The Durham Globalist by The Durham Globalist

THE

URHAM

LOBALIST An issue focusing on the sexes

You see, man made the cars To take us over the road, Man made the train To carry the heavy load, Man made the electrolight To take us out of the dark, Man made the boat for the water Like noah made the ark,

This is a man’s world. Would it be nothing, without a woman or a girl?

TAX AVOIDANCE: MORALITY OR LEGALITY? • EXPLORING INDIA’S POTENTIAL • THE RISE OF THE (NEW) FEMINISM • FIRES AND FASHION FACTORIES • EXCEPTIONS FROM TERRORISM • FRACKING • THE FEMALE ORIENT

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Editor-in-Chief Sophie Tulley Chief Co-Editor Juliet Eales Co-Editors Bethany Vella Jade Gooding Junior Editors World Politics - Claudia Gleeson Culture - Imogen Sawyer Business & Economy - Tom McGivan Science & Technology - Jorel Chan Design Design Editor - Hugo Brown Online Online Editor-in-Chief - Laura Kho Associate Online Editor - Daisy Cummins Associate Online Editor - Will Burke-Nash Associate Online Editor - Emily Langley Associate Online Editor - Katja Garson Secretariat Secretary - Jessica Ng Treasurer - Lizzie Moseley Events Officer - George McNeilly Marketing & Publicity Officers Jonti Pajwani & Savanna Bonstow Sponsorship Officer Joe Popiolek

DEAR

Readers,

Welcome to the first edition of the Durham Globalist, Durham University’s only student-run, international affairs magazine. The Durham Globalist is a member of the Global21 network, an international network of student-run foreign affairs magazines at premier universities across five continents. Global21 is coordinated at Yale University and has established chapters at Oxford University, the London School of Economics and Peking University, to name but a few. Global21 publications reach over 300,000 students around the world and have been described by Thomas Friedman of The New York Times as the student-run version of The Economist. The magazine will focus on international issues within World Politics, Business & Economy, Culture and Science & Technology. We hope to provide a forum through which a diverse group of students can express their thoughts and comment on pressing issues in international affairs. Our first edition will focus on ‘The Sexes’. We hope to have produced a publication in which the plight of both men and women can be explored in varying contexts. Chief Co-Editor Juliet Eales provides a compelling case surrounding the masculinisation of women in politics, whilst Jessica Ng takes an interesting perspective on the rise of the ‘new’ feminist. Contributors are also given the opportunity to dictate their own choice of topic; the range of issues explored in this issue is certainly inspiring. Articles range from a discussion on the future of 3D printing, to the potentially bright future of African development. I would like to take this opportunity to thank our wonderful Executive Committee and our talented contributors. Without you all, our first issue would have been impossible to produce. We hope that the Durham Globalist proves an interesting and thought-provoking read. If you would like to get involved in our next edition, please email myself at durham.globalist@durham.ac.uk Best wishes,

This magazine is published by the students of the University of Durham. The University of Durham is not responsible for its contents. All pictures from Creative Commons used under Attribution Non Commercial License All maps adapted from Wikipedia Commons

Sophie Tulley Founder and Editor-in-Chief

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Contents Economics & Business

World Politics 5

Juliet Eales • Big Girls Don’t Cry – Why do female political leaders need to be masculinised in order to rule?

Jade Gooding • Surrogacy - a tale of two stories.

Claudia Gleeson • Is democracy the better methodology, and should China succumb?

Rowan Newland • A development in women’s rights could combat climate change.

Jade Azim • Exceptions from Terrorism

Bethany Clarke • The Plight of the Rhino: A Global Crisis

Tom McGivan • Africa’s development: The future is bright for the rising continent

Will Burke-Nash • India’s rise: Exploring the potential of the future world giant

Alec Morris • Tax Avoidance: A Question of Morality or Legality

Elizabeth Moseley • Fires and fashion factories - what does the future hold?

Sophie Tulley • Western Masculinity After the Global Financial Crash

Science & Technology

Culture 14

Jessica Ng • The Rise of the (New) Feminists

Jessie Honnor • Inappropriate cultural appropriation: the origin of twerking

Hugo Brown • 3D Printing - the dawn of a wiki-world?

Jorel Chan • Against a Science of Sex

Bethany Vella • The Femal Orient

Eva Hodgkin • Female genital mutilation in the ‘name of culture’

Matthew Champion • Fracking - the desperate tactics of an addict?

Rebecca Dawkes • Sustainability: Burgeon or Burden?

Daisy Cummins • Women of India speak up: Femininity as a life sentence of inferiority and sexual objectification

George McNeilly • ‘You cannot teach a crab to walk straight’ – Aristophanes

Tom Rooney • Literature in the globalised world: a reflection

Katja Garson • Gold on the Ground – an introduction to the cloudberry in Finland

Ruby Lawrence • Planet of the Blockbuster

World Politics Big Girls Don’t Cry – Why do female political leaders need to be masculinised in order to rule? The disproportionate representation of women in the political sphere is widely recognized, and their exclusion from access to power often noted. There are currently only sixteen female world leaders in power, and amongst the world’s ten most populous countries only five – India, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, and Bangladesh – have at some point in their history had a female political leader. Amongst women currently in office, several represent their country’s first elected female leader: Angela Merkel of Germany, Helle Thorning-Schmidt of Denmark, Joyce Banda of Malawi, Park Geun-hye of South Korea, Yingluck Shinawatra of Thailand and Dilma Rousseff of Brazil - to name a few.

media focus upon the personalities and personal lives of our political leaders, and the greater acceptance of male displays of emotion.

