the bombilla underground lighting fanzine issue#1

summer 2009 the bombilla the quarterly international lighting fanzine begins its quest in search of the roots of modernity, archiving and lining up all existing documentation and information in an attempt affront it in an manner of critical thought.

Contents : Instead of Editorial..........................................

Range against the Machine - The Luddites...................................................... ........................1 Actions and Trials of the Luddites...................................................... ......................................17 Masking and Archaic Justice ............................................................. ...................................27 Underground Movements..................................................... ....................................................29 Symbolism of Light the Secret story of the Olympic Flame........................................................4 7 Miscellaneous Authoritarian use of Light......................................................... ......................50 Short story of the Lamp.......................................................... ...................................................54 Design 150 years Thonet No14.......................................................... ......................................60 Art : Eric Drooker...................................................... .............................................................. .63 Music: Chambawamba................................................... ......................................................... 64 Cover : ZON by Constant

Instead

of

Editorial

Imagine a group of prisoners chained since their childhood deep down in the darkness of a cave, their bodies and heads are locked in such a way that they can only stare on the wall in front of them.

Behind the prisoners there is a huge fire, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a walkway along which people pass holding in their raised hands various objects, casting in this way various shadows on the wall in front of the prisoners.

Occasionally the prisoners will hear noise, noise which echoes off the wall of the cave depicting the shadows. Ultimately the prisoners make themselves believe that the noise is coming from the shadows.

This is the they know‌

only

reality

Suddenly a prisoner breaks free from his bounds, slowly and hardfought in hands and knees he manages to crawl up and out of the cave. Then when he finally reaches the exit of the cave the Sun shines upon his face b u r n i n g his eyes. Once more he must find the strength to overcome this utter challenge and educe himself, to glint at the Sun. I n time he will learn to see how to see‌ The responsibility that has fallen upon him "dictates" that he must now to return to the cave and help the rest of the prisoners which remain in green.

"The

allegory

of

the

cave" Plato

Range Against the Machine

RANGE AGAINST THE MACHINE THE LUDDITES The Luddites, followers of the legendary Ned Ludd, were bands of British Artisans who in the beginning of the nineteenth century smashed textile-making machines and burned down factories in the early stage of the industrial revolution..

How gloomy and Dark is the Day When Men Have to Fight for their Bread; Some Judgment will sure clear the way, and the poor Triumph shall be led.1 “Great evils would follow if the working people were allowed to feel and make known the extent of their power”2 The Industrial Revolution had an effect on the imagination of society, it made people think that their culture was to be judged solely by its commercial success in a struggle of which the whole world was now the arena. The test of success was the test of profits : if a society could make its social and political conditions favourable to the earning of high profits that society was 3 prosperous.

It has been argued among social historians that: “The Luddites were desperate bands of weavers who hated machines” or that the Luddites were involved in a emotional “pointless frenzied industrial Jaquering.” Opposition to these views supports that the Luddites were well aware of their social status; as well as their potential power and that they organised in a early form of “conscious class struggle” using “collective bargain by riot” as a The Industrial revolution as a means of pressure, when all other theme has been subject to bulks o measures had failed. critical papers resulting to an abundance of literature, scholar In this article we will shed exploration and surveys light in yet another aspect of researching its effects on the this peculiar revolutionary social and economic structure of movement.

That of the society; the quality of life; distinguished and prominent laboring and the emerging of new artisans who saw their art and social classes. Nonetheless one craft be pounded on the “anvil of distinct feature, considerably progress”. investigated, but rather unknown, Although the Luddites may have, would be the chapter of the lost that battle; the seeds of Luddites. The legendary counter- their revolution would be planted revolution movement of the in the gardens of all creative skilled English artisans, who arts; beginning from the Romantic spiritedly and actively opposed to poets and the Victorian the evolutionary one-way of the novelists, far- reaching the Preindustrial revolution and to the Raphaelites and the Arts and effects that it would have on Crafts movement, thereby touching their livelihood. literally all that follows.

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Range Against the Machine

It is now time to reexamine and reevaluate the importance and momentous influence of this early movement, (which may well be the first of it's kind) the bodies of skilled artisans who experienced unpredictable changes leading to unidirectional paths and responded by declaring nothing but war to their tyrants.

Who would imagine that Mary Shelly's4 Gothic novel “Frankenstein or the Modern Prometheus” (1818) was in fact a reflection to the zeitgeist; working both as a warning against the over-reaching of humanity as well as a critique on the Industrial revolution. It would be the influence of Lord Byron; British figure in Romanticism and sympathizer of the Luddites; intimate friend of the Shelly family who would furnish the link between the Luddites and Marry.

Byron had risen and outspoken of “Men sacrificed to improvements i n m e c h a n i s m ” in his speech against the Frame breaking act; or Frame-Breaking Bill in the house of lords on February 27 1812, defending the Luddites.

The Luddides avowedly were smashing textile machines in response to the production of inferior goods, which they felt was traumatizing the reputation of their craft, taking it down the road of obscurity. Goods that would have required the skill of a Master or at least a journeyman to be produced in the first place.

Apart for the step-down in standard which was one of the central reasons that gave rise to the Luddites. Another fundamental factor was that the introduction of machinery took place as a system that did not allow the workers to posess control over it(rather the opposite),if that were to be the case then their reaction would have probably been completely different. Contrary to that, machinery was introduced under a system that placed the workers to the disposal of the machineries owners (capitalists), who valued machinery as a means, “not to a larger and richer life for the workers, but to greater and quicker profits for their enterprise”5.These new conditions were dictating the transformation The subject of the Luddites ,is of the formerly autonomous worker deliberately brought up in from a state of creative work to exploration of the roots of the a new state of monotonous slavery. historic continuity of the design/production practice, with Close you eyes and imagine a the ambition of lining up all society where all goods are existing documentation and handmade , tailors, shoemakers, affronting it in an manner of woodworkers, carpenters and critical thought.

The Luddite cabinet makers, spinners weavers, matter is thus considered primal, stockingers and croppers , if one takes into consideration ironworkers, blacksmiths that it was in that time, that the metalworkers, armorers and transition from traditional gunmakers, potters, glassblowers, production - to mass production silversmiths and the list goes on technique occurred; regarding all and on... Now open your eyes and the ramifications that this picture the same people forced to evolution has had ever since. leave their small original workshop only to be swarmed under 2

Range Against the Machine the roofs of the soulless, colorless new big factories...

In order to infiltrate deeper within the subject one must have a a look upon the lives of these people as it were before the development of the factory system.

lord and the city authorities.

The guilds ultimately guarded the association best interest and maintained the standard and customs of the craft.

Their authorization would further ensure that the ordinances were properly executed, punishing anyone who would betray them. The ability of securing independence meant that all practitioners of the craft should belong to the guild; thus having the ability to put pressure upon the authorities when needed. Eventually certain circumstances would provide confirmation of the guild by the constituted authorities,meaning that thenceforth the guild was legally able regulate the trade.6

Guilds-War of the Guilds In England at least as early as the middle ages all craft would have been organized in guilds.

Guilds were forms of early associations of individuals practicing the same art/craft. A guild lied anywhere between an association, a brotherhood, a craft fellowship and a secret society. A typical taxonomy would divide guilds into two types: the merchant guilds and the craft guilds. It is interesting to note that it was in fact the antagonism of these two guilds or rather the pursuit of the former guilt for profit (along with the ingenuity of engineers )that led to the acknowledged explosion of mass production.

In the beginning of the thirteenth century the craft and trade or merchant guilds, which until that time had worked together in comparative harmony, began a divergence of their mutual relations. In the early period of the middle ages it was common for the same person to act both as craftsman and merchant or tradesman. The producers of goods of the “forge and loom� purchased their own material, and when their productions were completed, they sold them directly to the consumer.

The existence of the craft guilds was developed, on the grounds of common interest and protection of the craftsmen, ensuring independence against the lords and city authorities.

Retrospecting even earlier in time, during the formation of the first cities; people usually came to medieval towns or cities being social and economic centers in order to trade or sell their goods. The Towns or cities were usually owned by lords, the lord would therefore tax the artisans and merchants in return of their protection within the walls of the city. Prosperous towns would attract more merchants and artisans resulting to an increased share of taxes for the

As trade and manufacture was increasing, the small traders developed into merchants,and as their fortunes would increased,so would their greed. Now instead of manufacturing their own goods , the merchants would only deal with the manufactured goods of others.

Eventually these merchants would secure privileges which would develop into monopolies and henceforth exercised the monopolistic 3

Range Against the Machine privileges against their former associates and co-workers the craftsmen.

Furthermore the merchants wealth enabled them into buying-out the assistance of the King and the official authorities.

(socks) was spread in the capital thus the “Worshipful Company of Framework Knitters” was formed and granted a Royal charter.

Their motto: >>Speed, Strength And Truth United<<. The Master, Wardens, Assistants and Society The merchants would gradually of the Art or Mystery of 9 separated themselves from their Framework Knitters so to say... former fellow members -the craftsmenwho were no longer The center of the trade from admitted but ousted from the London was soon to move to the merchant guilds eventually tried north of the country - Leicester to take control over the craft and Nottingham.

Unsatisfied guilds as well. This resulted to Framework knitters, from the a contest carried on all over controls imposed on them by the Europe - an active warfare to guild of London moved their who was to control the craft workshops to the East Midlands guilds. I t w a s t h e c r a f t g u i l d s which was a major wool producing a g a i n s t t h e m e r c h a n t g u i l d s a n d center itself, hence would evolve t h e g o v e r n m e n t.7 into the Country's heart of Framework knitting.

This, is In English society during Queen where the story of the Luddites Elizabeth's I regime (1500- will be untangled.

1603)the knitters from the East Midlands where people As the British empire would supplementing their income by hand expand its territorial dominance knitting. Men and women in every becoming "The Empire on which the village and town would have then sun never sets” a vast market of been seen knitting.

Unwanted raw material and trade soon innovation first came when William sprung up. It is evident that Lee of Calverton conceived the this was one of the crucial 8 knitting frame , the first factors that merchants “bet on mechanical means of knitting; a higher stakes” accelerating remarkable invention (as early as production and profit; which in 1589) which was destined to remain its turn allegedly resulted to an unutilized due to the Queen's abundance of inferior goods. conviction that the hand knitters Notably this factor would later would have be “thrown out of work”! give birth to the A r t s a n d C r a f t m o v e m e n t; a movement which Nevertheless the knitting frame started itself in England and was was such an important discovery destined to spread out in the that it would later dominate the world as a strong critique cloth industry for the centuries against inferior quality goods; to come. After William Lee passed making an overall attempt to away in 1610 his brother James return to the values of the returned to England (from France handicraft work of the past which where they had both turned to the Luddites were representatives after Queen Elisabeth's of.

Ironically enough this repudiation) and set a workshop in movement was product of the London; soon the art of stocking factory system and the industrial 4

Range Against the Machine revolution as well.

skilled Guild members. When the factory owners were to discover that the new textile machinery did not take special skills to handle, they would soon fire all the men and instead hire women and children who could be payed less and handled easier.

The war of the guilds being still evident. The Luddites in any case should be recognized as the prolongation of this battle in one of its most dramatic curves; standing as rearguard and reminders of the value of craft which was soon to inspire generations to come, schools of thought, utter movements, styles, groups, artists and designers all over the world to this very day.

The transition of privatively owned shops to large factories represented a important shift in the economic power as well as the psychology of the nature of work itself. The loss of autonomy was now evident, the new nature of work being monotonous and dependent on factory's demands for mass production, the worker thus had not only lost his freedom but also lost his contact with the â&#x20AC;&#x153;fruits of productionâ&#x20AC;? alienating him from the joy of creative activity. The evolution is rather a story of an obvious domino.

Examining the transition from handicraft to mechanization there are some more steps that we need to follow in order to understand the psychographic profile of the people that rose against the introduction of machinery in their day to day lives. The transition from cottage industry to factory system happened gradually, but it was destined to change western civilization forever: This transition was strongly dependent on the innovative solutions of the inventors of the time on one hand, and on the ingenious cunning spirit of the globalized merchants on the other, who as the boarders of the empire grew so did their business. Their forward desire was to lower expenses and accelerate production and it was in this logic that certain inventions sprung up designed to cope with these demands.

Domestic system

System-Factory

Before the Industrial revolution, the chief British industry was textile manufacturing providing employment throughout Britain.

The tools of the trade being the handlooms and spinning wheels.

The producers of the woolen cloth were home based and the production of their goods depended on the members of the family.

They cleaned, combed, spun dyed and wove raw material into cloth. The women and the younger girls were responsible for cleaning, carding and spinning the sheep's fleece and the men were responsible for the weaving process upon the hand looms; (an instrument which required extra physical strength therefore was handled by the male

Hand weavers, hand knitters and sheermen worked in their own pace within their own cottage.

The craftsmen's traditional techniques of production required a high degree of skill. But the new inventions now enabled non skilled workers to perform work that had traditionally been the field high

5

Range Against the Machine members of the family).

