1/2

It takes 5.64 half-lives for a sample to drop to 2.00% of its original activity. 67.

The number of 40 19 K nuclei can be calculated from the activity, using Eq. 30–3b and Eq. 30–5. The half-life is found in Appendix B. A subscript is used on the variable N to indicate the isotope.

R = λ N 40

→ N 40

The mass of

40 19 K

⎛ 3.156 × 107 ⎛ decays ⎞ 9 42 (1.248 10 yr) × ⎜⎜ ⎜ ⎟ s ⎠ 1 yr R RT1/2 ⎝ ⎝ = = = ln 2 ln 2 λ

s⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠ = 2.387 × 1018 nuclei

in the milk is found from the atomic mass and the number of nuclei.

m40 = (2.387 × 1018 )(39.964 u)(1.66 × 10−27 kg/u) = 1.583 × 10−7 kg ≈ 0.16 mg

From Appendix B, in a natural sample of potassium, 0.0117% is number of

39 19 K

40 19 K

and 93.2581% is

nuclei and then use the atomic mass to find the mass of

N 40 = (0.0117%) N total ; N 39 = (93.2581%) N total

39 19 K

39 19 K.

Find the

in the milk.

→

⎡ (93.2581%) ⎤ ⎡ (93.2581%) ⎤ 18 22 N39 = ⎢ ⎥ N 40 = ⎢ (0.0117%) ⎥ (2.387 ×10 nuclei) = 1.903 × 10 nuclei (0.0117%) ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

The mass of

39 19 K

is the number of nuclei times the atomic mass.

m39 = (1.903 × 1022 )(38.964 u)(1.66 × 10−27 kg/u) = 1.231× 10−3 kg ≈ 1.2 g

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

68.

30-23

In the Periodic Table, Sr is in the same column as Ca. If Sr is ingested, then the body may treat it chemically as if it were Ca, which means it might be stored by the body in bones. Use Eq. 30–4 to find the time to reach a 1% level. ln

N = N 0 e − λt

→ λ=−

N N0 ln 2 T (29 yr) ln 0.01 N = → t = 2 1/2 ln =− = 192.67 yr ≈ 200 yr ln 2 N0 ln 2 t T1/2

Assume that both the Sr and its daughter undergo beta decay, since the Sr has too many neutrons. 90 38 Sr

69.

→

90 0 39 Y + −1 e + ν

;

90 39 Y

→

90 0 40 Zr + −1 e + ν

The number of nuclei is found from Eq. 30–5 and Eq. 30–3b. The mass is then found from the number of nuclei and the atomic weight. The half-life is given. R = λN =

ln 2 N T1/2

→ N=

T1/2 T R; m = N (atomic weight) = 1/2 R (atomic weight) ln 2 ln 2

⎛ 24 h ⎞⎛ 3600 s ⎞ (87.37 d) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 1 d ⎠⎝ 1 h ⎠ ⎝ m= (4.28 × 104 decays/s)(34.969 u)(1.66 × 10−27 kg/u) ln 2 = 2.71× 10−14 kg = 2.71× 10−11 g

70.

(a)

We find the daughter nucleus by balancing the mass and charge numbers. Z ( X ) = Z (Os) − Z (e − ) = 76 − (−1) = 77 A( X ) = A(Os) − A(e − ) = 191 − 0 = 191

The daughter nucleus is

71.

191 77 Ir .

191 76 Os

β – (0.14 MeV) γ (0.042 MeV) γ (0.129 MeV)

191 77 Ir* 191 77 Ir*

(b)

See the diagram.

(c)

Because there is only one β energy, the β decay must be to the higher excited state.

(a)

The number of nuclei is found from the mass of the sample and the atomic mass. The activity is found from the half-life and the number of nuclei, using Eq. 30–3b and Eq. 30–5.

191 77 Ir

⎛ ⎞ 1.0 g 23 21 N =⎜ ⎟ (6.02 × 10 nuclei/mol) = 4.599 × 10 nuclei ⎝ 130.91 g/mol ⎠ ⎡ ⎤ 0.693 21 15 R = λN = ⎢ ⎥ (4.599 × 10 ) = 4.6 × 10 decays/s 4 × (8.02 d)(8.64 10 s/d) ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥

(b)

Follow the same procedure as in part (a). ⎛ ⎞ 1.0 g 23 21 N =⎜ ⎟ (6.02 × 10 nuclei/mol) = 2.529 × 10 nuclei 238.05 g/mol ⎝ ⎠ ⎡ ⎤ 0.693 21 4 R = λN = ⎢ ⎥ (2.529 × 10 ) = 1.2 × 10 decays/s 9 7 ⎣⎢ (4.47 × 10 yr)(3.16 × 10 s/yr) ⎦⎥

30-24

72.

Chapter 30

From Fig. 30–1, the average binding energy per nucleon at A = 63 is ~8.6 MeV. Use the average atomic weight as the average number of nucleons for the two stable isotopes of copper to find the total binding energy for one copper atom. (63.5 nucleons)(8.6 MeV/nucleon) = 546.1 MeV ≈ 550 MeV

Convert the mass of the penny to a number of atoms and then use the above value to calculate the energy needed. Energy = (# atoms)(energy/atom) ⎡ (3.0 g) ⎤ 23 6 −19 =⎢ J/eV) ⎥ (6.02 × 10 atoms/mol)(546.1× 10 eV/atom)(1.60 × 10 (63.5 g/mol) ⎣ ⎦ = 2.5 × 1012 J

73.

(a)

( 42 He ) = m ( 42 He ) − A ( 42 He ) = 4.002603 u − 4 = 0.002603 u = (0.002603 u)(931.5 MeV/uc 2 ) = 2.425 MeV/c 2

(b)

( 126 C ) = m ( 126 C ) − A ( 126 C ) = 12.000000 u − 12 = 0

(c)

( 8638 Sr ) = m ( 8638 Sr ) − A ( 8638 Sr ) = 85.909261 u − 86 = −0.090739 u = (−0.090739 u)(931.5 MeV/uc 2 ) = −84.52 MeV/c 2

(d)

( 23592 U ) = m ( 23592 U ) − A ( 23592 U ) = 235.043930 u − 235 = 0.043930 u = (0.043930 u)(931.5 MeV/uc 2 ) = 40.92 MeV/c 2

(e)

From Appendix B, we see the following: Δ ≥ 0 for 0 ≤ Z ≤ 8 and Z ≥ 85; Δ < 0 for 9 ≤ Z ≤ 84

74.

Δ ≥ 0 for 0 ≤ A ≤ 15 and A ≥ 218; Δ < 0 for 16 ≤ A < 218

The reaction is 11 H + 01 n → 21 H. If we assume that the initial kinetic energies are small, then the energy of the gamma is the Q-value of the reaction.

( ) ( 01n ) − m ( 21H )⎤⎦ c2

Q = ⎡ m 11 H + m ⎣

= [(1.007825 u) + (1.008665 u) − (2.014102 u)]c 2 (931.5 MeV/uc 2 ) = 2.224 MeV

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

75.

30-25

The mass of carbon 60,000 years ago was 1.0 kg. Find the number of carbon atoms at that time and then find the number of 146 C atoms at that time. Use that with the half-life to find the present activity, using Eq. 30–5 and Eq. 30–6. N=

(1.0 × 103 g)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol) = 5.017 × 1025 C atoms 12 g/mol

N14 = (5.017 × 1025 )(1.3 × 10−12 ) = 6.522 × 1013 nuclei of ln 2 ln 2 R = λN = N= N0e T1/2 T1/2

ln 2 t − T1/ 2

14 6C

= N0

ln 2

(5730 yr)(3.16 × 107 s/yr)

(6.522 × 10 )e

−

ln 2(60,000 yr) (5730 yr)

= 0.1759 decays/s ≈ 0.2 decays/s

76.

The energy to remove the neutron would be the difference in the masses of the 42 He and the combination of 32 He + n. It is also the opposite of the Q-value for the reaction. The number of electrons doesn’t change, so atomic masses can be used for the helium isotopes. ⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 −QHe = (mHe-3 + mn − mHe-4 )c 2 = (3.016029 u + 1.008665 u − 4.002603 u)c 2 ⎜ ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

= 20.58 MeV

Repeat the calculation for the carbon isotopes. ⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 −QC = (mC-12 + mn − mC-13 )c 2 = (12.000000 u + 1.008665 u − 13.003355 u)c 2 ⎜ ⎜ u ⎝ = 4.946 MeV

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

The helium value is 4.16 × greater than the carbon value. 77.

(a)

Take the mass of the Earth and divide it by the mass of a nucleon to find the number of nucleons. Then use Eq. 30–1 to find the radius. 1/3

⎡ 5.98 ×1024 kg ⎤ r = (1.2 × 10−15 m) A1/3 = (1.2 × 10−15 m) ⎢ ⎥ −27 kg ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢1.67 × 10

(b)

= 183.6 m ≈ 180 m

Follow the same process as above, but this time use the Sun’s mass. 1/3

r = (1.2 × 10

−15

1/3

m) A

= (1.2 × 10

−15

⎡ 1.99 × 1030 kg ⎤ m) ⎢ ⎥ −27 kg ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1.67 × 10

= 12, 700 m ≈ 1.3 × 104 m

30-26

78.

Chapter 30

(a)

14 −12 . 6 C is 1.3 × 10 weight of 126 C to find the

From Section 30–11, the usual fraction of

Because the fraction of atoms that

are 146 C is so small, use the atomic Use Eq. 30–4 to find the time.

number of carbon atoms in 72 g.

⎛ 72 g ⎞ 23 24 N12 = ⎜ ⎟ (6.02 × 10 atoms/mol) = 3.612 × 10 atoms ⎝ 12 g/mol ⎠ N14 = (3.612 × 1024 atoms)(1.3 ×10−12 ) = 4.6956 × 1012 atoms N = N 0 e−λt → t = −

(b)

T (5730 yr) 1 N N ln = − 1/2 ln =− = 2.4 × 105 yr ln 2 N 0 ln 2 N0 4.6956 × 1012

Do a similar calculation for an initial mass of 340 g. ⎛ 340 g ⎞ 23 −12 13 N14 = ⎜ ⎟ (6.02 × 10 atoms/mol)(1.3 × 10 ) = 2.217 × 10 atoms 12 g/mol ⎝ ⎠ T N N 1 (5730 yr) 1 N = N 0 e−λt → t = − ln = − 1/2 ln =− = 2.5 × 105 yr ln ln 2 N 0 ln 2 λ N0 2.217 × 1013

For times on the order of 105 yr, the sample amount has fairly little effect on the age determined. Thus, times of this magnitude are not accurately measured by carbon dating. 79.

(a) (b)

This reaction would turn the protons and electrons in atoms into neutrons. This would eliminate chemical reactions and thus eliminate life as we know it. We assume that there is no kinetic energy brought into the reaction and solve for the increase of mass necessary to make the reaction energetically possible. For calculating energies, we write the reaction as 11 H → 10 n + ν , and we assume that the neutrino has no mass or kinetic energy.

( ) ( )

Q = ⎡ m 11 H − m 10 n ⎤ c 2 = [(1.007825 u) − (1.008665 u)]c 2 (931.5 MeV/uc 2 ) ⎣ ⎦ = −0.782 MeV

This is the amount that the proton would have to increase in order to make this energetically possible. We find the percentage change. ⎡ (0.782 MeV/c 2 ) ⎤ ⎛ Δm ⎞ (100) = 0.083% ⎜ ⎟ (100) = ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎝ m ⎠ ⎢⎣ (938.27 MeV/c ) ⎥⎦

80.

We assume that the particles are not relativistic, so that p = 2mKE . The radius is given in mυ . Set the radii of the two particles equal. Note that the charge of the alpha qB particle is twice that of the electron (in absolute value). We also use the “bare” alpha particle mass, subtracting the two electrons from the helium atomic mass.

Example 20–6 as r =

mα υα mβ υ β = 2eB eB

→ mα υα = 2mβ υ β

→

pα = 2 pβ

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

KEα KE β

pα2 2mα 2

pβ

4 pβ2 =

2mβ

81.

30-27

2mα

pβ

4mβ mα

4(0.000549 u) = 5.48 × 10−4 4.002603 u − 2(0.000549 u)

2mβ

Natural samarium has an atomic mass of 150.36 grams per mole. We find the number of nuclei in the natural sample and then take 15% of that to find the number of of

147

147 62 Sm

nuclei. We first find the number

Sm nuclei from the mass and proportion information. (0.15)(1.00 g)(6.02 × 10 23 nuclei/mol) = 6.006 × 10 20 nuclei of 150.36 g/mol

N 147 Sm = (0.15) N natural = 62

147 62 Sm

The activity level is used to calculate the half-life. Activity = R = λ N = T1/2 =

82.

ln 2 N T1/2

→

ln 2 ln 2 (6.006 × 1020 ) = 3.469 × 1018 N= 120 decays/s R

⎛ 1 yr s⎜ ⎜ 3.156 × 107 ⎝

Since amounts are not specified, assume that “today” there is 0.720 g of 238 92 U.

100.000 − 0.720 = 99.280 g of

(a)

in our sample, and

Use Eq. 30–4.

Relate the amounts today to the amounts 1.0 ×109 years ago. N = N0e

−λt

→ N 0 = Ne

( N 0 ) 235 = ( N 235 )e ( N 0 ) 238 = ( N 238 )e

The percentage of (b)

235 92 U

⎞ 11 ⎟⎟ = 1.1× 10 yr s⎠

235 92 U

was

λt

t ln 2 T1/ 2 t ln 2 T1/ 2

= Ne

t ln 2 T1/ 2

= (0720 g)e

(1.0 × 109 yr) ln 2 (7.04 × 108 yr)

= 1.927 g

= (99.280 g)e

(1.0 × 10 ) ln 2 (4.468 × 109 )

= 115.94 g

1.927 × 100% = 1.63% . 1.927 + 115.94

Relate the amounts today to the amounts 100 × 106 years from now. N = N0e

−λt

→ ( N 235 ) = ( N 0 ) 235 e

( N 238 ) = ( N 0 )238 e

The percentage of

−

t T1/ 2

235 92 U

ln 2

−

t ln 2 T1/ 2

= (99.280 g)e

will be

= (0.720 g)e

−

(100 × 106 yr) ln 2 (7.04 × 108 yr)

(100 × 106 yr) − ln 2 (4.468 × 109 yr)

= 0.6525 g

= 97.752 g

0.6525 × 100% = 0.663% . 0.6525 + 97.752

30-28

83.

Chapter 30

We determine the number of activity.

40 19 K

nuclei in the sample and then use the half-life to determine the

N 40 K = (0.000117) N naturally 19

occurring K

R = λN =

84.

= (0.000117)

(420 × 10−3 g)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol) = 7.566 × 1017 39.0983 g/mol

ln 2 ln 2 1 yr ⎛ ⎞ = 13.14 decays/s ≈ 13 decays/s N= (7.566 × 1017 ) ⎜ 9 7 ⎟ T1/2 1.265 × 10 yr ⎝ 3.156 × 10 s ⎠

The kinetic energy of the electron will be at its maximum if the (essentially) massless neutrino has no kinetic energy. We also ignore the recoil energy of the sodium. The maximum kinetic energy of the reaction is then the Q-value of the reaction. Note that the emitted electron mass is accounted for by using atomic masses. KE

= Q = ⎡m ⎣

(

23 10 Ne

) − m(

23 11 Na

)⎤⎦ c

= [(22.9947 u) − (22.9898 u)]c 2 (931.5 MeV/uc 2 )

= 4.6 MeV

If the neutrino were to have all of the kinetic energy, then the minimum kinetic energy of the electron is 0. The sum of the kinetic energy of the electron and the energy of the neutrino must be the Q-value, so the neutrino energies are 0 and 4.6 MeV, respectively. 85.

(a)

If the initial nucleus is at rest when it decays, then momentum conservation says that the magnitude of the momentum of the alpha particle will be equal to the magnitude of the momentum of the daughter particle. We use that to calculate the (nonrelativistic) kinetic energy of the daughter particle. The mass of each particle is essentially equal to its atomic mass number, in atomic mass units. Note that classically, p = 2mKE . pα = pD ;

KE D KEα

(b)

+ KE D

KE D

2m KE p2 m pD2 = α = α α = α 2mD 2mD 2mD mD 4 AD

KEα

⎡ 4 ⎢ KEα + A D ⎣

We specifically consider the decay of KE D KEα

+ KE D

1 1 + AD 1 4

KEα

226 88 Ra.

1 1+

⎤ ⎥ ⎦

1 (222) 4

⎡ AD ⎢ 4 ⎣

KEα KEα

KEα

⎤ + KEα ⎥ ⎦

Aα AD

KEα

4 AD

KEα

1 1 4

1 + AD

The daughter has AD = 222.

= 0.017699 ≈ 1.8%

Thus, the alpha particle carries away 1 − 0.0177 = 0.9823 = 98.2% . 86.

The mass number changes only with α decay, and it changes by − 4. If the mass number is 4n, then the new number is 4n − 4 = 4(n − 1) = 4n′. There is a similar result for each family, as shown here. 4n → 4n − 4 = 4(n − 1) = 4n′ 4n + 1 → 4n − 4 + 1 = 4(n − 1) + 1 = 4n′ + 1

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

30-29

4n + 2 → 4n − 4 + 2 = 4(n − 1) + 2 = 4n′ + 2 4n + 3 → 4n − 4 + 3 = 4(n − 1) + 3 = 4n′ + 3

Thus, the daughter nuclides are always in the same family.

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

The nucleus of an atom consists of protons (which carry a positive electric charge) and neutrons (which are electrically neutral). The electric force between protons is repulsive and much larger than the force of gravity. If the electric and gravitational forces are the only two forces present in the nucleus, then the nucleus would be unstable, as the electric force would push the protons away from each other. Nuclei are stable; therefore, another force must be present in the nucleus to overcome the electric force. This force is the strong nuclear force.

(a)

An einsteinium nucleus has 99 protons and a fermium nucleus has 100 protons. If the fermium undergoes either electron capture or β + decay, then a proton would in effect be converted into a neutron. The nucleus would now have 99 protons and be an einsteinium nucleus.

(b)

If the einsteinium undergoes β − decay, then a neutron would be converted into a proton. The nucleus would now have 100 protons and be a fermium nucleus.

Take the momentum of the nucleon to be equal to the uncertainty in the momentum of the nucleon, as given by the uncertainty principle. The uncertainty in position is estimated as the radius of the nucleus. With that momentum, calculate the kinetic energy, using the classical formula. Iron has about 56 nucleons (depending on the isotope). ΔpΔx ≈ = → KE

p ≈ Δp ≈

= = = Δx r

=2 (1.055 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2 p2 = = 2m 2mr 2 2(1.67 × 10−27 kg) ⎡ (561/3 )(1.2 × 10−15 m) ⎤ 2 (1.60 × 10−13 J/MeV) ⎣ ⎦

= 0.988 MeV ≈ 1 MeV

(a)

From Fig. 30–17, the initial force on the detected particle is down. Using the right-hand rule, the force on a positive particle would be upward. Thus the particle must be negative, and the decay is β − decay.

(b)

The magnetic force is producing circular motion. Set the expression for the magnetic force equal to the expression for centripetal force and solve for the velocity. qυ B =

mυ 2 r

→ υ=

qBr (1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.012 T)(4.7 × 10−3 m) = = 9.9 × 106 m/s −31 m 9.11× 10 kg

In β decay, an electron is ejected from the nucleus of the atom, and a neutron is converted into a proton. The atomic number of the nucleus increases by one, and the element now has different chemical properties. In internal conversion, an orbital electron is ejected from the atom. This does not change either the atomic number of the nucleus or its chemical properties.

30-30

Chapter 30

Also, in β decay, both a neutrino and an electron will be emitted from the nucleus. Because there are three decay products (the neutrino, the β particle, and the nucleus), the momentum of the β particle can have a range of values. In internal conversion, since there are only two decay products (the electron and the nucleus), the electron will have a unique momentum and, therefore, a unique energy. 6.

If the Earth had been bombarded with additional radiation several thousand years ago, then there would have been a larger abundance of carbon-14 in the atmosphere at that time. Organisms that died in that time period would have had a greater percentage of carbon-14 in them than organisms that die today. Since we assumed the amount of starting carbon-14 was the same, we would have previously underestimated the age of the organisms. With the new discovery, we would re-evaluate the organisms as older than previously calculated.

(a)

The decay constant is calculated from the half-life using Eq. 30–6.

λ= (b)

ln 2 ln 2 = = 3.83 × 10−12 s −1 T1/2 (5730 yr)(3.156 × 107 s/yr)

In a living organism, the abundance of 146 C atoms is 1.3 × 10−12 per carbon atom. Multiply this abundance by Avogadro’s number and divide by the molar mass of carbon to find the number of carbon-14 atoms per gram of carbon. ⎛ N = ⎜ 1.3 × 10−12 ⎜ ⎝

14 6C 12 6C

atoms ⎞ N A ⎛ = ⎜ 1.3 × 10−12 ⎟ atoms ⎟⎠ M ⎜⎝

= 6.516 atoms 146 C/g

(c)

12 6C

14 6C 12 6C

atoms ⎞ (6.02 × 1023 atoms 126 C/mol) ⎟ atoms ⎟⎠ 12.0107 g 126 C/mol

≈ 6.5 × 1010 atoms 146 C/ g

12 6C

The activity in natural carbon for a living organism is the product of the decay constant and the number of

14 6C

atoms per gram of

12 6 C.

Use Eq. 30–5 and Eq. 30–3b.

R = λ N = (3.83 × 10−12 s −1 )(6.5 × 1010 atoms 146 C/g 126 C) = 0.249 decays/s/g 126 C ≈ 0.25 decays/s/g 126C

(d)

Take the above result as the initial decay rate (while Otzi was alive) and use Eq. 30–5 to find the time elapsed since he died. R = R0 e− λt t=−

→

⎛ R ⎞ 1 1 yr ⎛ 0.121 ⎞ 11 ⎛ ln ⎜ ⎟ = − ln 1.884 10 s⎜ = × ⎜ ⎟ 7 −12 −1 ⎜ 0.249 λ ⎝ R0 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 3.83 ×10 s ⎝ 3.156 × 10 1

⎞ ⎟ s ⎟⎠

= 5970 yr ≈ 6000 yr

Otzi lived approximately 6000 years ago. 8.

Use Eq. 30–5 and 30–3b to relate the activity to the half-life, along with the atomic weight. ΔN ln 2 = R = λN = N Δt T1/2 T1/2 =

→

⎛ 6.02 × 10 23 nuclei ⎞ ⎛ ln 2 ln 2 1 yr N= (1.5 × 107 g) ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 7 ⎜ R 1 decay/s 152 g ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 3.156 × 10

⎞ 21 ⎟⎟ = 1.3 × 10 yr s⎠

NUCLEAR ENERGY; EFFECTS AND USES OF RADIATION

Responses to Questions 1.

n + 137 56 Ba → ? + γ

(a)

Conserve nucleon number: 1 + 137 = A + 0. Thus, A = 138. Conserve charge: 0 + 56 = Z + 0. Thus, Z = 56. This is n + 137 56 Ba →

(b)

138 56 Ba,

or barium-138.

137 55 Cs + ?

Conserve nucleon number: 1 + 137 = 137 + A. Thus, A = 1. Conserve charge: 0 + 56 = 55 + Z . Thus, Z = 1. This is 11 H, or p (a proton). d + 21 H →

(c)

4 2 He + ?

Conserve nucleon number: 2 + 2 = 4 + A. Thus, A = 0. Conserve charge: 1 + 1 = 2 + Z . Thus, Z = 0. This is γ, or a gamma ray (a photon).

α + 197 79 Au → ? + d

(d)

Conserve nucleon number: 4 + 197 = A + 2. Thus, A = 199. Conserve charge: 2 + 79 = Z + 1. Thus, Z = 80. This is 2.

or mercury-199.

2 3 The reaction is 22 11Na + 1 H → 2 He + ?. The reactants have 12 protons and 24 nucleons, so they must have 12 neutrons. Thus the products must have 12 protons and 12 neutrons as well. Since the alpha has 2 protons and 2 neutrons, the other product must have 10 protons and 10 neutrons. That nucleus is 20 10 Ne.

199 80 Hg,

Thus, the full equation is

22 2 11 Na + 1 H

→

4 20 2 He + 10 Ne .