Julia Gillard, another so-called Iron Lady, has referred to the need to suppress visible emotional

‘female politicians must choose between being characterised as either compassionate or competent’

John F. Kennedy once said, ‘I’m always rather nervous about how you talk about women who are active in politics, whether they want to be talked about as women or as politicians.’ Viewing these two roles as mutually exclusive stretches back to Queen Elizabeth I’s proclamation, ‘I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach Female politicians are often of a king’, which thereby equated criticised in ways uniquely femininity with incapacity, and applicable to women. For example, masculinity with hegemony. The Indira Gandhi, former Prime ‘Iron Lady’ epithet has perpetuated Minister of India, was referred to this tradition; the term has most as Gungi Gudiya, meaning ‘Mute famously been levelled at ex-British Doll’, and Richard Nixon described Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, her as an ‘old witch’. Merkel has and applied numerously to other been described as a ‘black widow female heads of government spider’ and Julia Gillard, Australia’s including Benazir Bhutto, Joyce first female Prime Minister, was Banda, and Indira Gandhi. Golda routinely referred to as both a Meir, the first female Prime Minister of Israel, ‘as a prime minister, I am not a woman. I was described as am a human being.’ an Iron Lady years before Thatcher ‘witch’ and a ‘man’s bitch’. It is and, tellingly, David Ben-Gurion, unlikely that such gender-specific the first Prime Minister of Israel, insults would have been levelled at once called Meir ‘the only man male politicians. One result of such in the Cabinet.’ While the term is sexism is the global trend that sees defined simply as a ‘strong-willed female political leaders display woman’, the implication is that reduced sensitivity and emotion in an Iron Lady absorbs or imitates contrast to their male counterparts, a typically masculine style of in order to avoid exhibiting leadership. This term implies ‘stereotypical’ signs of femininity that strength, inflexibility, and associated with weakness and aggression are traits inherently irrationality. This double standard unnatural to the female character: has become more pronounced as a no parallel ‘Iron Gentleman’ exists result of the increasingly intense in political commentary.

reactions stating: ‘you’ve just got to be a pretty hard bastard to get it done.’ In her first public appearance since her resignation in June 2013, she stated that one of her strongest motivations when she left office was not to allow her critics the pleasure of seeing her publicly cry. Thatcher herself only teared up on one occasion, when she was in her car and leaving Downing Street for the last time. Hillary Clinton’s teary eyes midinterview in New Hampshire during the 2008 campaign trail for the Democratic presidential nomination led to a biting article in The New York Times entitled, ‘Can Hillary cry her way back to the White House?’ Previously derided for her supposed quasi-androgyny, Clinton was now mocked as ‘the heroine of a Lifetime movie’, and the article questioned, ‘is this how she’ll talk to Kim Jong-il?’ Critics immediately equated her tears with manipulation, female melodrama, and political limitation. Yet public tears are becoming increasingly common amongst male politicians. While Edmund Muskie’s presidential nomination campaign was ruined in 1972 when he broke down in tears in response to newspaper criticisms of his wife, Barack Obama’s tears while thanking his campaign staff following his re-election in 2012 went uncriticised. Clinton discussed this double standard

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during an interview with Access Hollywood: ‘If you get too emotional, that undercuts you,’ she said. ‘A man can cry; we know that. Lots of our leaders have cried. But for a woman, it’s a different kind of dynamic.’ This dynamic is aptly illustrated by the accusations of fakery that were directed at Yingluck Shinawatra when she welled up on national television this December while pleading with street protesters to go back to their homes. An alternative model of leadership does exist that embraces and accentuates womanhood rather than replacing it with supposedly masculine characteristics. This is the ‘Mother of the Nation’ model, rooted in stereotypically feminine traits and emphasising gentleness, cooperation, and empathy. Examples of women who have adopted this model include Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, the Liberian president, who has

been called ‘Ma Ellen’, and even Merkel, who has been nicknamed ‘Mutti’ by the German press. Corazon Aquino, the first female president of the Philippines, was also regularly described as ‘the mother of democracy’. During her unsuccessful bid for the French presidency, Ségolène Royal was named ‘Dame or Madone of the Poitou’ by the French press, and campaign polls found her strengths were honesty and understanding. However, the polls also demonstrated that Royal trailed behind her competitor Nicolas Sarkozy when it came to ‘being presidential’, suggesting that female politicians must choose between being characterised as either compassionate or competent. Not only do we need to recognize that tears and visible emotions are not necessarily a sign of weakness, we need to stop recognizing these traits as typically feminine. Male

leaders have shown that they can be sensitive, and female leaders have shown that they can be hard and unrelenting. Indira Gandhi stated, ‘as a prime minister, I am not a woman. I am a human being.’ To deny her femaleness is not to claim her maleness, but rather to ignore the issue of gender altogether. Gandhi refused to look at gender in binary terms, allowing for a spectrum of human behaviour and emotion regardless of X or Y chromosome. If we recognise politicians merely as human beings without a gender bias, perhaps the balance of representation would ultimately become less skewed, ensuring a far more secure democratic legitimacy. Juliet Eales, MA Medieval and Renaissance Literary Studies, St Chad’s College

Surrogacy: a tale of two stories Surrogacy in Western society is a liberating and empowering choice for women. However, in Eastern civilisations such as India, surrogacy is a form of labour that wrongly exploits the vulnerable and needy. A lack of universal regulation has meant that surrogacy is becoming an industry in the East, whilst babies have become an exported commodity to the West. In the UK, surrogacy is regulated by the Human and Embryo Fertilisation Act 2008. There are three core elements to a parental order being granted under section 54 of the Act. First, a surrogate mother must give consent six weeks after birth; second, commercialisation of surrogacy is illegal and only ‘reasonable expenses’ will be tolerated; and finally, there must be one biological parent within the commissioning party.