Cloth merchants would visit the cottage industries and provide the producers with raw material, collecting the finished goods in order to sell them in local fairs or promote them to foreign markets. Family business on the other hand ; is a term that still remains today in the different vocabularies of nations, whereas its roots can be derived directly from antiquity.

Reading the introduction of â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Skilled Labourerâ&#x20AC;? we understand how this happened ..."the domestic worker had some say in his own life : he could go out and dig in his garden or smoke as he pleased : he was in some cases a farmer as well as a weaver or a spinner : he was in short not quite disinherited from the old village economy in which a man did not merely sell his labour but had some kind of holding and independence of his own.

The industrial changes that occurred at this time destroyed this social economy with its margin of freedom and choice for the 10 worker".

The definition of the word factor is: one that actively contributes to an accomplishment, result, or process or one who acts for someone else; an agent.

The Merchants were the fist to practice this technique and were the first to see the optimization of this agency threw the factory system. The combination of new machinery along with factoring resulted to large numbers of workers - large buildings and mass produced finished goods.

The various processes of manufacture, which had heretofore been primarily performed by hand under the masters own roof, would now by executed by machinery at the public mills. Gathering together a number of spinning-wheels, handlooms, dye-vats, shearing-boards etc would allow supervision, effectivity , regulation of labour hours, prevention of inaction among employees, as well as maintenance of uniform standard of production ; Most importantly, the concentration of employees under one roof prevented that waste of time which occurred when wool i.e. had to be carried at a distance between each process.

In was in the same manner that the worker not only surrender his freedom to the advent of industrial revolution but he was expected to surrender his home as well(!) His wife who in the old days brewed the ale, cleaned and cooked, and helped with the loom, had now to spend the whole day in the mill, spinning for the mass production of yarn, the child would be sent to the mill as soon as it could walk(!)

It was supposed we are informed that no home could be kept going unless the children of five or six went to the mill. Therefore under such a system the owners of capital could decide not only how the worker spent his life but how he brought up his children and handled his family affairs as well.

This new reality would influence a wide range of jobs that had been previously performed independently and self-employed The new industrial system had under the ordinance of the robbed society of its freedom and guilts. pleasures.

6

Range Against the Machine In older times the Artisan would have negotiated an agreement with the merchant regarded as a business partner rather than a "cogwheel" within a well tuned machine.

Therefore moving the state of the manual worker from the state the of autonomy to the state of monotony.

entering the continent.

These events would effect the of lowering of wages while the prices of basic goods, would continuously rise.

The productivity of the farms was inadequate to provide food to the on growing population of the English Kingdom and on top of all others America had just declared war on England (Anglo-American War 1812-1815) ousting yet another turf of export,thus damaging even more the foreign trade.

Enclosure of land, led many small farmers to be displaced out by bigger competitors leading them to starvation; having no other choice the farmers turned to the emerging industrial workplaces.

All previous circumstances considered the American and French revolutions were hanging over the heads of the aristocracy as the rope noose hangs from the gallows.

Finally a shift in fashion which also took place(trousers took the place of stockings) resulted to a even deeper depression of the stocking trade.

Putting together these bits and pieces of the puzzle that composed the outburst of popular discontent; we have a general understanding of the circumstances under which the Luddite rising took place in the north of England the Midlands (Nottinghamshire); West Riding (Yorkshire) and Lancashire from 1811 – 1816.

It is easy to understand that the new “status quo” accepted only investors with sufficient assets(capital), being able to set up factories - contrary to the earlier artisans who initially needed a small sum of money in order to open a workshop. These entrepreneurs would become to be known as capitalists . Setting forth an example of scale; as early as 1790 Mr. Robert Grimshaw, of Gorton House, Gorton, near Manchester made plans of a factory working as much as 500 power-looms,and built a weaving steam factory at Knott Mill. When the mill was finished, the machinery, included only 30 powerlooms, but it is indicative of the forces of change at the time. It was not several weeks though at work after that the owner received several anonymous letters threatening destruction to the mill if he persisted to work it and the factory was burned to the ground.

The time of the Luddites A more spherical view of this time of change is required to understand the full picture of the conditions that were dominant at that time. Ten years into the new century 1810 and English economy was suffering due to the war in Europe with the French. Napoleon, enacted the Continental System, thus prohibiting English trade from

Frank Peel in his book “The Rising of the Luddites” (1880) speaks of a “weary war” which the aristocracy of England undertook in order to crush French liberalism and to force a king upon the French nation. “To crush Napoleon we had not only sent our 7

Range Against the Machine own armies but had also in our pay the hordes of the despots of Europe.

The hard-earned money wrung from our own working people till they rose in their misery ”.

It was in this context in which the re-action of the Luddites flourished in all three regions of distresses.

government favoured nonintervention, groups of organized workers began to destroy the machines.

Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 in its citation on the Luddites says that Luddites, was the given name of bands of English rioters that organized for the destruction of machinery.

They made their first appearance in Nottingham and the neighboring districts.

The frame-breakers called themselves Luddites, and signed their proclamations by the name of their leader Ned Ludd; "sometimes adding office of .12 Sherwood Forest"

P. Gaskel in his book “Artisans and Machinery” (1836) describes the declension of the numerous class of artisans in Great Britain, as a painful picture “from comfort, morality, independence, and loyalty, to misery, demoralization, dependence, and discontent,”11

Who were the Luddites?

The Royal Forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire , is historically associated with the legend of Can you keep a secret... ? Asked Robin Hood and his band of “Merry the Luddite mortally wounded after men” to understand the extent to the raid.. which the Luddites caught the imagery of the folk the first Yes,Yes I can said the Anglican verse of “The triumph of General Clergyman attending him...

Ludd” is more than enough : So can I replied the Luddite with a smile on his face...

The Luddite in broad terms have remained a mystery... The U.K. National Archives define the Luddites as: English craftsmen and other workers in the northern and Midlands counties who engaged in destroying textile machinery (181113), so called because their manifestos and handbills were sometimes signed 'Ned Ludd' or 'General Ludd'. The introduction and spread of the new textile technology reduced wages and standards of living. Initially the workers had sought government regulation of the new technology; but when it became clear that the

No more chant your old rhymes about old Robin Hood His feats I do little admire I'll sing the achievements of General Ludd Now the hero of Nottingham Shire

The Luddites were most notably weavers, knitters and croppers13 Although Frank Peel in his book “The Rising of the Luddites” on his account of the Luddites of Yorkshire will warn us : “If any of our readers suppose that the Luddites were all cloth finishers or croppers who had been goaded to fury by the rapid introduction of machinery, which threatened to deprive them of the means of earning a livelihood, they will 8

Range Against the Machine find, on investigation, that they are mistaken. That the leaders of the movement in the West Riding(Yorkshire) were chiefly men of that stamp is doubtless quite correct; and that their prime object was the destruction of the obnoxious machines is also true; but there were connected with the risings, numbers of weavers, tailors, shoemakers, and representatives of almost every handicraft, who being, in most instances, on the brink of starvation, entered the conspiracy in sheer desperation”.

be handled by less skilled labour i.e appendices, women and children , along with the reduction of their wages and production of inferior goods eliciting a damaging name for their trade; would in a violent manner wreck the very root of the problem which was non other than the machine- assuming therefore pressure upon the mill owners in an attempt to preserve their wages jobs and trade.

Indeed it is not difficult to imagine the distress that the alleged shift of work must have generated to the people. In the words of the Hammond's14 in “The Skilled Labourer” (1919) we may observe: “The workers felt(...) that the grasp of the new power was closing on them, and they resisted instinctively every change that could hasten that process.

They considered about each invention not whether it meant that a piece of work could be done in one hour instead of ten (...)but whether it brought their final enslavement a day nearer”15

The Luddites were radical skilled artisans who mainly operated in the geographical triangle between Yorkshire(West-Riding),Lancashire and the Midlands (Nottinghamshire).

They are thought to have been named after a certain Ned Ludd who on an occasion had broke machinery in Leicestershire during a “fit of temper”.(Look in subchapter Ned Ludd).

Luddism utilized “industrial warfare” in the form of “collective bargain by riot”17 as the social historian Eric Hobsbawn would put it.

In Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire they operated as a guerrilla force, were as in Lancashire under different circumstances their numbers grew substantially larger and were involved in direct action with large number of riot mobs.

From written accounts we are informed of their weaponry and tactics the Luddites were armed, with clubs, sticks, swords, guns, and pistols.

A number also wielded huge hatchets and blacksmith's hammers, for the purpose of making entry into the places where the frames were kept.

18 “The Luddides were armed in very

So who were these revolutionaries and where did they operate?

Industrialization brought dramatic change into everyday life; change beyond imagination.To the world of Artisans the Industrial Revolution fell like a war or a plague.“Never since the days when populations were sold into slavery did a fate more sweeping overtake a people than the fate that covered the hills and valleys of Lancashire and the West Riding with the factory towns”16. Again in the “Rising of the Luddites” Frank Peel argues that the Luddites were Artisans who when faced with the “obnoxious machinery” which could 9

Range Against the Machine motley fashion : some baring guns, pistols, carrying hedge stakes or stout bludgeons of various kinds, and not a few held on their shoulders huge hammers, mauls, and murderous looking hatchets of various sizes. They were nearly all disguised(...).”19 Samuel smile in his book “Self help” illustrates: "the Neighborhood of Nottingham was the focus of turbulence the machine breakers in regular bodies would gather in nocturnal meetings where they would arrange their plans(...)

All machines were doomed by them to destruction. The masters themselves were doomed to death ; many of them were assaulted, and some were murdered.

At length the law was vigorously set in motion ; numbers of the misguided Luddites were apprehended ; some were executed ; and after several years violent commotion from this cause, the machine-breaking riots were at length quelled."

The Hammond's are clear to state that the distinguishing mark of frame-breaking during 1811-12 was not a wild outburst of popular anger, but rather a well-planned and organized policy; The frames the Luddites were breaking, for the most part belonged to the master hosiers, who in their turn hired them out to workmen. As stocking knitting was mainly a domestic industry , the stockinger would rent the frame from the master and work it in his own shop handing back the product in order for the master to sell. Thus these frames were scattered round the villages making it easier for the Luddites to smash them and disappear. The workmen who hired the frames were not concerned to

defend the property.

master

hosiers

Ned Ludd The interpretation of Luddites name that is given by Encyclopedia Britannica 1911, is that in the village of Leincestershire in 1779 lived a person of “weak intellect” called Ned Lud who was “the butt of the boys” of the village . On one occasion Ludd was pursuing one of his tormentors into a house where there were two stocking frames and as a result of not being able to catch the boy turned his anger to the frames.

Afterwards whenever frames were broken ,it became a commonly say that Ludd had done it.

According to the Nottingham Review the original Ned Ludd, was a boy apprenticed to learn framework knitting at Anstey, near Leicester. Ned apparently was not so fond of working, therefore his master complained to a magistrate, who ordered his whipping. Ned in answer took a hammer and demolished the hated frames.20 Another interpretation coming from Frank Peel says that the names the counter-revolutionaries assumed were "Ludds," "Ludders" and "Luddites" deriving them from a youth named Nedd Ludd who, when his father, a frame-worker in Leicestershire, ordered him to "square his needles," he squarred them effectually by taking up his hammer and beating them into a heap.21 The historic existence of Ned Ludd is rather fictional, and it is alleged it is rather 10

Range Against the Machine supposethat he was a fragment of popular imagination. General or King Ludd of the Luddites, working as a common leader for the cause, but till new evidence surface, his existence will remain a mystery...

References

The Luddite Oath

2 Leeds Magistrate

22

Art thou willing to become a member of our society and submit without demur or Question the commands of General Ludd?

1 A song sang to Frank Peel by an old lady on the defeat of the Luddites at Rafolds Mills.( The Rising of the Luddites 1880 F. Peel)

3 Rephrasing what the Hammond wrote in the introduction of their book “The skilled Labourer” nearly 100 years ago.

I am.

4 Mary Shelly was daughter of William Godwin the modern Then say after me... proponent of philosophical anarchism and Mary Wollstonecraft renowned feminist of the time.

'I ... of my own voluntary will, Her husband was the major English do declare, and solemnly swear, Romantic Poet Percy Bysshe Shelley that I never will reveal to any person or persons under the canopy 5 Ibid (pg 5) of heaven, the names of the persons who compose thisSecret 6 "The Story of Manual Labor in Committee, their proceedings, all Lands and Ages" Simonds John meeting, places of abode, dress, Cameron Mc Ennis JohnT (p 579) features, connections, or any thing else that might lead to a 7 Ibid (pg 580) discovery of the same, either by word or deed, or sign, under 8 Its is said that it was due to thepenalty of being sent out of the love for his wife, who the world by the first brother who ignored him as she would be shall meet me, and my name and concentrated with her knitting character blotted out of craft. That William Lee would be existence, and never to be create the first knitting machine. remembered but with contempt andabhorrence ; and I furthe- now 9 In 1663 Charles II. granted a do swear, that I will use my best charter to an incorporation of endeavours to punish by death any "several persons by the name of traitor or traitors, should he master warden, assistants and rise up amongst us, wherever I can society, of the art and mystery find him or them, and thoughhe of framework knitters of the should fly to the verge of nature, cities of London and Westminster, I will pursue him with increasing the Kingdom of England and vengeance. So help me God, and Dominion of Wales, forever, with bless me to keep this my oath power to exercise their 23 inviolable.” jurisdiction throughout England and Wales, and, from time to

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Range Against the Machine time, to make by-laws for the regulation of the said business of framework-knitting, and to punish persons who should offend against such by-laws."