Neutrons are good projectiles for producing nuclear reactions because they are neutral and they are massive. If you want a particle to hit the nucleus with a lot of energy, then a more massive particle is the better choice. A light electron would not be as effective. Using a positively charged projectile like an alpha or a proton means that the projectile will have to overcome the large electrical repulsion from the positively charged nucleus. Neutrons can penetrate directly to the nucleus and cause nuclear reactions.

31-1

31-2

Chapter 31

For spontaneous radioactive decay reactions, Q > 0, answer (b). Otherwise, more energy must be added to make the reaction proceed.

The thermal energy from nuclear fission appears in the kinetic energy of the fission products (daughter nuclei and neutrons). In other words, the fission products are moving very fast (especially the neutrons, due to the conservation of momentum).

(a) Yes, since the multiplication factor is greater than 1 (f = 1.5), a chain reaction can be sustained. (b) The difference would be that the chain reaction would proceed more slowly, and to make sure the chain reaction continued, you would need to be very careful about leakage of neutrons to the surroundings.

Uranium canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be enriched by chemical means because chemical reactions occur similarly with all of the isotopes of a given element. The number of neutrons does not influence the chemistry, which is primarily due to the valence electrons. Thus, trying to enrich uranium by chemical means, which means trying to increase the percentage of

235 92 U

in the sample compared with

238 92 U,

is impossible.

First of all, the neutron can get close to the nucleus at such slow speeds due to the fact that it is neutral and will not be electrically repelled by either the electron cloud or the protons in the nucleus. Then, once it hits a nucleus, it is held due to the strong nuclear force. It adds more energy than just kinetic energy to the nucleus due to E = mc 2 . This extra amount of energy leaves the nucleus in an excited state. To decay back to a lower energy state, the nucleus may undergo fission.

For a nuclear chain reaction to occur in a block of porous uranium, the neutrons being emitted by the decays must be slowed down. If the neutrons are too fast, then they will pass through the block of uranium without interacting, effectively prohibiting a chain reaction. Water contains a much higher density of protons and neutrons than does air, and those protons and neutrons will slow down (moderate) the neutrons, enabling them to take part in nuclear reactions. Thus, if water is filling all of the porous cavities, then the water will slow the neutrons, allowing them to be captured by other uranium nuclei, and allow the chain reaction to continue, which might lead to an explosion.

10.

Ordinary water does not moderate, or slow down, neutrons as well as heavy water; more neutrons will also be lost to absorption in ordinary water. However, if the uranium in a reactor is highly enriched, then there will be many fissionable nuclei available in the fuel rods. It will be likely that the few moderated neutrons will be absorbed by a fissionable nucleus, and it will be possible for a chain reaction to occur.

11.

A useful fission reaction is one that is self-sustaining. The neutrons released from an initial fission process can go on to initiate further fission reactions, creating a self-sustaining reaction. If no neutrons were released, then the process would end after a single reaction and not be very useful.

12.

Heavy nuclei decay because they are neutron-rich, especially after neutron capture. After fission, the smaller daughter nuclei will still be neutron-rich and relatively unstable and will emit neutrons in order to move to a more stable configuration. Lighter nuclei are generally more stable with approximately equal numbers of protons and neutrons; heavier nuclei need additional neutrons in order to decrease Coulomb repulsion between the protons.

13.

The water in the primary system flows through the core of the reactor and therefore could contain radioactive materials, including deuterium, tritium, and radioactive oxygen isotopes. The use of a secondary system provides for isolation of these potentially hazardous materials from the external environment. Also, it is desirable to keep the radioactive materials as confined as possible to avoid

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

31-3

accidental leakage and contamination. In the electric generating portion of the system, waste heat must be given off to the surroundings, and keeping all of the radioactive portions of the energy generation process as far away from this “release point” as possible is a major safety concern. 14.

Fission is the process in which a larger nucleus splits into two or more fragments, roughly equal in size, releasing energy. Fusion is the process in which smaller nuclei combine to form larger nuclei, also releasing energy.

15.

Fossil fuel power plants are less expensive to construct, and the technology is well known. However, the mining of coal is dangerous and can be environmentally destructive, the transportation of oil can be damaging to the environment through spills, the production of power from both coal and oil contributes to air pollution and the release of greenhouse gases into the environment, and there is a limited supply of both coal and oil. Fission power plants produce no greenhouse gases and virtually no air pollution, and the technology is well known. However, they are expensive to build, they produce thermal pollution and radioactive waste, and when accidents occur they tend to be very destructive. Uranium is also dangerous to mine. Fusion power plants produce very little radioactive waste and virtually no air pollution or greenhouse gases. Unfortunately, the technology for large-scale sustainable power production is not yet known, and the pilot plants are very expensive to build.

16.

Gamma particles penetrate better than beta particles because they are neutral and have no mass. Thus, gamma particles do not interact with matter as easily or as often as beta particles, allowing them to better penetrate matter.

17.

The large amount of mass of a star creates an enormous gravitational attraction, which causes the gas to be compressed to a very high density. This high density creates very high pressure and high temperature. The high temperatures give the gas particles a large amount of kinetic energy, which allows them to overcome the Coulomb repulsion and then fuse when they collide. These conditions at the center of the Sun and other stars make the fusion process possible.

18.

Stars, which include our Sun, maintain confinement of the fusion plasma with gravity. The huge amount of mass in a star creates an enormous gravitational attraction on the gas molecules, and this attractive force overcomes the outward repulsive forces from electrostatics and radiation pressure.

19.

Alpha particles are relatively large and are generally emitted with relatively low kinetic energies. They are not able to penetrate the skin, so they are not very destructive or dangerous as long as they stay outside the body. If alpha emitters are ingested or inhaled, however, then the protective layer of skin is bypassed, and the alpha particles, which are charged, can do tremendous amounts of damage to the lungs and other delicate internal tissues due to ionizing effects. Thus, there are strong rules against eating and drinking around alpha emitters, and the machining of such materials, which produces fine dust particles that could be inhaled, can be done only in sealed conditions.

20.

The absorbed dose measures the amount of energy deposited per unit mass of absorbing material and is measured in grays (Gy) or rads. The gray is the SI unit and is 1 J/kg. A rad is 0.01 Gy. The effective dose takes into account the type of radiation depositing the energy and is used to determine the biological damage done by the radiation. The effective dose is the absorbed dose multiplied by a relative biological effectiveness (RBE) factor. The effective dose is measured in rem, which are rad × RBE, or sieverts (Sv), which are gray × RBE. Sieverts is the SI unit, and 1 Sv = 100 rem. 1 Sv of any type of radiation does approximately the same amount of biological damage.

21.

Radiation can kill or deactivate bacteria and viruses on medical supplies and even in food. Thus, the radiation will sterilize these items, making them safer for humans to use.

31-4

22.

Chapter 31

Allow a radioactive tracer to be introduced into the liquid that flows through the pipe. Choose a tracer that emits particles that cannot penetrate the walls of the pipe. Then check the pipe with a Geiger counter. When tracer radiation is found on the outside of the pipe (radiation levels will be higher at that point), the leak will have been located.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(e)

In nuclear reactions, energy is converted between mass, kinetic energy, and radiant energy, but the total energy is conserved. The momentum is conserved as particles are absorbed and released in the reactions. The net electric charge is conserved. That is, the total net charge before the reaction will always equal the net charge after the reaction. The new conserved quantity in this chapter is the conservation of nucleon number. In any reaction, the number of nucleons will remain unchanged.

(b)

Large nuclei have more neutrons per proton than smaller nuclei. In a fission reaction, the daughter nuclei are neutron-rich and emit β − particles to convert excess neutrons into protons.

(c)

The melting point, boiling point, and valence shells do not affect the critical mass for a chain reaction. The nuclear density is relatively constant for all substances. The critical mass is determined by the mass necessary for each reaction to produce, on average, one neutron that creates an additional reaction. If each fission can produce additional neutrons, then it is more likely that one of those neutrons will create an additional reaction and the critical mass can be smaller.

(b)

Fusion occurs in small nuclei because the binding energy per nucleon of larger nuclei is greater than the binding energies of the small nuclei. Fission occurs in very large nuclei because the binding energy per nucleon of the smaller nuclei is greater than the binding energy per nucleon of the very large nuclei. If the binding energy per nucleon always increased, then fusion could occur through all elements, but fission could not occur.

(a)

Nuclear reactions occur when uranium-235 absorbs a neutron. Thermal neutrons are more likely to be absorbed by uranium-235, so the moderator is used to slow down the neutrons.

(e)

Fission and fusion are sometimes thought of as different names for the same physical process, but this is incorrect. Fission occurs when energy is released as large nuclei are broken apart. Fusion occurs when energy is released as small nuclei are put together.

(c)

The primary fuel source for fusion is hydrogen, which is very plentiful. The by-product of nuclear fusion is helium, which is not radioactive. The problem with fusion is that the hydrogen nuclei repel each other; therefore, very high temperatures are necessary for them to get close enough to fuse.

(a)

When the two hydrogen nuclei bind together to form helium, energy is released. This energy comes from the mass of the hydrogen nuclei, so the resulting helium nucleus has less mass than the mass of the two hydrogen nuclei.

(a)

Gamma and beta radiation induce about the same amount of biological damage. Alpha radiation induces much more damage in a concentrated area than either gamma or beta radiation due to its relatively large mass and the slow speed of alpha radiation.

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

31-5

10.

(a)

A single fission reaction releases about 200 MeV of energy. A single fusion reaction produces less than 25 MeV. Therefore, the fission reaction releases more energy.

11.

(a)

The fuel for fusion is hydrogen, which is a component of water.

12.

(a, b) Radiation is composed of high-energy particles that can disrupt cells. If a small amount of radiation hits the correct molecules of a cell (such as DNA), then it can alter the cell, causing cancer. Therefore, any amount of radiation can be harmful. Radiation is produced in natural nuclear decays and is therefore part of the normal environment. Gamma radiation can be very penetrating, but alpha and beta radiation do not penetrate very far into living tissue.

13.

(e)

Cell damage due to radiation occurs from extended exposure to high levels of radiation. The damage can be minimized by having the technician work farther away from the radiation, work for a shorter time, and be shielded from the radiation. A radiation badge can warn the worker when the allowed radiation exposure has been reached. Therefore, all of the answers can help reduce radiation damage.

14.

(d)

X-rays, gamma rays, and beta rays all produce about the same amount of radiation damage. Neutrons and alpha particles produce more cell damage per unit energy than X-rays, gamma rays, or beta rays due to their larger masses and slower speeds.

15.

(b)

The critical mass is the mass that must be present so that on average, a neutron from each fission is absorbed by another nucleus to instigate another fission. When more neutrons are released during each fission, another reaction is more likely with less mass present. Therefore, the plutonium has a smaller critical mass.

Solutions to Problems 1.

When aluminum absorbs a neutron, the mass number increases by one and the atomic number is unchanged. The product nucleus is

28 13 Al .

by β − , according to this reaction:

28 13 Al

Since the nucleus now has an “extra” neutron, it will decay →

28 − 14 Si + β

+ ve . Thus the product is

28 14 Si .

If the Q-value is positive, then no threshold energy is needed. ⎛ MeV/c 2 Q = 2m 2 H c 2 − m 3 He c 2 − mn c 2 = [ 2(2.014102 u) − 3.016029 u − 1.008665 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ 1 2 u ⎝ = 3.270 MeV

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c ⎠

Thus, no threshold energy is required, since the Q-value is positive. The final mass is less than the initial mass, so energy is released in this process. 3.

A “slow” neutron has negligible kinetic energy. If the Q-value is positive, then the reaction is possible. ⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 Q = m 238 U c 2 + mn c 2 − m 239 U c 2 = [ 238.050788 u + 1.008665 u − 239.054294 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c ⎜ 92 92 u ⎝ ⎠ = 4.806 MeV

Thus, the reaction is possible.

31-6

Chapter 31

(a)

The product has 16 protons and 16 neutrons. Thus the reactants must have 16 protons and 16 31 15 P .

neutrons. Thus, the missing nucleus has 15 protons and 16 neutrons, so it is (b)

The Q-value tells us whether the reaction requires or releases energy. In order to balance the electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton. Q = mp c 2 + m31 Sc 2 − m32 Sc 2 15

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [1.007825 u + 30.973762 u − 31.972071 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 8.864 MeV ⎠

We assume that all of the particles are essentially at rest, so we ignore conservation of momentum. To make just the fluorine nucleus, the Q-value plus the incoming kinetic energy should add to 0. In order to balance the electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton. KE + Q

= KE + mp c 2 + m18 O c 2 − m18 F c 2 − mn c 2 = 0 → 8

m18 F c 2 = KE + mp c 2 + m18 O c 2 − mn c 2 = 9

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = 2.438 MeV + [1.007825 u + 17.999160 u − 1.008665 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠ = 1.6767873 × 104 MeV ⎛ 1u m18 F = (1.6767873 × 104 MeV/c 2 ) ⎜ ⎜ 931.5 MeV/c 2 9 ⎝

(a)

⎞ ⎟⎟ = 18.000937 u ⎠

If the Q-value is positive, then no threshold energy is needed. Q = mn c 2 + m 24 Mg c 2 − m 23 Na c 2 − md c 2 12

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [1.008665 u + 23.985042 u − 22.989769 u − 2.014102 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = −9.468 MeV ⎠

Thus more energy is required if this reaction is to occur. The 18.00 MeV of kinetic energy is more than sufficient, so the reaction can occur.

(b)

18.00 MeV − 9.468 MeV = 8.53 MeV of energy is released

(a)

If the Q-value is positive, then no threshold energy is needed. In order to balance the electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton and the mass of 42 He for the alpha particle. Q = mp c 2 + m7 Li c 2 − m 4 He c 2 − mα c 2 3

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [1.007825 u + 7.016003 u − 2(4.002603 u) ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 17.346 MeV ⎠

Since the Q-value is positive, the reaction can occur.

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

(b)

The total kinetic energy of the products will be the Q-value plus the incoming kinetic energy. KE total

(a)

31-7

= KE reactants + Q = 3.1 MeV + 17.346 MeV = 20.4 MeV

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = [ 4.002603 u + 14.003074 u − 16.999132 u − 1.007825 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c = −1.192 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

Thus, more energy is required if this reaction is to occur. The 9.85 MeV of kinetic energy is more than sufficient, so the reaction can occur. (b)

The total kinetic energy of the products will be the Q-value plus the incoming kinetic energy. KE total

= KE reactants + Q = 9.85 MeV − 1.192 MeV = 8.66 MeV

In order to balance the electrons, we use the mass of 42 He for the alpha particle. Q = mα c 2 + m16 O c 2 − m 20 Ne 8

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [ 4.002603 u + 15.994915 u − 19.992440 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

10.

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 4.730 MeV ⎠

The Q-value tells us whether the reaction requires or releases energy. Q = md c 2 + m13 C c 2 − m14 N c 2 − mn c 2 6

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [ 2.014102 u + 13.003355 u − 14.003074 u − 1.008665 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 5.326 MeV ⎠

The total kinetic energy of the products will be the Q-value plus the incoming kinetic energy. KE total

11.

= KE reactants + Q = 41.4 MeV + 5.326 MeV = 46.7 MeV

The 147 N absorbs a neutron, and 146 C is a product. Thus the reaction is n + 147 N → 146 C + ?. The reactants have 7 protons and 15 nucleons, which means 8 neutrons. Thus the products also have 7 protons and 8 neutrons, so the unknown product must be a proton. The reaction is n + 147 N →

14 6C + p .

In order to balance the electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton.

Q = mn c 2 + m14 N c 2 − m14 C c 2 − mp c 2 7

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [1.008665 u + 14.003074 u − 14.003242 u − 1.007825 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 0.626 MeV ⎠

31-8

12.

Chapter 31

(a)

The deuteron is 12 H, so the reactants have 4 protons and 8 nucleons. Therefore, the reactants have 4 neutrons. Thus the products must have 4 protons and 4 neutrons. That means that X must have 3 protons and 4 neutrons, so X is 37 Li .

(b)

This is called a “stripping” reaction because the lithium nucleus has “stripped” a neutron from the deuteron. The Q-value tells us whether the reaction requires or releases energy. In order to balance the

(c)

electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton Q = md c 2 + m6 Li c 2 − m7 Li c 2 − mp c 2 3

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = [ 2.014102 u + 6.015123 u − 7.016003 u − 1.007825 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c = 5.027 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

Since the Q-value is positive, the reaction is exothermic. 13.

(a)

This is called a “pickup” reaction because the helium has “picked up” a neutron from the carbon nucleus.

(b)

The alpha is 42 He. The reactants have 8 protons and 15 nucleons, so they have 7 neutrons. Thus, the products must also have 8 protons and 7 neutrons. The alpha has 2 protons and 2 neutrons, so X must have 6 protons and 5 neutrons. Thus, X is

(c)

11 6C .

The Q-value tells us whether the reaction requires or releases energy. In order to balance the electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton and the mass of 42 He for the alpha particle. Q = m3 He c 2 + m12 C c 2 − m11 C c 2 − mα c 2 2

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [3.016029 u + 12.000000 u − 11.011434 u − 4.002603 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 1.856 MeV ⎠

Since the Q-value is positive, the reaction is exothermic. 14.

The Q-value tells us whether the reaction requires or releases energy. In order to balance the electron count, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton and the mass of 42 He for the alpha particle. ⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 Q = mp c2 + m7 Li c 2 − m4 He c 2 − mα c2 = [1.007825 u + 7.016003 u − 2(4.002603) u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c ⎜ 3 2 u ⎝ ⎠ = 17.35 MeV

The reaction releases 17.35 MeV . 15.

The Q-value tells us whether the reaction requires or releases energy. In order to balance the electron count, we use the mass of 42 He for the alpha particle. Q = mα c 2 + m9 Be c 2 − m12 C c 2 − mn c 2 4

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [ 4.002603 u + 9.012183 u − 12.000000 u − 1.008665 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 5.702 MeV ⎠

The reaction releases 5.702 MeV . © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

16.

31-9

The Q-value gives the energy released in the reaction, assuming that the initial kinetic energy of the neutron is very small. Q = mn c 2 + m 235 U c 2 − m141 Ba c 2 − m92 Kr c 2 − 3mn c 2 92

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = [1.008665 u + 235.043930 u − 140.914411 u − 91.926156 u − 3(1.008665 u) ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠ = 173.3 MeV

17.

The Q-value gives the energy released in the reaction, assuming the initial kinetic energy of the neutron is very small. Q = mn c 2 + m 235 U c 2 − m88 Sr c 2 − m136 Xe c 2 − 12mn c 2 92

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [1.008665 u + 235.043930 u − 87.905612 u − 135.907214 u − 12(1.008665 u) ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c ⎠

= 126.5 MeV

18.

The power released is the energy released per reaction times the number of reactions per second. P=

energy # reactions × reaction s

→

P # reactions 240 × 106 W = = = 7.5 × 1018 reactions/s −19 6 energy s (200 × 10 eV/reaction)(1.60 × 10 J/eV) reaction ≈ 8 × 1018 reactions/s

19.

Compare the energy per fission with the mass energy. energy per fission mass energy mc

20.

200 MeV 2

(235 u)(931.5 MeV/c )c

= 9.1 × 1024 ≈

1 ≈ (9 × 10−2 )% 1100

Convert the 960 watts over a year’s time to a mass of uranium. 7 ⎛ 960 J ⎞ ⎛ 3.156 ×10 s ⎞ ⎛ 1 MeV ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ −13 1 yr ⎝ 1 s ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 ×10

⎞ ⎛ 1 fission ⎞ ⎛ 0.235 kg 235 ⎞ -4 92 U ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 3.696 ×10 kg 23 J ⎠ ⎝ 200 MeV ⎠ ⎝ 6.02 ×10 atoms ⎠

≈ 0.4 g 21.

(a)

The total number of nucleons for the reactants is 236, so the total number of nucleons for the products must also be 236. The two daughter nuclei have a total of 231 nucleons, so 5 neutrons must be produced in the reaction:

(b)

235 92

235 92 U + n

→

133 98 51Sb + 41 Nb + 5n.

Q = m235 U c2 + mn c2 − m133 Sb c2 − m98 Nb c2 − 5mn c2 92

⎛ MeV/c2 ⎞ 2 = [ 235.043930 u + 1.008665 u − 132.915250 u − 97.910328 u − 5(1.008665 u)] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟c ⎜ u ⎟⎠ ⎝ = 171.1 MeV

31-10

22.

Chapter 31

We assume as stated in Problems 18, 19, and 20 that an average of 200 MeV is released per fission of a uranium nucleus. ⎛ 1 eV (3 × 107 J) ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝

23.

⎞ ⎛ 1 MeV ⎞ ⎛ 1 nucleus ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 0.235 kg −7 ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 3.7 × 10 kg ⎟ ⎜⎜ 6 23 J ⎠ ⎝ 1× 10 eV ⎠ ⎝ 200 MeV ⎠ ⎝ 6.02 × 10 nuclei ⎟⎠

235 92

Since the reaction is 34% efficient, the fission needs to generate (950/0.34) MW of power. Convert the power rating to a mass of uranium using the factor-label method. We assume that 200 MeV is released per fission, as in other Problems.

950 ×106 J 1 atom 1 eV 0.235 kg U 3.156 ×107 s × × × × = 1075 kg 0.34 s 200 ×106 eV 1.60 ×10−19 J 6.02 ×1023 atoms 1 yr ≈ 1100 kg 24.

We find the number of collisions from the relationship En = E0

235 92

( 12 ) , where n is the number of n

collisions.

En = E0

25.

( 12 )

0.040 eV En ln E0 1.0 × 106 eV → n= = = 24.58 ≈ 25 collisions ln 12 ln 12 ln

If the uranium splits into two roughly equal fragments, then each will have an atomic mass number of half of 236, or 118. Each will have a nuclear charge of half of 92, or 46. Calculate the electrical potential energy using a relationship derived in Example 17–7. The distance between the nuclei will be twice the radius of a nucleus, and the radius is given in Eq. 30–1. PE

Q1Q2 (46) 2 (1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 ⎛ 1 MeV = (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) ⎜ 4πε 0 r 2(1.2 × 10−15 m)(118)1/3 ⎜⎝ 1.60 × 10−13 1

⎞ ⎟⎟ = 260 MeV J⎠

This is about 30% larger than the nuclear fission energy released. 26.

The reaction rate is proportional to the number of neutrons causing the reactions. For each fission, the number of neutrons will increase by a factor of 1.0004, so in 1000 milliseconds, the number of neutrons will increase by a factor of (1.0004)1000 = 1.5 .

27.

⎛ 1 eV = 32 kT = 32 (1.38 × 10−23 J/K)(2 × 107 K) = 4 × 10−16 J = 4 × 10−16 J ⎜ ⎜ 1.60 × 10−19 ⎝

⎞ ⎟ J ⎟⎠

≈ 3000 eV

28.

The Q-value gives the energy released in the reaction. Q = m 2 H c 2 + m3 H c 2 − m 4 He c 2 − mn c 2 1

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [ 2.014102 u + 3.016049 u − 4.002603 u − 1.008665 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 17.59 MeV ⎠

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

29.

Calculate the Q-value for the reaction 12H + 21H →

31-11

3 2He + n.

Q = 2m 2 H c 2 − m 3 He c 2 − mn c 2 1

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = [ 2(2.014102 u) − 3.016029 u − 1.008665 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c = 3.27 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

30.

For the reaction in Eq. 31–6a, if atomic masses are to be used, then one more electron needs to be added to the products side of the equation. Notice that charge is not balanced in the equation as written. The balanced reaction is 11 H + 11 H →

2 + 1H + e

+ v + e− .

Q = 2m1 H c 2 − m 2 H c 2 − me+ c 2 − me− c 2 1

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [ 2(1.007825 u) − 2.014102 u − 2(0.000549 u) ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 0.4192 MeV ≈ 0.42 MeV ⎠

For the reaction in Eq. 31–6b, use atomic masses, since there would be two electrons on each side. Q = m1 H c 2 + m 2 H c 2 − m 3 He c 2 1

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = [1.007825 u + 2.014102 u − 3.016029 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c = 5.4940 MeV ≈ 5.49 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

For the reaction in Eq. 31–6c, use atomic masses, since there would be two electrons on each side. Q = 2m3 He c 2 − m 4 He c 2 − 2m1 H c 2 2

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [ 2(3.016029 u) − 4.002603 − 2(1.007825 u) ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

31.