Following a hostile history, surrogacy is now a generally accepted method of reproduction, particularly in light of the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013, depicting the various familial structures recognised in England. An increasing number of homosexual and heterosexual couples seek to begin a family through surrogacy. However, an insufficient supply of surrogate mothers in the UK has resulted in ‘surrogacy tourism,’ with crossborder arrangements becoming the norm. However, there are two sides to every story. In countries such as India, there are no equivalent forms of regulation, resulting in a booming surrogacy industry. Financial incentives have resulted in the exploitation of the most vulnerable and needy women,

who are seduced by surrogacy agencies due to a lack of alternative employment opportunities. It is this economic disempowerment - a product of gender inequality that often contributes to a woman’s decision to become a surrogate. Whilst commissioning parents of a surrogacy arrangement receive

‘critics have described such arrangements as analogous to prostitution and slavery’ the precious gift of life - wealthy foreign agencies conceal the true realities of the industry. Deficient counselling and guidance often results in the victimisation of the helpless surrogates, who suffer psychological difficulties after giving up the child. As such, inadequate regulation within

Eastern societies enables the continual subjugation of women who are subject to control over their reproductive choices. At the extreme, critics have described such arrangements as analogous to prostitution and slavery, as a result of the exploitation of the reproductive capacity as a commodity. Due to the lack of universal regulation, there are no precise statistics on surrogacy

arrangements. Not only is the exploitation and commodification of babies sickening and immoral, surrogacy – as it currently stands – is diminishing the value of life. As depicted in UK legislative provisions, life is a precious gift to which there is no universal cost. It is uncertain what the future holds. International regulation should no longer be a question

of ‘if,’ but a decision of ‘when’. Governments need to recognise responsibility; they must unite and strengthen their hold on surrogacy arrangements to prevent exploitation and to protect the sanctity of life. Jade Gooding, LLB Law, St Hild & St Bede College

Is democracy the better methodology, and should China succumb? Churchill once famously stated, ‘Democracy is the worst form of government, except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to time’. This appears to be a principle that Western governments have not only clung to, but also championed, as the absolute mark of a developed society; governments that do not conform are painted as deficient by politicians and press alike. But is this Western viewpoint necessarily the right one, or does it simply reveal the pervasive small-mindedness of what has been Anglo-American hegemony?

of Americans. So far, the statistics are effectively identical. This can be taken as a commendation for Cuba’s socialist system. The three composite indicators of the Human Development Index (HDI) measure health, education and income; used by the UN as a way of quantifying living standards, the HDI implies that some degree of wealth is necessary for a good quality of life. What is impressive about Cuba then, is that it has achieved near-

story is known the world over and barely needs repeating: since introducing Deng Xiaoping’s flagship Open Door Policy in 1986, the Chinese economy has doubled every 8 years, and in 2010 China became the world’s second largest economy. By 2040 its GDP is predicted to reach $123 trillion, and per capita income to reach $85,000; the forecast for the EU is less than half of this. In real terms, this means over 450 million people have been lifted out of poverty in China since 1981.

‘it may be better to be poor in China than in India, the converse

Many consider socialism to be the enemy of democracy, and US is probably’true if you are a member of the middle class’ President Barack Obama’s renewal of the Trading with the Enemy Act identical LE, IMR and literacy rates this year shows that nothing has as the US, but its Gross Domestic If China were a democracy, would changed (the ‘enemy’ here being Product (GDP) is $121 billion, it have achieved the same degree communist Cuba). According to compared to the GDP of the US, of rapid growth? Perhaps this is America’s reasoning, Cuba must, which is 130 times higher at $15.94 better exemplified by the choice of as a communist state, provide trillion. Cuba manages to deliver where you would choose to live: as a a lower quality of life than its the same levels of health and poor man in China, or as an equally northern democratic neighbours. education, but without the same poor man in neighbouring India. However, this is not necessarily financial income. So, the question I would without hesitation pick borne out by the evidence. must be asked, is fiscal wealth the former, and here is why. India Common indicators of living important for quality of life? Or is the world’s largest democracy, standards, such as Infant Mortality is that just the bias that naturally with 725 million voters in 2014. Rates (IMR) and Life Expectancy comes from looking through an All persons above the age of 18 (LE), suggest otherwise. In Cuba LE Anglo-American prism? are technically eligible to vote, but at birth is 78.05 years, and the IMR not all are able: half of Mumbai’s is 4.76 deaths per 1000 live births. Though Cuba may not have a GDP 16 million population live in This is where it proves interesting: as high as America, communist informal settlements that occupy LE in the US is 78.6 years but IMR China’s immense financial growth only 8% of the city, and with no is 5.9 deaths per 1000 live births during the last quarter century formal or official representation, - a fraction higher. Furthermore, proves that democracy is not they have little to no influence 99.8% of Cubans over the age of 15 actually necessary for economic on the government. Though a years are literate, compared to 99% prosperity either. China’s success member of the Commonwealth,

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For many, this is the image that defines Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach to revolution. Is this fair? Can a truly developed nation be anything other than a democracy?