Ibid Simonds /Mc Ennis (pg 608)

evidence on the actions of the Luddites was their oath of silence 23 Ibid Peel Hammonds 275

(pg

22),Ibid

10 "The skilled Worked" 1919 J. L. (John Lawrence) and Barbara Hammond. Hammond (pg3) 11 "Artisans and Machinery" (1836) P. Gaskel 12 The frame-breakers called themselves Luddites, and signed their proclamations Ned Ludd, sometimes adding Sherwood Forest.

Ibid Hammonds (pg 259) 13 Weaving and knitting were two different techniques of producing fabric from yarn. Croppers, also called finishers or shearmen were responsible for the last process of fabric production (raising and shearing the Nap) were the third dynamic group of radicals that were active in that period.

Pic 1 Luddite Riot Map Mechanization and Society: The Luddite Riots (1811-1816)

14 J. L. (John Lawrence) and Barbara Hammond.

British journalist and writer on social history and politics.

15 Ibid (pg 4) 16 Ibid (pg 4) 17 Phrase coined by Eric John Ernest Hobsbawm Social Historian.

18 Ibid Peel (pg12) 19 Ibid (pg 37) 20 Ibid Hammond (pg 259) 21 Ibid

Peel (pg12)

22 One of the reasons of the Pic 2. Reward poster published 1811

difficulty

to

find

plethora

of 12

Range Against the Machine

Pic 3. Wensley Dale knitters.

Pic 4. Woman Spinning

Pic 5. The cloth hall 1814

Pic 5. Cloth makers

Pic 6. The Cloth-dresser 1813 George Walker

Pic 7. Factory Children 1814 George Walker .

Photos obtained by the New York Public Library

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Range Against the Machine

Pic 8. The Luddites on march

Pic 9. The Luddites smashing the hated machines

Pic 11. The Murder of William Horesfall

Pic 10. The Leader of the "Luddites General Ludd"

Pic 12. The famous Enochs

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Range Against the Machine

Pic 14 The Stocking frame

Pic 13 Hand-Loom Weaver

Pic 15 Shearmen -croppers working

Pic 16 The shearing machine which automated the process of cropping the

Pic 18 A ball of yarn

Pic 17 The gig-mill which automated the tedious process of raising the nap on a

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Range Against the Machine

ACTIONS OF THE LUDDITES The first threatening letters of “General Ludd and his army of Redressers” were sent to hosiery employers in Nottingham in the early months of 1811. Robert Chamber's in his “Book of days” classifies march 11th as a “black-letter day in the annals of Nottingshamshire” and compares it with “no parallel in the history of a civilized country”. This is because it was the day that the beginning of the Luddite riots started.

The Luddites Midlands

of

the

On 11th of March the framework knitters of Notinghamshire demonstrated their disapproval against the production of cut-ups (inferior quality stockings)which as they said “worsened their trade” and in a violent forceful reaction destroyed the “obnoxious machinery” responsible for their production.

After an unsuccessful meeting that had taken place between the hosiers and stockingers; the framework knitters gathered at the marketplace and “resolved to take vengeance” upon the hosiery employers who had reduced their wages. Presence of the military prevented any violence in the town, but at night sixty-three frames were broken at Arnold, a village four miles north of Nottingham1. This is the event that marks the beginning of what has became to be known as the "Luddite riots". In a period of three weeks over 200 frames were destroyed(!)

In their campaign against ' cutups'the men had the support of many far-sighted employers. As the Hammond's explain: “The worthless cut-up stockings were glutting still further an over-stocked market, and as continental trade was at a standstill, the hosiersonly expedient was to force 17

a demand by cheapening production. Wages went down and grievances of payment in truck became acute.

Thus the men's anger was directed against 'cutups' not only as evils in themselves but as exercising an evil influence over the whole trade".

Military troops arrived in early April to quell the disturbances and special constables were enrolled by the Nottingham authorities to protect the Frames: “In consequence of the continuance of these daring outrages, a large military force was brought into the neighborhood, and two of the London police magistrates, with several other officers, came to Nottingham”2 In vain since the fever of a uprising had already struck the Midlands.

Bands of rioters were breaking into hosiery shops at night destroying machinery elaborating in a unusual Industrial Warfare conflict.The machines were of very “delicate construction” therefore a “single blow” of a hammer rendered them useless3.This was a very carefully planed policy. The frames or the most part belonged to the master hosiers, who hired them out to

Range Against the Machine

their workmen, charging a frame rent.

The wide frames were scattered around the smaller shops of the villages. Therefore the owners of the frames rushed to remove them from the villages and lone dwellings of the country, and brought them into warehouses of the towns for their better protection.

The magistrates would publish letters one of which would state: "There is an outrageous spirit of tumult and riot, houses are broken into by armed men, many stocking-frames are destroyed, the lives of opposers are threatened, arms are seized, stacks are fired, and private property destroyed, contributions are levied under the name of After the first weeks of these charity, but under the real 5 events there was a cessation till influence of terror". the 4th of November. Then -the campaign- started again with the This warning towards the central destruction of frames at Arnold, government had no effect in Bulwell, Basford, and other checking the outrages.

In the villages.

The destruction last week of November, forty-five continued throughout the whole of frames, chiefly making cut-ups, November in Nottinghamshire. were broken at Basford, and others at Nottingham, Chilwell, “On Sunday night, November 10th, a Cossall, Eastwood, Heanor and party of Luddites proceeded to the Arnold. Twenty more frames were village of Bulwell, in open day to destroyed the following week, and break and to destroy the frames of the minds of the people inflamed Mr. Rollingworth, who, in plundered farmhouses of anticipation of their visit, had provisions and money and the men procured the assistance of three declared "they would not starve or four friends, who with firearms while there was plenty in the resolved to protect the property. land."6 Many shots were fired, and one of the assailants, John Woolley, of On December the 6th, 1811 the Arnold, was mortally wounded, magistrates published an edict, which so enraged the mob that they which ordered all people in the soon forced an entrance(...)the disturbed districts to remain in rioters not only destroyed the their houses after ten o'clock at frames, but every article of night. All public-houses were to 4 furniture in the house.” be closed at the same time, and a reinforcement of a great civil “John Woolley's funeral on and military force was sent as November 14 was made the occasion well, thirty-six frames were for an orderly and impressive broken in the villages around demonstration of popular feeling”. Nottingham within the six The next day a waggonload of following days.By December 9, frames again near Arnold was about 2000 soldiers had already seized and destroyed as well as been sent to the Midlands.

From thirty-seven frames in Sutton-in- 800 to 900 cavalry and 1000 Ashfield. The frame breaking would infantry of the Regular Militia continue in regular intervals... were present into the disturbed districts, the frame-breaking was still continued.7 18

Range Against the Machine

In December 1811 public negotiations went on between the framework knitters and their employers, the hosiers.8 Although no formal agreement was reached, some hosiers found it expedient to abandon cut-ups and to pay higher wages...9 Frame breaking continued in the Midlands counties of Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, and Leicestershire through the winter and early spring of 1812.10 The case of the attempted assassination of hosier Mr. William Trentha, which took place in April 1812, should also be mentioned as an exception in the policy of the Midland Luddites solely attacking machines. After all the disturbances had stopped Mr. Trentham was attacked outside his house and wounded.

In the of West Riding of Yorkshire factory owners and cloth merchants were targets of the croppers the most lethal and daring group of Luddites namely the men of "General Snipshears " From January 1812 Luddite attacks in Yorkshire concentrated on small cropping shops and large mills where shearing frames were used. Frank Peel says that â&#x20AC;&#x153;The croppers had the reputation at this time of being a wild and reckless body of men ; and the desperate deeds of which some of them were afterwards found guilty seems to show that the accusation had, at any rate, a good foundation of truthâ&#x20AC;?

As Samuel Smiles describes the events:"In Yorkshire and Lancashire mills were boldly attacked by armed rioters,and in many cases they were wrecked or burnt; so that it be came necessary to guard them by West Riding and soldiers and yeomanry.

The Lancashire Luddites masters themselves were doomed to death; many of them were Just as things have seemed to be assaulted, and some were 11 calming down in the Nottingham murdered". area, new disturbances erupted in Lancashire, and its surroundings Machine-breaking had been made a Cheshire, and Flintshire as well capital offense since 1721; In as in the West Riding of February 1812 an Act of Yorkshire. Machinery in Manchester Parliament was passed, called the was housed in large factories Frame-Breaking Act making contrary to Nottingham where the stocking or a lace frame breaking knitting frames were scattered punished via death. Furthermore around the smaller shops of the 12.000 troops were dispatched villages.

The attacks that into the areas where the Luddites occurred in Lancashire were were active, (an armed force that carried out by large crowds of far exceeded the army which people and there was no space for Wellington took into Peninsula in warning letters; the people being 1808). On February 27, 1812 in rather direct and straightforward House of Lords, Lord Byron rose in their actions and intentions. and gave a passionate speech in defense of the Luddites , in vain the framework-bill was passed.

19

Range Against the Machine

On the 20th March 1812 the warehouse of William Radcliffe12 (one of the first manufacturers to use power looms) was attacked in Stockport near Manchester in Lancashire. On the 4th of April again in Stockport the house of Mr. Goodwin was set on fire, and his steam looms were destroyed.

the cloth market .

Some days later another local mill owner named William Horsfall seems to have said that the rioters were cowards and that if it would be that they would meet “he would ride up to his saddle girths in Luddite blood”, his hostility was so well known that children would tease him by running in front of his horse, calling out ' I 'm General Ludd.'... I 'm General Ludd.' Nonetheless the Luddites took up the invitation and shot him dead on the public road seven miles from Huddersfield, on Crossland on his returning from

“On Monday, 20th of April (market day), there were food riots, not only in Manchester and Bolton, but also in Ashton and Oldham and all along the part of Cheshire northeast of Stockport that lies between Lancashire and Derby. In all these places mobs seized provision carts, and in some cases broke open shops and appropriated food with or without payment. At Tintwistle on April 21, after selling flour, meal, bacon, and groceries at what they considered a fair price, they destroyed some of the machinery

By mid-April, violence was ranging. The government now saw the disturbances which broke out early in 1812, in Cheshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire, as proof that the working classes were meditating not only the destruction of machinery but a On the 11th April 1812 the general revolution.13 Luddites made one of their most crucial attacks.

William Lancashire Cartwright's Mill at Rawfolds near Huddersfield of Yorkshire was The definite movement against stormed.

Cartwright who had steam looms began in Stockport, suspected such an incident was the place where they were most in prepared and with the support of use. Although they were not found armed men held the attack yet in many factories, the hard resulting to the death of two pressed hand-weavers saw in these Luddites. The following week an machines a new menace to their assassination attempt was made on livelihood and a new cause of Cartwright's life. Cartwright had their misery.

Regardless the been using cloth finishing secret comities that were active machinery since 1811.

Local in that period (1812)at croppers began to lose their jobs Stockport, Manchester, and Bolton and decided to destroy destruction of machinery did not Cartwright's machinery. The attack take place all through March, was led by George Mellor a young except for an attempt to burn cropper from Huddersfield. Who was William Radcliffe's factory in later trialled and hung for his Stockport on March 20, where actions. Charlotte Brontë in her torches were thrown into the novel "Shirley" published 1849 has building, but the owner was able immortalized the event. to save it from destruction.14

20

Range Against the Machine

in Rhodes' woollen cloth mill, and When the military arrived the mob also in some cotton mills.”15 received with shots, resulting the soldiers opening fire, Following the food riot of Oldham; killing or wounding (not clear) Burton's Mill was attacked by the about six.” 18 Luddites. Burton knowing that the introduction of powerlooms would have caused such problems employed Yorkshire armed guards and as a result upon the attack, 5 men were killed on The Luddite disturbances in the side of the Luddites. The next Yorkshire were parallel to those day after a second failure to in Lancashire, but they lasted break in the mill; Burtons house longer into the summer of 1812 , was burned down instead. After the and the trials took place during military arrived on the scene January 1813. The scene of the another seven men at least were disturbances was within the killed in the clashes. woollen district of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and in the “The manufactory of Mr. Burton beginning it was said to be the was attacked, and although the work of a small band of -highly rioters were then repulsed and organizedworkmen aiming for five of their number killed by the the destruction of shearing military force assembled to frames. protect the works, a second attack was made two days afterwards, and The men began destroying the Mr. Burton's house was burnt shearing frames of small shops in before military assistance could the Huddersfield district in the be brought to the spot. When later part of February 1812. troops arrived they were fired ' G e n e r a l S n i p s h e a r s ' and his 16 upon by the rioters.”