(a)

(b)

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 12.8594 MeV ≈ 12.86 MeV ⎠

Eq. 31–8a:

4.03 MeV 1u 1 kg × × = 6.03 × 1023 MeV/g 2(2.014102 u) 1.66 × 10−27 kg 1000 g

Eq. 31–8b:

3.27 MeV 1u 1 kg × × = 4.89 × 1023 MeV/g 2(2.014102 u) 1.66 × 10−27 kg 1000 g

Eq. 31–8c:

17.59 MeV 1u 1 kg × × = 2.11 × 1024 MeV/g − 27 (2.014102 u + 3.016049 u) 1.66 × 10 kg 1000 g

Uranium fission (200 MeV per nucleus): 200 MeV 1u 1 kg × × = 5.13 × 1023 MeV/g (235 u) 1.66 × 10−27 kg 1000 g

Eq. 31–8a: Eq. 31–8b: Eq. 31–8c:

5.13 × 1023 6.03 × 1023 5.13 × 1023 4.89 × 1023 5.13 × 1023 2.11 × 1024

= 0.851 = 1.05 = 0.243

31-12

32.

Chapter 31

Calculate the Q-value for the reaction

238 92 U + n

→

239 92 U.

Q = m 238 U c 2 + mn c 2 − m 239 U c 2 92

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = [ 238.050788 u + 1.008665 u − 239.054294 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c = 4.806 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

33.

The reaction of Eq. 31–8b consumes 2 deuterons and releases 3.23 MeV of energy. The amount of energy needed is the power times the elapsed time, and the energy can be related to the mass of deuterium by the reaction. ⎛ J⎞ 1 MeV ⎛ 7 s ⎞⎛ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎜ 960 ⎟ (1 yr) ⎜ 3.156 × 10 s⎠ yr ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 × 10−13 ⎝ ⎝

⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 2.014 × 10−3 kg ⎞ 2d ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎜ J ⎠ ⎝ 3.23 MeV ⎠ ⎜⎝ 6.02 × 1023 d ⎟⎠

= 3.923 × 10−4 kg = 0.39 g

34.

(a)

The reactants have a total of 3 protons and 7 neutrons, so the products should have the same. After accounting for the helium, there are 3 neutrons and 1 proton in the other product, so it must be tritium,

(b)

3 1H .

The reaction is 36 Li + 01 n →

4 3 2 He + 1 H.

The Q-value gives the energy released. Q = m6 Li c 2 + m1 n c 2 − m 4 He c 2 − m 3 H c 2 3

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [ 6.015123 u + 1.008665 u − 4.002603 u − 3.016049 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

35.

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 4.784 MeV ⎠

Assume that the two reactions take place at equal rates, so they are both equally likely. Then from the reaction of 4 deuterons, there would be a total of 7.30 MeV of energy released, or an average of 1150 MW = 3485 MW must be obtained from the fusion 1.825 MeV per deuteron. A total power of 0.33 reactions to provide the required 1150-MW output, because of the 33% efficiency. We convert the power to a number of deuterons based on the energy released per reacting deuteron and then convert that to an amount of water using the natural abundance of deuterium. ⎡⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 1 H atom ⎞ ⎤ 1 MeV 1d 6 J ⎞ ⎛ 3600 s ⎞ ⎛ ⎢⎜ 3485 × 10 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ×⎥ 13 − s ⎠ ⎝ 1 h ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 × 10 J ⎠ ⎝ 1.825 MeV ⎠ ⎝ 0.000115 d's ⎠ ⎥ ⎢⎝ 3485 MW → ⎢ ⎥ ⎞ 0.018 kg H 2 O ⎢⎛ 1 H 2 O molecule ⎞ ⎛ ⎥ ⎟⎟ ⎢⎜ 2 H atoms ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎥ 23 ⎠ ⎝ 6.02 × 10 molecules ⎠ ⎣⎝ ⎦ = 5586 kg/h ≈ 5600 kg/h

36.

We assume that the reactants are at rest when they react, so the total momentum of the system is 0. As a result, the momenta of the two products are equal in magnitude. The available energy of 17.57 MeV is much smaller than the masses involved, so we use the nonrelativistic relationship between p2 momentum and kinetic energy, KE = → p = 2mKE . 2m

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

KE 4 2

+ KE n = KE total = 17.57 MeV

m 4 He KE 4 He = mn KE n 2

KE 4 2

mn m 4 He + mn 2

→

(

2m 4 He KE 4 He =

→ m 4 He KE 4 He = mn KE total − KE 4 He 2

)

2mn KE n

→

1.008665 ⎛ ⎞ ⎟ 17.57 MeV = 3.536 MeV ≈ 3.5 MeV ⎝ 4.002603 + 1.008665 ⎠

KE total = ⎜

KE n = KE total − KE 4

p 4 He = pn

31-13

= 17.57 MeV − 3.54 MeV = 14.03 MeV ≈ 14 MeV

If the plasma temperature were significantly higher, then the approximation of 0 kinetic energy being brought into the reaction would not be reasonable. Thus the results would depend on plasma temperature. A higher plasma temperature would result in higher values for the energies. 37.

In Eq. 31–8a, 4.00 MeV of energy is released for every 2 deuterium atoms. The mass of water can be converted to a number of deuterium atoms. ⎛ 6.02 ×1023 H 2 O ⎞ ⎛ 2 H ⎞ ⎛ 1.15 × 10−4 d ⎞ 21 (1.00 kg H 2 O) ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 7.692 ×10 d nuclei → ⎜ 0.018 kg H 2 O ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 1 H 2 O ⎟⎠ ⎜⎜ 1 H ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ −19 ⎞ 6 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 4.00 × 10 eV 1.60 × 10 J 9 (7.692 × 1021 d nuclei) ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2.46 × 10 J ⎜ 2 d atoms ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 1 eV ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠

As compared to gasoline:

38.

(a)

2.46 × 109 J 5 × 107 J

≈ 50 × more than gasoline

We follow the method of Example 31–9. The reaction is 126 C + 21 H → 137 N + γ. We calculate the potential energy of the particles when they are separated by the sum of their radii. The radii are calculated from Eq. 30–1. KE total

QC QH (6)(1)(1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 ⎛ 1 MeV = (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) ⎜ 4πε 0 rC + rH (1.2 × 10−15 m)(11/3 + 121/3 ) ⎝⎜ 1.60 × 10−13 1

⎞ ⎟ J ⎠⎟

= 2.19 MeV

For the d–t reaction, Example 31–9 shows that energies. KE C KE d − t

KE total

= 0.45 MeV. Find the ratio of the two

2.19 MeV = 4.9 0.45 MeV

The carbon reaction requires about 5 times more energy than the d–t reaction. (b)

The kinetic energy is proportional to the temperature by

= 32 kT . Since the kinetic energy has

to increase by a factor of 5, so does the temperature. Thus we estimate T ≈ 1.5 × 109 K . 39.

Because the RBE of alpha particles is up to 20 and the RBE of X-rays is 1, it takes 20 times as many rads of X-rays to cause the same biological damage as alpha particles. Thus the 350 rads of alpha particles is equivalent to 350 rads × 20 = 7000 rads of X-rays.

31-14

Chapter 31

40.

Use Eq. 31–10b to relate Sv to Gy. From Table 31–1, the RBE of gamma rays is 1, so the number of Sv is equal to the number of Gy. Thus 4.0 Sv = 4.0 Gy .

41.

The biological damage is measured by the effective dose, Eq. 31–10a, using Table 31–1. (72 rads fast neutrons) × 10 = ( x rads slow neutrons) × 5 → x=

42.

72 rads × 10 = 144 rads slow neutrons 5

A gray is 1 joule per kilogram, according to Eq. 31–9. (2.5 J/kg) × 65 kg = 162.5 J ≈ 160 J

43.

(a)

Since the RBE is 1, the effective dose (in rem) is the same as the absorbed dose (in rad). Thus the absorbed dose is 1.0 rad or 0.010 Gy.

(b)

A Gy is 1 J/ kg. ⎛ ⎛ 1 J/kg ⎞ 1 eV (0.01 Gy) ⎜ ⎟ (0.20 kg) ⎜⎜ −19 1 Gy ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 × 10

44.

⎞⎛ ⎞ 1p 10 ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1.0 × 10 p 6 J ⎠ ⎝ 1.2 × 10 eV ⎠

The counting rate will be 85% of 35% of the activity. ⎛ 3.7 × 1010 decays/s ⎞ ⎛ 1 β ⎞ (0.035 × 10−6 Ci) ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (0.35)(0.85) = 385.3 counts/s ≈ 390 counts/s ⎜ 1 Ci ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1 decay ⎠

45.

The two definitions of roentgen are 1.6 × 1012 ion pairs/g produced by the radiation and the newer definition of 0.878 × 10−2 J/kg deposited by the radiation. Start with the current definition and relate them by the value of 35 eV per ion pair. 1 R = (0.878 × 10−2 J/kg)(1 kg/1000 g)(1 eV/1.60 × 10−19 J)(1 ion pair/35 eV) = 1.567 × 1012 ion pairs/g

The two values of ion pairs per gram are within about 2% of each other. 46.

We approximate the decay rate as constant and find the time to administer 32 Gy. If that calculated time is significantly shorter than the half-life of the isotope, then the approximation is reasonable. If 1.0 mCi delivers about 10 mGy/min, then 1.6 mCi would deliver 16 mGy/min. dose = rate × time → time =

⎛ 1 day ⎞ dose 32 Gy = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.39 days ≈ 1.4 days rate 16 × 10−3 Gy/min ⎝ 1440 min ⎠

This is only about 10% of a half-life, so our approximation is reasonable.

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

47.

31-15

Since the half-life is long (5730 yr), we can consider the activity as constant over a short period of time. Use the definition of the curie from Section 31–5. ⎛ 3.70 × 1010 decays/s ⎞ ΔN 0.693 4 (2.50 × 10−6 Ci) ⎜ = N → ⎟⎟ = 9.25 ×10 decays/s = ⎜ Δt 1 Ci T1 ⎝ ⎠ 2 T 1 ΔN 5730 yr 2 = (9.25 × 104 decays/s) (3.156 × 107 s/yr) = 2.414 ×1016 nuclei N= Δt 0.693 0.693 ⎛ ⎞ 0.0140 kg −10 kg = 0.561 μ g 2.414 × 1016 nuclei ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 5.61× 10 23 ⎝ 6.02 × 10 nuclei ⎠

48.

Each decay releases one gamma ray of energy 122 keV. Half of that energy is deposited in the body. The activity tells at what rate the gamma rays are released into the body. We assume that the activity is constant. ⎛ 1 ⎞ γ /s ⎞ ⎛ −16 (1.55 × 10−6 Ci) ⎜ 3.70 × 1010 J/keV) ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ (86, 400 s/day)(0.50)(122 keV/γ )(1.60 × 10 Ci ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 65 kg ⎠ = 7.44 × 10−7

49.

J/kg Gy ≈ 7.4 × 10−7 day day

Use the dose, the mass of the beef, and the energy per electron to find the number of electrons. ⎛ 1 MeV ⎛ 1 J/kg ⎞ (4.5 × 103 Gy) ⎜ ⎟ (5 kg) ⎜⎜ −13 ⎝ 1 Gy ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 × 10

50.

(a)

According to Appendix B, 131 53 I

(b)

131 − 54 Xe + β

→

decays by beta decay.

The number of nuclei present is given by Eq. 30–4, with N = 0.05 N 0 . N = N 0 e − λt

(c)

131 53 I

⎞ ⎛ 1 e− ⎞ 16 − 16 − ⎟⎟ = 8.78 × 10 e ≈ 9 × 10 e ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 1.6 MeV J ⎠⎝ ⎠

→ t=−

ln N /N 0

=−

T1/2 ln N /N 0 (8.0 d) ln 0.05 =− = 34.58 d ≈ 35 d 0.693 0.693

The activity is given by ΔN /Δt = λ N . This can be used to find the number of nuclei, and then the mass can be found. ΔN /Δt = λ N

→

(T1/2 )(ΔN /Δt ) (8.0 d)(86, 400 s/d)(1 × 10−3 Ci)(3.70 × 1010 decays/s) = λ 0.693 0.693 ⎛ ⎞ 0.131 kg = 3.69 × 1013 nuclei; m = 3.69 × 1013 nuclei ⎜ = 8 × 10−12 kg ⎜ 6.02 ×1023 nuclei ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠

51.

ΔN /Δt

The activity is converted to decays per day, then to energy per year, and finally to a dose per year. The potassium decays by gammas and betas, according to Appendix F. Gammas and betas have an RBE of 1, so the number of Sv is the same as the number of Gy, and the number of rem is the same as the number of rad.

31-16

Chapter 31

L ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 3600 s ⎞ ⎛ −12 Ci ⎞ ⎛ 10 decays/s ⎞ 6 decays ⎟ (12 h) ⎜ ⎟ = 1.598 × 10 ⎜ 2000 × 10 ⎟ ⎜ 3.70 × 10 ⎟ ⎜ 0.5 L ⎠⎝ 1 Ci ⎠ day ⎠ day ⎝ ⎝ h ⎠⎝ − 13 ⎛ ⎛ days ⎞ MeV ⎞ ⎛ 1.60 × 10 J⎞ 6 decays ⎞ ⎛ −5 J ⎟⎟ = 1.40 × 10 ⎜1.598 × 10 ⎟ ⎜ 365 ⎟ (0.10) ⎜ 1.5 ⎟ ⎜⎜ day ⎠ ⎝ yr ⎠ MeV yr ⎝ ⎝ decay ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

(a)

For the adult, use a mass of 60 kg. ⎛ J ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 Gy ⎞ ⎛ 1 Sv ⎞ Effective dose = ⎜1.40 × 10−5 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ yr ⎝ ⎠⎝ 60 kg ⎠ ⎝ 1 J/kg ⎠ ⎝ 1 Gy ⎠ ⎛ 105 mrem ⎞ −2 = 2.33 × 10−7 Sv/yr ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2.33 × 10 mrem/yr ⎜ Sv ⎝ ⎠ ≈ 2 × 10−7 Sv/yr or 2 × 10−2 mrem/yr mrem year ≈ 2 × 10−4 times the allowed dose mrem 100 year

2.33 × 10−2 Fraction of allowed dose =

(b)

For the baby, the only difference is that the mass is 10 times smaller, so the effective dose is 10 times bigger. The results are as follows: ≈ 2 × 10−6 Sv/yr , 0.2 mrem/yr , and 2 × 10−3 times the allowed dose

52.

(a)

The reaction has Z = 86 and A = 222 for the parent nucleus. The alpha has Z = 2 and A = 4, so the daughter nucleus must have Z = 84 and A = 218. That makes the daughter nucleus

218 84 Po .

(b)

From Fig. 30–11, polonium-218 is radioactive. It decays via both alpha and beta decay. The half-life for the alpha decay is 3.1 minutes.

(c)

The daughter nucleus is not a noble gas, so it is chemically reacting. It is in the same group as oxygen, so it might react with many other elements chemically.

(d)

The activity is given by Eq. 30–3b, R = λ N =

ln 2 N. T1/2

ΔN 0.693 0.693 6.02 × 1023 nuclei = N= (1.4 × 10−9 g) Δt T1 (3.8235 d)(86, 400 s/d) 222 g 2

= 7.964 × 106 decays/s ≈ 8.0 × 106 Bq ×

1 Ci 10

3.70 × 10

= 2.2 × 10−4 Ci

To find the activity after 1 month, use Eq. 30–5. ΔN ⎛ ΔN ⎞ − =⎜ ⎟ e Δt ⎝ Δt ⎠0

0.693 t T1/ 2

≈ 3.5 × 104 Bq ×

= (7.964 × 10 decays/s)e 1 Ci 3.70 × 1010 Bq

−

0.693 (30 d) (3.8235 d)

= 3.465 × 104 decays/s

= 9.4 × 10−7 Ci

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

53.

31-17

The frequency is given in Section 31–9 as 42.58 MHz. Use that to find the wavelength. c= fλ

c 2.998 × 108 m/s = = 7.041 m f 42.58 × 106 Hz

→ λ=

This lies in the radio wave portion of the spectrum. 54.

(a)

The mass of fuel can be found by converting the power to energy to number of nuclei to mass. ⎛ 3.156 × 107 (2100 × 106 J/s)(1 yr) ⎜ ⎜ 1 yr ⎝

s ⎞ ⎛ 1 MeV ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ −13 ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 ×10

⎞ ⎛ 1 fission atom ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 0.235 kg ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜⎜ J ⎠ ⎝ 200 MeV ⎠ ⎝ 6.02 × 1023 atom ⎟⎠

= 808.5 kg ≈ 810 kg

(b)

The product of the first five factors above gives the number of U atoms that fission. ⎛ 3.156 × 107 6 Sr nuclei 0 06(2100 10 J/s)(1 yr) # 90 = . × ⎜ 38 ⎜ 1 yr ⎝ = (1.24 × 1026 )

90 38Sr

s ⎞ ⎛ 1 MeV ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ −13 ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 × 10

⎞ ⎛ 1 fission atom ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ J ⎠ ⎝ 200 MeV ⎠

nuclei

The activity is given by the absolute value of Eq. 30–3b. ΔN 0.693 0.693 decays = λN = (1.24 × 1026 ) = 9.389 × 1016 N= 7 Δt s T1/2 (29 yr)(3.156 × 10 s/yr)

⎛ ⎞ 1 Ci = (9.389 × 1016 decays/s) ⎜ = 2.5 × 106 Ci ⎜ 3.70 × 1010 decays/s ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠

55.

(a)

The reaction is 94 Be + 42 He → n + ?. There are 6 protons and 13 nucleons in the reactants, so there must be 6 protons and 13 nucleons in the products. The neutron is 1 nucleon, so the other product must have 6 protons and 12 nucleons. Thus, it is

(b)

12 6C .

Q = m9 Be c 2 + m 4 He c 2 − mn c 2 − m12 C c 2 4

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [9.012183 u + 4.002603 u − 1.008665 u − 12.000000 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

56.

If KE = kT , then to get from kelvins to keV, use the Boltzmann constant. It must be put in the proper units. k = 1.381 × 10−23

57.

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 5.702 MeV ⎠

J 1 eV 1 keV × × = 8.620 × 10−8 keV/K K 1.602 × 10−19 J 1000 eV

From Eq. 13–9, the average speed of a gas molecule (root-mean-square speed) is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of the molecule, if the temperature is constant. We assume that the two gases are in the same environment and therefore at the same temperature. We use UF6 molecules for the calculations.

υ 235 UF 92

υ 238 UF 92

m 238 UF 92

m 235 UF 92

238.05 + 6(19.00) = 1.0043 :1 235.04 + 6(19.00)

31-18

58.

Chapter 31

(a)

We assume that the energy produced by the fission was 200 MeV per fission, as in Problems 18, 19, and 20. ⎛ 5 × 1012 J ⎞ ⎛ 1 MeV (20 kilotons TNT) ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ −13 ⎜ ⎝ 1 kiloton ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 ×10

⎞ ⎛ 1 fission atom ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 0.235 kg ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜⎜ 23 J ⎠ ⎝ 200 MeV ⎠ ⎝ 6.02 × 10 atoms ⎠⎟

= 1.220 kg ≈ 1 kg

(b)

Use E = mc 2 .

E = mc 2

59.

⎛ 5 × 1012 J ⎞ (20 kilotons TNT) ⎜ ⎜ 1 kiloton ⎟⎟ E ⎝ ⎠ = 1.11 × 10−3 kg ≈ 1 g → m= 2 = c (3.0 × 108 m/s) 2

The effective dose (in rem) is equal to the actual dose (in rad) times the RBE factor. dose(rem) = (32 mrad/yr X-ray, γ -ray)(1) + (3.4 mrad/yr)(10) = 66 mrem/yr

60.

Because the RBE factor for gamma rays is 1, the dose in rem is equal in number to the dose in rad. Since the intensity falls off as r 2 (the square of the distance), the exposure rate times r 2 will be constant. 5.0 rem ⎛ 1 rad ⎞ ⎛ 1 yr ⎞ ⎛ 1 week ⎞ −3 rad Allowed dose = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 2.747 × 10 yr ⎝ 1 rem ⎠ ⎝ 52 weeks ⎠ ⎝ 35 h ⎠ h ⎛ −3 rad ⎞ 2 ⎛ −2 rad ⎞ 2 ⎜ 2.747 × 10 ⎟ r = ⎜ 4.8 × 10 ⎟ (1 m) h ⎠ h ⎠ ⎝ ⎝

→

⎛ −2 rad ⎞ 2 ⎜ 4.8 × 10 ⎟ (1 m) h ⎠ ⎝ r= = 4.180 m ≈ 4.2 m ⎛ −3 rad ⎞ ⎜ 2.747 × 10 ⎟ h ⎠ ⎝

61.

(a)

The reaction is of the form ? → 42 He + 222 86 Rn. There are 88 protons and 226 nucleons as products, so there must be 88 protons and 226 nucleons as reactants. The parent nucleus is 226 88 Ra. 226 88 Ra

(b)

→

4 222 2 He + 86 Rn

If we ignore the KE of the daughter nucleus, then the KE of the alpha particle is the Q-value of the reaction. KEα

= m 226 Ra c 2 − m 4 He c 2 − m 222 Rn c 2 88

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = [ 226.025410 u − 4.002603 u − 222.017578 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c = 4.871 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

(c)

31-19

From momentum conservation, the momentum of the alpha particle will be equal in magnitude to the momentum of the daughter particle. At the energy above, the alpha particle is not p2 relativistic, so KEα = α → pa = 2ma KE a . 2mα ⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 pα = 2ma KE a = 2(4.002603 u) ⎜ ⎜ 1u ⎝

⎞ ⎟⎟ (4.871 MeV) = 190.6 MeV/c ⎠

The momentum of the daughter nucleus is the same as that of the alpha, 190.6 MeV/c . (d)

Since pα = pdaughter ,

KE daughter

2 pdaughter

2mdaughter

pα2 2mdaughter

(190.6 MeV/c) 2 ⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 2(222.0 u) ⎜ ⎜ 1u ⎝

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

= 8.78 × 10−2 MeV

Thus we see that our original assumption of ignoring the kinetic energy of the daughter nucleus is valid. The kinetic energy of the daughter is less than 2% of the Q-value. 62.

This “heat of combustion” is 26.2 MeV/4 hydrogen atoms. 26.2 MeV ⎛ 1.60 × 10−13 ⎜ 4 H atoms ⎜⎝ 1 MeV

⎞ J ⎞ ⎛ 1 H atom ⎞ ⎛ 1u 14 ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 6.26 × 10 J/kg ⎟ ⎜⎜ − 27 1.007825 u kg ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ 1.66 × 10 ⎠⎝

This is about 2 × 107 times the heat of combustion of coal. 63.

(a)

The energy is radiated uniformly over a sphere with a radius equal to the orbit radius of the Earth. (1300 W/m 2 )4π (1.496 × 1011 m) 2 = 3.656 × 1026 W ≈ 3.7 × 1026 W

(b)

After subtracting the energy of the neutrinos, the reaction of Eq. 31–7 releases 26.2 MeV for every 4 protons consumed. ⎛ 26 ⎜ 3.656 × 10 ⎝

J ⎞ ⎛ 4 protons ⎞ ⎛ 1 MeV ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ s ⎠ ⎝ 26.2 MeV ⎠ ⎜⎝ 1.6 × 10−13

⎞ 38 ⎟⎟ = 3.489 × 10 protons/s J⎠ ≈ 3.5 × 1038 protons/s

(c)

Convert the Sun’s mass to a number of protons and then use the above result to estimate the Sun’s lifetime. ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞⎛ 1 proton 1s 1 yr 2.0 × 1030 kg ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ 1.673 × 10−27 kg ⎟ ⎜ 3.489 × 1038 protons ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ 3.156 × 107 ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠⎝

64.

⎞ 11 ⎟⎟ ≈ 1.1 × 10 yr s⎠

For the net proton cycle, Eq. 31–7, there are two neutrinos produced for every four protons consumed. Thus the net number of neutrinos generated per second from the Sun is just half the value of protons consumed per second. That proton consumption rate is calculated in Problem 63b. (3.423 × 1038 protons/s)(2v /4p) = 1.712 × 1038 v /s

31-20

Chapter 31

Assume that the neutrino distribution is spherically symmetric, centered at the Sun. The fraction that would pass through the area of the ceiling can be found by a ratio of areas, assuming that the ceiling is perpendicular to the neutrino flux. But since the ceiling is not perpendicular, a cosine factor is included to account for the angle difference, as discussed in Eq. 21–1. Finally, we adjust for the one-hour duration, assuming that the relative angle is constant over that hour. (1.712 × 1038 v /s)

65.