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Democracy is the worst form of government, except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to time.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; winston Churchill

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and the recipient of three visits in three years by UK Prime Minister David Cameron, 37% of India’s population still live below the poverty line. That figure equates to 444 million people. Corrupt Government officials – it was recently ranked 94th on Transparency International’s Corruption Perception Index – siphon off money originally meant for social welfare and infrastructure projects for their own gain, and so improvement for those living in slum conditions is sluggish at best. Though on a lesser scale than India, China also suffers from over-crowded cities, the common result of widespread rural-urban migration; a large proportion of the urban populace live unrecognised by the government. The Chinese hukou system – a form of household registration which limits access to public services such as hospitals and schools outside a person’s ‘official’ residence (typically place of birth) - means that many of the 8.5 million migrants to cities each year save their newfound income for future medical bills. China needs to reform the hukou system if it wants to tap into the

huge potential consumer market of its emergent middle class and maintain steady economic growth. Whilst it may be better to be poor in China than in India, the converse is probably true if you are a member of the middle class. Inevitably as people in China have prospered and basic necessities such as food, electricity and housing have become less of an uncertainty, they begin to require more of their government. With wealth comes a range of freedoms, including travel to other states with democracy and unregulated access to the Internet. Though whistle-blower Edward Snowden revealed that even in democracies, access to the Internet is never fully unsupervised; the Chinese middle classes look to the West and see that inexorable next step of development: the vote. Clearly Churchill was, once again, right on both counts: a democratic system is a highly flawed one, but it is also preferable to any other. It is clear that a democratic system is not necessary for development, proven by the economic growth from the industrial revolution in the UK before women’s suffrage in 1928 (my chosen marker of full democracy in this country),

as much as by China’s own rapid economic growth. But once development has been initiated, and a decent common standardof-living met, a democratic system enables a population to decide what type of country they would like to be. The West is wrong to condemn China for its communism, whilst America’s system also allows democratically elected politicians to pursue their own agenda. For example, in 2013, fringe Republican tea party members shut down the federal government in an attempt to control the fiscal budget. Democracy isn’t always in the best interest of the people, but it is probably inevitable once private income grows on a massscale; people want greater control of their money. It would appear that China doesn’t have much choice. Claudia Gleeson, Hatfield

Geography,

YOUR THOUGHTS: So is democracy the better methodology? Tweet us @DurhamGlobalist

A development in women’s rights could combat climate change The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) defined climate change resilience as the ‘long-term capacity of a system or process to deal with extreme weather events and changes in climate and develop’. Methods of climate change resilience demand analysing ways in which communities can adapt to changes in local and national weather. Areas such as the Himalayas and the Sahel are being advised on practical solutions for developing resilience; this includes building and improving infrastructure such as flood defences, selecting weather resistant crops to ensure a more stable source of income, implementing

forecasting systems to prepare for erratic weather, and if needs be, then applying effective evacuation plans. However, research has shown that a critical method of developing resilience is through tackling gender equality and enhancing women’s rights, so as to sustain and improve living standards. Studies presented in the UNEP paper ‘Women at the Frontline of Climate Change: Gender Risks and Hopes’ show that ‘women are responsible for 65% of household food production in Asia, and 75% in Sub-Saharan Africa.’ The studies also found that women contribute

‘50% of the agricultural labour force in Africa and Asia.’ The paper highlights the crucial role that women play in the sustenance of family life in these countries, and thus illustrates their huge potential when it comes to developing resilience towards climate change. These figures suggest that because women are so involved in areas such as agriculture, they hold niche knowledge with regards to the direct effects of climate change they experience. This makes the female’s opinions invaluable to the understanding and implementation of strategies

‘women in particular of resilience. However, despite handling most aspects of land and money, due to the status of women in lessdeveloped rural societies women do not have any rights with regards to ownership of land or assets. The division of labour is also very uneven: not only are women expected to tend to the livestock and crops, but they are also expected to maintain the well-being of their family through household tasks, which include gathering water and food. In Nepal, for example, these two tasks leave women particularly vulnerable to the risks of climate change: water often has to be carried through mountain passes that are made treacherous by the increasing rates of rainfall. Due to the extremities of such tasks, many climate change experts believe that women in particular have developed a specialised awareness about the effect of climate change in communities. Women can also provide key insights into the impact of natural disasters and the effectiveness of policies that aim to combat the devastating effects of climate change disasters. Studies show that ‘women are disproportionately vulnerable to the effects of natural disasters and climate change where

their rights and socio-economic status are not equal to those of men’. Reasons for this can be as simple as the clothes that women are expected to wear in some cultures. For example, women who wear sarees in parts of Asia, are inhibited in their the ability to run to safety quickly. More critical, longerterm effects of climate change on women include poor medical treatment in the aftermath of disasters, particularly with regards to reproductive health. Too little emphasis is placed on the special supplies and attention needed to keep women safe from infection, or to keep pregnant mothers and their infant children alive in the face of adverse circumstances. Situations like this demonstrate the urgent need for women to be granted a voice in the policymaking process, in the hope of bringing women-specific issues to forefront of climate change policy. Empowering women to recognise their worth to communities enables them to play an invaluable part in making their surrounding areas resilient to the effects of climate change. This just proves that the push for gender equality is something that will improve standards of living for everyone in societies, not just women.