“When the men, would send a warning letter, crowd arrived at the factory Mr. to the owner of the frames asking Burton warned them, ' if you dare him to take them down; full to attack this factory I will destruction not only of his resist with force of arms.' They frames but the of the entire continued to throw stones and to premises would find him who would use clubs, and Burton and his not comply with the guilds servants fired from the factory. terms...

Five rioters were killed and eighteen wounded, and the mob Since troops to further protect retired with imprecations, vowing the region failed to be sent, that they would burn down Burton's machine breaking continued and dwelling house as a punishment for grew now not only attacking the what they considered as a cold- small shops but expanding their blooded murder.”17 vengeance to the larger establishments.

With their “The next day, a mob about two Enoch's , (big hammers) the hundred strong, chiefly consisting Yorkshire Luddites continued of local miners, with fowling- “their work of destruction” pieces(16th-century European Ironically enough the firm of firearms) and picks, reappeared Enoch, James Taylor, Marsden, and set fire to Burtons house. from Leeds manufactured not only 21

Range Against the Machine

the shearing frames that the mill, reaching their destination Luddites hated so ; but the more than half an hour after sledgehammers that guaranteed the midnight. Another team from Leeds shearing frames destruction as was expected to meet them before well ! their arrival but they never made it, turning back home when they A barrage of sabotage was carried had heard the first shots fired.19 out by the croppers during the spring months of 1812 . On March Two young men were shot by 15, at Taylor Hill near Cartwright's firing squads Huddersfield Mr. Vickerman's Hartley and Booth, died after establishment was attacked ten some hours: frames and thirty pairs of shears were broken.

On March 24, By six in the morning Booth's Thompson's mill at Rawdon near agony drew to an end ; as ' he Leeds was attacked and the lay at the point of death he machinery destroyed ; the next day signaled to Mr. Roberson, who 25th of March, Mr Dickinson's instantly went to his side. premises in Leeds were forcedentered and cloths were cut to Can you keep a secret ? ' gasped pieces.

Mr. Joseph Foster, the dying man. proprietor of a big mill at I can,' eagerly replied the Horbury, also saw his shearing expectant clergyman. frames destroyed on April the 9; So can I,' replied poor Booth, and two nights after the Horbury and soon after calmly expired.' affair, on Saturday, April 11, 1812, occurred the attack on Hartley,death fighting all William Cartwright's mill at through Sunday, died at 3 o'clock Rawfolds in Liversedge. on Monday morning.

No word .20 Cartwright, whose two waggon loads passing his lips either of frames had been broken up on the Hartshead Moor shortly before Hartley was buried at Halifax on that time, was expecting an the Wednesday amidst an immense attack,t hus for six weeks before concourse of people from all April 11 he had slept in his mill sides.The Magistrates in their for every night. panic arranged Booth's funeral earlier that had been planed On the night on the attack avoiding this way possible contingents from Halifax, conflicts banning the people to Huddersfield, Liversedge, pay the last honours.

Heckmondwike, Gomersal, Birstall, Cleckheaton, and other places, ' V e n g e a n c e f o r t h e B l o o d o f (about 150), met about three miles t h e I n n o c e n t ' was chalked upon from the mill, between 10 and 11 many doors the next days.. At it o'clock.

They were armed with was no Lie... guns, pistols, stakes, hammers,and whatever else would come in handy As Cartwright was on his way home After that the separated into a week later, on Saturday, April smaller fractions of musket men or 18, riding back from pistol men or hatchet men and they Huddersfield where he had went to marched like a regular army to the give evidence at the court22

Range Against the Machine

martial on a soldier who had refused to fire. (the man was sentenced to three hundred lashes) he was fired at by two men, both of then missed their aim.21 But this was only the beginning...

Just after the Rawfolds mill affair, alarm was created by a food riot at Sheffield on April 14, in which a mob, composed mainly of women and boys, seized potatoes and other vegetables and attacked the storehouse of local militia arms, taking away seventyeight stands of arms out of 864, and damaging some!? 200 more!

On April 28, ten days later,after Cartwright's attempt of assassination William Horsfall was shot by four men as he rode home from Huddersfield market, and died about two days later.

The “leading spirit” amongst the executors was George Mellor, a friend of the late John Booth, prominent member among the revolutionists seems to have challenged the the new strategy “leave the machines and kill the m a s t e r s” .

Despite the generous reward that was offered all kept silent on the affair of the murdering despite that probably the majority knew or had suspected who had done it. When no result came from the investigations; the authorities began to blame each other; the magistrates and military the same.

At this chronic period the cause would "catch fire" the concentration of the Luddites would be the gathering of ammunition as if they were planning their great attack.

T h e r e v i v a l o f the w a r o f t h e craft guilds against the merchant guilds and the g o v e r n m e n t . Governmental forces of a estimated total over 12000 soldiers along with the “voluntary local militia” and a network of spies and informants were dispatched between the brave men. This would not discourage the Luddites instead now they would plunder the churches for lead and break into houses for guns and ammunition seizing everything they could melt in order to make bullets.

In Stockport it was said that “bodies of 100 men and upwards entered houses in search of weapons night after night.In West Riding reports delivered to the central government indications spoke of an “open rebellion” atmosphere within the air . Even more alarming messages from spies were warning of a “overthrow of the government and destruction of all property.”

Nevertheless for better or for worst none of this happened instead the government gave its a response with and extensive “come back” instituting arrests trials and heavy punishment leading to death or transportation for the protagonists .

In 1816 a revival of violence partly again due to the downturn on trade and partly due to the bad harvest of that year; the Luddites were reactivated and attacked Heathcote and Boden's mill in Loughborough, smashing 53 frames. On 28 June 1816 .Troops were used to end the riots and , six men were executed and another three were again transported to Australia .

23

Range Against the Machine

By 1817 the ceased to Britain.What ?

No one weaponry you

Luddite movement had be active in really became of them knows their hidden see was never found...

The trials The death penalty did not, apply to the frame-breakers of Nottinghamshire which were in custody awaiting the March Assizes, since the Frame Breaking Act was passed after their arrest.

The Assizes took place before Mr. Justice Bayley in March.

Nine prisoners were trialed ; two were acquitted (one of them of sending a threatening letter), and the remaining seven were sentenced to be transported for either seven or fourteen years to Australia.

William Carnell, aged twenty two, and Joseph Maples, aged sixteen, who were both acquitted on the charge of burglary, had been sentenced to fourteen years' transportation for breaking into a house in company with a party of twelve and destroying seven frames.

Late in October, six months after Horsfall's death, his murderers were apprehended.

Early in December some more arrests were made : Job Hey, John Hill, and William Hartley for stealing arms in August ; James Hey, Joseph Crowther, and Nathan Hoyle for demanding firearms as late as November 29.

By march 1812 all disturbances in Lancashire and Cheshire had now ended, and the numbers of the rioters which were in prison,were awaiting their trial.For the food riots at Manchester, eight persons were triald, six men, two women:

four were acquitted and four were found guilty and received the death sentence.

Of the four condemned, three John Howarth, John Lee, and Thomas Hoyle were found guilty of breaking into John Holland's house and stealing bread, cheese, and potatoes.

The fourth, Hannah Smith, a woman of fifty-four, had played a violent part in the food riots according to the accounts “ When the mob had seized ten bushels of potatoes in order to sell them for a fairer price Hannah Smith was heard to say, ' damn them we will have them for nothing,' and was also accuse of threatening that ' we will not be satisfied with Potatoes,' therefore but demanding fairer prices for milk and butter as well.

The rioters at Burton's at Middleton, were charged with arson. But the Manchester rioters six men were trield for setting fire to Burton's house and were found guilty. Again for arson in the successful attack on the West Houghton factory, thirteen prisoners were triald nine men, two boys of fifteen and sixteen, and two were girls of fifteen and nineteen. The ' tender sex ' of the two girls, Mary and Lydia Molyneux, saved them from death as they had played an active part in the attack “with Muck Hooks and Coal Picks in their Hands breaking the Windows of the Building they were swearing and cursing the souls of those that worked in the Factory.”

John Brownlow, the boy of fifteen, was saved by his mother, whom two witnesses described as having pulled him away against his will.

24

Range Against the Machine

The four who were found guilty were condemned to death. Their names were Job Fletcher, Thomas Kerfoot, James Smith, and Abraham Charlson, aged sixteen .Abraham Charlson the boy at the time of his execution it is said that he called on his mother for help thinking she had the power to save him.

Thursday was spent over the trial of John Schofield for shooting at John Hinchcliffe.

Friday's sitting of the court was taken up with charges of administering illegal oaths.

The trial of eight prisoners for the attack on Cartwright's mill was taken on Saturday, and lasted the whole day. All the prisoners were croppers of good character, in the prime of life. Cartwright and the others in the mill were unable to identify any of the assailants, but they were betrayed by other accomplices, helped by a few shreds of corroborative evidence.Five of the prisoners were found guilty and three acquitted.

For the fourth category of offenses, namely illegal oaths, fifteen men and boys were sentenced to seven years' transportation. Two more men were sentenced to seven years' transportation for breaking into a mill at Worsley, and stealing grain and flour, and six women and girls and one man received the punishment of six months imprisonment for rioting at Middleton(it is nor sure) . â&#x20AC;&#x153;Society ought not to exist, if not for the benefit of the whole.

It is and must be against the law The Special Commission opened at of nature, if it exists for the York on Saturday, January 2, 1818. benefit of the few and for the 6 The Judges were Mr. Baron misery of the many. I say, then, Thomson and Mr. Justice Le Blanc, distinctly, that a society, in both of whom had already had been which the common labourer . . . present at the Lancaster trials. cannot secure a sufficiency of food and raiment, is a society The first trial was of four men, which ought not to exist; a Swallow, Batley, Fisher, and Lumb, society contrary to the law of members of a plundering gang, . nature; a societywhose compact is All four were found guilty. Next dissolved.22 day, Wednesday, came the trial of George Mellor, William Thorpe, and Thomas Smith for William Cobbert t h e m u r d e r o f H o r s f a l l, which was evidenced by one their fellow murderer, Benjamin Walker New evidence though that have surfaces contradict this (Huddersfield Daily Examiner Jan 8 2009 "Why the Luddites Fought Change").

All three were found condemned to death.

guilty

and

25

Range Against the Machine

References: 1 "The Chambers

book

of

Days"

Robert 18 Ibid 19 Ibid (pg. 304)

2 ibid 20 Ibid (pg. 307) 3 "Self Help"(1908) Samuel Smiles (pg. 75,76) 21Ibid (pg.308) 4 Ibid Chambers

22 Political September 1819

5 "History of the Machine-Wrought Hosiery and lace Manufacturers" (1867) Felkin William (pg.233) 6 Ibid Felkin (pg. 235) 7 "The Skilled Labourer" (1919) J. L. (John Lawrence) and Barbara Hammond (pg. 262) 8 Writings of the Luddites Kevin Binfield (pg. 15,16) 9 Lecture 15 "Mechanization and SocietyThe Luddite Riots (18111816)" Department of History University of California, Dr. Barbara J. Becker 10 Binfield, Kevin. Luddites and Luddism: History, Texts Interpretation.

11Ibid Smiles (pg. 75,76) 12 Radcliffe wrote the essay â&#x20AC;&#x153;Origin of the New System of Manufacture, Commonly Called Power loom Weaving.â&#x20AC;? (1828) 13Ibid Hammond (pg. 271) 14 Ibid (pg. 273) 15 Ibid

(pg.288)

16 Ibid

(pg. 271)

17 I bid (pg. 289) 26

Register,

11

Masking and Archaic Justice

Masking and Archaic Justice.

Norman Simms in his Article: "Ned Lud's Mummers Play" (1978) examines the Luddite rebellion from a folklore point of view catching more on the rather "mythical" figure of Ned Ludd.

Simms interestingly calls upon archaic values such as “the juridical nature of justice” utterly comparing it with the Luddite activities, who sought revenge swearing on this ancient understanding of justice which lies altogether within the forces of nature itself .Such notions of the juridical nature of justice find way in the expressions of all countries and cultures in all times .

Observant of the details and tactics in which the Luddite revolutionaries were engaged Simms derives information from various sources, pointing out the use of masks, disguises, special calls, and other activities perfectly connecting these findings with past popular satires and folk theatrical plays (such as the “Mummers play”1)which thoroughly communicated either by chant or by mock provocative messages to their victims therefore an producing an “utter form of violence.”

If one wishes to infiltrate within the notional value of “ a r c h a i c j u s t i c e” he/she should not keep his/her mind nailed down to the bounding limits of westerns society's modern evolution.

(Modern civilization is more or less merely 100 years old therefore such is our genetic experience as well).