180 m 2 4π (1.496 × 1011 m) 2

(cos 44°)(3600 s) = 2.8 × 1020 v

Use the common value of 200 MeV of energy released per fission, as used in Problems 18, 19, and 20. Multiply that by the number of fissions, which is 5.0% of the number of U-238 atoms. 235 ⎡ ⎤ ⎛ 1.602 × 10−13 J ⎞ ⎛ U nuclei ⎞ 200 MeV 0.05 92 2.0 kg 238 U) ⎥ ( ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ 92 235 ⎜ 238 ⎟⎜ ⎟ 1 MeV ⎢1 nucleus of 92 U ⎝ ⎥ ⎠⎝ 92 U nuclei ⎠ Total energy = ⎢ ⎥ 23 238 ⎢× ⎛ 6.022 × 10 nuclei of 92 U nuclei ⎞ ⎥ ⎟⎟ 238 ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎥ 0.238 kg U ⎠ 92 ⎣ ⎝ ⎦

= 8.107 × 1012 J ≈ 8 × 1012 J

66.

(a)

The energy released is given by the Q-value. ⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 Q = 2m12 C c 2 − m 24 Mg c 2 = [ 2(12.000000 u) − 23.985042 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c = 13.93 MeV ⎜ 6 12 u ⎝ ⎠

(b)

The total KE of the two nuclei must equal their PE when separated by 6.0 fm. 2KE =

Q1Q2 4πε 0 r

→ 2

⎡ (6)(1.60 × 10−19 C) ⎤ Q1Q2 1 ⎦ = 6.912 × 10−13 J 9 2 2 ⎣ 1 KE = = 2 (9.0 × 10 N ⋅ m /C ) 2 4πε r 6.0 × 10−15 m 0 1

= 6.912 × 10−13 J(1 eV/1.60 × 10−19 J)(1 MeV/106 eV) = 4.23 MeV ≈ 4.3 MeV

(c)

The kinetic energy and temperature are related by Eq.13–8. KE

67.

(a)

= 32 kT

→ T=

2 KE 3 k

2 3

6.912 × 10−13 J 1.38 × 10

−23

J/K

= 3.3 × 1010 K

A Curie is 3.7 × 1010 decays/s. (0.10 × 10−6 Ci)(3.7 × 1010 decays/s) = 3700 decays/s

(b)

The beta particles have an RBE factor of 1. We calculate the dose in Gy and then convert to Sv. The half-life is over a billion years, so we assume that the activity is constant.

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

31-21

⎛ 1 ⎞ (3700 decays/s)(1.4 MeV/decay)(1.60 × 10−13 J/MeV)(3.156 × 107 s/yr) ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 65 kg ⎠ = 4.024 × 10−4 J/kg/yr = 4.024 × 10−4 Gy/yr = 4.0 × 10−4 Sv/yr

This is about

68.

70.

3.6 × 10−3 Sv/yr

= 0.11 or 11% of the background rate.

The surface area of a sphere is 4π r 2 . Activity

69.

4.024 × 10−4 Sv/yr

2.0 × 107 Ci 2 4π rEarth

(2.0 × 107 Ci)(3.7 × 1010 decays/s) 6

4π (6.38 × 10 m)

= 1.4 × 103

decays/s m2

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 Q = 3m 4 He c 2 − m12 C c 2 = [3(4.002603 u) − 12.000000 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c = 7.274 MeV ⎜ 2 6 u ⎝ ⎠

Since the half-life is 30 years, we assume that the activity does not change during the 1.4 hours of exposure. We calculate the total energy absorbed and then calculate the effective dose. The two energies can be added directly since the RBE factor for both gammas and betas is about 1. ⎡ ⎛ s ⎞⎤ ⎛ −6 10 decays ⎞ ⎢ (1.2 × 10 Ci) ⎜ 3.7 × 10 ⎟ (1.4 h) ⎜ 3600 ⎟ ⎥ s ⎠ 1 h ⎠⎥ ⎝ ⎝ = 3.043 × 10−5 J Energy = ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎛ ⎞ eV J ⎛ ⎞ −19 ⎢ ⎥ × ⎜ 850 × 103 ⎟ ⎜ 1.60 × 10 ⎟ decay ⎠ ⎝ eV ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎦⎥ dose =

71.

3.043 × 10−5 J 100 rad × = 4.909 × 10−5 rad ≈ 4.9 × 10−5 rem 62 kg 1 J/kg

The actual power created by the reaction of Eq. 31–8a must be 1000 MW/0.33 = 3030 MW. We convert that to grams of deuterium using Eq. 31–8a. ⎛ Mass d = ⎜ 3.03 × 109 ⎝

J ⎞ ⎛ 2 d nuclei ⎞ ⎛ 1 MeV ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ s ⎠ ⎝ 4.03 MeV ⎠ ⎝⎜ 1.60 × 10−13

⎞ ⎛ 2 × 10−3 kg d ⎞ ⎛ 3.156 × 107 ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ 1 yr J ⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ 6.02 × 1023 nuclei ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝

s⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

= 985.4 kg d ≈ 990 kg d

72.

In the first scenario, slow neutrons have an RBE of 5, from Table 31–1. The maximum dose for a radiation worker is given in the text as 50 mSv/yr, so this worker has been exposed to 50 mSv. Use Eq. 31–10b to convert the Sv to Gy and then convert that to J by the definition of Gy. ⎛ 1 Gy ⎞ ⎛ 1 J/kg ⎞ Energy = Gy × mass = (50 × 10−3 Sv) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (65 kg) = 0.65 J ⎝ 5 Sv ⎠ ⎝ 1 Gy ⎠ In the second scenario, the RBE changes to a value of 2 for the protons. ⎛ 1 Gy ⎞ ⎛ 1 J/kg ⎞ Energy = Gy × mass = (50 × 10−3 Sv) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (65 kg) = 1.6 J ⎝ 2 Sv ⎠ ⎝ 1 Gy ⎠

31-22

73.

Chapter 31

(a)

There are 92 protons in the reactants, so X must have 92 – 38 = 54 protons. There are 236 total nucleons in the reactants, so X must have 236 – 92 – 3 = 141 total nucleons. Thus, X is

141 54 Xe .

(b)

If the reaction is “barely critical,” then every nucleus that fissions leads to another nucleus that fissions. Thus one of the produced neutrons causes another fission. The other two either escape the reactor vessel or are absorbed by some nucleus without causing a fission.

(c)

The masses needed are Q-value.

141 54 Xe: 140.92665 u

and

92 38 Sr: 91.911038

u. Use those to calculate the

Q = (m 235 U + m 1 n − m92 Sr − m141 Xe − 3m 1 n )c 2 92

= [ 235.043930 u + 1.008665 u − 91.911038 u − 140.92665 u − 3(1.008665 u) ] c 2

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ = (0.188912 u) ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ = 176.0 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

74.

The half-life of the strontium isotope is 28.90 years. Use that with Eq. 30–5 to find the time for the activity to be reduced to 15% of its initial value. 0.693

0.693

− ΔN ⎛ ΔN ⎞ − T1/ 2 t ⎛ ΔN ⎞ ⎛ ΔN ⎞ − T1/ 2 t =⎜ → 0.15 ⎜ → 0.15 = e ⎟ e ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ e Δt ⎝ Δt ⎠0 ⎝ Δt ⎠0 ⎝ Δt ⎠0 T ln(0.15) 0.693 (28.90 yr)ln(0.15) =− ≈ 79 yr ln(0.15) = − t → t = − 1/2 0.693 0.693 T1/2

75.

0.693 t T1/ 2

→

Source B is more dangerous than source A because of its higher energy. Since the sources have the same activity, they both emit the same number of gammas. Source B can deposit twice as much energy per gamma and therefore causes more biological damage. Source C is more dangerous than source B because the alphas have an RBE factor up to 20 times larger than the gammas. Thus a number of alphas may have an effective dose up to 20 times higher than the effective dose of the same number of like-energy gammas. So from most dangerous to least dangerous, the ranking of the sources is C > B > A. We might say that source B is twice as dangerous as source A, and source C is 20 times more dangerous than source B.

76.

The whole-body dose can be converted into a number of decays, which would be the maximum number of nuclei that could be in the Tc sample. The RBE factor of gammas is 1. ⎛ ⎛ 1 kg ⎞ 1 eV 50 mrem = 50 mrad → (50 × 10−3 rad) ⎜ ⎟ (55 kg) ⎜⎜ −19 ⎝ 100 rad ⎠ ⎝ 1.60 × 10

⎞ 17 ⎟ = 1.719 × 10 eV J ⎟⎠

⎛ 1 effective γ ⎞ ⎛ 2 γ decays ⎞⎛ 1 nucleus ⎞ 12 (1.719 × 1017 eV) ⎜ ⎟ = 2.455 ×10 nuclei ⎜ 140 × 103 eV ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 1 effective γ ⎟⎜ γ 1 decay ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

This then is the total number of decays that will occur. The activity for this number of nuclei can be calculated from Eq. 30–3b. Activity =

⎞ ΔN 0.693 N 0.693(2.455 × 1012 decays) ⎛ 1 Ci = λN = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 10 Δt T1/2 (6 h)(3600 s/h) ⎝ 3.70 × 10 decays/s ⎠

= 2.129 × 10−3 Ci 2 mCi © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

31-23

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

Three problems that must be overcome to make a functioning fission nuclear reactor: (i) the neutrons must be moderated (slowed) so they will react with the fissionable nuclei; (ii) the neutrons must be prevented from being absorbed by the wrong nuclei; (iii) the neutrons must be prevented from escaping the reaction vessel. Five environmental problems or dangers resulting from a nuclear fission reactor: (i) thermal pollution—the warming of the environment around the nuclear reactor; (ii) the need for safe storage of fuel before using it in the reactor; (iii) the safe disposal of radioactive waste; (iv) radiation damage to the power plant itself; (v) accidental release of radiation into the environment. Breeder reactors make fissionable material that can be used in fission bombs. For small nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon increases as the number of nucleons increases. When two small nuclei are fused together, the total energy of the resulting nucleus is smaller than the energy of the two initial nuclei, with the excess energy released in the fusion process. The initial proton–proton reaction has a much smaller probability of occurring than the other reactions. Since the other reactions can take place relatively quickly compared with the first reaction, it determines the time scale for the full fusion process. Iron (Fe). The force of gravity between all of the atoms in the Sun (or star) holds it together. (i) A tokamak uses magnetic fields to confine the fusion material. (ii) Lasers are used to heat the fusion material so quickly that the nuclei cannot move away before they fuse (inertial confinement).

The oceans cover about 70% of the Earth, to an average depth of approximately 4 km. The density of the water is approximately 1000 kg/m3 . The mass of water is found by multiplying the volume of water by its density. Mass of water = 0.7(surface area)(depth)(density)

= (0.7)4π (6.38 × 106 m) 2 (4000 m)(1000 kg/m3 ) = 1.43 × 1021 kg water Dividing the mass by the molar mass of water and multiplying by Avogadro’s number gives the number of water molecules. There are two hydrogen atoms per water molecule. Multiplying the number of hydrogen atoms by the percentage of deuterium gives the number of deuterium atoms. If the reactions of Eqs. 31–8a and 31–8b are carried out at the same rate, then 4 deuterons would produce 7.30 MeV of energy. Use that relationship to convert the number of deuterons in the oceans to energy. (1.10 × 1043 d) ×

7.30 MeV 1.60 × 10−13 J × = 3.21× 1030 J ≈ 3 × 1030 J 4d 1 MeV

Based on Chapter 26, Problem 23, this is about 30 billion times the annual energy consumption of the United States.

31-24

Chapter 31

(a)

No carbon is consumed in this cycle because one

12 6C

nucleus is required in the first step of the

cycle, and one 126 C nucleus is produced in the last step of the cycle. The net effect of the cycle can be found by adding all the reactants and all the products together and canceling those that appear on both sides of the reaction. 12 1 13 6 C + 1H → 7N +γ + 13 13 7N → 6C + e + v 13 1 14 6 C + 1H → 7N +γ 14 1 15 7 N + 1H → 8O + γ + 15 15 8O → 7N+e +v 15 1 12 4 7 N + 1H → 6 C + 2 He 12 1 13 13 1 14 1 15 15 1 6 C + 1H + 7 N + 6 C + 1H + 7 N + 1H + 8 O + 7 N + 1H → 137 N + γ + 136 C + e + + v + 147 N + γ + 158 O + γ + 157 N + e + 4 11 H → 42 He + 2 e+ + 2v + 3γ

+ v + 126 C + 42 He

Eq. 31–7 shows the proton–proton chain, which is only different from the carbon cycle by the emission of one additional gamma ray in the carbon cycle.

(b)

To use the values from Appendix B, we must be sure that the number of electrons is balanced as well as the number of protons and neutrons. The above “net” equation does not consider the electrons that neutral nuclei would have, because it does not conserve charge. What the above reaction really represents (ignoring the gammas and neutrinos) is the following: 4 11 H →

4 + 2 He + 2 e

⇒ 4 11p → 2 11p + 2 10 n + 2e+

To use the values from Appendix B, we must add 4 electrons to each side of the reaction. (411 p + 4e− ) → (211 p + 2e− + 210 n) + 2e+ + 2e−

⇒ 411 H →

4 + 2 He + 2e

+ 2e −

The energy produced in the reaction is the Q-value. Q = 4m1 H c 2 − m 4 He c 2 − 4me 1

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = [ 4(1.007825 u) − 4.002603 u − 4(0.000549 u) ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c = 24.69 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

As mentioned in the text, each positron–electron annihilation produces another 1.02 MeV, so the total energy released is 24.69 MeV + 2(1.02 MeV) = 26.73 MeV . (c)

In some reactions extra electrons must be added in order to use the values from Appendix B. The first equation in the carbon cycle is electron-balanced, so Appendix B can be used directly. Q = m12 C c 2 + m1 H c 2 − m13 N c 2 6

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [12.000000 u + 1.007825 u − 13.005739 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 1.943 MeV ⎠

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

The second equation needs to have another electron, so that

13 7N

→

13 − 6C + e

31-25

+ e + + v.

Q = m13 N c 2 − m13 C c 2 − 2me c 2 7

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = [13.005739 u − 13.003355 u − 2(0.000549 u) ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c = 1.198 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

We must include an electron–positron annihilation in this reaction. 1.198 MeV + 1.02 MeV = 2.218 MeV

The third equation of the carbon cycle is electron-balanced. Q = m13 C c 2 + m1 H c 2 − m14 N c 2 6

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = [13.003355 u + 1.007825 u − 14.003074 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c = 7.551 MeV ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠

The fourth equation of the carbon cycle is also electron-balanced. Q = m14 N c 2 + m1 H c 2 − m15 O c 2 7

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [14.003074 u + 1.007825 u − 15.003066 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

The fifth equation needs to have another electron, so

15 8O

→

15 − 7N +e

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 7.296 MeV ⎠

+ e + + v.

Q = m15 O c 2 − m15 N c 2 − 2me c 2 8

⎛ MeV/c 2 = [15.003066 u − 15.000109 u − 2(0.000549 u) ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎜ u ⎝

⎞ 2 ⎟⎟ c = 1.732 MeV ⎠

We must include an electron–positron annihilation in this reaction. 1.732 MeV + 1.02 MeV = 2.752 MeV The sixth equation is electron-balanced. Q = m15 N c 2 + m1 H c 2 − m12 C c 2 − m 4 He c 2 7

⎛ MeV/c 2 ⎞ 2 = [15.000109 u + 1.007825 u − 12.000000 u − 4.002603 u ] ⎜ 931.5 ⎟⎟ c ⎜ u ⎝ ⎠ = 4.966 MeV

The total energy released is found by summing the energy released in each process. 1.943 MeV + 2.218 MeV + 7.551 MeV + 7.296 MeV + 2.752 MeV + 4.966 MeV = 26.73 MeV

(d)

This reaction requires a higher temperature than the proton–proton reaction because the reactants need to have more initial kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb repulsion between the nuclei. In particular, the carbon and nitrogen nuclei have higher Z values, leading to a greater Coulomb repulsion that must be overcome by a higher temperature (so that the nuclei are moving faster).

31-26

Chapter 31

(a) (b) (c)

(d)

The advantages of nuclear fusion include that its by-products are not radioactive, but chemically inert helium. Also, the source for fusion is hydrogen, which is a plentiful resource. The major technological problem with fusion is developing a way to confine the nuclei at a sufficiently high temperature and density for fusion to occur. (i) Magnetic confinement (such as in a tokamak): A region with circular magnetic field lines is created such that the charged particles are confined to orbit the field lines as they are heated to very high temperatures. (ii) Inertial confinement: A pellet containing a hydrogen-rich compound is bombarded with lasers that heat the pellet to very high temperatures. The heating occurs so rapidly that the inertia of the hydrogen holds it in place long enough for fusion to occur. The preferred fuel for a fusion reactor is deuterium, a hydrogen isotope with one proton and one neutron.

(e)

2 2 1H + 1H

(f)

When using the data in Appendix B, it is important that the electrons of the atoms be correctly accounted for. The two hydrogen atoms each have one electron. The resulting helium atom has two electrons. Since there are two electrons before the reaction and two after, the equation is balanced, and the data from Appendix B can be used.

→

4 2 He

Q = ⎡ 2m ⎣

( H) − m ( 2 1

4 2 He

)⎤⎦ c

⎛ 931.5 MeV/c 2 = [ 2(2.014102 u) − 4.002603 u ] ⎜ ⎜ 1u ⎝

⎞ ⎟⎟ = 23.85 MeV ⎠

This agrees with the estimate made in Example 31–7. 6.

(a)

(b) (c)

Alpha and beta particles are charged particles and can ionize materials through electrical forces. Gamma rays and energetic neutrons are not charged, but they can ionize materials by Compton scattering off of the bound electrons in the materials. Metals become brittle, and their strength is weakened by intense radiation, mostly due to atom dislocations in the metal’s crystal structure. Living cells can be damaged in two ways. First, the radiation can produce ions that interfere with the normal function of the cell. When a few cells are damaged, they die and the body replaces them. When many cells are damaged simultaneously, the body cannot replace them fast enough and the person experiences radiation poisoning. In the second way, the radiation can ionize, and therefore alter, the DNA within the cell. This can mutate genes within the cell and affect how the cell functions. The result can be tumorous growths and/or cancer.

ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

Responses to Questions 1.

A reaction between two nucleons that would produce a π − is p + n → p + p + π − .

No, the decay is still impossible. In the rest frame of the proton, this decay is energetically impossible, because the proton’s mass is less than the mass of the products. Since it is impossible in the rest frame, it is impossible in every other frame as well. In a frame in which the proton is moving very fast, the decay products must be moving very fast as well to conserve momentum. With this constraint, there will still not be enough energy to make the decay energetically possible.

Antiatoms would be made up of (−) charged antiprotons and neutral antineutrons in the nucleus with (+) charged positrons surrounding the nucleus. If antimatter and matter came into contact, then the particle–antiparticle pairs would annihilate, converting their mass into energetic photons.

The photon signals the electromagnetic interaction.

(a)

Yes. If a neutrino is produced during a decay, then the weak interaction is responsible.

(b)

No. For example, a weak interaction decay could produce a Z0 instead of a neutrino.

The neutron decay process also produces an electron and an antineutrino; the antineutrino will only be present in a weak interaction.

An electron takes part in the electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational interactions. A neutrino takes part in the weak and gravitational interactions. A proton takes part in the strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational interactions.

The following chart shows charge and baryon conservation checks for many of the decays in Table 32–2 of the textbook. Particle W Z0

Decay +

W → e + ve (others are similar) Z0 → e + + e − (others are similar)

Charge conservation +1 = +1 + 0

Baryon conservation 0 = 0+0

0 = +1 + ( − 1)

0 = 0+0

32-1

32-2

Chapter 32

Particle Higgs

Decay

Charge conservation

Baryon conservation

→ b+b

0 = − 13 + 13

0 = 13 + − 13

→ W+ + W−

0 = +1 + ( − 1)

0 = 0+0

H 0 → Z0 + Z0 (others are similar)

0 = 0+0

muon

μ−

→ e − + ve + vμ

−1 = ( − 1) + 0 + 0

0 = 0+0+0

tau

τ−

→ μ − + vμ + vτ

−1 = (−1) + 0 + 0

0 = 0+0+0

( )

(other is similar) pion

kaon

eta

rho

π+

→ μ + + vμ

+1 = +1 + 0

0 = 0+0

π0

→ γ +γ

0 = 0+0

Κ+

→ μ + + vμ

+1 = +1 + 0

0 = 0+0

K+

→ π + +π0

+1 = +1 + 0

0 = 0+0

K S0

→ π + +π −

0 = +1 + ( − 1)

0 = 0+0

K S0

→ π0 +π0

0 = 0+0

K 0L

→ π + + e − + ve

0 = +1 + (− 1) + 0

0 = 0+0+0

K 0L

→ π + + μ − + vμ

0 = +1 + (− 1) + 0

0 = 0+0+0

K 0L

→ π + +π − +π0

0 = +1 + (− 1) + 0

0 = 0+0+0

K 0L

→ π0 +π0 +π0

0 = 0+0+0

η0

→ γ +γ

0 = 0+0

η0

→ π0 +π0 +π0

0 = 0+0+0

η0

→ π + +π − +π0

0 = +1 + (− 1) + 0

0 = 0+0+0

ρ0

→ π + +π −

0 = +1 + (−1)

0 = 0+0

ρ0

→ π0 +π0

0 = 0+0

ρ+

→ π + +π0

+1 = +1 + 0

0 = 0+0

0 = +1 + (− 1) + 0

+1 = +1 + 0 + 0

neutron

n → p + e − + ve

lambda

Λ0

→ p +π −

0 = +1 + (− 1)

+1 = +1 + 0

Λ0

→ n +π0

0 = 0+0

+1 = +1 + 0

Σ+

→ p +π0

+1 = +1 + 0

Σ+

→ n +π +

+1 = 0 + 1

+1 = +1 + 0

Σ0

→ Λ0 + γ

0 = 0+0

+1 = +1 + 0

Σ−

→ n +π −

−1 = 0 + ( − 1)

+1 = +1 + 0

sigma

Elementary Particles

Particle

Decay

Charge conservation

Baryon conservation

Ξ0

→ Λ0 + π 0

0 = 0+0

+1 = +1 + 0

Ξ−

→ Λ0 + π −

−1 = 0 + ( − 1)

+1 = +1 + 0

Ω−

→ Ξ0 + π −

−1 = 0 + ( − 1)

+1 = +1 + 0

Ω−

→ Λ0 + K −

−1 = 0 + ( − 1)

+1 = +1 + 0

Ω−

→ Ξ− + π 0

−1 = ( − 1) + 0

+1 = +1 + 0

omega

32-3

Since decays via the electromagnetic interaction are indicated by the production of photons, the decays in Table 32–2 that occur via the electromagnetic interaction are those of the Higgs boson, the π 0 , the Σ0 , and the η 0 .

10.

All of the decays listed in Table 32–2 with a neutrino or antineutrino as a decay product occur via the weak interaction. These include the W, muon, tau, pion, kaon, K 0L , and neutron. In addition, the Z particle and the Higgs boson both decay via the weak interaction. In each case, include both the particle and the corresponding antiparticle.

11.

Since the Δ baryon has B = 1, it is made of three quarks. Since the spin of the Δ baryon is 3/2, none of these quarks can be antiquarks. Thus, since the charges of quarks are either +2/3 or −1/3, the only charges that can be created with this combination are q = −1( = −1/3 − 1/3 − 1/3), 0 ( = +2/3 − 1/3 − 1/3), +1 ( = +2/3 + 2/3 − 1/3), and +2 ( = +2/3 + 2/3 + 2/3).

12.

Based on the lifetimes shown in Table 32–4 of the textbook, the particle decays that occur via the electromagnetic interaction are J/ψ (3097) and ϒ(9460).

13.

All of the particles in Table 32–4 except for J/ψ (3097), ϒ(9460), and the sigma particles decay via the weak interaction, based on their lifetimes.

14.

Baryons are formed from three quarks or antiquarks, each of spin

1 2

or − 12 , respectively. Any

combination of quarks and antiquarks will yield a spin magnitude of either

1 2

3. 2

Mesons are

formed from two quarks or antiquarks. Any combination of two quarks or antiquarks will yield a spin magnitude of either 0 or 1. 15.

If a neutrinolet was massless, then it would not interact via the gravitation force; if it had no electrical charge, then it would not interact via the electromagnetic force; if it had no color charge, then it would not interact via the strong force; and if it does not interact via the weak force, then it would not interact with matter at all. It would be very difficult to say that it even exists at all. However, a similar argument could be made for photons. Photons have no color, no mass, and no charge, but they do exist.