have developed a specialised awareness about the effect of climate change in communities’ Rowan Newland, Van Mildert

Exceptions from Terrorism? Is the Middle East the home of terrorism or has the West brought terrorism to the Middle East? The way in which the West views the Middle East has been influenced by the writings of Edward W. Said, an influential Arab writer. Said introduced the term ‘orientalism’ into our lexis and as the Arab

Spring rages on, its outcomes still unknown, still unpredictable and still tainted on either side with terrorist minorities, the West continues to demonstrate this orientalist approach to the region. But what is orientalism? According to the site arabstereotypes.org, it is defined as ‘a way of seeing that imagines, emphasizes, exaggerates

and distorts differences of Arab peoples and cultures as compared to that of Europe and the U.S’. It is a demeaning comparative viewpoint that seeks to belittle and almost demonize what many Europeans view as a ‘backwards’ region of the world. This can be seen as ironic, considering the fact that the actions of European

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colonial powers formed the key foundations of Middle East instability. The colonial legacy left a trail of destruction, and continues to do so. In fact, it is hard to label

Middle East depicted in a post 9/11, CIA-defined world is that they are our perpetual enemy: one to be destroyed. Terrorism has been made synonymous with race, and white westerners have decided ‘it is a demeaning comparative viewpoint that seeks to belittle that they are not terrorists; their actions are never those of and almost demonize what many Europeans view as a ‘terror’, but are considered to be ‘backwards’ region of the world’ responses of self-defence. The colonialism as a ‘legacy’; western arguably illustrated through War on Terror is as much a war of imperialism still persists in the the continuation of highly terror, but to many in the US and Middle East. Just as one politician controversial drone attacks over Europe it is more one-sided than may use fabrication, simplification Lebanon and Pakistan. This is that. and demonization to justify the particularly ironic as, to a large harsh cutting of benefits to the extent, the USA’s use of drones, Crucially, rhetoric is key in politics poor and vulnerable, so too do amongst other foreign policy and nowhere is this truer than western statesmen use a certain initiatives, seems tantamount in the West’s perception of the orientalist viewpoint to justify with the common definition of Middle East and the foreign policy the continuing onslaught in the terrorism. However the USA – and this perception influences. We Middle East. Indeed, orientalism arguably the rest of the Western live in an era in which American was inferred in 2003 when George world - considers itself to be exceptionalism and terrorism are Bush presented a masterful array of immune from theword. By contrast, one and the same, but American theatre to convince the American the Middle East is allowed no exceptionalism is just that: an Congress, and indeed the public, such exceptions: the entire region exception from the definition. that bombing Iraq to smithereens fulfils the orientalist’s fantasy was justified, because it was a of a homogenous population Jade Azim, Politics, St Cuthbert’s breeding ground for terrorists. of extremists. The image of the College The simplification of the Middle East as the home of terrorism persists under the Obama administration,

The Plight of the Rhino: A Global Crisis The story of the rhino was once one of great success in Africa. Anti-poaching and conservation schemes drove numbers up to a healthy population. The greatest triumph was in the twentieth century, when numbers of African White Rhino soared from 50 to 20,000 and numbers of the African Black Rhino reached over 5,000. Between the years 2000 and 2008, it was reported that less than twenty rhinos were poached annually in Africa. Unfortunately, this is now history. The world is faced with what can only be described as a poaching catastrophe, coverage of which has so far been decidedly inadequate. Raoul du Toit is a Zimbabwean environmentalist who was awarded the prestigious Goldman Prize in 2011 for his efforts to nurture critically endangered black-rhino. Prize has summed up the current poaching situation with the

striking image: ‘Poaching spreads like a bush fire’. Indeed, South Africa has been projected to break the world record this year with 1000 rhino likely to be eradicated. Wildlife vet and campaigner William Fowlds (known for his part in the popular ‘Young Vets’ TV Series) argued ‘South Africa is losing an average of five rhino every two days. This crisis is the most significant conservation issue the country has ever faced. South Africa is custodian to most of the world’s remaining rhino. We are the rhino’s last stand.’ Proving the severity of the issue, in autumn of 2013 the Northern Black Rhino sub species were declared officially extinct. Moreover, a South African reserve manager on the frontline

of this battle predicts that at the current rate of depletion, all species of African Rhino will be extinct by 2025. The majority of the demand for rhino horn comes from the expanding middle classes in China and Vietnam. Its historical ‘mystique’ as a curable medicine has proven damaging for the rhino. While it has long been used in traditional medicines, the demand for rhino horn has rapidly increased as a result of claims that a politician’s wife was allegedly cured from cancer through the use of rhino horn. This new appetite

‘An average sized rhino horn can fetch a quarter of a million pounds.’ YOUR THOUGHTS: Do the drone attacks carried out by the USA in the Middle East amount to terrorism? How do we tackle the rhino problem? Tweet us @DurhamGlobalist for rhino horns has created a lucrative market for poachers, making it hard to dissuade people from participating. For many Africans living in severe poverty, the economic potentialities of rhino horns compensates for the illegality of poaching. In fact, it is said that some communities even celebrate when a member of the tribe successfully poaches and brings back a rhino horn. Even the threat of death through the ‘shoot to kill’ policy, which allows anti-poaching units to open fire if poachers resist arrest, has failed to deter poachers. There is still, however, a glimmer of hope on the African horizon. For every five Rhinos killed by poaching, one survives. Whilst their horns don’t regenerate, the connective tissue has an impressive ability to repair itself. Furthermore, on a recent visit to a private game reserve in South

‘a South African reserve manager on the frontline of this battle predicts that at the current rate of depletion, all species of African Rhino will be extinct by 2025.’