Folk tradition is a very strong element 27

in human nature and if one removes his/her "blinds" he will be able recognize it, within today's society as well.

The question of the " J u r i d i c a l right to v i o l e n c e2 within traditional communities” is the second of archaic values that Simms examines within the context of the Luddite rebellion, or of rebellion itself if one wants to extend the problem to further thinking.

Simms categorizes the keepers of these rights, separated in two sides. On one side stand the established authorities which “external and a l i e n ” to the traditional societies have imposed their power upon the people i.e the squire, the parson, the magistrate, the school teacher, and the tax collector.On the other side stand the “traditional agents of the village community's archaic power” i.e. certain families or clans which were traditionally associated with rights of access to common lands, streams and pathways, or craft fraternities who had their their families and “ c r a f t m y s t e r i e s” to protect; ultimately individuals whose personalities were suited to represent the common sense of justice.

The seconds group entitlement to “archaic j u s t i c e” may irrevocably be demonstrated through words, acts and symbols which are kept secret since they are not part of the alienestablished authority.

Thus naturally comes the need for disguise.

Masking and Archaic Justice

The disguise of the person as well as the act becomes only stronger when the victim does not accept retributive justice; this secrecy especially needed when the victims are part of the dominant power system that has been imposed on to the community.

Thus comes the conclusion that during the Luddite uprisings , the followers of Ned Ludd a.k.a. the army of redressers disguised themselves as strangers partly to avoid detection by the magistrates and partly to appear as the “impersonal forces of archaic j u s t i c e” they sought of getting rid of the polluting object that poisoned their community thus punishing with action of violence the property owners who refused to recognize the juridical integrity of the craft-villages.

References : 1.Mummers' Plays in English tradition (also known as mumming) are seasonal folk plays performed by troupes of actors known as mummers or guisers (or by local names such as rhymers, paceeggers, soulers, tipteerers, galoshins, guysers, and so on.)Such forms of play exist in almost all cultures.Existing as a need of the folk to criticize the wrong doings of the established authority.

2.Verbal violence is also considered a form of Violence.

This form of violence has been is exercised within traditional communities in the form of satire since ancient times. Humiliation by mocking chants or jostling on the street during folk-plays are common ,minor forms of folk violence.

28

3.Norman Simms is Associate professor at the Department of Humanities/English, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand he refers to himself as s psychohistorian his main research interests being Middle English and Eighteenth-Century literature, especially origins of the novel, history of mentalities, and Jewish civilization. He is a poet and reviewer and has compiled several anthologies and written numerous scholarly articles and monographs. The examined article was written as early as 1978 titled ‘Ned Ludd's Mummers’ Play’, Folklore, 89 , (pg 166-178)

Underground Movements

UNDERGROUND MOVEMENTS When it comes to underground movements there is always a charming aura which surrounds them. In this first issue of >>the bombilla<< we will introduce a underground organization that is active as we speak… The name of the group is >> La Mexicaine De Perforation << and although we do not hold any ties with them we are indeed impressed by their executing capacity and style. If we were to give a general idea of the group’s activities we could talk of people's gathering dedicated educational deeds ! Their actions actually speak for themselves...but what do we actually know about them? Their turf so long is the city of Paris...

Paris except for its alleged reputation as the “City of Light” is also famous for its underground facilities we are of course talking of the “carrières de Paris” or "quarries of Paris" a number of underground mines that were formed during the stone quarrying that was needed to built the city . They are situated just under the capital of France. Mines and galleries that are connect to each other running more or less for 280 kilometers underground.

During the 18th century, the then growth of the Paris population resulted in the saturation of the existing cemeteries. Towards the end of the 18th century, a limited part of the above mentioned network was used as an underground ossuary for the remains of approximately six million Parisian citizens.

47

Reading from the official website of the "Ossuaire Municipal" we are informed that the removal of the bones began on April 7, 1786 and was continued until 1788, as well as the fact that from the day of their creation, the Catacombs were a subject of acute curiosity. Historic figures who had visited them among others included: In 1787, Lord of d' Artois, who would later become Charles X, went for an underground tour in company of ladies from the Court.The following year, the visit of Madam de Polignac and Madam de Guiche is mentioned . In 1814, François 1st, emperor of Austria, residing as a winner in Paris visited them as well. In 1860, Napoleon III went down under together with his son.

Popular culture has also immortilized the Paris underground... who hasn't read of inspector Javert and Jean Valjean's escape through the sewers in the set of “Les miserables” of Victor Hugo.

Nevertheless to this day public tours are possible on a daily basis and about two kilometres of the passages are open to the public the rest are strictly prohibited...

Which brings us to our subject: on August 23rd of 2004 the Paris police discovered a fully equipped cinema-cum-restaurant (!) in a large and previously uncharted underground cavern.

Les Arènes de Chaillot or "The Chaillot Arenas"

Underground Movements

Featuring a full-sized cinema screen, projection equipment, tapes of a wide variety of films, (including 1950s film noir classics and recent thrillers) as well as an informal restaurant and bar(!)

The premises enjoyed a professionally installed electricity system at least three phone lines and a closed-circuit TV camera that even triggered a tape of dogs barking!!! for the unwanted visitors intimidation.

Amazing indeed.

But there is more ... Since it is popular amongst daredevils to occasionally stroll within the capacity of quarries, this has led to the formation of a special police force responsible to keep away the catafiles by frequently patrolling the Paris underground.

It was this team that in one of their patrols came upon the site beneath the Palais de Chaillot, across the Seine from the Eiffel Tower.When the Police came back after 3 days with officials of the French electricity company they found a note warning them : “Do not try to find us”

of the river Seine. All through the summer of 2004, La Mexicaine De Perforation managed their cinema screening dozens of movies in the namely “Urbex Movies festival”.You can even find the Movie program of the festival at Urban-Resources an information bank devoted to photography, architecture, industrial archeology and urban exploration.

The news soon hit the big mainstream publishing houses i.e National Geographic featured an article named “Paris's Urban Underground” as well as others in the “The Guardian” and “La Liberation”.

Whats really interesting is that the "The Perforating Mexicans" are just part of a bigger group of activists called "The UX" or in their native language “Les UX”.Amongs their known subgroups ones are the "The Mouse House" (an all-female team) and the "Undergunther"

The Untergunther as mentioned above a subgroup of “les UX” consists between others of architects and historians.They achieved noteworthy attention for a project they completed something more than 2.5 years ago.

The Untergunther's activities attain amongst others restoring blemished monuments, without permission !

In other words they do what the government or officials don't do or don't care to do... self initiation they call it.

The City of Paris indeed is well known for its hundreds of kilometers of underground quarries. Moreover, for numerous Urban Explorers all over the world, Paris is the “Mecca of Urban Exploration” and what the French police discovered on august 23rd 2004 is the proof of the capacity of the movement.The band of Urban Explorers known as >>La Mexicaine De Perforation<<(The Perforating Mexicans) built an entire cinema under the Chaillot Hill,situated just few meters from Lets see the Eiffel tower on the other bank achievements:

48

some

of

their

Underground Movements

In September 2005, the Untergunther installed a workshop, called UGWK, at the top of the Pantheon (a building in the Latin Quarter in Paris build in the late 18th Century) , which as they inform us was previously used as a clandestine theater by the >>La Mexicaine De Perforation<<.

Then, on their own funding, they restored the 19th-century Wagner Pic 1: Paris Catacombs. clock a timepiece that had been working for over a century and as they suggest someone apparently tired of its weekly winding sabotaged its gears during the 1960. The group invited JeanBaptiste Viot , a professional clockmaker, to directed a â&#x20AC;&#x153;year long aesthetic and mechanical restoration processâ&#x20AC;?. The rest of the story pretty much involves a little bit of everything a second Pic 2: Underground Theatre attempt of sabotage from the CMN (the governmental department in charge of the administration of Pantheon ) in fear of humiliation as well as pressing changes against the Untergunther group which resulted to involvement of the mainstream press most notably the Times and a trial which took place on November of 2007 and which outcome result was the drop of all charges...

Navigate yourself to their website and you will find more details on their achievements, documented evidence read their story; articles; contact them and even watch a video performing Live!

Sources: http://ugwk.org/ http://www.urban-resources.net

Pic 3 : Map of the Catacombs of Paris

49

Olympic Flame

The Secret Story of the Olympic Flame Light and Symbolism

"The Olympic Games are a festival of pleasure and optimism. They call together the youth of the entire world. I am convinced that these young people will be the best exponents of understanding and peaceful cooperation between nations. The spirit of sportsmanship is the spirit of chivalry and respect for achievement. Honourable nations respecting one another mutually are the strongest guarantee of peaceful cooperation" Dr. Frick Reich Minister of the Interior.

“The most significant and striking of the ceremonial aspects connected with the Olympic Games is the Olympic Fire. Ignited during the opening ceremony, it burns day and night at the Olympic Stadium and other scenes of competition during the period of the Games” Official report of the 11th Olympic Games “The torch relay is so ingrained in the modern choreography that most people today assume it was a revival of a pagan tradition, unaware that it was actually concocted for Hitler’s Games in Berlin,” Tony Perrottet, “The Naked Olympics.”

In the ruins of the Temple of Hera, in Olympia 14 virgin priestesses dressed in white robes, under the supervision of a fifteenth High priestess plea to Apollo god of sun and light to ignite the “sacred” flame: " A p o l l o g o d o f t h e S u n a nd t h e i d e a o f l i g h t , se nd y o u r ra y s a nd l i g h t t h e s a c re d t o rc h fo r t h e h o sp i t a b l e c i t y o f B e rl i n" Th Olympic flame of the Modern Olympic Games was born on the site of the Ancient Games in Olympia Greece.

The technique was accordingly to the ancient Greek “tradition”, focusing the rays of the Sun in a specially designed concave mirror. This Neo-Pagan ceremony would continue to take place for the years to come on the same ground and with the same ritual; only to survive and to emerge into the envious-globally recognised saluted event.

The Olympic Torch Relay without doubt is one of the most recognisable symbols of the Olympic Games, the top athletic event of the world.

Olympic Flame

The Olympic Flame today, is considered a symbol of “Peace and Brotherhood” between nations and countries and the Olympic Torch relay is a highly noble event which most people consider a honour to participate in; an indispensable feature and characteristic of the Olympic Games.What is less known is that this ceremony was an initiated by the Nazi propaganda machine and the motives behind its creation were nothing else but innocent (!).

On the 20th of July 1936, an actress featuring the High priestess of Apollo the Greek Olympian Sun God, in the ruins of Ancient Olympia, lit the first Olympic torch; causing its ignition by placing it inside a burnished-steel concave mirror, thus concentrating the rays of the sun to create fire.

The "sacred fire" would begin its journey passing its flame from hand to hand, traveling thousands of miles on foot, on a continuous journey.

Day and Night, only designated to reach remote Berlin in a ceremony which commemorated and celebrated the Power of the Reich.

Nevertheless the torch relay would symbolically serve yet another purpose… >>Perfect Conceptualism<< creating a link between the ancient and the Modern, Olympia and Berlin, Ancient Greek Civilization and the newborn Pan-Germanic Nation; Ancient Greece believed to have been an Aryan forerunner of the Modern German Reich; all melding perfectly with the notions of Aryan racial superiority.

In the following article on the Olympic flame and torch relay we will convey first hand-authentic information as well as picturesque representations and rare photographic documentation of the pioneer event which was destined to mark the Course of Olympic Games once and for all.

We will begin our journey in the time capsule of the bombilla delivering information coming directly from the official reports of the 11th Olympic Games.

A report which is conducted every 4 years and exists for all the Olympiads to date. Most information is apposed verbatim to your disposal as further comments were considered not necessary at all...Enjoy : “The Olympic torch relay run began at noon on July 20th in Olympia, where the sacred fire was ignited by Greek maidens on the threshold of the ancient Stadium and carried through the Altis to the altar at the foot of the Kronos. Here, at a special “stele” erected in honour of Coubertin, the first runner ignited his torch and departed.

This ceremony was broadcast to the whole world, (…) From this time on, hourly reports about the progress of the relay run arrived at the Headquarters of the Organizing Committee, and as the Olympic flame neared its goal the enthusiasm increased throughout Europe. Berlin had already been festively adorned for the occasion. Tall masts had been erected along the entire route from the Town Hall, past the Royal Palace to the Stadium, and the streets were decorated with banners and garlands after the plans of the architect, Herr Lottermoser.”(Official Report.

Vol I. pg 86)

Olympic Flame

The Radio Coverage mentioned above that reached the ears of the German people brought forth only the cheerful receptions and hurrays for the flame thus reflected an overall embracing feeling as well as the impression of the general acceptance of the Reich. Covering the ceremonies and the route through the countries that the flame traveled through on going its log trip to Berlin. The relay run covered the following general route:

"The lengthy course was divided into stretches of 1,000 metres, each was covered by a runner, who then passed the Olympic Fire to his successor.