16.

(a)

(b) (c) (d)

No. Leptons are fundamental particles with no known internal structure. Baryons are made up of three quarks. Yes. All baryons are hadrons. No. A meson is a quark–antiquark pair. No. Hadrons are made up of quarks, and leptons are fundamental particles.

32-4

Chapter 32

17.

No. A particle made up of two quarks would have a particular color. Three quarks or a quark– antiquark pair is necessary for the particle to be white or colorless. A combination of two quarks and two antiquarks is possible, as the resulting particle could be white or colorless. The neutral pion can in some ways be considered a four-quark combination.

18.

In the nucleus, the strong interaction with the other nucleons does not allow the neutron to decay. When a neutron is free, the weak interaction is the dominant force and can cause the neutron to decay.

19.

No, the reaction e− + p → n + ve is not possible. The electron lepton number is not conserved: The reactants have Le = 1 + 0 = 1, but the products have Le = 0 − 1 = −1. Thus, this reaction is not possible. If the product were an electron neutrino (instead of an antineutrino), then the reaction would be possible.

20.

The reaction Λ0 → p + + e− + ve proceeds via the weak force. We know that this is the case since an antineutrino is emitted, which only happens in reactions governed by the weak interaction.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(a)

A common misconception is that all six quarks make up most of the known matter. However, charmed, strange, top, and bottom quarks are unstable. Protons and neutrons are made of up and down quarks, so they make up most of the known matter.

(b, e) Quarks combine together, forming mesons (such as the π meson) and baryons (such as the proton and the neutron). The electron and Higgs boson are fundamental particles and therefore cannot be made of quarks.

(c)

All of the fundamental forces act on a variety of objects, including our bodies. Although the strong and weak forces are very short range, the electromagnetic force is a long-range force, just like gravity. One reason we notice the “weak” gravity force more than the electromagnetic force is that most objects are electrically neutral, so they do not have significant net electromagnetic forces on them. It is true that the gravitational force between people and other objects of similar size is too small for us to notice, but due to the huge mass of the Earth, we are always aware of the influence of the Earth’s gravitational force on us.

(d)

A tau lepton has a tau lepton number of one. When it decays, the lepton number must be conserved, so it cannot decay into only hadrons; at least a tau neutrino would have to be one of the by-products.

(d)

In a circular accelerator, the beam can repeatedly pass through the same physical location each time around. A single accelerating potential difference at one location can then be used to increase the beam energy multiple times. In a linear accelerator, the beam passes each point only once, so the beam path needs to be very long with many accelerating potential differences along its path.

(b, e, f, g) Atoms are not fundamental, because they are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are not fundamental, as they are made up of quarks. The fundamental particles are leptons (including electrons), quarks, and gauge bosons (including the photon and Higgs boson).

(a)

Unlike the electron, the positron has positive charge and a negative lepton number. Unlike the charge and lepton number, the mass of the positron has the same sign (and magnitude) as the mass of the electron.

(e)

A common misconception is that the strong force is a result of just the exchange of π mesons between the protons and neutrons. This is correct on the scale of the nucleons. However, when

Elementary Particles

32-5

the quark composition of the protons, neutrons, and π mesons is considered at the elementary particle scale, it is seen that the transfer is due to the exchange of gluons. Therefore, both answers can be considered correct at different scales. Students who answer (d) should be given credit for their answer as well. 9.

(c)

Pions are not fundamental particles and are made up of quark and antiquark pairs. Leptons and bosons (including photons) are fundamental particles, but are not a constituent of protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are composed of up and down quarks.

10.

(d)

Quarks, gluons, neutrons, and the Higgs boson interact through the strong force. Electrons and muons are charged particles and interact through the electromagnetic force. Neutrinos only interact through the weak force.

Solutions to Problems 1.

The total energy is given by Eq. 26–6a. E = mc 2 + KE = 0.938 GeV + 4.65 GeV = 5.59 GeV

Because the energy of the electrons is much greater than their mass, we have that with Eq. 32–1 for the de Broglie wavelength. E = pc; p =

→ λ=

hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 4.4 × 10−17 m 9 19 − E (28 × 10 eV)(1.60 × 10 J/eV)

qB 2(1.60 × 10−19 C)(1.7 T) = = 1.3 × 107 Hz = 13 MHz −27 2π m 2π [4(1.67 × 10 kg)]

2π r

2π (1.0 × 103 m) 3.0 × 108 m/s

= 2.1× 10−5 s

The frequency is related to the magnetic field by Eq. 32–2. f =

The time for one revolution is the period of revolution, which is the circumference of the orbit divided by the speed of the protons. Since the protons have very high energy, their speed is essentially the speed of light. T=

→ E=

= E = pc. Combine

Use Eq. 32–2 to calculate the frequency. f =

(a)

qB 2π m

→ B=

2π mf 2π (1.67 × 10−27 kg)(3.1× 107 Hz) = = 2.0 T q 1.60 × 10−19 C

q2 B2 R2 1 = 2 mυ 2 . Compared to Example 32–2, the charge 2m has been doubled and the mass has been multiplied by 4. These two effects cancel each other in the equation, so the maximum kinetic energy is unchanged (8.653 MeV).

The maximum kinetic energy is

= 8.7 MeV

υ=

2 KE = m

2(8.653 × 106 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) 4(1.66 × 10−27 kg)

= 2.0 × 107 m/s

32-6

Chapter 32

(b)

q2 B2 R2 1 = 2 mυ 2 . Compared to Example 32–2, the charge 2m is unchanged and the mass has been multiplied by 2. Thus the kinetic energy will be half of what it was in Example 32–2 (8.654 MeV).

The maximum kinetic energy is

υ=

= 4.3 MeV

2 KE = m

2(4.327 × 106 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) 2(1.66 × 10−27 kg)

= 2.0 × 107 m/s

The alpha and the deuteron have the same charge to mass ratio, so they move at the same speed. (c)

qB . Since the charge to mass ratio of both the alpha and the 2π m deuteron is half that of the proton, the frequency for both the alpha and the deuteron will be half the frequency found in Example 32–2 for the proton (25.94 MHz).

The frequency is given by f =

f = 13 MHz

From Eq. 30–1, the diameter of a nucleon is about d nucleon = 2.4 × 10−15 m. The 25-MeV alpha particles and protons are not relativistic, so their momentum is given by p = mυ = 2mKE . The wavelength is given by Eq. 32–1, λ =

λα = λp =

h 2mp KE

2mKE

6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s

2mα KE

h = p

2(4)(1.66 × 10

−27

kg)(25 × 10 eV)(1.6 × 10

6.63 × 10 2(1.67 × 10

−27

−34

−19

J/eV)

J ⋅s

kg)(25 × 10 eV)(1.6 × 10

−19

J/eV)

= 2.88 × 10−15 m

= 5.75 × 10−15 m

We see that λα ≈ d nucleon and λp ≈ 2d nucleon . Thus, the alpha particle will be better for picking out details in the nucleus. 8.

Because the energy of the protons is much greater than their mass, we have KE = E = pc. Combine that with Eq. 32–1 for the de Broglie wavelength. That is the minimum size that protons of that energy could resolve. E = pc;

→ E=

→ λ=

hc (6.63 ×10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.0 × 108 m/s) = = 1.8 ×10−19 m E (7.0 ×1012 eV)(1.60 ×10−19 J/eV)

If the speed of the protons is c, then the time for one revolution is found from uniform circular motion. The number of revolutions is the total time divided by the time for one revolution. The energy per revolution is the total energy gained divided by the number of revolutions.

υ=

2π r T

→ T=

2π r

Engergy/revolution =

2π r c

t ct = T 2π r

ΔE (ΔE )2π r (1.0 × 1012 eV − 150 × 109 eV)2π (1.0 × 103 m) = = n ct (3.00 × 108 m/s)(20 s)

= 8.9 ×105 eV/rev ≈ 0.9 MeV/rev

Elementary Particles

10.

(a)

The magnetic field is found from the maximum kinetic energy as derived in Example 32–2. KE

(b)

q2 B2 R2 2m

→ B=

2mKE qR

→

2(2.014)(1.66 × 10−27 kg)(12 × 106 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) (1.60 × 10−19 C)(1.0 m)

= 0.7082 T ≈ 0.71 T

The cyclotron frequency is given by Eq. 32–2. f =

(c)

32-7

qB (1.60 × 10−19 C)(0.7082 T) = = 5.394 × 106 Hz ≈ 5.4 MHz 2π m 2π (2.014)(1.66 × 10−27 kg)

The deuteron will be accelerated twice per revolution, so it will gain energy equal to twice its charge times the voltage on each revolution. number of revolutions = n =

12 × 106 eV 2(1.60 × 10−19 C)(22 × 103 V)

(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

= 273 revolutions ≈ 270 revolutions

(d)

The time is the number of revolutions divided by the frequency (which is revolutions per second). Δt =

(e)

n 273 revolutions = = 5.1× 10−5 s f 5.394 × 106 rev/s

If we use an average radius of half the radius of the cyclotron, then the distance traveled is the average circumference times the number of revolutions. distance = 12 2π rn = π (1.0 m)(273) = 860 m

11.

Start with an expression from Section 32–1, relating the momentum and radius of curvature for a particle in a magnetic field, with q replaced by e.

υ=

eBr m

→ mυ = eBr

→

In the relativistic limit, p = E /c, so

p = eBr E = eBr. To get the energy in electron volts, divide the energy by c

the charge of the object. E = eBr → c

12.

E = Brc e

The energy released is the difference in the mass energy between the products and the reactant. ΔE = mΛ0 c 2 − mn c 2 − mπ 0 c 2 = 1115.7 MeV − 939.6 MeV − 135.0 MeV = 41.1 MeV

13.

The energy released is the difference in the mass energy between the products and the reactant. ΔE = mπ + c 2 − mμ + c 2 − mvμ c 2 = 139.6 MeV − 105.7 MeV − 0 = 33.9 MeV

14.

Use Eq. 32–3 to estimate the range of the force based on the mass of the mediating particle. mc 2 ≈

hc 2π d

→ d≈

hc 2π mc

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 6

2π (497.7 × 10 eV)(1.60 × 10

−19

J/eV)

≈ 3.98 × 10−16 m

32-8

15.

Chapter 32

The energy required is the mass energy of the two particles. E = 2mn c 2 = 2(939.6 MeV) = 1879.2 MeV

16.

The reaction is multistep and can be written as shown here. The energy released is the initial rest energy minus the final rest energy of the proton and pion, using Table 32–2.

→ Λ 0 +γ ↓ →

p +π −

ΔE = (mΣ0 − mp − mπ − ) c 2 = 1192.6 MeV − 938.3 MeV − 139.6 MeV = 114.7 MeV

17.

Because the two protons are heading toward each other with the same speed, the total momentum of the system is 0. The minimum kinetic energy for the collision would result in all three particles at rest, so the minimum kinetic energy of the collision must be equal to the mass energy of the π 0 . Each proton will have half of that kinetic energy. From Table 32–2, the mass of the π 0 is 135.0 MeV/c 2 . 2(KE proton ) = mπ 0 c 2 = 135.0 MeV →

18.

KE proton

= 67.5 MeV

Because the two particles have the same mass and they are traveling toward each other with the same speed, the total momentum of the system is 0. The minimum kinetic energy for the collision would result in all four particles at rest, so the minimum kinetic energy of the collision must be equal to the mass energy of the K + K − pair. Each initial particle will have half of that kinetic energy. From Table 32–2, the mass of each K + and K − is 493.7 MeV/c 2 . 2(KE p or p ) = 2mK c 2

19.

KE p or p

= mK c 2 = 493.7 MeV

The energy of the two photons (assumed to be equal so that momentum is conserved) must be the combined mass energy of the proton and antiproton. 2mc 2 = 2hf = 2h

20.

→

→ λ=

hc mc 2

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (938.3 × 106 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

(a)

Λ0

→ n +π −

Charge conservation is violated, since 0 ≠ 0 − 1. Strangeness is violated, since −1 ≠ 0 + 0.

(b)

Λ0

→ p + K−

Energy conservation is violated, since

= 1.32 × 10−15 m

1115.7 MeV/c 2 < 938.3 MeV/c 2 + 493.7 MeV/c 2 = 1432.0 MeV/c 2 .

(c)

21.

→ π + +π −

Λ0

Baryon number conservation is violated, since 1 ≠ 0 + 0. Strangeness is violated, since −1 ≠ 0 + 0. Spin is violated, since 12 ≠ 0 + 0.

The total momentum of the electron and positron is 0, so the total momentum of the two photons must be 0. Thus each photon has the same momentum, so each photon also has the same energy. The total energy of the photons must be the total energy of the electron–positron pair. c Ee+ /e− pair = Ephotons → 2(mc 2 + KE) = 2hf = 2h →

λ=

hc 2

mc + KE

234

(6.63 × 10 6

J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 3

(0.511× 10 eV + 420 × 10 eV)(1.60 × 10

−19

J/eV)

= 1.335 × 10−12 m ≈ 1.3 × 10−12 m

Elementary Particles

22.

(a)

32-9

For the reaction π − + p → n + η 0 , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: −1 + 1 = 0 + 0

Charge is conserved.

Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 1 + 0

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0

Strangeness is conserved.

The reaction is possible. (b)

For the reaction π + + p → n + π 0 , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: 1 + 1 ≠ 0 + 0

Charge is NOT conserved.

The reaction is forbidden, because charge is not conserved.

(c)

For the reaction π + + p → p + e + , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 1 + 0

Charge is conserved. Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 + 0 ≠ 0 + 1

Lepton number is NOT conserved.

The reaction is forbidden, because lepton number is not conserved. (d)

For the reaction p → e + + ve , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: 1 = 1 + 0

Charge is conserved.

Baryon number: 1 ≠ 0 + 0

Baryon number NOT conserved.

Mass energy is fine, because mp > me + mv . The reaction is forbidden, because baryon number is not conserved.

(e)

For the reaction μ + → e + + vμ , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: 1 = 1 + 0

Charge is conserved.

Baryon number: 0 = 0 + 0

Baryon number is conserved.

Electron lepton number: 0 ≠ −1 + 0

Lepton number is NOT conserved.

Mass energy is fine, because mμ > me + mv . The reaction is forbidden, because lepton number is not conserved.

(f)

For the reaction p → n + e + + ve , the conservation laws are as follows: Mass energy:

938.3 MeV/c 2 < 939.6 MeV/c 2 + 0.511 MeV/c 2

Mass energy is NOT conserved. The reaction is forbidden, because energy is not conserved.

23.

p + p → p + p:

This reaction will not happen because charge is not conserved (2 ≠ 0), and baryon number is not conserved (2 ≠ 0).

p + p → p + p + p:

This reaction will not happen because charge is not conserved (2 ≠ 1), and baryon number is not conserved (2 ≠ 1).

32-10

Chapter 32

p + p → p + p + p + p:

This reaction is possible. All conservation laws are satisfied.

p + p → p + e + + e + + p:

This reaction will not happen. Baryon number is not conserved (2 ≠ 0), and lepton number is not conserved (0 ≠ −2).

24.

Since the pion decays from rest, the momentum before the decay is zero. Thus the momentum after the decay is also zero, so the magnitudes of the momenta of the positron and the neutrino are equal. We also treat the neutrino as massless. Use energy and momentum conservation along with the relativistic relationship between energy and momentum. mπ + c 2 = Ee+ + Ev ;

→ (pe2+ c 2 ) = (pv2 c 2 ) → Ee2+ − me2+ c 4 = Ev2

pe+ = pv

Ee2+ − me2+ c 4 = (mπ + c 2 − Ee+ ) 2 = mπ2 + c 4 − 2 Ee+ mπ + c 2 + Ee2+ Ee+ = 12 mπ + c 2 + KE

me2+ c 2 2mπ +

→

= 12 mπ + c 2 − me+ c 2 +

me2+ c 2 2mπ +

+ me+ c 2 = 12 mπ + c 2 +

→ 2 Ee+ mπ + c 2 = mπ2 + c 4 + me2+ c 4

me2+ c 2 2mπ +

= 12 (139.6 MeV) − 0.511 MeV +

→ (0.511 MeV/c 2 )(0.511 MeV) 2(139.6 MeV/c 2 )

= 69.3 MeV

Here is an alternate solution, using the momentum. Q = [mπ + − (me+ + mv )]c 2 = 139.6 MeV − 0.511 MeV = 139.1 MeV KE

= Ee+ − me+ c 2 = (pe+ c) 2 + (me+ c 2 ) 2 − me+ c 2 ;

Q = KE e+ + KE v

KE v

= Ev = pv c;

pe+ = pv = p

→ 139.1 MeV = (pc) 2 + (0.511 MeV) 2 − (0.511 MeV) + pc

139.6 − pc = ( pc )2 + (0.511 MeV) 2

→ (139.6) 2 − 2(139.6)pc + p 2 c 2 = (pc ) 2 + (0.511 MeV) 2

(139.6 MeV) 2 − (0.511 MeV) 2 = pc = 69.8 MeV 2(139.6 MeV) Ev = KE v = 69.8 MeV; Q − KE v = KE e+ = 139.1 MeV − 69.8 MeV = 69.3 MeV

25.

(a)

The Q-value is the mass energy of the reactants minus the mass energy of the products. Q = mΛ0 c 2 − (mp c 2 + mπ − c 2 ) = 1115.7 MeV − (938.3 MeV + 139.6 MeV) = 37.8 MeV

(b)

Energy conservation for the decay gives the following. mΛ0 c 2 = Ep + Eπ −

→ Eπ − = mΛ0 c 2 − Ep

Momentum conservation says that the magnitudes of the momenta of the two products are equal. Then convert that relationship to energy using E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 , with energy conservation. pp = pπ −

→ (pp c) 2 = (pπ − c) 2

→

Ep2 − mp2 c 4 = Eπ2 − − mπ2 − c 4 = (mΛ 0 c 2 − Ep ) 2 − mπ2 − c 4 Ep2 − mp2 c 4 = (mΛ2 0 c 4 − 2Ep mΛ 0 c 2 + Ep2 ) − mπ2 − c 4 Ep =

mΛ2 0 c 4 + mp2 c 4 − mπ2 − c 4 2mΛ 0 c 2

→

(1115.7 MeV) 2 + (938.3 MeV)2 − (139.6 MeV) 2 = 943.7 MeV 2(1115.7 MeV)

Elementary Particles

32-11

Eπ − = mΛ 0 c 2 − Ep = 1115.7 MeV − 943.7 MeV = 172.0 MeV KE p KE

26.

= Ep − mp c 2 = 943.7 MeV − 938.3 MeV = 5.4 MeV

π−

= Eπ − − mπ − c 2 = 172.0 MeV − 139.6 MeV = 32.4 MeV

The two neutrinos must move together, in the opposite direction of the electron, in order for the electron to have the maximum kinetic energy, and thus the total momentum of the neutrinos will be equal in magnitude to the momentum of the electron. Since a neutrino is (essentially) massless, we have Ev = pv c. The muon is at rest when it decays. Use conservation of energy and momentum, along with their relativistic relationship. pe− = pve + pvμ mμ − c 2 = Ee− + Eve + Evμ = Ee− + pve c + pvμ c = Ee− + (pve + pvμ )c = Ee− + pe− c → mμ − c 2 − Ee− = pe− c → (mμ − c 2 − Ee− ) 2 = (pe− c)2 = Ee2− − me2− c 4 4

mμ − c − 2mμ − c

27.

−

− me2− c 4

− me− c 2 =

2mμ − c 2

→ Ee− =

mμ2 − c 4 + me2− c 4 2mμ − c 2

= KE e− + me− c 2

→

(105.7 MeV) 2 + (0.511 MeV) 2 − (0.511 MeV) = 52.3 MeV 2(105.7 MeV)

h (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) = = 9420 eV ≈ 0.009 MeV 2π Δt 2π (7 × 10−20 s)(1.60 × 10−16 J/eV)

h 2π Δt

→ Δt ≈

h = 2π ΔE

6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s ⎛ 1.60 × 10−19 2π (300 × 103 eV) ⎜ ⎜ 1 eV ⎝

Apply the uncertainty principle, which says that ΔE ≈ ΔE ≈

30.

mμ2 − c 4 + me2− c 4

Ee2−

We estimate the lifetime from the energy width and the uncertainty principle. ΔE ≈

29.

Ee− + Ee2−

We use the uncertainty principle to estimate the uncertainty in rest energy. ΔE ≈

28.

→

(a)

h 2π Δt

→ Δt ≈

h = 2π ΔE

J⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

= 2 × 10−21 s

h . 2πΔt

6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s ⎛ 1.60 × 10−19 2π (88 × 103 eV) ⎜ ⎜ 1 eV ⎝

J⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

= 7.5 × 10−21 s

For B− = b u, we have Charge:

−1 = − 13 − 32

Spin:

0 = 12 − 12

Baryon number:

0 = 13 − 13

Strangeness:

0 = 0+0

Charm:

0 = 0+0

Bottomness:

−1 = −1 + 0

Topness:

0 = 0+0

32-12

Chapter 32

(b)

Because B+ is the antiparticle of B− , B+ = b u . The B0 still must have a bottom quark but must be neutral. Therefore, B0 = b d . Because B0 is the antiparticle to B0 , we must have B0 = b d .

31.

We find the energy width from the lifetime in Table 32–2 and the uncertainty principle. (a)

32.

Δt = 5.1× 10−19 s ΔE ≈

h 6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s = = 1293 eV ≈ 1300 eV 2π Δt 2π (5.1× 10−19 s)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

(b) Δt = 4.4 × 10−24 s ΔE ≈

h 6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s = = 1.499 × 108 eV ≈ 150 MeV 2π Δt 2π (4.4 × 10224 s)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

(a)

Charge:

(0) = ( + 1) + ( − 1)

Charge is conserved.

Baryon number:

( + 1) = ( + 1) + (0)

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number:

(0) = (0) + (0)

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness:

(−2) ≠ (−1) + (0)

Strangeness is NOT conserved.

Spin:

( 12 ) = ( 12 ) + (0)

Spin is conserved.

1314.9 Mev/c 2 > 1189.4 Mev/c 2 + 139.6Mev/c 2 = 1329Mev/c 2 Energy is NOT conserved.

Energy:

The decay is not possible. Neither strangeness nor energy is conserved . (b)

Charge:

( − 1) = (0) + ( − 1) + (0)

Charge is conserved.

Baryon number:

( + 1) = ( + 1) + (0) + (0)

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number:

(0) = (0) + (0) + (1)

Lepton number is NOT conserved.

Strangeness:

( − 3) ≠ ( − 1) + (0) + (0)

Strangeness is NOT conserved.

Spin:

( 32 ) ≠ ( 12 ) + (0) + ( 12 )

Spin is NOT conserved.

Energy:

1672.5 Mev/c 2 > 1192.6Mev/c 2 + 139.6 Mev/c 2 + 0 = 1332.2 Mev/c 2 Energy is conserved.

The decay is not possible. Lepton number, strangeness, and spin are not conserved .

(c)

Charge:

(0) = (0) + (0) + (0)

Charge is conserved.

Baryon number:

(0) = (0) + (0) + (0)

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number:

(0) = (0) + (0) + (0)

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness:

( − 1) = ( − 1) + (0) + (0)

Strangeness is conserved.

Spin:

( 12 ) = ( 12 ) + (1) + (− 1)

Spin is conserved, if the gammas have opposite spins.

1192.6 Mev/c 2 > 1115.7 Mev/c 2 + 0 + 0 = 1115.7 Mev/c 2 Energy is conserved. The decay is possible.

Energy:

Elementary Particles

33.

The expected lifetime of the virtual W particle is found from the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. ΔE Δt ≈ U → Δt ≈

34.

32-13

(a)

U 6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s 1 eV = × = 8.20 × 10−27 s ≈ 8 × 10−27 s ΔE 2π (80.385 × 109 eV) 1.60 × 10−19 J

The Ξ 0 has a strangeness of −2, so it must contain two strange quarks. In order to make a neutral particle, the third quark must be an up quark. So Ξ 0 = u s s .

(b)

The Ξ − has a strangeness of −2, so it must contain two strange quarks. In order to make a particle with a total charge of −1, the third quark must be a down quark. So, Ξ − = d s s .

35.

(a)

The neutron has a baryon number of 1, so there must be three quarks. The charge must be 0, as must be the strangeness, the charm, the bottomness, and the topness. Thus, n = u d d .