Africa, I was humbled to witness park rangers working overtime to help with anti-poaching efforts. Despite their already long days (often beginning at 4am and not finishing until 11pm) rangers helped patrol the reserve during the night, particularly around the period of a full moon, as the light conditions are naturally advantageous to poachers. These rangers go out in trucks with torches in an attempt to deter poachers from entering the reserve. Whereas five years ago only 20% of a ranger’s job was devoted to anti-poaching, it is currently a deplorable 70%. However, one promising new initiative is being carried out at reserves throughout South Africa, involving an injection of dye and poison into the rhino’s horns. The dye makes it easier to identify whereabouts the animals have been poached from if a horn is discovered on illegal markets. The poison will also give a severe

stomach pain to anyone using powdered rhino horn as medicine. It is necessary to consider more widely what the ‘plight of the rhino’ crisis means for the world. An average sized rhino horn can fetch a quarter of a million pounds. Wildlife trafficking is now valued at between $7 and $10 billion a year, putting it in the top five most profitable illegal activities alongside drugs, human trafficking, counterfeiting and weapons. According to the US International Conservation Caucus Foundation (ICCF), ‘Ivory and rhino horn are gaining popularity as a source of income for some of Africa’s most notorious armed groups, including Somalia’s al-Shabab, the Lord’s Resistance Army (L.R.A.), and Darfur’s janjaweed’. The US Government has issued an urgent response, with President Obama and Hillary Clinton pledging over $80m to fight the poaching crisis in Africa. Poaching is a hideous blight on our world; it destroys what is beautiful and it feeds what is destructive. It needs to stop. Bethany Clarke, BA English, Van Mildert

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Culture The Rise of the (New) Feminists The Durham Globalist examines the modern journey of feminism and where the movement stands today. One could be forgiven for thinking that, in recent years, feminism had become a lost cause. After all, a 2012 survey conducted by Netmums, Britain’s largest women’s website, revealed that six out of seven women rejected the term, whilst celebrities and politicians alike hesitated to lend their name to the movement. Feminism had arguably become a dirty word, almost as unacceptable and as shocking as that other f-word. However, with the rise of great, inspirational women in what various media outlets have already dubbed the ‘year of feminism’ (we’re looking at you Wendy Davis and Malala Yousafzai), things appear to be looking up. The first concern to address in any discussion regarding feminism is that of definition. It is the apparent lack of clarity surrounding this fundamental issue that has led to its somewhat distasteful

reputation. In its basic dictionary form, feminism essentially denotes ‘the advocacy of women’s rights on the ground of the equality of the sexes’. Conversely, a survey by the Huffington Post earlier this year found that whilst 82% of their American respondents agreed that ‘men and women should be social, political and economic equals’, only an additional 20% identified themselves as feminists. In this light, recent claims that the fatal flaw of feminism lay in its branding, seem all the more compelling. Indeed, it seems feminism has fallen victim to that age-old problem of stereotype. Troubling new research led by Nadia Bashir from the University of Toronto revealed that in 2013, ‘typical feminists’ were associated with being ‘unhygienic man-haters’. Clearly, as Ed West articulates in The Spectator, feminism had become ‘popularly characterised by its most extreme elements’, representing a seemingly unreasonable and extremist point

of view. What is more, feminism can be seen as having become increasingly easier to dismiss as the big battles surrounding political rights; access to education and employment, had ostensibly been won. As such - certainly for a large part of the past decade - the issue had been relegated to the realm of satire and parody, the domain of the hysterical and the drama queens. But could all this be changing thanks to the voices of two young ladies of the celebrity tabloid variety? In November, Miley Cyrus, responding to attacks from Parliament that her music videos ‘undermined women’, declared that she felt like she was ‘one of the biggest feminists in the world’ because she tells ‘women not to be scared of anything’. Following suit just days after, 19 year old reality TV star Courtney Stodden - famous for her surgically enhanced assets and her marriage at 16 to a then 51 year old Doug Hutchiston - joined the feminist bandwagon, stating that she was a ‘true feminist’ because

she believed in ‘women looking the way they want to look’. Now whilst it is true that the internet has been ablaze with cynics pouring scorn on both Cyrus’s and Stodden’s perception of feminism (that is, that a libertarian and provocative approach copiously argued still plays into popular culture’s sexist games), there is no denying that their comments have brought the issue of feminism to the fore. Be it through supporting Miley’s right to be ‘the biggest feminist in the world’, or defending the honour of feminism from her clutches, it seems that everyone everywhere is talking about what it means to be feminist. Sowhat has this sudden renaissance essentially achieved for feminism? According to former Dresden Dolls performer Amanda Palmer (who, along with British artist Bryony Kimmings, launched a ‘hopeful and provocative manifesto for a peaceful, feminist-loving world’

in November), an awful lot ‘Now we have a window to take the word back and make it equal and forward thinking.’ Indeed, this opportunity for redemption has been taken forward by Elle Magazine and their ‘rebranding feminism’ project, in which they have asked three advertising agencies to redeem the term ‘that many feel has become burdened with complications and negativity’. Although, unsurprisingly, it has not been without controversy and backlash (but that is a different story for another day). It seems that tailoring the movement to become more accessible and understandable to every woman, and every man marks the new agenda for feminism. An impression could arise that the new feminism does not stand against men, but rather drafts them as allies in a battle where teams are defined by sexists and those who advocate equality.