The Organizing Committee estimated that an average time of 5 minutes was required for each 1,000 metres" (Ibid pg 512 Vol I) “The Organizing Committee maintained constant connections with the groups in charge of the Olympic Torch Relay Run in the different countries. The reports received shortly before the first runner left Olympia indicated that an unusual degree of interest prevailed in every nation. Each of the 3,075 runners felt that he was an exponent of the Olympic ideals, and all cooperated gladly in the mission of transferring the Olympic Fire from hand to hand for 10 days and nights until the final bearer arrived at the Berlin Stadium on

August 1st to ignite the fire which would burn throughout the Olympic period.

All were conscious of the symbolic significance of this relay run, which represented a link, so to speak, between the ancient and the modern Festival.The eyes of the entire world were turned expectantly to Olympia when the Olympic Fire was ignited at noon on Monday, July 20th, 1936”(pg 515 Vol I)

Pic 1: The route of Olympic Torch Relay.

the

1st

“It was a moment deeply impressive in its solemnity when the first runner ignited his torch and, accompanied by the enthusiasm of the spectators who had gathered from far and near, began the first stage of the relay run which would end in Berlin. A broadcasting car of the German Broadcasting Company accompanied the Olympic Fire throughout its journey(...)

Olympic Flame Greece:

Pic 2 : Get ready to fly The Germany Broadcasting Company with all of its affiliated stations brought this unique event to every part of Germany, and numerous foreign companies transmitted the ceremony.(…)Like the German Broadcasting Company, the Olympic Film Companysent an expedition to Greece under the leadership of Leni Riefenstahl to accompany the Olympic Fire to Berlin.

Countless enthusiasts lent their support to this event in the different countries so that the Torch Relay Run became a triumphal procession of the Olympic Fire from modern Hellas to Berlin, and one which will undoubtedly attain a permanent place in the history of the Games.

The enthusiasm and participation of the population all along the route were without precedent. Even when the runner passed through a town or village in the middle of the night all of the inhabitants turned out to cheer him on his way.”(Ibid pg.

518,519 )

“Since sporting clubs existed only in the larger cities, peasant youths from the districts through which the Fire passed were usually enlisted as torch bearers (…) and ran in their national costumes, which included the short, full skirt or “fustanella.” In compliance with the suggestions of the Organizing Committee, the Greek Olympic Committee organized special ceremonies at various appropriate points, these being in the nature of popular festivals(…) On every occasion the orator expressed the gratitude of the New Hellas to the New Germany for having instituted the Olympic Torch Relay Run. Even in spite of streaming rain the entire population of Saloniki was present at the ceremony held there. From this city the course of the relay run passed through the rich plains of Serrés to the Bulgarian frontier.”

(Ibid pg.

521)

Pic 3: The torch-bearer arrives at the Stadium of Delphi where a special ceremony has been arranged.

Olympic Flame Bulgaria:

Yugoslavia:

“The entire course through Bulgaria was marked off by the Bulgarian Labour Service(…)

Ascending rapidly above the rushing Struma, the highway continued in the direction of Sofia.

Excellent organization enabled every difficulty to be surmounted; the entire course was designated by road signs bearing the five Olympic rings(…)In addition to the scheduled ceremonies, short festivities were held in practically every village along the route. The most outstanding of all was the magnificent ceremony held in Sofia, on which occasion the broad square in front of the cathedral was packed with an enthusiastic crowd in festive attire. The transferring of the Fire to the Yugoslav runner at the frontier was in the nature of a demonstration of BulgarianYugoslav friendship ”(Ibid pg.

523)

“The preparations in Yugoslavia were also adequate for meeting every requirement (…)

The population participated enthusiastically in the ceremonies which were held at Kragujevac as well as at the grave of King Alexander in Topola. In Belgrade the fountain on the Terazija was transformed into a high altar from which the Olympic Fire burned during the ceremony in the Capital City.

Most of the Yugoslav runners belonged to the Sokol Federation, and many peasants ran in the curious long-tongued shoes common to the country. The Fire was carried through the villages inhabited by the German minority group by the descendants of Swabian peasants, who were cheered enthusiastically by the villagers.

Following ceremonies in Novisad and Subotica, the Olympic Fire was passed on to the Hungarian runners ”(Ibid pg. 526)

Pic 4: The Olympic torch ceremony held in Sofia

Pic 5: Intense Olympic enthusiasm accompanied the Fire through the attractive country-side of Yugoslavia.

relay

Olympic Flame Hungary :

Austria:

“On the stretch from Budapest to the frontier a slight detour was made through the Hungarian mining district, the torch-bearers running past high mining shafts and through workers settlements in order to bring an Olympic greeting to the miners. The speed of the runners was increased slightly in Hungary in order to gain time for ceremonies in Szegedin and Kecskemét.

In Kecskemét, (…), an altar was erected on the idyllic market square (…).The peasants arrived in great numbers for this event, wearing their colourful traditional costumes.

Gypsies along the way serenaded the runners with music and the gypsy chieftain, Magyari, performed during the ceremony in Budapest. (…)Accompanied by jubilant cries of “Elyen!,” the runners hastened through the Hungarian landscape to the Austro-Hungarian frontier, where the guards were powerless in the face of the enthusiastic crowds that assembled there as the Fire was transferred to the first Austrian runner.

The addresses of greeting and ceremony of passing on the Fire took place amidst boundless jubilation.”(Ibid pg. 526,527)

“It was only with difficulty that the President of the Austrian Olympic Committee, as the first Austrian runner, could make his way through the crowd (…). The ceremony in Vienna formed the climax to the festivities in Austria, and no one who was present is likely to forget the picture of the torch-bearer silhouetted against the evening sky as he approached the Heldentor to ignite the Olympic Fire at the altar high above the principal square.

Spotlights played upon the tower containing the Austrian sporting banner and crowned by the Olympic flag which had been erected in the Burg Courtyard. The entrance of the Olympic Fire into Vienna took the form of a triumphal procession of quite unexpected proportions. The members of the Austrian sporting federations had all turned out at twilight, and an endless parade proceeded through the festively decorated streets to the scene of the ceremony at which numerous government and municipal personages were present.

The slight delay in the departure of the runner from this ceremony was soon made up, and the fire arrived at the Czechoslovak frontier at the appointed minute.”(Ibid pg. 528)

Pic 6: The tomb of Soldier in Budapest.

Pic 7: frontier.

the

Unknown

The

Austro-Hungarian

Olympic Flame Czechoslovakia: “The Olympic Fire was transferred at the Czechoslovak-Austrian frontier while two thick phalanxes of sportsmen and spectators looked on.

State police were on hand to keep the way open. The special interest which was evidenced throughout Czechoslovakia in the Olympic Torch Relay Run is indicated by the fact that the President of the Republic participated in the ceremony which was held in Prague.

On this occasion the venerable buildings on the market square lent a special impressiveness to the festivities. The runner departed for the German border at 1 o’clock in the morning, cheered by the enthusiastic spectators.

On Friday, July 31st, at 11.45 a.m. the last Czechoslovak runner handed the Fire to the German athletes in Hellendorf. Full of pride, the German runners carried the Fire in the direction of Berlin.”(Ibid pg. 530)

Pic 8: The runner greets bearer.

last Czechoslovak the first German

As the flame passed from Czechoslovakian to German hands it went through a number of city’s to be celebrated before it reached Berlin. Let’s have a look on how it was welcomed : “The entire route through Saxony was lined by phalanxes of the members of National Socialist Party organizations, school children and sportsmen. When the report that the Olympic Fire had crossed the German frontier arrived at the Market Square in Pirna, fanfares were blown by Hitler Youth groups, and as the last notes died out the church bells began to ring. In Dresden a special ceremony was held on the Koenigsufer opposite the Bruehl Terrace (…) The arrival of the runner was announced through fanfares blown by the Hitler Youth trumpeters (…) The third ceremony in Germany took place at the Market Square in Meissen, where the approach of the Olympic Fire was again heralded by fanfares blown from the towers of the town. After an Olympic Fire had been ignited at an altar in front of the Town Hall, the District Leader of the National Socialist Party and the Mayor of the town held addresses "(Ibid pg.531) “The arrival of the Fire in Bad Liebenwerda was the occasion of a particularly impressive ceremony.

As the night was starlit and warm, a festive air prevailed throughout the town, and more than 20,000 persons assembled at the principal square, which was bathed in the illumination of floodlights and thousands of candles " (Ibid pg. 532)

Olympic Flame

"The flags of the 7 nations through which the Olympic Fire had been carried waved over the square, and three shots from the 1,000 year old landmark of the town, the Lubwart Tower, which was also illuminated and adorned with the five Olympic rings(…)

The Organizing Committee had planned a special programme for the forenoon of August lst, its climax to be the youth ceremony in the Lustgarten. After 25,000 German youths as well as the youth groups from 28 nations had assembled in impressive array and members of the Reich Government had held addresses, trumpet fanfares announced the approach of the Olympic Fire" (Ibid)

Pic9: The Brandenburg Gate.

Pic 10,11: a) The typical arrangements on the streets for the reception of the flame b)König Strasse, the first section of the “Via triumphalis,” decorated for the Olympic Games.

Olympic Flame

Pic 12: The ceremony on Königsufer in Dresden.

“The Olympic Fire arrived at the outskirts of Greater Berlin at 10.48(…)

The final route led through Wilhelm Strasse and down the central promenade of Unter den Linden to the Palace Bridge.

The flame could be seen approaching over the countless heads of the assembled Hitler Youths, and cheers rang out as it came nearer. Then the last torch bearer ran down the centre aisle of the Lustgarten to the altar, which was erected before the steps of the Museum. Here the International Olympic Committee witnessed for the first time the lighting of the Olympic Fire. As the flames sprang up, the bearer ran back across the Lustgarten to a second altar in front of the Palace, where another Olympic Fire was ignited.” (Ibid pg. 540)

Pic 13: The Olympic Fire arrives at the BerlinLustgarten where the youth delegations from Germany and throughout the world arc congregated.

Olympic Flame

Adolf Hitler,as Patron of the Olympic Games held a reception ceremony for the International Olympic Committee and Count Baillet-Latour held a speech.

This is an "excellent" extract from that speech addressing the Führer and the German nation.: “I feel certain that the stupendous preparations which Germany has made for the Olympic Games and which are particularly obvious in the excellent organization of the Festival will constitute a permanent monument to the contribution which she has made to human culture in general.

All those who appreciate the symbolism of the sacred flame which has been borne from Olympia to Berlin are profoundly grateful to your Excellency for having not only provided the means of binding the past and the present, but also for having contributed to the progress of the Olympic ideals in future years.”(Ibid pg.

540-541) The chancellor and patron only in return of these kind words thanked the Count and sworn “eternal faith” to the Olympic ideas etc… they then all headed for the stadium “The streets, which were lined by members of the National Socialist Motor Corps, Storm Troops and Special National Socialist Guards, were thronged from beginning to end with countless thousands of spectators, and the enthusiastic applause proved to the International Olympic Committee that the German nation was actually and sincerely participating in the Festival.

The streets resembled a sea of flags, and the rousing enthusiasm

of the crowds rendered the trip from the centre of the city to the Stadium a veritable triumphal Olympic procession. Every square was densely packed, and handkerchiefs were waved from all the windows as Berlin greeted in true festive spirit the beginning of the Olympic Games. A few drops of rain did not dampen the enthusiasm, and the weather cleared up at the same moment as the German Chancellor entered the Reich Sport Field.” (Ibid pg. 544) “The Olympic Stadium was packed long before the opening ceremony began, but the spectators were well entertained.

The Olympic Symphony Orchestra (…) presented a concert under the direction of Professor Havemann” (Ibid pg. 544) Finally the flame would reach the Olympic Stadium of Berlin where in a glorious scenery decorated with swastikas and Olympic flags, side by side and under fanfares,and thousands of frantic Germans performing the Nazi salute shouting 'Zeig Heil' would watch upon Fritz Schilgen the national champion runner, run into the stadium and light the Olympic cauldron giving the sign of the opening of the 11th Olympic summer Games.

But just some moments before…

Olympic Flame

Pic 14,15 :“Then the music of the 'March of Homage' by Richard Wagner mingled with the enthusiastic applause of the spectators.”The President of the Organizing Committee, Dr. Lewald, speaks the from stand erected in the Stadium.

Dr.Lewald :In only a few moments now will appear the torch-bearer, who will bear the Olympic fire aloft to the tripod from which, during these festive weeks, the Olympic flame will ascend to the sky. He is the last of over 3,000 youths, belonging to seven nations, who for thousands of miles have followed one another in the greatest relay race which the world has ever seen. From the altar of the temple of Zeus in ancient Olympia, through Hellas and Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Hungary, through Austria, Czechoslovakia and Germany, the flame has been carried.Over mountains and valleys, on hard or dusty roads, through rain and darkness, in the heat of the noonday sun and through the coolness of the nights, in order to create both an actual and a spiritual bond of fire between our German fatherland and the ancient Greek shrine, founded nearly four thousand years ago by settlers from northern lands.”(Ibid pg.562)

When Dr. Lewald had concluded his address, the German Chancellor Adolf Hitler prounounced the following words amidst an impressive silence: “ I p r o c l a i m open the Olympic Games of Berlin, celebrating the Eleventh Olympiad of the m o d e r n e r a . ”(Ibid pg. 563)

Pic 16: The Führer: “I proclaim open the Olympic Games of Berlin,celebrating the Eleventh Olympiad of the modern era.”