(b)

The antineutron is the antiparticle of the neutron, so n = u dd .

(c)

The Λ0 has a strangeness of −1, so it must contain an s quark. It is a baryon, so it must contain three quarks. And it must have charge, charm, bottomness, and topness equal to 0. Thus Λ0 = u d s .

(d)

The Σ0 has a strangeness of +1, so it must contain an s quark. It is a baryon, so it must contain three quarks. And it must have charge, charm, bottomness, and topness equal to 0. Thus 0

Σ = uds .

36.

(a)

The combination u u d has charge = +1, baryon number = +1, and strangeness, charm, bottomness, and topness all equal to 0. Thus, u u d = p .

(b)

The combination u u s has charge = −1, baryon number = −1, strangeness = +1, and charm, bottomness, and topness all equal to 0. Thus, u u s = Σ − .

(c)

The combination u s has charge = −1, baryon number = 0, strangeness = −1, and charm, bottomness, and topness all equal to 0. Thus, u s = K − .

(d)

The combination d u has charge = −1, baryon number = 0, and strangeness, charm, bottomness, and topness all equal to 0. Thus, d u = π − .

(e)

The combination c s has charge = −1, baryon number = 0, strangeness = −1, charm = −1, and bottomness and topness of 0. Thus, c s = D −S .

37.

To form the D 0 meson, we must have a total charge of 0, a baryon number of 0, a strangeness of 0, and a charm of +1. We assume that there is no topness or bottomness. To get the charm, we must have a c quark with a charge of + 32 e. To have a neutral meson, there must be another quark with a charge of − 23 e. To have a baryon number of 0, that second quark must be an antiquark. The only candidate with those properties is an anti-up quark. Thus, D 0 = c u .

32-14

38.

Chapter 32

To form the DS+ meson, we must have a total charge of +1, a baryon number of 0, a strangeness of +1, and a charm of +1. We assume that there is no topness or bottomness. To get the charm, we must have a c quark with a charge of + 32 e. To have a total charge of +1, there must be another quark with a charge of + 13 e. To have a baryon number of 0, that second quark must be an antiquark. To have a strangeness of +1, the other quark must be an antistrange. Thus, DS+ = c s .

39.

Here is a Feynman diagram for the reaction π − + p → π 0 + n. There are other possibilities, since the π 0 also can be represented as a d d combination or as a mixture of d d and u u combinations.

40.

Since leptons are involved, the reaction n + vμ → p + μ − is a weak interaction. Since there is a charge change in the lepton, a W boson must be involved in the interaction. If we consider the neutron as having emitted the boson, then it is a W − , which interacts with the neutrino. If we consider the neutrino as having emitted the boson, then it is a W + , which interacts with the neutron.

41.

The total energy is the sum of the kinetic energy and the mass energy. The wavelength is found from the relativistic momentum. E = KE + mc 2 = 15 × 109 eV + 938.3 ×106 eV = 1.5938 × 1010 eV ≈ 16 GeV

λ=

42.

h = p

h 2

2 2

E − (mc ) c

hc 2

E − (mc 2 ) 2

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 10

(1.5938 × 10

eV) − (938.3 × 10 eV) (1.60 × 10 2

−19

J/eV)

= 7.8 × 10−17 m

To find the length in the lab, we need to know the speed of the particle that is moving relativistically. Start with Eq. 26–5a. KE

⎛ ⎞ 1 1 1 = mc 2 ⎜ − 1⎟ → υ = c 1 − = c 1− = 0.7585c 2 2 ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎛ KE ⎞ ⎛ 950 MeV ⎞ ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠ + 1⎟ ⎜ 2 + 1⎟ ⎜ ⎝ mc ⎠ ⎝ 1777 MeV ⎠ Δtlab =

Δt0 2

1 − υ /c

2.91× 10−13 s 1 − (0.7585)

= 4.465 × 10−13 s

Δxlab = υΔtlab = (0.7585)(3.00 × 108 m/s)(4.465 × 10−13 s) = 1.02 × 10−4 m

Elementary Particles

43.

44.

32-15

By assuming that the initial kinetic energy is approximately 0, the total energy released is the mass energy of the annihilating pair of particles. (a)

Etotal = 2mc 2 = 2(0.511 MeV) = 1.022 MeV

(b)

Etotal = 2mc 2 = 2(938.3 MeV) = 1876.6 MeV

(a)

At an energy of 4.0 TeV, the protons are moving at practically the speed of light. From uniform circular motion, we find the time for the protons to complete one revolution around the ring. Then the total charge that passes any point in the ring during that time is the charge of the entire group of stored protons. The current is then the total charge divided by the period.

(b)

υ=

2π R T

Ne Nec (2 × 1014 protons)(1.60 × 10−19 C/proton)(3.0 × 108 m/s) = = = 0.355A ≈ 0.4 A T 2π R 2π (4.3 × 103 m)

→ T=

2π R

2π R c

The 4.0 TeV is equal to the KE of the proton beam. We assume that the car would not be moving relativistically. KE beam

υ=

= KE car

2KE beam = m

→ KE beam = 12 mυ 2

→

2(4.0 × 1012 eV/proton)(2 × 1014 protons)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) = 413 m/s 1500 kg

≈ 400 m/s

Our assumption that the car is not relativistic is confirmed. This is about 900 mi/h. 45.

These protons will be moving at essentially the speed of light for the entire time of acceleration. The number of revolutions is the total gain in energy divided by the energy gain per revolution. Then the distance is the number of revolutions times the circumference of the ring, and the time is the distance of travel divided by the speed of the protons. N =

ΔE (4.0 × 1012 eV − 450 × 109 eV) = = 4.44 × 105 rev ΔE /rev 8.0 × 106 eV/rev

d = N (2π R ) = (4.44 × 105 )2π (4.3 × 103 m) = 1.199 × 1010 m ≈ 1.2 × 1010 m t=

46.

(a)

d 1.199 × 1010 m = = 4.0 × 101 s c 3.00 × 108 m/s

For the reaction π − + p → K 0 + p + π 0 , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: −1 + 1 ≠ 0 + 1 + 0

Charge is NOT conserved.

The reaction is not possible, because charge is not conserved.

Also, we note that the reactants would have to have significant kinetic energy to be able to “create” the K 0 . (b)

For the reaction K − + p → Λ0 + π 0 , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: −1 + 1 = 0 + 0

Charge is conserved.

Spin: 0 + 12 = 12 + 0

Spin is conserved.

32-16

Chapter 32

Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 1 + 0

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness: −1 + 0 = −1 + 0

Strangeness is conserved.

The reaction is possible, via the strong interaction. (c)

For the reaction K + + n → Σ + + π 0 + γ , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: 1 + 0 = 1 + 0 + 0 1 2

Spin: 0 + =

− 12

+ 0 +1

Charge is conserved. Spin is conserved.

Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 + 0

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness: 1 + 0 ≠ −1 + 0 + 0

Strangeness is NOT conserved.

The reaction is not possible via the strong interaction because strangeness is not conserved. It is possible via the weak interaction.

(d)

For the reaction K + → π 0 + π 0 + π + , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: 1 = 0 + 0 + 1

Charge is conserved.

Spin: 0 = 0 + 0 + 0

Spin is conserved.

Baryon number: 0 = 0 + 0 + 0

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 = 0 + 0 + 0

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness: 1 ≠ 0 + 0 + 0

Strangeness is NOT conserved.

The reaction is not possible via the strong interaction because strangeness is not conserved. It is possible via the weak interaction.

(e)

For the reaction π + → e + + ve , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: 1 = 1 + 0

Charge is conserved.

Spin: 0 = − 12 + 12

Spin is conserved.

Baryon number: 0 = 0 + 0

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 = −1 + 1

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0

Strangeness is conserved.

The reaction is possible, via the weak interaction.

47.

(a)

For the reaction π − + p → K + + Σ − , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: −1 + 1 = 1 − 1 1 2

Spin: 0 + = 0 +

1 2

Charge is conserved. Spin is conserved.

Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 0 + 1

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness: 0 + 0 = 1 − 1

Strangeness is conserved.

The reaction is possible, via the strong interaction.

Elementary Particles

(b)

32-17

For the reaction π + + p → K + + Σ + , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 1 2

Spin: 0 + = 0 +

1 2

Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 0 + 1

Charge is conserved. Spin is conserved. Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness: 0 + 0 = 1 − 1

Strangeness is conserved.

The reaction is possible, via the strong interaction. (c)

For the reaction π − + p → Λ0 + K 0 + π 0 , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: −1 + 1 = 0 + 0 + 0

Charge is conserved.

Spin: 0 + 12 = 12 + 0 + 0

Spin is conserved.

Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 + 0

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness: 0 + 0 = 21 + 1 + 0

Strangeness is conserved.

The reaction is possible, via the strong interaction.

(d)

For the reaction π + + p → Σ0 + π 0 , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: 1 + 1 ≠ 0 + 0

Charge is NOT conserved.

The reaction is not possible, because charge is not conserved.

(e)

For the reaction π − + p → p + e − + ve , the conservation laws are as follows: Charge: −1 + 1 = 1 − 1 + 0

Charge is conserved.

Spin: 0 + 12 = 12 + 12 − 12

Spin is conserved.

Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 + 0

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 1 − 1

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0

Strangeness is conserved.

The reaction is possible, via the weak interaction. Note that we did not check mass conservation, because in a collision, there is always some kinetic energy brought into the reaction. Thus the products can be heavier than the reactants. 48.

The π − is the antiparticle of the π + , so the reaction is π − → μ − + vμ . The conservation rules are as follows: Charge: −1 = −1 + 0

Charge is conserved.

Baryon number: 0 = 0 + 0

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 = 1 − 1

Lepton number is conserved.

Strangeness: 0 = 0 + 0

Strangeness is conserved.

1 2

Spin: 0 = −

1 2

Spin is conserved.

32-18

49.

Chapter 32

Use Eq. 32–3 to estimate the mass of the particle based on the given distance. mc 2 ≈

⎞ hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.0 × 108 m/s) ⎛ 1 11 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1.98 × 10 eV ≈ 200 GeV − 18 − 19 2π d . × 2π (10 m) 1 60 10 J/eV ⎝ ⎠

This value is of the same order of magnitude as the mass of the W ± . 50.

The Q-value is the mass energy of the reactants minus the mass energy of the products. For the first reaction, p + p → p + p + π 0 : Q = 2mp c 2 − (2mp c 2 + mπ 0 c 2 ) = − mπ 0 c 2 = −135.0 MeV

For the second reaction, p + p → p + n + π + : Q = 2mp c 2 − (mp c 2 + mn c 2 + mπ + c 2 ) = mp c 2 − mn c 2 − mπ + c 2 = 938.3 MeV − 939.6 MeV − 139.6 MeV = −140.9 MeV

51.

The fundamental fermions are the quarks and electrons. In a water molecule there are 2 hydrogen atoms consisting of 1 electron and 1 proton each, and 1 oxygen atom, consisting of 8 electrons, 8 protons, and 8 neutrons. Thus there are 18 nucleons, consisting of 3 quarks each, and 10 electrons. The total number of fermions is thus 18 × 3 + 10 = 64 fundamental fermions.

52.

We assume that the interaction happens essentially at rest, so that there is no initial kinetic energy or momentum. Thus the momentum of the neutron and the momentum of the π 0 will have the same magnitude. From energy conservation we find the total energy of the π 0 . mπ − c 2 + mp c 2 = Eπ 0 + mn c 2 + KE n

→

Eπ 0 = mπ − c 2 + mp c 2 − (mn c 2 + KE n ) = 139.6 MeV + 938.3 MeV − (939.6 MeV + 0.60 MeV) = 137.7 MeV

From momentum conservation, we can find the mass energy of the π 0 . We utilize Eq. 26–9 to relate momentum and energy. pn = pπ 0

→ (pn c)2 = (pπ 0 c) 2

→ En2 − mn2 c 4 = Eπ20 − mπ2 0 c 4

→ mπ2 0 c 4 = Eπ20 − En2 + mn2 c 4

→

mπ 0 c 2 = Eπ20 − En2 + mπ2 0 c 4 = [(137.7 MeV) 2 − (939.6 MeV + 0.60 MeV) 2 + (939.6 MeV) 2 ]1/2 = 133.5 MeV → mπ 0 = 133.5 MeV/c 2

The reference value is 135.0 MeV. 53.

(a)

First we use the uncertainty principle, Eq. 28–1. The energy is so high that we assume E = pc, so Δp =

ΔE . c

Δx Δp ≈ ΔE ≈

h 2π

→ Δx

ΔE h ≈ c 2π

→

hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1 GeV/109 eV) = = 2 × 1015 GeV −31 −19 2π Δx 2π (10 m) (1.60 × 10 J/eV)

Elementary Particles

32-19

Next, we use de Broglie’s wavelength formula. We take the de Broglie wavelength as the unification distance.

λ= E=

h h = p Ec hc

→

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (1 GeV/109 eV) (10−31 m)

(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

= 1× 1016 GeV

Both energies are reasonably close to 1016 GeV. This energy is the amount that could be violated in conservation of energy if the universe were the size of the unification distance. (b)

From Eq. 13–8, we have E = 32 kT . E = 32 kT

54.

→ T=

2 E 2(1025 eV)(1.6 × 10−19 J/eV) = = 7.7 × 1028 K ≈ 1029 K −23 3k 3(1.38 × 10 J/K)

The Q-value is the mass energy of the reactants minus the mass energy of the products. Q = mπ − c 2 + mp c 2 − (mΛ0 c 2 + mK 0 c 2 ) = 139.6 MeV + 938.3MeV − (1115.7 MeV + 497.6 MeV) = −535.4 MeV

We consider the products to be one mass M = mΛ0 + mK 0 = 1613.3 MeV/c 2 since they have the same velocity. Energy conservation gives the following: Eπ − + mp c 2 = EM . Momentum conservation says that the incoming momentum is equal to the outgoing momentum. Then convert that relationship to energy using the relativistic relationship that E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 . pπ − = pM

→ (pπ − c) 2 = (pM c) 2

2 → Eπ2 − − mπ2 − c 4 = EM − M 2c4

→

Eπ2 − − mπ2 − c 4 = (Eπ − + mp c 2 ) 2 − M 2 c 4 = Eπ2 − + 2 Eπ − mp c 2 + mp2 c 4 − M 2 c 4 Eπ − = KE

−

M 2 c 4 − mπ2 − c 4 − mp2 c 4

= =

55.

2mp c 2

M 2 c 4 − mπ2 − c 4 − mp2 c 4 2mp c

→

− mπ − c 2

(1613.3 MeV)2 − (139.6 MeV) 2 − (938.3 MeV) 2 − (139.6 MeV) = 767.8 MeV 2(938.3 MeV)

Since there is no initial momentum, the final momentum must add to zero. Thus each of the pions must have the same magnitude of momentum and therefore the same kinetic energy. Use energy conservation to find the kinetic energy of each pion. 2mp c 2 = 2KEπ + 2mπ c 2

56.

= KEπ − + mπ − c 2

→

→ KEπ = mp c 2 − mπ c 2 = 938.3 MeV − 139.6 MeV = 798.7 MeV

The Q-value is the energy of the reactants minus the energy of the products. We assume that one of the initial protons is at rest and that all four final particles have the same speed and therefore the same kinetic energy, since they all have the same mass. We consider the products to be one mass M = 4mp since they all have the same speed. Q = 2mp c 2 − 4mp c 2 = 2mp c 2 − Mc 2 = −2mp c 2

32-20

Chapter 32

Energy conservation gives the following, where

KE th

is the threshold energy.

(KE th + mp c 2 ) + mp c 2 = EM = KE M + Mc 2

Momentum conservation says that the incoming momentum is equal to the outgoing momentum. Then convert that relationship to energy using the relativistic relationship E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 . pp = pM 2

→ (pp c) 2 = (pM c) 2

→ (KE th + mp c 2 ) 2 − mp2 c 4 = (KE M + Mc 2 ) 2 − M 2 c 4

+ 2KE th mp c 2 + mp2 c 4 − mp2 c 4 = KE 2th + 4KE th mp c 2 + 4mp2 c 4 − (4mp ) 2 c 4

KE th

2KE th mp c 2 = 4KE th mp c 2 + 4mp2 c 4 − 16mp2 c 4

→ →

= 6mp c = 3 Q

KE th

57.

→ 2KE th mp c 2 = 12mp2 c 4

→

We use λ0 to represent the actual wavelength and λ to define the approximate wavelength. The approximation is to ignore the mass in the expression for the total energy, E = KE + mc 2 . We also use Eqs. 26–5a, 26–6b, 26–9, and 32–1. ⎛ mc 2 ⎞ p 2 c 2 = E 2 − (mc 2 ) 2 = (KE + mc 2 ) 2 − (mc 2 ) 2 = KE 2 ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ ⎜ KE ⎟⎠ ⎝ h hc hc hc hc ; λ= λ0 = = > λ0 ; λ = 1.01λ0 → = 1.01 1/2 KE KE p ⎛ 2mc 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2mc 2 KE ⎜ 1 + KE ⎜ 1 + ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ KE ⎟⎠ KE ⎝ ⎝ KE

λ= KE

2mc 2 (1.01) 2 −1

hc KE

→

2(9.38 × 108 eV) = 9.333 × 1010 eV ≈ 9.3 × 1010 eV 0.0201

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) (9.33 × 1010 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

⎛ ⎞ 1 =⎜ − 1⎟ mc 2 ⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎝ 1 − υ /c ⎠

⎛ KE ⎞ υ = c 1 − ⎜ 2 + 1⎟ ⎝ mc ⎠

58.

1/2

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

−2

= 1.332 × 10−17 m ≈ 1.3 × 10−17 m

→

⎛ 9.333 × 1010 eV ⎞ + 1⎟ = c 1− ⎜ ⎜ 9.38 × 108 eV ⎟ ⎝ ⎠

−2

= 0.99995c

As mentioned in Example 32–8, the π 0 can be considered as either u u or d d. There are various models to describe this reaction. Four are shown here.

Another model that shows the π 0 as a combination of both u u and d d is also shown.

Elementary Particles

59.

(a)

32-21

To conserve charge, the missing particle must be neutral. To conserve baryon number, the missing particle must be a meson. To conserve strangeness, charm, topness, and bottomness, the missing particle must be made of up and down quarks and antiquarks only. With all this information, the missing particle is π 0 .

(b)

60.

This is a weak interaction since one product is a lepton. To conserve charge, the missing particle must be neutral. To conserve the muon lepton number, the missing particle must be an antiparticle in the muon family. With this information, the missing particle is vμ .

A relationship between total energy and speed is given by Eq. 26–6b. E=

mc 2 1 − υ 2 /c 2

⎛ mc 2 = 1− ⎜ ⎜ E c ⎝

1 − υ 2 /c 2 =

→

mc 2 E

→ 1−

⎛ mc 2 = ⎜ c 2 ⎜⎝ E

υ2

⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠

→

⎞ ⎛ 9.38 × 108 eV ⎞ ⎟⎟ = 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1 (to 8 digits) → 12 ⎠ ⎝ 7.0 × 10 eV ⎠

υ =c

Use the binomial expansion to express the answer differently. 2

8 ⎛ 9.38 × 108 eV ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 9 1 9.38 × 10 eV 1 = 1− ⎜ ≈ − ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1 − 9.0 × 10 2 12 12 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ c ⎝ 7.0 × 10 eV ⎠ ⎝ 7.0 × 10 eV ⎠

→ υ = c(1 − 9.0 × 109 )

This is about 3 m/s slower than the speed of light. 61.

According to Section 32–1, the energy involved in the LHC’s collisions will reach 14 TeV. Use that with the analysis used in Example 32–1. From Eq. 30–1, nuclear sizes are on the order of 1.2 × 10−15 m.

λ=

hc (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m/s) = = 8.9 × 10−20 m E (14 × 1012 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

λ rnucleus

62.

(a)

8.9 × 10−20 m 1.2 × 10

−15

= 7.4 × 10−5 ≈

The nucleus undergoes two beta decays, so in the nucleus 2 neutrons change into protons. The daughter nucleus must have 2 more protons than the parent but the same number of nucleons. Thus the daughter nucleus is

(b)

1 13,500

96 42 Mo .

The reaction would be

96 40 Zr

→

96 0 − 42 Mo + 2 −1 e .

Since the reaction is neutrinoless, lepton conservation would be violated in this decay. Checking isotope mass values at www.nist.gov/pml/data/comp.cfm shows that the reaction is energetically possible.

32-22

Chapter 32

(c)

If the

96 40 Zr

would undergo two beta decays simultaneously and thereby emit 2 electron

antineutrinos, then it could decay to 63.

96 42 Mo

without violating any conservation laws.

The width of the “bump” in Fig. 32–19 is about 5 GeV/c 2 . Use that value with the uncertainty principle to estimate the lifetime of the Higgs boson. ΔE Δt ≈

h 2π

→ Δt ≈

(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 1 h = ≈ 1× 10−25 s 9 2π ΔE 2π (5 × 10 eV) (1.60 × 10−19 J/eV)

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

The two major classes of fundamental particles are quarks and leptons. Quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. Leptons: electron, muon, tau, electron neutrino, muon neutrino, and tau neutrino. Gravity, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear. Gravity is carried by the graviton; the electromagnetic force is carried by the photon; the weak nuclear force is carried by the W + , W − , and Z0 bosons; the strong nuclear force is carried by the gluon. The gravitational force is much weaker than the other three forces.

(a)

Hadrons interact via the strong nuclear force (as well as the other three fundamental forces) and are made up of quarks.

(b) (c)

Baryons are hadrons, are made of three quarks, and have a baryon number of either +1 or −1. Mesons are hadrons, are made of one quark and one antiquark, and have a baryon number of 0.

The conservation laws that must hold are the conservation of momentum, angular momentum (spin), mass–energy, charge, baryon number, and lepton number. Momentum can be conserved by the two decay products having equal but opposite momentum in the rest frame of the parent particle. There are no measurements given to enable us to check conservation of momentum, so we assume that it holds. The other conservation laws are evaluated for each decay. Spin can of course be positive or negative, so our “check” means seeing if there is a way for spins to add up, using either positive or negative values for the spin. For the mass–energy to be conserved, the mass of the initial particle must be greater than the mass of the resulting particles, with the remaining mass becoming kinetic energy of the particles. Those values are in GeV/c 2 , but units are omitted here. For the reaction t → W + + b:

( )

Spin:

1 2

= 1 + − 12

Mass–energy:

173 > 80.4 + 4.18

Charge:

2 3

= 1 + − 13

Charge is conserved.

Baryon number:

1 3

= 0 + 13

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 = 0 + 0

Lepton number is conserved.

( )

Spin is conserved. Mass–energy is conserved.

Elementary Particles

32-23

For the reaction t → W − + b:

( )

Spin:

1 2

Mass–energy:

173 > 80.4 + 4.18

Charge: Baryon number:

= 1 + − 12

Spin is conserved. Mass–energy is conserved.

( − 32 ) = ( −1) + 13 − 13 = 0 + ( − 13 )

Charge is conserved. Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 = 0 + 0 For the reaction W

Lepton number is conserved.

→ u+d:

Spin:

1 = 12 + 12

Spin is conserved.

Mass–energy:

80.4 > 0.0023 + 0.0048

Mass–energy is conserved.

Charge:

1 = 32 + 13

Charge is conserved.

( )

Baryon number: 0 = 13 + − 13

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 = 0 + 0

Lepton number is conserved.

For the reaction W

(a)

−

→ μ + vμ :

Spin:

1 = 12 + 12

Spin is conserved.

Mass–energy:

80.4 > 0.1057 + 0

Mass–energy is conserved.

Charge:

−1 = ( − 1) + 0

Charge is conserved.

Baryon number: 0 = 0 + 0

Baryon number is conserved.

Lepton number: 0 = 1 + ( − 1)

Lepton number is conserved.

Each tau will carry off half of the released kinetic energy. The kinetic energy is the difference in mass–energy of the two tau particles and the original Higgs boson. Q = (mH0 − 2mτ )c 2 = 125 × 103 MeV − 2(1777 MeV) = 121.4 × 103 MeV = 121.4 GeV KEτ

(b) (c) 5.