Moreover, its agenda has been amended and adapted, making the new feminism more relevant and undeniably necessary. For instance, the crusade has recently turned its attention to rectifying problems concerning racial diversity or, more correctly, the lack thereof in the feminism story thus far. With the help of social media, the hashtag #NotYourAsianSidekick has finally seen the debate widen to tackle the obstacles faced by Asian American women. Even so, there remains a mountain to climb where feminism and ethnic minorities are concerned. Nevertheless, in the words of Amanda Palmer, ‘there’s a feminist revolution brewing’; arguably the cause has been revived and armed with an updated agenda and new recruits. Its future looks positively glowing. Jessica Ng, BA History, Grey College

Inappropriate cultural appropriation: the origin of twerking 2013 was the year Generation Y learnt about cultural appropriation, predominantly through Miley Cyrus’ evident need to twerk wherever she so pleased. But cultural appropriation isn’t a new phenomenon. For years prominent artists have been accused of borrowing the fashions, music and art forms of various cultural groups and popularising them as their own. Elvis Presley, for example, became the King of Rock and Roll on the back of the hard work of the black artists who heavily influenced his music, and whom many believe never garnered the credit they deserved. However, 2013 was arguably the year in which the impact of cultural appropriation was at its most painfully obvious. It seemed like every day there was some new story about a celebrity causing a furore over appropriating cultures; Selena Gomez wearing a bindi in ‘Come and Get It’; Katy

Perry dressing up in Geisha attire for her American Music Awards performance - the list goes on. The biggest debate that came out of trends of appropriation, is the

Appropriated cultural elements were often used to give a voice to the oppressed, and this should not be ignored. As a wealthy white

‘Appropriated cultural elements were often used to give a voice to the oppressed, and this should not be ignored’ idea that it trivialises the origin culture; belittling their way of life and minimising it into merely an accessory, whilst emphasising their own privilege. For instance, a white person appropriating from black culture doesn’t want to be subjected to racism, just as a heterosexual person appropriating from LGBT culture doesn’t want to have homophobic slurs thrown at them. Those who appropriate the culture of said minority do not experience the oppression and struggles that so often come with being a minority.

woman, Miley Cyrus is often considered to be ‘playing’ at being a minority from a lower socioeconomic level, like those from the New Orleans bounce music scene where twerking originated. By reaping the benefits of the culture for her own financial gain whilst experiencing none of the hardship which twerking grew from, she could be seen to indirectly express racial superiority. As a white British girl who has lived in a Western culture her entire life, I have never been a

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target of cultural appropriation assimilated, others much less so. However, critics of this imply that or felt personal offence because Some argue that the people who by not accompanying appropriation of it. However, as with political ‘Some argue that the people who bring different cultures a member of the or cultural LGBT community, I into the mainstream are agents of social change’ statements and have witnessed my acknowledging own fair share of stereotyping bring different cultures into the that trends have been borrowed and marginalisation. It is not mainstream are agents of social from another culture, just culture from different areas change; by taking on the personas appropriation merely reinforce of the world that are affected of otherwise underrepresented narrow and stereotypical by this; other marginalised cultures and giving them representations of minorities in minorities have experienced exposure to the masses, cultural the media. However, perhaps by cultural appropriation. Madonna, appropriation is an aid rather stating that something belongs for instance, has been accused of than an offensive hindrance to immovably to a particular borrowing from a hoard of cultures these cultures. The adoption of culture and accusing someone of to sell her music, including gay black culture in the 1960s was cultural appropriation is merely culture. This was seen chiefly considered to have helped pave the reinforcing the stereotype in itself. through her song ‘Vogue’, whereby way for racial equality in America The question is, where do we she brought voguing, a dance that - perhaps the same can be said draw the line? It is argued that had its origins in the black and of now. As Anna Leach stated in Westerners are accustomed to Latino gay community of Harlem, The Guardian, she is thankful for imposing their own culture onto into the popular eye. Hipster hipsters ‘because they make it cool others and taking what they want culture also supposedly undercuts to be gay’, or at least pave the way in return. The Western culture LGBT culture by integrating for more acceptance through their has indeed opened itself up to queer style with a potentially fashion statements. Others merely being adopted by outsiders, but heterosexual lifestyle. feel that their fashion choices are not every culture is the same. a way of personal expression, Ultimately, perhaps we should However, as with all social debates, and that just because something remember that we do not live in a there is a clear divide between those has its origins in another culture homogenous world and that the who think cultural appropriation doesn’t mean we shouldn’t be able debate on cultural appropriation is a problem, and those who do not; to emulate and enjoy it as members will undoubtedly persist. some are keen to have their culture of a different culture. Jessie Honnor, BA English Literature, Grey College Got strong views on this? Visit our Facebook page.

The Female Orient ‘Her children have flies on their eyelids and pot bellies, and her breasts are flat and empty. She must look utterly helpless. She can have no past, no history…She must never say anything about herself in the dialogue except to speak of her (unspeakable) suffering.’ (Wainaina, 2005) One would hope that the emergence

of feminism could relieve women of colour from this detrimental image. One would hope that it could deconstruct the power relations that have long existed between the ‘West and the rest’. And one would certainly hope that feminism would not actually reproduce all of the above.