Olympic Flame

“The commander of the procesion, Major Feuchtinger, gave the command, “Hoist flag!,” and the Olympic emblem was slowly elevated to the top of the mast which had been erected at the western end of the Stadium. The artillery detachment fired saluting salvos, and clouds of carrier pigeons arose from the walls of the May Field. Each one bore the colours of the participating nations, and carried the news of the opening of the Games throughout the world. The trumpets were again heard from the Marathon Towers, this time playing the fanfare which introduced the Olympic Hymn.

Richard Strauss himself conducted his composition, which was rendered publicly for the first time, and the Stadium resounded from the flood of melody as a gigantic chorus sang the jubilant verses. (Ibid pg.

563,564) “As the Hymn came to an end and the resounding call, “Festival of peace! Olympia !,” echoed through the Stadium, the cheers of the multitudes outside were heard, since the moment had arrived for which friends of sport throughout the world had been waiting. The Olympic Fire, which had left Olympia eleven days before, was about to arrive at its destination. A slender youth appeared at the East Gate of the Stadium holding a torch aloft.

As in greeting, he remained for a moment at the top of the steps, then ran lightly into the arena and passed the phalanxes of the teams standing in formation upon the field. For many this was the climax of the entire Festival.

With rapid, elastic strides he ran up the Marathon steps to the altar which

contained the bronze tripod.

After raising the torch again for a final time in greeting, he illuminated the Fire at the altar, which according to the regulations shall burn in the Stadium during the 16 days of the Games. It was a moment in which every heart beat faster, an occasion which in its solemnity impressed all alike.”

Pic 17: Richard Strauss lifts baton, fanfares are heard and gigantic chorus begins Olympic Hymn.

his the the

Pic 18:Fritz Schilgen enters the stadium.

Olympic Flame

Pic 19,20 :The flame brought from Olympia ignites the Olympic Fire, which according to the Statutes of the Games, shall burn in the Stadium for 16 days.

For many as we read this was the climax of the entire Festival.

"It was a moment in which every heart beat faster, an occasion which in its solemnity impressed all alike.”

Whether we like it or not this is the truth of the introduction of the >>Olympic torch relay<< within the institution of the Olympic Games .

As we are informed from the 2nd edition of Olympic Museum Report on the Olympic flame and the Olympic Torch Relay (pg 6): In 1936, Carl Diem, Secretary General of the Organizing Committee of the Games of the XI Olympiad in Berlin, proposed the inclusion of a torch relay in the programme of the Olympics . The flame was lit in Olympia and transported to Berlin via a torch relay. Carl Diem who was in charge in the organisation of the Berlin Olympics on a visit to Greece for an Olympic conference in 1934, along with the President of the Organizing Committee, Theodore Lewald had in

common the inspiring idea of creating a link between the ancient Greek and the modern Olympic Games.

Together with the “majesty” of minister of propaganda Joseph Goebbels this event would create a far-reaching blown out of proportion; over ambitious result as were the sum of the Reich’s displays.

Nevertheless it should be mentioned here that the idea of a burning flame had been in fact introduced in the previous Olympiad held in the Netherlands and it had been used in the Los Angeles Olympics as well but the “genius conception” of a torch relay was far more than anybody had imagined and surely only the extravagance of the Nazi Reich could come up with the thought as well as the execution of such an attempt.

Therefore a pageantry was staged which would kindled the flame in Greece in Olympia and bring it all the way on foot(!) to the Olympic stadium of Berlin.

Olympic Flame

Only to Imagine the boundaries of such an attempt! However its execution was conceived planned and carried out by the Nazi administration with all the complications that this undoubted truth fossils…

What is utterly strange is that that the so called “Democratic” countries embraced the Neo-Pagan Ceremony, which was of specific service to its animators -keeping the show on the road- they allowed deliberately all the nations to believe that the flame was somehow connected with Olympia and the ancient Olympic Games; when as a matter of fact it’s a common secret that there was NO such torch relay in the ancient Olympic games in Greece whatsoever. Today one can even read this fact, as a statement in the official Olympic Museums Report release on the Olympic flame and the Games : “There was never a relay organised for the either ancient Olympic Games or other Pan-Hellenic Games (organised in Nemea, Delphi and Isthmia)”.(Olympic Museum Report pg 4) From the same source we may now learn the truth: “However, in Athens, flame races called lampadedromia were organised to honour certain gods, including Prometheus.

The flame was transmitted by runners and the first competitor to arrive at the altar of the god had the honour of renewing its fire”.(Ibid pg 4) In the same pamphlet we may also read : “In the context of the modern Games, the Olympic flame represents the positive values that Man has always associated with fire. The purity of the flame is guaranteed by the way it

is lit using the sun’s rays.The choice of Olympia as a departure point emphasizes the link between the Ancient and Modern Games and underlines the profound connection between these two events”.In other words the Olympic Games administration accepts all that the flame stood for in the days of the 3rd Reich…

Pic 21: The first Olympic Torch

Pic 22: Poster of the Olympia Berlin torch Relay

Olympic Flame

Lets have a look upon the "image board" which the German design team worked with in order to create this indisputably successful event: What gave thought and inspiration to the formation of this Neo-pagan ceremony?

These are the facts a) The Lampadadromia, which a religious torch race occurring during religious festivals in antiquity that survived until Roman times b) The the never extinguished sacred fire that burned continuously in the altar of Hestia in the the Prytaneium of Olympia also known as "eternal flame" as well as the sacred fire that burned in the altar of Zeus during the games. c) The fact that messengers were sent to vocally announce the beginning of the Games in order to guarantee save passage to the competitors who wished to participate.

In the book "Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals" by E.Norman Gardiner (1910). Grandier refers to the torch race several times as well as on the existence of the >>lambadedromia<< he informs us that this was a religious ritual for which individuals or teams on foot or on horseback competed holding a light torch.

The purpose of the competition was to arrive first with the torch still lit in order to light the alter. An interesting thought is the indication from the author that the origins of racing,itself derives from the torch-race, â&#x20AC;&#x153;in which the competitors, starting from the distance of a stade, raced with lighted torches to the altar, the one who arrived first and lighted the fire receiving the prizeâ&#x20AC;?

Explaining the origin of the lambadedromia he says â&#x20AC;&#x153;thus the torch-race, which we meet with in many parts of Greece, was connected with the primitive custom of periodically distributing new and holy fire from the sacred hearth where it had been kindled".

Pic23,24:a)Passing the torchwith two runners in a torch-race (Redfigured vase ,late fifth century BC) b)On this vase (410 BC) are three runners from the winning team wearing a victory crown .

One of the athletes has the torch in his hands and is about to light the sacred fire on the altar.

Besides him stands a priest. The winged woman being Nike , the goddess of victory.

Olympic Flame

The following extract coming from the release of the Olympic Museum on the Olympic Torch Relay and the Olympic Flame only confirms the above :â&#x20AC;&#x153;At a set time before the start of the ancient Olympic Games,. They invited the citizens to come to Olympia and proclaimed the sacred truce (ekecheiria), that is, the obligation to halt combats one month before and during the period of the Games.

In this way, the athletes and spectators could travel without fear to Olympia and back home.â&#x20AC;?(Ibid pg.4)

In the following plan we can see what surfaced from the German excavations of Olympia.

Hereby where number 9 is marked we can descry the Prytaneium where the eternal fire of Hestia burned whereas where number 3 is marked stood the Altar of Zeus.

Olympic Flame

The Igniting flame

of

the

The official report of the 11th Olympic Games informs us that people from all over Greece as well as Greek governmental representatives were present at the ceremony which marked the ignition of the first Olympic torch which was held in the Altis. “Olympia thus became once more for a day the centre of interest of the Greek nation.”

“The German Charge d’Affaires, representatives of the German Broadcasting Company and press correspondents from throughout the world were present at the altar erected in front of the new entrance to the north of the Prytaneion and outside the Altis(…)The ceremony of lighting the fire itself took place at the starting base of the Olympic Stadium, spectators not being admitted.

Fifteen young Greek maidens entered the ancient stadium through the covered passageway in order to ignite the Olympic Fire with the aid of the hot noonday sun. A magnifying glass mounted upon an iron stand caught the rays of the sun which stood high above the Alpheios Valley and concentrated them upon inflammable material, which soon began to burn. The fire was then carried by the Greek maidens past the Temple of Hera to the Fire Altar in front of the Altis where the first runnerswere waiting” (Ibid Off. Rep pg.515)

Pic 27,28 a)The sun ignites the flame.b)The Fire was carried from the starting post in the Stadium through the tunnel to the Sacred Grove, at the northern entrance of which the altar was erected.

Olympic Flame

After messages from Greek representatives and an announcement from Baron Pierre de Coubertin was read to the runner

Pic 29 The his torch.

first

runner

Fascinating is the fact that the attempt has been partly captured in film under the directions of Leni Riefenstah which filmed the documentary >>Olympia<<.

ignites

Pic 31 Poster of Olympia directed

by Leni Riefenstah.

"Sporting and chivalrous competition awakens the best human qualities. It does not sever, but on the contrary, unites the opponents in mutual understanding and reciprocal respect. It also helps to strengthen the bonds of peace between the nations.

May the Olympic Flame therefore never be e x t i n g u i s h e d ."

Adolf Hitler Pic 30 The first Olympic Torch, Konstantinos Kondylis relay had just began.

runner of athlete the torch

We shall finish this article with the prophetic words of George Orwell "He who controls the present controls the Past, he who controls the past controls the Future"

Miscellaneous

MISCELLANEOUS-AUTHORITARIAN USE OF LIGHT

"Truth Chamber" Designed to Wring Confessions from Criminals A “truth chamber” recently devised by a New York criminologist is expected to wring confession of crime from a prisoner by compelling him to study his own features as he replies to a steady barrage of questions. It is a square cubicle with four mirrored walls. A battery of variously colored lights, suspended above the prisoner, plays upon him as he sits in the middle of the chamber. In the mirrors of the “truth chamber” he is able to note any suggestion of uneasiness in his manner or expression, and by changing the light from white to green or blue, detectives make him look worn and haggard. Convinced at last that his face and movements have already convicted him, the prisoner, the inventor believes, will confess.

Popular Science Issue: Oct, 1934

Source :blog.modernmechanix.com

Miscellaneous Policeman's Billy Has Built-in Flash Light

Popular Science Issue: May, 1939

Source:blog.modernmechanix.com

Neon Signs Identify Police Patrol Cars

Popular Science Issue: Apr, 1939

Source:blog.modernmechanix.com

Miscellaneous Glass

Banks will Foil Hold-Ups

Modern Mechanix Issue: Aug, 1931

Source :blog.modernmechanix.com

Miscellaneous

Cops get a dome light Cops get a dome light Japanese motorcycle cops are being outfitted with these new helmets, which have a flashing light on top.

Police can use the light to flag down drivers or to control traffic on heavily traveled city streets.

Popular Science Issue: Nov, 1968

Source:blog.modernmechanix.com

Story of the Lamp

A Short Story on the History of Artificial light circa 1911 with a special interest in the last two paragraphs.

Next to its usefulness for heating and cooking, the greatest use of fire is to furnish light in order to drive darkness away . Man is not content, unlike birds and brutes, to go to sleep at the setting of the sun. He takes part of the night-time and uses it for work, for travel, for social pleasures, or for the improvement of his mind, adding in this way several years to his life. He could not do this if he was compelled to grope in darkness.

Therefore when the great source of daylight disappears he must make light for himself, for the sources of nightlight, the moon and the stars and lightning and the aurora borealis and are not sufficient enough to satisfy his needs. Here we shall follow man in his efforts to conquer darkness, and we shall tell the story of the lamp.

which marked the little Swiss

seconds of watch."

a

FIG. I. A FIREFLY LAMP.

Although fireflies have been used here and there by primitive folk, they could hardly have been the first lamp.

Man's battle with darkness really began with the torch, lighted from the fire of We will begin this story with an the cave or the wigwam, which was odd but interesting kind of lamp. kept burning for the purposes of The firefly or lightning-bug which illumination.