(a)

= 12 Q = 60.7 GeV

The total charge must be zero, so one will have a positive charge and the other will have a negative charge. No. The mass of the two Z bosons is greater than the mass of the initial Higgs boson, so the decay would violate the conservation of energy. We work in the rest frame of the isolated electron, so that it is initially at rest. Energy conservation gives the following. me c 2 = KE e + me c 2 + Eγ

→

KE e

= − Eγ

→

KE e

= Eγ = 0

Since the photon has no energy, it does not exist, so it has not been emitted. Here is an alternate explanation: Consider the electron in its rest frame. If it were to emit a single photon of energy Eγ , then the photon would have a momentum pγ = Eγ /c. For momentum to be conserved, the electron would move away in the opposite direction as the photon with the same magnitude of momentum. Since the electron is moving (relative to the initial frame of reference), the electron will now have kinetic energy in that frame of reference, with a total © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

32-24

Chapter 32

energy given by Eq. 26–9, E = (mc 2 ) 2 + (pγ c) 2 = (mc 2 ) 2 + Eγ2 . With the added kinetic

(b)

energy, the electron now has more energy than it had at rest, and the total energy of the photon and electron is greater than the initial rest energy of the electron. This is a violation of the conservation of energy, so an electron cannot emit a single photon. For the photon exchange in Fig. 32–8, the photon exists for such a short time that the Heisenberg uncertainty principle allows energy conservation to be violated during the exchange. So if Δt is the duration of the interaction and ΔE is the amount by which energy is not conserved during the interaction, then as long as ΔE Δt > =, the process can happen.

Because the energy of the protons is much greater than their mass, we have KE = E = pc. Combine this with the expression from Problem 11 that relates the momentum and radius of curvature for a charged particle in a synchrotron. B (in T) =

E (in eV) (7.0 × 1012 eV) = = 5.5 T rc (4.25 × 103 m)(3.00 × 108 m/s)

Alternate derivation: In Chapter 26, Problem 46, it is stated that γ mυ 2 /r = qυ B for a relativistic charge executing circular motion in a magnetic field. It is also stated in Eq. 26–4 that p = γ mυ . Combine those relationships with the fact that E = pc for highly relativistic particles.

γ mυ 2 r B=

= qυ B →

p = qB → r

E = qB → cr

E (7.0 × 1012 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) = = 5.5 T qrc (1.60 × 10−19 C)(4.25 × 103 m)(3.00 × 108 m/s)

ASTROPHYSICS AND COSMOLOGY

Responses to Questions 1.

Long ago, without telescopes, it was difficult to see the individual stars in the Milky Way. The stars in this region of the sky were so numerous and so close together and so tiny that they all blended together to form a cloudy or milky stripe across the night sky. Now, using more powerful telescopes, we can see the individual stars that make up the Milky Way Galaxy.

If a star generates more energy in its interior than it radiates away, then its temperature will increase. Consequently, there will be greater outward pressure opposing the gravitational force directed inward. To regain equilibrium, the star will expand. If a star generates less energy than it radiates away, then its temperature will decrease. There will be a smaller outward pressure opposing the gravitational force directed inward, and, in order to regain equilibrium, the star will contract.

Red giants are extremely large stars with relatively cool surface temperatures, resulting in their reddish colors. These stars are very luminous because they are so large. When the Sun becomes a red giant, for instance, its radius will be on the order of the distance from the Earth to the Sun. A red giant has run out of hydrogen in its inner core and is fusing hydrogen to helium in a shell surrounding the core. Red giants have left their main-sequence positions on the H–R diagram and have moved up (more luminous) and to the right (cooler).

Although the H–R diagram only directly relates the surface temperature of a star to its absolute luminosity (and thus doesn’t directly reveal anything about the core), the H–R diagram does provide clues regarding what is happening at the core of a star. Using the current model of stellar evolution and the H–R diagram, we can infer that the stars on the main sequence are fusing hydrogen nuclei to helium nuclei at the core and that stars in the red giant region are fusing helium and beryllium to make heavier nuclei such as carbon and that this red giant process will continue until fusion can no longer occur and the star will collapse.

The initial mass of a star determines its final destiny. If, after the red giant stage of a star’s life, its mass is less than 1.4 solar masses, then the star cools as it shrinks and it becomes a white dwarf. If its mass is between 1.4 and 2–3 solar masses, then the star will condense down to a neutron star, which will eventually explode as a supernova and become a white dwarf. If its mass is greater than 2–3 solar masses, then the star will collapse even more than the neutron star and form a black hole.

33-1

33-2

Chapter 33

When measuring parallaxes from the Moon, there are two cases: (1) If you did the measurements two weeks apart (one at full moon and one at new moon), you would need to assume that the Earth did not move around the Sun very far, and then the d shown in Fig. 33–11 would be the Earth–Moon distance instead of the Sun–Earth distance. (2) If you did the measurements six months apart and at full moon, then the d shown in Fig. 33–11 would be the Sun–Earth distance plus the Earth–Moon distance instead of just the Sun–Earth distance. From Mars, then the d shown in Fig. 33–11 would be the Sun–Mars distance instead of the Sun–Earth distance. You would also need to know the length of a Mars “year” so that you could take your two measurements at the correct times.

Measure the period of the changing luminosity of a Cepheid variable star. Use the known relationship between period and luminosity to find its absolute luminosity. Compare its absolute luminosity to its apparent brightness (the observed brightness) to determine the distance to the galaxy in which it is located.

A geodesic is the shortest distance between two points. For instance, on a flat plane the shortest distance between two points is a straight line, and on the surface of a sphere the shortest distance is an arc of a great circle. According to general relativity, space–time is curved. Determining the nature of a geodesic, for instance, by observing the motion of a body or light near a large mass, will help determine the nature of the curvature of space–time near that large mass.

If the redshift of spectral lines of galaxies was due to something other than expansion of the universe, then the Big Bang theory and the idea that the universe is expanding would be called into question. However, the evidence of the cosmic background microwave radiation would conflict with this view, unless it too was determined to result from some cause other than expansion.

10.

No, just because everything appears to be moving away from us does not mean we are at the center of the universe. Here is an analogy. If you were sitting on the surface of a balloon and more air was put into the balloon, causing it to expand, then every other point on the balloon would move away from you. The points close to you would be farther away because of the expansion of the rubber, and the points on the other side of the balloon would be farther away from you because the radius of the balloon would be larger.

11.

If you were located in a galaxy near the boundary of our observable universe, galaxies in the direction of the Milky Way would be receding from you. The outer “edges” of the observable universe are expanding at a faster rate than the points more “interior.” Accordingly, due to the relative velocity argument, the slower galaxies in the direction of the Milky Way would look like they are receding from your faster galaxy near the outer boundary. Also see Fig. 33–22.

12.

An explosion on Earth blows pieces out into the space around it, but the Big Bang was the start of the expansion of space itself. In an explosion on Earth, the pieces that are blown outward will slow down due to air resistance, and the farther away they are, the slower they will be moving. They will eventually come to rest. But with the Big Bang, the farther away galaxies are from each other, the faster they are moving away from each other. In an explosion on Earth, the pieces with the higher initial speeds end up farther away from the explosion before coming to rest, but the Big Bang appears to be relatively uniform: the farthest galaxies are moving the fastest, and the nearest galaxies are moving the slowest. An explosion on Earth would correspond to a closed universe, since the pieces would eventually stop, but we would not see a “big crunch” due to gravity as we would with an actual closed universe.

13.

To “see” a black hole in space, we need indirect evidence. If a large visible star or galaxy was rotating quickly around a nonvisible gravitational companion, then the nonvisible companion could be a massive black hole. Also, as matter begins to accelerate toward a black hole, it will emit characteristic

Astrophysics and Cosmology

33-3

X-rays, which we could detect on Earth. Another way we could “see” a black hole is if it caused gravitational lensing of objects behind it. Then we would see stars and galaxies in the “wrong” place as their light is bent as it passes past the black hole on its way to Earth. 14.

Both the formation of the Earth and the time during which people have lived on Earth are on the far right edge of Fig. 33–29, in the era of dark energy.

15.

Atoms were unable to exist until hundreds of thousands of years after the Big Bang because the temperature of the universe was still too high. At those very high temperatures, the free electrons and nuclei were moving so fast and had so much kinetic energy, and they had so many high energy photons colliding with them, that they could never combine together to form atoms. Once the universe cooled below 3000 K, this coupling could take place, and atoms were formed.

16.

(a) (b)

All Type Ia supernovae are expected to be of nearly the same luminosity. Thus they are a type of “standard candle” for measuring very large distances. The distance to a supernova can be determined by comparing the apparent brightness with the intrinsic luminosity and then using Eq. 33–1 to find the distance.

17.

If the average mass density of the universe is above the critical density, then the universe will eventually stop its expansion and contract, collapsing on itself and ending finally in a “big crunch.” This scenario corresponds to a closed universe, or one with positive curvature.

18.

(a) (b)

Gravity between galaxies should be pulling the galaxies back together, slowing the expansion of the universe. Astronomers could measure the redshift of light from distant supernovae and deduce the recession velocities of the galaxies in which they lie. By obtaining data from a large number of supernovae, they could establish a history of the recessional velocity of the universe and perhaps tell whether the expansion of the universe is slowing down.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions 1.

(c)

At the end of the hydrogen-fusing part of the star’s life, it will move toward the upper right of the diagram as it becomes a red giant. Low-mass stars, not large enough to end as neutron stars, then move to the lower left as they become white dwarf stars. The position of the star on the main sequence is a result of the size (mass) of the star. This does not change significantly during its main-sequence lifetime, and therefore the star does not change positions along the main sequence.

(b)

Parallax requires that the star move relative to the background of distant stars. This only happens when the distance to the star is relatively small, less than about 100 light-years.

(b)

If the universe were expanding in every direction, then any location in the universe would observe that all other points in the universe are moving away from it with the speed increasing with distance. This is observed when galaxy speeds are measured, implying that indeed the universe is expanding. The observation does not say anything about whether the expansion will continue forever or eventually stop.

(c)

The Sun is primarily made of hydrogen, not heavy radioactive isotopes. As gravity initially compressed the Sun, its core heated sufficiently for the hydrogen atoms in the core to fuse to create helium. This is now the primary source of energy in the Sun. The Sun is too hot for molecules, such as water, to be formed by the oxidation of hydrogen. When fusion began in the

33-4

Chapter 33

core, the energy release balanced the force of gravity to stop the gravitational collapse. Since the Sun is no longer contracting, the gravitational potential energy is no longer decreasing and is not a significant source of energy. 5.

(b, c, d) Parallax is only useful for finding distances to stars that are less than 100 light-years distant, much less than intergalactic distances. The H–R diagram with luminosity and temperature of the star can tell us the absolute brightness of the distant star. The relationship between the relative brightness and absolute brightness tells us the distance to the star. Certain supernova explosions have a standard luminosity. A comparison of the apparent brightness and absolute brightness of the supernova can give the distance to the supernova. Finally, since the universe is expanding and the velocity of objects increases with distance, a measure of the redshift in light from distant stars can be used to find the speed of the stars and therefore the distance.

(b)

Due to the speed of light, light takes a finite time to reach Earth from the stars, with light from more distant objects requiring more time to reach Earth. Therefore, when an object that is a million light-years away is observed, the observer sees the object as it was a million years ago. If the object is 100 million light-years away, the observer sees it as it was 100 million years ago. The farther the observed object, the earlier the time that it is being observed.

(d)

At the time of the Big Bang, all of space was compacted to a small region. The expansion occurred throughout all space. So it occurred near the Earth, near the center of the Milky Way Galaxy, several billion light-years away, near the Andromeda Galaxy, and everywhere else.

(d)

In the first few seconds of the universe, matter did not exist, only energy; the first atoms were not formed until many thousands of years later, and these atoms were primarily hydrogen. Stars on the main sequence and novae convert hydrogen into helium. They do not create the heavier elements. These heavy elements are typically created in the huge energy bursts of supernovae.

(c)

The rotational period of a star in a galaxy is related to the mass in the galaxy. Astronomers observing the rotational periods found them to be much greater than could be accounted for by the visible matter (stars and dust clouds). Dust clouds are not dark matter, as they can reflect light and are therefore visible. The acceleration of the expansion of the universe is the foundation for the theory of dark energy, which is different from dark matter.

10.

(a)

If the Big Bang were a single large explosion that gave the universe an initial large kinetic energy, and since currently the only large-scale force in the universe is the attractive force of gravity, we would expect that the kinetic energy of the universe would be decreasing as that energy becomes gravitational potential energy. The expansion, however, is accelerating, so there must be another energy source fueling the acceleration. This source has been dubbed “dark energy.”

Solutions to Problems 1.

Convert the angle to seconds of arc, reciprocate to find the distance in parsecs, and then convert to light-years. ⎛ 36000 ⎞ ⎟ = 1.0440 ⎝ 1° ⎠ ⎛ 3.26 ly ⎞ 1 1 = = 0.958 pc ⎜ d (pc) = ⎟ = 3.1 ly φ 0 1.0440 ⎝ 1 pc ⎠

φ = (2.9 × 10−4 )° ⎜

Astrophysics and Cosmology

Use the angle to calculate the distance in parsecs and then convert to light-years.

d (pc) = 3.

33-5

⎛ 3.26 ly ⎞ 1 1 = = 3.704 pc → 3.704 pc ⎜ ⎟ = 12 ly φ 0 0.270 ⎝ 1 pc ⎠

The parallax angle is smaller for the farther star. Since tan φ = d /D, as the distance D to the star increases, the tangent decreases, so the angle decreases. And since for small angles, tan φ ≈ φ , we have that φ ≈ d /D. Thus if the distance D is doubled, then the angle φ will be smaller by a factor of 2.

The apparent brightness of an object is inversely proportional to the observer’s distance from the L object, given by Eq. 33–1, b = . To find the relative brightness at one location as compared with 4π d 2 another, take a ratio of the apparent brightness at each location. L bJupiter bEarth

M M 1.99 × 1030 kg = = = 2 × 10−3 kg/m3 4 π r3 4 π (6 × 1010 m)3 V 3 3

(a)

The apparent brightness is the solar constant, 1.3 × 103 W/m 2 .

(b)

Use Eq. 33–1 to find the absolute luminosity. b=

2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ −2 ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 3.7 × 10 ⎟ 5 2 . ⎝ ⎠ ⎠

The density is the mass divided by the volume.

ρ=

2 ⎛ d 4π d Jupiter d2 = = 2Earth = ⎜ Earth L d Jupiter ⎜⎝ d Jupiter 2 4π d Earth

4π d 2

→ L = 4π d 2b = 4π (1.496 × 1011 m 2 )2 (1.3 × 103 W/m 2 ) = 3.7 × 1026 W

The angular width is the inverse tangent of the diameter of our Galaxy divided by the distance to the nearest galaxy. According to Fig. 33–2, our Galaxy is about 100,000 ly in diameter.

φ = tan −1

Galaxy diameter 1.0 × 105 ly = tan −1 = 4.2 × 10−2 rad ≈ 2.4° Distance to nearest galaxy 2.4 × 106 ly

φMoon = tan −1

Moon diameter 3.48 × 106 m = tan −1 = 9.1× 10−3 rad ( ≈ 0.52°) 8 Distance to Moon 3.84 × 10 m

The galaxy width is about 4.5 times the Moon’s width. 8.

The text says that there are about 4 × 1011 stars in the galaxy and about 1011 galaxies, so that means there are about 4 × 1022 stars in the observable universe.

The density is the mass divided by the volume.

ρ=

M Sun 1.99 × 1030 kg M = = = 1.83 × 109 kg/m3 4 π R3 4 π (6.38 × 106 m)3 V Earth 3 3

33-6

Chapter 33

Since the volumes are the same, the ratio of the densities is the same as the ratio of the masses.

ρ ρ Earth 10.

M M Earth

star

5.98 × 10

= 3.33 × 105 times larger

star

ρ white

M 1.5(1.99 × 1030 kg) = = 5.354 × 1017 kg/m3 ≈ 5.4 × 1017 kg/m3 4 π (11× 103 m)3 V 3

ρ neutron =

5.354 × 1017 kg/m3 9

1.83 × 10 kg/m

dwarf

12.

1.99 × 1030 kg

The density of the neutron star is its mass divided by its volume. Use the proton to calculate the density of nuclear matter. The radius of the proton is taken from Eq. 30–1.

ρ neutron =

11.

ρ neutron star

= 2.9 × 10

ρ nuclear star

5.354 × 1017 kg/m3 1.673 × 10−27 kg 4 π (1.2 × 10−15 3

= 2.3

m)3

The reciprocal of the distance in parsecs is the angle in seconds of arc. 1 1 = = 0.01786 ≈ 0.018′′ d (pc) 56 pc

(a)

φ0 =

(b)

⎛ 1° ⎞ −6 −6 0.017860 ⎜ ⎟ = 4.961× 10 ° ≈ (5.0 × 10 )° 3600 0 ⎝ ⎠

(

)

Convert the light-years to parsecs and then take the reciprocal of the number of parsecs to find the parallax angle in seconds of arc. ⎛ 1 pc ⎞ 65 ly ⎜ ⎟ = 19.94 pc ≈ 20 pc (2 significant figures) ⎝ 3.26 ly ⎠

13.

φ=

1 = 0.050′′ 19.94 pc

Find the distance in light-years. That value is also the time for light to reach us. ⎛ 3.26 ly ⎞ 85 pc ⎜ ⎟ = 277 ly ≈ 280 ly → It takes light 280 years to reach us. ⎝ 1 pc ⎠

14.

It is given that b1 = b2 , r1 = r2 , λP1 = 750 nm, and λP2 = 450 nm. Wien’s law (Eq. 27–1) says λPT = α , where α is a constant, so λP1T1 = λP2T2 . The Stefan-Boltzmann equation (Eq. 14–6) says that the power output of a star is given by P = β AT 4 , where β is a constant and A is the radiating area. The P in the Stefan-Boltzmann equation is the same as the luminosity L in this Chapter. The luminosity L is related to the apparent brightness b by Eq. 33–1.

λP1T1 = λP2T2 b1 = b2

→ 2

→ L1 4π d12

T2 λP1 = T1 λP2 =

L2 4π d 22

→

d 22 d12

L2 P2 β A2T24 4π r22T24 T24 ⎛ T2 ⎞ = = = = =⎜ ⎟ L1 P1 β A1T14 4π r12T14 T14 ⎝ T1 ⎠

→

2 ⎛λ ⎞ d 2 ⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛ 750 ⎞ = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ P1 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 2.8 d1 ⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ 450 ⎠ ⎝ λP2 ⎠

The star with the peak at 450 nm is 2.8 times farther away than the star with the peak at 750 nm. © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Astrophysics and Cosmology

15.

33-7

Wien’s law (Eq. 27–2) says that λPT = α , where α is a constant, so λP1T1 = λP2T2 . The StefanBoltzmann equation (Eq. 14–6) says that the power output of a star is given by P = β AT 4 , where β is a constant and A is the radiating area. The P in the Stefan-Boltzmann equation is the same as the luminosity L in this Chapter. The luminosity L is related to the apparent brightness b by Eq. 33–1. It is given that b1 /b2 = 0.091, d1 = d 2 , λP1 = 470 nm, and λP2 = 720 nm. T2 λP1 = ; b1 = 0.091 b2 T1 λP2

λP1T1 = λP2T2 →

d 22 d12

→

L1 4π d12

= 0.091

L2 4π d 22

0.091L2 0.091P2 0.091A2T24 (0.091)4π r22T24 T24 r22 = = = = 0 . 091 L1 P1 A1T14 4π r12T14 T14 r12 2

→

⎛T ⎞ ⎛λ ⎞ ⎛ 470 nm ⎞ r1 = 0.091 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 0.091 ⎜ P1 ⎟ = 0.091 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.1285 r2 ⎝ 720 nm ⎠ ⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ λP2 ⎠

The ratio of the diameters is the same as the ratio of radii, so

16.

The Schwarzschild radius is 2GM /c 2 . REarth =

17.

2GM

2(6.67 ×10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(5.98 × 1024 kg) 8

(3.00 × 10 m/s)

2(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(2 × 1041 kg) (3.00 × 108 m/s) 2

The Schwarzschild radius is given by R = 2GM /c 2 , so M =

M =

19.

2GM Earth

= 8.86 × 10−3 m ≈ 8.9 mm

The Schwarzschild radius is given by R = 2GM /c 2 . An approximate mass of ordinary matter for our Galaxy is calculated in Example 33–1. A value of twice that mass is also quoted in the text, so the given answer may vary by a factor of 2. R=

18.

D1 = 0.13 . D2

= 3 × 1014 m

Rc 2 . The radius is given in Eq. 27–14. 2G

Rc 2 (5.29 × 10−11 m)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2 = = 3.57 × 10−16 kg 2 2 −11 2G 2(6.67 × 10 N ⋅ m /kg )

The limiting value for the angles in a triangle on a sphere is 540° . Imagine drawing an equilateral triangle near the north pole, enclosing the north pole. If that triangle were small, then the surface would be approximately flat, and each angle in the triangle would be 60°. Then imagine “stretching” each vertex of that triangle down toward the equator, ensuring that the north pole was inside the triangle. The angle at each vertex of the triangle would expand, with a limiting value of 180°. The three 180° angles in the triangle would sum to 540°.

33-8

20.

Chapter 33

(a)

(b)

21.

For the vertices of the triangle, we choose the north pole and two points on a latitude line on nearly opposite sides of the Earth, as shown on the diagram. Let the angle at the north pole be 179°. It is not possible to draw a triangle on a sphere with the sum of the angles less than 180°. To draw a triangle like that, a hyperbolic surface like a saddle (similar to Fig. 33–18) would be needed.

180° 179o 90° 90o

90°o 90

We find the time for the light to cross the elevator and then find how far the elevator moves during that time due to its acceleration. Δt =

Δx g (Δx) 2 (9.80 m/s 2 )(2.4 m) 2 ; Δy = 12 g (Δt ) 2 = = = 3.1× 10−16 m c 2c 2 2(3.00 × 108 m/s)2

Note that this is smaller than the size of a proton. 22.

Use Eq. 33–4, Hubble’s law.

υ = H0d → d = 23.

1850 km/s = 88 Mly = 8.8 × 107 ly 21 km/s/Mly

Use Eq. 33–4, Hubble’s law.

υ = H0d → d = 24.

(a)

υ H0

(0.015)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 4

2.1× 10 m/s/Mly

= 214.3 Mly ≈ 210 Mly = 2.1× 108 ly

Use Eq. 33–6, applicable for υ c, to solve for the speed of the galaxy. z=

λobs − λrest υ ≈ c λrest

⎛ 455 nm − 434 nm ⎞ → υ = c⎜ ⎟ = 0.04839c ≈ 0.048c 434 nm ⎝ ⎠

The size of the answer does meet the condition that υ c. (b)

Use Hubble’s law, Eq. 33–4, to solve for the distance.

υ = H0d → d = 25.

υ H0

0.04839(3.00 × 108 m/s) = 691 Mly ≈ 6.9 × 108 ly 21000 m/s/Mly

We find the velocity from Hubble’s law, Eq. 33–4, and the observed wavelength from the Doppler shift, Eq. 33–3. (a)

υ c

H 0 d (21, 000 m/s/Mly)(7.0 Mly) = = 4.9 × 10−4 c 3.00 × 108 m/s

λ = λ0 (b)

υ c

1 + υ /c 1 + 4.9 × 10−4 = (656.3 nm) = 656.62 nm → shift = λ − λ0 = 0.3 nm 1 − υ /c 1 − 4.9 × 10−4

H 0 d (21, 000 m/s/Mly)(70 Mly) = = 4.9 × 10−3 8 c 3.00 × 10 m/s

λ = λ0

1 + υ /c 1 + 4.9 × 10−3 = (656.3 nm) = 659.52 nm → shift = λ − λ0 = 3.2 nm 1 − υ /c 1 − 4.9 × 10−3

Astrophysics and Cosmology

26.

33-9

Use Eqs. 33–3 and 33–4 to solve for the distance to the galaxy.

λobs = λrest

υ H0

(λ − λ ) → υ =c (λ + λ ) ( λ − λ ) = (3.00 ×10 m/s) ⎡⎣(423.4 nm) ( λ + λ ) (2.1×10 m/s/Mly) ⎡⎣(423.4 nm)

1 + υ /c 1 − υ /c =

c H0

2 obs

2 rest

2 obs

2 rest

2 obs

2 rest

2 obs

2 rest

− (393.4 nm) 2 ⎤ ⎦ 2 2⎤ + (393.4 nm) ⎦ 2

= 1.048 × 103 Mly ≈ 1.0 × 109 ly

27.

Use Eqs. 33–3 and 33–5a to solve for the speed of the galaxy. z=

λobs − λrest λobs 1 + υ /c = −1 = −1 → λrest λrest 1 − υ /c

( z + 1) 2 − 1

( z + 1) 2 + 1

1.0602 − 1 1.0602 + 1

= 0.05820 → υ = 0.058c

The approximation of Eq. 33–6 gives υ = zc = 0.060c . 28.