Hence a burning is seen so often in the summer stick was the first lamp. nights was in the earliest time The first improvement in the brought into the service of torch was made when slivers or mankind in order to shed its splinters of resinous or oily light. Fireflies were imprisoned wood were tied together and in a rude box i.e. in the shell of burned. This may well be regarded a coconut, or a gourd thus the as a lamp which was all wick. An light of the insect's bodies was invention which in its turn allowed to shoot out through the resulted to a fuller and clearer numerous holes made in the box. We light, one that would burn much must not despise the light given longer than the single stick. out by these tiny creatures. " In Further improvement would come the mountains of Tijuca," once when a long piece of wax or fatty said a traveler, " I have read the substance was wrapped about with finest print by the light of one leaves. This was something like a of these natural lamps, fireflies candle, only the wick which were placed under a common glass the leaves was on the outside, tumbler , and with distinctness I whereas the oily substance which could tell the hour of the night fed the wick would lie in the and discern the very small figures center.

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Story of the Lamp

It was about the time of Alfred the Great (900 A.c.) when another step was taken: the central stick was left out altogether, and the thick layer of fat or wax was placed directly around the wick of twisted cotton.

The stick of wood of the original torch was gone. The candles of today are made of better material than those of the olden time, moreover they are much cheaper as well.

Yet in principle they do not differ from the candles of a thousand years ago.

The torch had developed into the candle .

FIG. 2. A BURNING FIRST LAMP.

STICK

WAS

THE

In the course of time it was discovered that it was better to smear the grease on the outside of the stick, or whatever was to be burned.

Realizing that it was better to have the wick on the inside. Torches were then made of rope coated with resin or fat, or of sticks or splinters smeared with grease; here the stick resembling to the wick of the candle as we know it today, the coating of fat corresponding to the tallow or paraffin.

Rude candles made of oiled rope or of sticks smeared with fat were invented in primitive times, and they continued to be used for thousands of years after. In the dark ages, dark in more senses than one torch-makers began to wrap the central stick first with flax or hemp and then place around this a thick layer of fat.

Resulting to a torch that gave out a very good light.

FIG. 3. THE CANDLE.

The development of the candle has been given first because its forerunner, the torch, was first "apparel" used for lighting. It must not be forgotten though that along with the torch there was used, almost from the beginning, another kind of lamp. Almost as soon as men discovered that the melted fat of animals would burn easily that being certainly very long ago they invented a rude form of lamp from which the lamp of today has been evolved.

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Story of the Lamp

The cavity of a shell (Fig. 4) or of a stone, or even the skull of an animal, would be filled with melted fat or oil, and a wick of flax or other fibrous material was laid upon the edge of the vessel.

The oil or grease passed up the wick by capillary action,( Hold the end of a dry towel in a basin of water and watch the water rise in the towel.

It rises by capillary action.) and when the end of the wick was lighted it continued to burn as long as there were both oil and wick. This can be considered as the earliest form of the lamp. As man became more civilized, instead of a hollow stones or skulls, an earthen saucer or bowl was used. Around the edge of the bowl a spout or gutter was made for holding the FIG. 5. AN wick.

YEARS OLD. In the lamps of the ancient Greeks and Romans the reservoir which held the oil was closed, leaving a hole in the center through which the oil might be poured. Sometimes it was possible that these lamps would have several spouts or nozzles. Of course the more wicks a lamp had, the more light it would give. There is in the museum at Cortona, in Italy, an ancient lamp which has sixteen nozzles.

This interesting relic (Fig. 5)was used in a pagan temple in Etruria and dates back to more than twentyfive hundred years ago.

FIG. 4. A SHELL FILLED AND USED AS A LAMP.

WITH

OIL

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ETRUSCAN

LAMP

25OO

Lamps such as which have been described above, were used among the civilized people of the ancient world and continued to be used throughout the Middle Ages far into Modern times. They were equally very costly as well as beautiful (Fig. 6), but they never gave out a good light. Only to add the unpleasant odor, they sent out, as well as the fact that they were so smoky they covered the walls and furniture with soot. The candle was in every way better than the ancient lamp, and after the invention of wax tapers candles in the thirteenth century, lamps were no longer used by those who could afford to buy tapers.

For ordinary purposes and ordinary people, however, the lamp continued to provide its service, but it was utterly not Improved.

Story of the Lamp

In other words before Argand, the wick received no supply of air.

Noticing the wick of modern lamps which is flat or circular, but thin. The air in abundance played upon both sides of the thin wick, burning it without making smoke. (Smoke is simply halfburned particles of a burning substance. The particles pass off half-burned because enough air has not been supplied.)

Now Argand, by making the wick thin and by causing plenty of air to FIG. 6. AN ANCIENT LAMP. rush into the flame, enabled all the wick to be burned thereby Far-reaching the end of the resulting to the introduction of eighteenth century, the lamp was a strong white flame. still the unsatisfactory, disagreeable thing it had always been.

Late in the eighteenth century improvement came. In 1783 AimĂŠ Argand, a Swiss physician residing in London, designed a lamp that was far better than any that had ever been made before.

What did Argand do for the lamp?

Examining an ordinary lamp in which coal-oil is burned.

The chimney protects the flame from sudden gusts of wind and also creating a draft of air, (Lighting a short piece of candle and placing it into a tumbler, if one covers the top of the tumbler the flame will die off teaching us that a flame must have a constant FIG. 7. AN ARGAND LAMP. supply of fresh air in order not to go out .) This is the case for the fire-chimney as well creating a draft. Argand's lamp (Fig. 7) was the first to have a chimney.

Looking below the chimney one will see open passages through which fresh air may pass upward finding its way to the wick. Further notice will show that as this draft of air passes upward it is so directed that, when the lamp is burning, an extra quantity of air plays directly upon the wick.

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Story of the Lamp

After the invention of Argand, the art of lampmaking was improved by leaps and by bounds. More progress was made in twenty years after 1783 than had been made in twenty centuries before. New burners were invented, new and better oils were used, and better wicks made. But all the new kinds of lamps were patterned after the Argand. The lamp you use at home may not be a real Argand, but it is doubtless made according to the principles of the lamp invented by the Swiss physician in 1783.

A considerable part lighted by gas Baltimore was the the United States by gas in 1821.

Soon after Argand invented his lamp, William Murdock, a Scottish inventor, was destined to show the world a new way of lighting. It had long been known that fat or coal, when heated, gave off a vapor or gas which when burned gave off a bright light. Indeed, it is always the gas that burns, and not the substance. In the candle or in the lamp the flame heats the oil which comes up to it through the wick and thus causes the oil to give off a gas. It is this gas that burns and gives off the light. Now Murdock, in 1797, put this principle to a new good use. He heated coal in a large vessel, and allowed the gas which was driven off to pass through mains and tubes to different parts of his house. Wherever he wanted a light he let the gas escape at the end of the tube (Fig. 8) in a small jet and lighted it. Here was a lamp without a wick. Murdock soon extended his gas-pipes to factories, and lighted them up with gas. As soon as it was learned how to make gas cheaply, and conduct it safely from house to house, whole cities were "rescued" from darkness by the new illuminant.

FIR. 8. THE GAS JET

of London was in 1815 and first city in to be lighted

The gas-light proved to be much better than even before. In towns and cities almost everybody who could afford to do so laid aside the old wick-lamp and burned gas.

Innovation came once again at about 1876 and a new ; kind of light began to appear. This was the electric light. The powerful arc light (Fig. 9), made by the passage of a current of electricity between two carbon points, was the first to be invented. This gave as much light as a hundred gas-jets or several hundred lamps. Such a light was excellent for lighting streets, but its painful glare and its sputtering rendered it unfit for use within doors. It was not long, however, before an electric light was invented which could be used anywhere.

This was the famous Edison's incandescent or glow lamp (Fig. 10) , which we see on every hand.

Edison's invention is only a few years old, yet there are already more than thirty million incandescent lamps in use in the United States alone.

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Story of the Lamp

FIG. 9- AN EARLY ARC LIGHT The torch, the candle, the lamp, the gas-light, the electric light, these are the steps of the development of the lamp. And how marvelous a growth it is! How great the triumph over darkness!

In the beginning a piece of wood burns with a dull flame, and fills the dingy wigwam or cave with soot and smoke; now, at the pressure of a button, the house is filled with a light that rivals the light of day, with not a particle of smoke or soot or harmful gas. Are there to be further triumphs in the art of lighting? Are we to have a light that shall drive out the electric light ? Only time can tell.

FIG. IO. AN INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC LIGHT. The story of the Lamp was derived from the book "Stories of Useful Inventions" by S.E.Forman N.Y .C. 1911 adding a few interventions from the bombilla team.

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No 14

No 14 150 turned years Old “Never was a better and more elegant design and more precisely crafted and practical item created” Le Corbusier The Konsumstuhl Nr 14, also known as the “Viennese coffee shop chair no.14” or “bistro chair” is considered to be “the chair of chairs” and has allegedly sold more than 50 million copies, becoming one of the best selling chairs of all times.

Moreover being the first mass produced chair in the World, it is also regarded to be one of the most if not -themost successful industrial product(s) in the world. The No 14 was created as early as 1859 and won the golden metal at the 1867 Paris World's Fair.

Thonet's straight forward ambition according to the Herald Tribune's article “The chair that seated millions” was to create the first mass manufactured chair in the world, which was to be sold at an affordable price (three florins slightly less than a bottle of wine). Minimal in its design and its use of material Thonet succeeded in anticipating classic modernism more than 50 years prior to Mies Van de Roche's famous “less is more”.

Incorporating a new philosophy of furniture design Thonet revolutionized the furniture world and industry of his time and led the transformation of homes, cafes and restaurants, as well as school and office furnishing to appeared somewhat “lighter” and less extravagant than it had been before. For these matters Master Cabinet maker Micheal Thonet (17961871) is regarded as a pioneer of furniture and industrial

design the same. After almost 20 years of experimentation Thonet's conviction that bent beech-wood was the future of chair making was proved correct.

Bentwood process involved the use of steam to make wood soft and pliable so that it could be bent into any desired shape.

Although as Giovanni Renzi, and Gebruder Thonet say in the book “The history, development and copies of the bestselling chair in the world” Thonet's original idea was not to create a “massconsumption chair” (at least until the time of the great exposition 1851), and that Micheal Thonets working techniques were the same as those of any other cabinetmaker of the Biedermaier period. But it was the technological language that he used that set him apart from all others thus pursuing the “mass consumption chair”.

Thonet following a carpenter's apprenticeship, set himself up as an independent cabinetmaker in 1819.

His first major breakthrough as a young cabinet maker was the "Boppard layerwood chair" for the construction of which he had developed his special bentwood methods.His failure in attending a pattern in Germany as well as his business bankruptcy led him to accept an invitation of Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich when they met at the Craft show in Koblenz at the trade fair of 1841, the prince who was enthusiastic about Thonet's furniture had intentions

No 14 of promoting industrialization thus him to the Vienna court.

Austria's Later on Thonet would continue invited its ground breaking innovations and go on to cooperate only with the biggest innovators of the In the next year, Thonet was able 20th century namely Walter to present his furniture, and his Gropius, Mart Stam, Marchel chairs in particular, to the Breuer and Mies Van de Roche Imperial Family and eventually leading to a new series of steel accepted to relocated there with tube furniture.

But that's his entire family.

There, he another story... worked with his sons on the interior decoration of the "Palais Liechtenstein" for the Carl This year celebrating the 150th Leistler establishment before he anniversary of the no 14 chain reopened his buisness. (today known as the 214 chair) the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Muji by Thonetâ&#x20AC;? chair is On July 1842 he was awarded the being launched. privilege of "bending any wood, even the driest type, into any shape using a chemical-mechanical process".Making him the only firm in the Austro-Hungarian Empire that could legally produce bentwood furniture Thonet and his sons would developed production technique machines and process that would allow them to build bentwood furniture in large quantities. The unique technology of wood bending heated by steam as well as the the idea of designing separate pieces which would be combined make the final models enabled him to produce large Pic 1. The thonet chair six pieces of numbers of furniture in relative steam-bent wood, ten screws and two short time. Therefore Thonet made the transition from craft workshop to industrial factory production.

Six pieces of steam-bent wood, ten screws,two nuts are the parts needed to assembly the No 14 chair. The No 14 chair was easily dismantled and assembled anywhere therefore it was eligible for easier shippment. The key features that characterize the No 14 chair was its cheapness in production,its functionality and high aesthetic as well as its practicality in transportation.

Pic 2 Muji by Thonet

art

Discover Drooker

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music

Chumbawamba History Luddite

Track listing : 01 Rock And Roles 02 Multinationals 03 Work 04 This Wood 05 Tearing Up Zoo 06 Liberation 07 Rape 08 Marching Around in Circles (Part 1) 09 Telly 10 Body 11 Marching Around in Circles (Part 2)

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music Chumbawamba English Rebel Songs 1381-1984

Track Listing: 01.

02.

03.

04.

05.

06.

07.

08.

09.

10.

11.

12.

13.

"The Cutty Wren" "The Diggers Song" "Colliers March" "The Triumph of General Ludd" "Chartist Anthem" "The Bad Squire" "Song on the Times" "Smashing of the Van" "The World Turned Upside Down" "Poverty Knock" "Idris Strike Song" "Hanging on the Old Barbed Wire" "Coal Not Dole"

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