Use Eqs. 33–3 and 33–5a to solve for the redshift parameter. z=

λobs − λrest λobs 1 + υ /c 1 + 0.075 = −1 = −1 = − 1 = 0.078 λrest λrest 1 − υ /c 1 − 0.075

Or we can use the approximation given in Eq. 33–6. z ≈ υ /c = 0.075

29.

We cannot use the approximation of Eq. 33–6 for this circumstance. Instead, we use Eq. 33–5b combined with Eq. 33–3, and then use Eq. 33–4 for the distance. 1 + υ /c 1 + υ /c 1 + υ /c −1 → z + 1 = =2 → =4 1 − υ /c 1 − υ /c 1 − υ /c 1 + υ /c = 4(1 − υ /c) → 1 + υ /c = 4 − 4υ /c → 5υ /c = 3 → υ = 0.6c z=

30.

υ H0

0.6(3.00 × 108 m/s) 3

21× 10 m/s/Mly

= 8571 Mly ≈ 9 × 109 ly

Use Eqs. 33–4 and 33–5a to solve for the speed of the galaxy. Δλ = 610 nm − 434 nm = 176 nm 2

⎛ Δλ ⎞ ⎛ 176 nm ⎞ + 1⎟ −1 ⎜ +1⎟ −1 ⎜ λ Δλ 1 +υ /c 0.9755 υ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ 434 nm ⎠ z= = −1 → = = = = 0.3278c → υ ≈ 0.33c 2 1 −υ /c c ⎛ Δλ ⎞2 2.9755 λ0 ⎛ 176 nm ⎞ +1⎟ +1 + 1⎟ + 1 ⎜ ⎜ ⎝ 434 nm ⎠ ⎝ λ0 ⎠

Use Hubble’s law, Eq. 33–4, to solve for the distance.

υ = H0d → d =

υ H0

υ /c H 0 /c

0.3278 = 4.68 × 103 Mly ≈ 4.7 × 109 ly (21000 m/s/Mly) 3.00 × 108 m/s

33-10

31.

Chapter 33

For small relative wavelength shifts, we may use Eq. 33–6 to find the speed. We use Eq. 33–4 to find the distance.

υ c

Δλ

→ υ =c

λrest υ H0

Δλ

λrest

; υ = H0d

→

c Δλ ⎛ 3.00 × 108 m/s ⎞ ⎛ 0.10 cm ⎞ =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 68 Mly H 0 λrest ⎜⎝ 21, 000 m/s/Mly ⎟⎠ ⎝ 21 cm ⎠

We also use the more exact relationship of Eq. 33–3. 2

λobs 1 + υ /c = λrest 1 − υ /c

⎛ λobs ⎞ ⎛ 21.1 cm ⎞ −1 ⎜ ⎟ −1 ⎜ 21cm ⎠⎟ υ ⎝ λrest ⎠ ⎝ → = = = 4.75 × 10−2 2 2 c ⎛λ ⎛ 21.1 cm ⎞ obs ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ + 1 ⎜ 21 cm ⎟ + 1 λ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ rest ⎠

υ = H0d → d =

υ H0

υ /c

H 0 /c

4.75 × 10−2 = 67.86 Mly ≈ 68 Mly ( 21000 m/s/Mly ) 3.00 × 108 m/s

32.

Eq. 33–3 states λ = λrest

1 + υ /c . 1 − υ /c 1/2

1 + υ /c ⎛ υ⎞ = λrest ⎜1 + ⎟ 1 − υ /c ⎝ c⎠

λ = λrest

1/2

⎛ υ⎞ ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎝ c⎠

υ ⎞⎛ υ⎞ υ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ≈ λrest ⎜ 1 + 12 ⎟ ⎜ 1 − − 12 ⎟ = λrest ⎜ 1 + 12 ⎟ c ⎠⎝ c⎠ c⎠ ⎝ ⎝

⎛ υ ⎛ υ ⎞⎞ ⎛ υ⎞ λ = λrest ⎜1 + 2 ⎜ 12 ⎟ ⎟ = λrest ⎜ 1 + ⎟ = λrest + λrest c c c ⎝

⎝

⎠⎠

⎝

⎠

( )

→ λ − λrest = Δλ = λrest

υ c

→

Δλ υ = λrest c

33.

Wien’s law is Eq. 27–2.

λPT = 2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K → λP = 34.

2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K 2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K = = 1.1× 10−3 m T 2.7 K

We use Wien’s law, Eq. 27–2. From Fig. 33–29, the temperature at that time is about 1010 K.

λPT = 2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K → λP =

2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K 2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K = = 3 × 10−13 m 10 T 10 K

From Fig. 22–8, that wavelength is in the gamma ray region of the EM spectrum. 35.

We use the proton as typical nuclear matter. ⎛ −26 kg ⎞ ⎛ 1 nucleon ⎞ 3 ⎟ = 6 nucleons/m ⎜10 ⎟⎜ ⎝ m3 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 1.67 × 10−27 kg ⎟⎠

Astrophysics and Cosmology

36.

33-11

If the scale of the universe is inversely proportional to the temperature, then the scale times the temperature should be constant. If we call the current scale 1 and know the current temperature to be about 3 K, then the product of scale and temperature should be about 3. Use Fig. 33–29 to estimate the temperature at various times. For purposes of illustration, we assume that the universe has a current size of about 1010 ly. There will be some variation in the answer due to differences in reading the figure. (a)

At t = 106 yr, the temperature is about 1000 K. Thus the scale is found as follows: (Scale)(Temperature) = 3 → Scale =

3 3 = = 3 × 10−3 Temperature 1000

→

Size ≈ (3 × 10−3 )(1010 ly) = 3 × 107 ly

(b)

At t = 1 s, the temperature is about 1010 K. Scale =

(c)

3 3 = = 3 × 10−10 Temperature 1010

→ Size ≈ (3 ×10−10 )(1010 ly) = 3 ly

At t = 10−6 s, the temperature is about 1012 K. Scale =

3 3 = = 3 × 10−12 Temperature 1012

→

Size ≈ (3 × 10−12 )(1010 ly) = 3 × 10−2 ly ≈ 3 × 1014 m

(d)

At t = 10235 s , the temperature is about 1027 K. Scale =

3 3 = = 3 × 10−27 Temperature 1027

Size ≈ (3 × 10−27 )(1010 ly) = 3 × 10−17 ly ≈ 0.3 m

37.

We approximate the temperature–energy relationship by kT = E = mc 2 as suggested in Section 33–7. kT = mc 2

(a)

→ T=

mc 2 . k

mc 2 (500 MeV/c 2 )c 2 (1.60 ×10−13 J/MeV) = = 6 × 1012 K k 1.38 × 10−23 J/K

From Fig. 33–29, this corresponds to a time of ≈ 10−5 s . (b)

mc 2 (9500 MeV/c 2 )c 2 (1.60 ×10−13 J/MeV) = = 1× 1014 K −23 k 1.38 × 10 J/K

From Fig. 33–29, this corresponds to a time of ≈ 10−7 s . (c)

mc 2 (100 MeV/c 2 )c 2 (1.60 × 10−13 J/MeV) = = 1× 1012 K −23 k 1.38 × 10 J/K

From Fig. 33–29, this corresponds to a time of ≈ 10−4 s . There will be some variation in the answers due to differences in reading the figure.

33-12

38.

Chapter 33

(a)

According to the textbook, near Fig. 33–33, the visible matter makes up about one-tenth of the total baryonic matter. The average baryonic density is therefore 10 times the density of visible matter. The data in the Problem are for visible matter only (stars and galaxies).

ρ baryon = 10 ρvisible = 10 = 10

(b)

M visible 4 π R3 3 11

(1011 galaxies)(10 stars/galaxy)(2.0 × 1030 kg/star) 4π 3

⎡(14 × 109 ly)(9.46 × 1015 m/ly) ⎤ ⎣ ⎦

≈ 2.1× 10−26 kg/m3

Again, according to the text, dark matter is about 5 times more plentiful than baryonic matter.

ρ dark = 5ρ baryon = 5(2.055 ×10−26 kg/m3 ) ≈ 1.0 ×10−25 kg/m3 39.

The angular momentum is the product of the rotational inertia and the angular velocity. ( I ω ) initial = ( I ω ) final

→ 2

2 ⎞ ⎛ R initial ⎞ ⎛ 6 × 106 m ⎞ ⎟ = ω initial ⎜ = (1 rev/month) ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ 3 ⎜ R final ⎟ ⎟ ⎝ 8 × 10 m ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠ 1 month 1d 1h rev × × × = 0.217 rev/s = 5.625 × 105 rev/month = 5.625 × 105 30 d 24 h 3600 s month

⎛ I initial ⎝ I final

ω final = ω initial ⎜

2 ⎛ 2 MR initial ⎞ 5 ⎜ ω = ⎟ initial 2 ⎜ MR 2 ⎠ final ⎝ 5

≈ 0.2 rev/s

40.

The rotational kinetic energy is given by

1 2

I ω 2 . The final angular velocity, from Problem 39, is

5.625 × 105 rev/month. KE final KE initial

1I ω 2 final 1I ω 2 initial

2 final 2 initial

2 MR 2 ω final 5 2 MR 2 initialω 5

2 ⎛ final =⎜ 2 ⎜ ⎝ initial

R finalω final ⎞ ⎟ R initialω initial ⎟⎠

⎛ (8 × 103 m)(5.625 × 105 rev/month) ⎞ 5 5 ⎟ = 5.625 × 10 ≈ 6 × 10 6 ⎜ ⎟ (6 × 10 m)(1 rev/month) ⎝ ⎠

=⎜

41.

A: B: C:

The temperature increases, the luminosity stays the same, and the size decreases. The temperature stays the same, the luminosity decreases, and the size decreases. The temperature decreases, the luminosity increases, and the size increases.

42.

The apparent luminosity is given by Eq. 33–1. Use that relationship to derive an expression for the absolute luminosity, and equate the Sun’s luminosity to the star’s luminosity. b=

L 4π d 2

→ L = 4π d 2b

Ldistant = LSun star

d distant = dSun star

2 2 → 4π d distant bdistant = 4π dSun bSun star

→

star

lSun 1 ⎛ 1 ly ⎞ = (1.5 × 1011 m) ⎟ = 5 ly 15 −11 ⎜ ldistant 10 ⎝ 9.461× 10 m ⎠ star

Astrophysics and Cosmology

43.

The power output is the energy loss divided by the elapsed time. P= =

44.

33-13

ΔKE = Δt

I ω 2 (fraction lost)

1 2

Δt

1 2 25

MR 2ω 2 (fraction lost) Δt

1 (1.5)(1.99 × 10 kg)(8.0 × 10 m) (2π rad/s) 2 (1× 10−9 ) = 1.7461025 W ≈ 1.7 × 1025 W 5 (1 d)(24 h/d)(3600 s/h) 30

Use Newton’s law of universal gravitation. F =G

m1m2 r

(4 × 1041 kg) 2

= (6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )

⎡(2 × 106 ly)(9.46 × 1015 m/ly) ⎤ ⎣ ⎦

= 2.98 × 1028 N

≈ 3 × 1028 N

45.

We use the Sun’s mass and given density to calculate the size of the Sun.

ρ=

M M = 4 V π r3 3 Sun 1/3

⎛ 3M ⎞ rSun = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 4πρ ⎠ rSun d Earth-Sun

46.

→ 1/3

⎡ 3(1.99 × 1030 kg) ⎤ =⎢ ⎥ −26 kg/m3 ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4π (10

3.62 × 1018 m 11

1.50 × 10

≈ 2 × 107 ;

1ly ⎛ ⎞ = 3.62 × 1018 m ⎜ ⎟ = 382 ly ≈ 400 ly 15 ⎝ 9.46 × 10 m ⎠

rSun dgalaxy

382 ly ≈ 4 × 10−3 100,000 ly

The temperature of each star can be found from Wien’s law, Eq. 27–2. The peak wavelength is used as a subscript to designate each star’s properties.

λPT = 2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K → T660 =

2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K 660 × 10−9 m

= 4394 K

T480 =

2.90 × 10−3 m ⋅ K 480 × 10−9 m

= 6042 K

The luminosity of each star can be found from the H–R diagram. L660 ≈ 7 × 1025 W

L480 ≈ 5 × 1026 W

The Stefan-Boltzmann equation says that the power output of a star is given by P = β AT 4 , where β is a constant and A is the radiating area. The P in the Stefan-Boltzmann equation is the same as the luminosity L given in Eq. 33–1. Form the ratio of the two luminosities. 4 2 4 L480 β A480T480 4π r480 T480 = = 4 2 4 L660 β A660T660 T660 4π r660

→

r480 = r660

2 L480 T660 5 × 1026 W (4394 K) 2 = = 1.413 2 L660 T480 7 × 1025 W (6042 K) 2

The diameters are in the same ratio as the radii. d 480 = 1.413 ≈ 1.4 d660

The luminosities are fairly subjective, since they are read from the H–R diagram. Different answers may arise due to different readings of the H–R diagram.

33-14

47.

Chapter 33

(a)

First, calculate the number of parsecs. Then use the fact that the number of parsecs is the reciprocal of the angular resolution in seconds of arc. ⎛ 1 pc ⎞ 1 100 ly ⎜ ⎟ = 30.67 pc = φ0 ⎝ 3.26 ly ⎠

→

⎛ 1 ⎞′′ ⎛ 1′ ⎞ ⎛ 1° ⎞ −6 −6 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = (9.06 × 10 )° ≈ (9 × 10 )° ⎝ 30.67 ⎠ ⎝ 600 ⎠ ⎝ 60′ ⎠

φ =⎜ (b)

We use the Rayleigh criterion, Eq. 25–7, which relates the angular resolution to the diameter of the optical element. We choose a wavelength of 550 nm, in the middle of the visible range.

θ=

1.22λ D

→ D=

1.22λ

1.22(550 × 10−9 m) = 4.24 m ≈ 4 m ⎡(9.06 × 10−6 )°⎤ (π rad/180°) ⎣ ⎦

The largest optical telescopes with single mirrors are about 8 m in diameter. 48.

(a)

We approximate the temperature–kinetic energy relationship by kT = KE, as given in Section 33–7. kT = KE → T =

(b) 49.

(a)

(14 × 1012 eV)(1.60 × 10−19 J/eV) 1.38 × 10

J/K

= 1.6 × 1017 K

Find the Q-value for this reaction. From Eq. 30–2, the Q-value is the mass energy of the reactants minus the mass energy of the products.

24 12 Mg 2mC c 2 − mMg c 2 =

→

[ 2(12.000000 u) − 23.985042 u ] c 2 (931.5 MeV/c 2 ) = 13.93 MeV

The total kinetic energy should be equal to the electrical potential energy of the two nuclei when they are just touching. The distance between the two nuclei will be twice the nuclear radius, from Eq. 30–1. Each nucleus will have half the total kinetic energy. r = (1.2 ×10−15 m)( A)1/3 = (1.2 × 10−15 m)(12)1/3 ;

PE =

2 qnucleus ; 4πε 0 2r

2 qnucleus 2 4πε 2r 0

KE nucleus = 1 PE = 1

= 12 (8.988 ×109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 ) (c)

−23

From Fig. 33–29, this is in the hadron era.

12 12 6C + 6C

(b)

(6) 2 (1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 2(1.2 × 10

−15

1/3

m)(12)

1 eV 1.60 × 10−19 J

= 4.71 MeV

Approximate the temperature–kinetic energy relationship by kT = KE, as given in Section 33–7. ⎛ 1.60 × 10−19 J ⎞ (4.71× 106 eV) ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ 1 eV KE ⎝ ⎠ = 5.46 × 1010 K = kT = KE → T = 23 − k 1.38 × 10 J/K

Astrophysics and Cosmology

50.

(a)

33-15

Find the Q-value for this reaction. From Eq. 30–2, the Q-value is the mass energy of the reactants minus the mass energy of the products. 16 16 8C + 8C

28 4 14 Si + 2 He 2mC c 2 − mSi c 2 − mHe c 2

→

= [ 2(15.994915 u) − 27.976927 u − 4.002603] c 2 (931.5 Mev/c 2 )

= 9.594 MeV

(b)

2 qnucleus 4πε 0 2r

2 qnucleus 2 4πε 2r 0

KE nucleus = 1 PE = 1 2

= 12 (8.988 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C 2 )

(c)

PE =

(8) 2 (1.60 × 10−19 C) 2 2(1.2 × 10

−15

1/3

m)(16)

1 eV

= 7.61 MeV

1.60 × 10−19 J

Approximate the temperature–kinetic energy relationship by kT = KE, as given in Section 33–7. ⎛ 1.60 × 10−19 J ⎞ (7.61× 106 eV) ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ 1 eV KE ⎝ ⎠ = 8.82 × 1010 K kT = KE → T = = k 1.38 × 10−23 J/K

51.

We must find a combination of c, G, and U that has the dimensions of time. The dimensions of c are ⎡ L3 ⎤ ⎡ ML2 ⎤ ⎡L⎤ , and the dimensions of = are ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ . Use dimensional ⎢ T ⎥ , the dimensions of G are ⎢ 2 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢ MT ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ T ⎦⎥ analysis, as discussed in Chapter 1. β

α 3 2 ⎡ L ⎤ ⎡ L ⎤ ⎡ ML ⎤ α + 3β + 2γ t P = cα G β =γ → [T ] = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ [ M ]γ − β [T ]−α − 2 β −γ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = [ L] 2 T T ⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢ MT ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥

α + 3β + 2γ = 0; γ − β = 0; − α − 2β − γ = 1 → α + 5β = 0; α = −1 − 3β

→ β=

−5β = −1 − 3β tP = c

52.

−5/2 1/2 1/2

G= c5

1; 2

γ=

1; 2

α =−

→

5 2

1 (6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s) 2π = 5.38 ×10−44 s (3.00 × 108 m/s)5

(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )

The radius of the universe is estimated as the speed of light (c) times the age of the universe (T). This radius is used to find the volume of the universe, and the critical density times the volume gives the mass. r = cT ; V = 43 π r 3 = 34 π (cT )3 ; m =Vρ =

4 π (cT )3 ρ 3

4π 3

⎡ ⎛ 3.156 × 107 8 9 ⎢ (3.00 × 10 m/s)(13.8 × 10 yr) ⎜⎜ 1 yr ⎝ ⎣⎢

s ⎞⎤ −26 kg/m3 ) ⎟⎟ ⎥ (10 ⎠ ⎦⎥

= 9.34 × 1052 kg ≈ 1053 kg © Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

33-16

Chapter 33

Solutions to Search and Learn Problems 1.

(a)

Assume that the nucleons make up only 2% of the critical mass density, so neutrinos make up 98% of the critical mass density. Nucleon mass density = 0.02(10−26 kg/m3 ) Nucleon number density =

0.02(10−26 kg/m3 ) 1.67 × 10

−27

kg/nucleon

= 0.12 nucleon/m3

Neutrino number density = 10 (nucleon number density) = 1.2 × 108 neutrino/m3

The neutrino number density times the mass per neutrino must make up 98% of the critical mass density. The mass-to- eV/c 2 conversion is in the front of the textbook. (mv kg/neutrino)(1.2 × 108 neutrino/m3 ) = 0.98(10−26 kg/m3 ) → mv =

(b)

0.98(10−26 kg/m3 )

⎛ 931.5 × 106 eV/c 2 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ = 45.8 eV/v ≈ 50 eV/v (1.2 × 108 neutrino/m3 ) ⎜⎝ 1.6605 × 10−27 kg ⎟⎠

Assume that the nucleons make up only 5% of the critical mass density. Nucleon mass density = 0.05(10−26 kg/m3 ) Nucleon number density =

0.05(10−26 kg/m3 ) 1.67 ×10

−27

kg/nucleon

= 0.30 nucleon/m3

Neutrino number density = 10 (nucleon number density) = 3.0 ×108 neutrino/m3 (mv kg/neutrino)(3.0 × 108 neutrino/m3 ) = 0.95(10−26 kg/m3 ) → mv =

0.95(10−26 kg/m3 )

⎛ 931.5 ×106 eV/c 2 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ = 17.8 eV/v ≈ 20 eV/v (3.0 × 108 neutrino/m3 ) ⎜⎝ 1.6605 × 10−27 kg ⎟⎠

Many methods are available. •

For nearby stars (up to 500 or 100 ly away) we can use parallax. In this method we measure the angular distance that a star moves relative to the background of stars as the Earth travels around the Sun. Half of the angular displacement is then equal to the ratio of the Earth–Sun distance and the distance between the Earth and that star.

•

The apparent brightness of the brightest stars in galaxies, combined with the inverse square law, can be used to estimate distances to galaxies, assuming they have the same intrinsic luminosity.

•

The H–R diagram can be used for distant stars. Determine the surface temperature using its blackbody radiation spectrum and Wien’s law and then estimate its luminosity from the H–R diagram. Using its apparent brightness with Eq. 33–1 will give its distance.

•

Variable stars, like Cepheid variables, can be used by relating the period to its luminosity. The luminosity and apparent brightness can be used to find the distance.

•

The largest distances are measured by measuring the apparent brightness of Type Ia supernovae. All supernovae are thought to have nearly the same luminosity, so the apparent brightness can be used to find the distance.

•

The redshift in the spectral lines of very distant galaxies can be used to estimate distances that are farther than 107 to 108 ly.

Astrophysics and Cosmology

(a)

33-17

From Section 33–2, a white dwarf with a mass equal to that of the Sun has a radius about the size of the Earth’s radius, 6380 km , and a neutron star with a mass equal to 1.5 solar masses has a radius of about 20 km . For the black hole, we use the Schwarzschild radius formula. R=

2GM c2

2(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 ) ⎡3(1.99 × 1030 kg) ⎤ ⎣ ⎦ = 8849 m ≈ 8.85 km = (3.00 × 108 m/s) 2

(b)

The ratio is 6380 : 20 : 8.85 = 721: 2.26 :1 ≈ 700 : 2 :1.

(a)

All distant objects in the universe are moving away from each other, as indicated by the galactic redshift, indicating that the universe is expanding. If the universe has always expanded, it must have started as a point. The 25% abundance of He supports the standard Big Bang model. The Big Bang theory predicted the presence of background radiation, which has since been observed. The curvature of the universe determines whether the universe will continue expanding forever (open) or eventually collapse back in on itself (closed). Dark energy increases the total energy of the universe, increasing the probability that it is an open universe.

(b) (c) 5.

Each helium atom requires 2 protons and 2 neutrons and has a total mass of 4u. Each hydrogen atom requires 1 proton and has a mass of 1u. If there are 7 times more protons than neutrons, then for every 2 neutrons there are 14 protons. Two protons combine with the 2 neutrons to produce a helium atom. The other 12 protons produce 12 hydrogen atoms. Therefore, there is 12 times as much hydrogen as helium, by number of atoms. Each helium atom has a mass 4 times that of the hydrogen atom, so the total mass of the hydrogen is only 3 times the total mass of the helium.

About 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the initially very hot temperature of the universe would have cooled down to about 3000 K. At that temperature, electrons could orbit bare nuclei and remain there, without being ejected by collisions. Thus stable atoms were able to form. This allowed photons to travel unimpeded through the universe, so the universe became transparent. The radiation at this time period would have been blackbody radiation at a temperature of about 3000 K. As the universe continued to expand and cool, the wavelengths of this radiation would have increased according to Wien’s law. The peak wavelength now is much larger and corresponds to the blackbody radiation at a temperature of 2.7 K.

(a)

Because the speed of the galaxy is small compared to the speed of light, we can use Eq. 33–6 instead of Eq. 33–3. The velocity of the galaxy is negative. ⎛ −130 × 103 m/s ⎞ ⎛υ ⎞ Δλ = λrest ⎜ ⎟ = 656 nm ⎜ = −0.284 nm ⎜ 3.00 × 108 m/s ⎟⎟ ⎝c⎠ ⎝ ⎠

(b) (c)

This is a blue shift because the wavelength has decreased and because the galaxy is approaching. The time is equal to the distance between the galaxies divided by their relative speed. This is assuming that they continue to move at the same present speed. (They would actually accelerate due to the gravitational force between them.) t=

2.5 × 106 ly ⎛ 9.46 × 1015 m ⎞ ⎛ 1 yr ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 3 7 ly 130 × 10 m/s ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 3.156 × 10

⎞ 9 ⎟ = 5.8 × 10 yr s ⎟⎠