Let us remind ourselves of feminism’s historical origin. Feminism erupted in the US around the late 1800s, in a call for equality between men and women. This included the right to vote, property rights, equal wages etc. It later progressed to dissolve the distinction between the public sphere (dominated by men) and

the private sphere (dominated by women), introducing the idea of ‘the personal is political’. Finally, feminist theory became an academic critique of knowledge and the production of knowledge. I am cautious not to condemn feminism’s achievements too much. Of course females should not be discriminated against on the literal grounds of being a woman. However, it is the final characteristic of feminist theory, concerning knowledge production that I wish to concentrate, particularly in the context of ‘Orientalism’. This is a concept devised by Said (1978) to analyse cultural representations, remarking on a European invention of the ‘Orient’, arguably embedded in European colonialism. The genealogy of Orientalism dates back to seventeenth century European Enlightenment, a time of escaping traditional worldviews dominated by Christianity, to seeing a new world through reason, philosophy and science. Europe was progressing and modernising whilst non-European countries remained traditional and uncivilised. Hence, Enlightenment knowledge was shaped by binary oppositions that are bound up in power, founding an imagined idea of the West as superior. In the wake of feminist theory, it emulated just that - an imagined idea of Western feminist scholarship as superior. The female

orient was traditional, backward, a victim of oppression and power inequality. The female occident on the other hand was liberated, secular, modern and developed. She had the power to speak on behalf of, and produce knowledge of the ‘other’. In doing so, white feminists - despite having little connection with the lives of most women - were homogenising the oppression of women in the ‘Third World’, applying their own accounts of oppression on a universal basis and assuming that they were orthodox. This is not to assume that women of colour were incapable of speaking for themselves. Rather, this is a matter of cultural power that exists in Western feminist writing and consequently, reproduces the description articulated by Wainaina above. Importantly, such representations are not solely confined to women in Africa. The power to speak for others appears inherent in Okin’s (1999) piece, Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women? Lest to delve too deeply into Okin’s argument, her discussion of certain cultural practices like polygamy and rape are articulated explicitly as problematic to women. She concludes that women are either better off if their culture became extinct, or if the said culture orientates itself towards liberal values and the equality of women. Here, not only does Okin ignore the meanings of cultural practices

to those ‘inside’ and ‘outside’ the group; she implies that cultures should emulate the ‘West’. Okin assumes that Western values are universally felt and fails to acknowledge that ‘Western culture’ also oppresses women, be it economically or socially. Again, although concerning a different (yet, not detached) topic of ‘multiculturalism’, its scholarship is rooted in the colonial powers of the West and draws parallels with the writings of the female orient. It is necessary to acknowledge that this feminist power imbalance has been responded to and challenged in recent years. Mohanty (1991) for example criticises cultural imperialism, and Dwyer (1999) problematises the Western assumption that dichotomies such as the modern/traditional are diametrically opposite. Thus, there exists a wider body of postcolonial feminist literature that is slowly eroding Western feminist scholarship as superior and accounting for an array of feminisms. Nonetheless, although feminism must be accredited for its achievements in gender equality in the West, the force of feminist theory deconstructing cultural power imbalances still seems farreaching. Bethany Vella, Geography, St Hild & St Bede College

‘White feminists - despite having little connection with the lives of most women were homogenising the oppression of women in the ‘Third World’ ’

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Female genital mutilation in the ‘name of culture’ Female genital mutilation (FGM) is an act of gendered violence, which, in the Western world, is relatively easy to ignore. It occurs most frequently in Africa – with a staggering 98% of women undergoing the process in Somalia ‒ as well as in Yemen, Iraqi Kurdistan, and Indonesia. The commonly held view in the UK is that FGM is a tragic act that does not occur with any frequency on British soil. As such, few practitioners are caught or prosecuted. In fact, the charity FORWARD estimates that 6500 girls are mutilated every year in the UK, and yet, in the 28 years since FGM has been a crime, not a single practitioner has ever been prosecuted. This is a damning record that surely brings shame on the Western world. Three million girls are mutilated every year worldwide, and more than 125 million women alive today have been subjected to the practice. How many more girls will be subject to genital mutilation before antiFGM laws become more than simply good intentions? FGM is a crime which varies in severity from Type I - the partial or total removal of the clitoris, to Type III - infibulation, which entails sewing together the outer labia and in doing so closing the vagina and urethra and leaving one small opening for urine and menstrual fluid to pass through, and for sexual intercourse to take place. After infibulation, girls may have their legs bound together for periods of several weeks to ensure that the wound heals tightly. These highly dangerous procedures are frequently carried out by female elders with little or no training, paid to mutilate groups of girls en masse without anaesthetic, often using unsterilized tools such as razors, knives, or scissors. It seems hardly necessary to

outline the incredible mental and physical damage such procedures inflict on girls, who themselves range in age from newborns to new brides. In the worst cases, blood loss and infections can cause death, with the risk of sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV greatly increased through the use of the same tools on multiple girls. Type III in particular can cause intense pain when passing urine or menstrual fluid, as well as leading to complications in childbirth and difficulties during sexual intercourse. The psychological trauma of FGM often proves equally lasting, impacting on familial relationships, especially between mothers and daughters. Leyla Hussein, the co-founder of an anti-FGM charity Daughters of Eve, described her own experience on Mumsnet: ‘I underwent FGM at the age of seven. I was pinned down by the people I trusted, while my flesh was being cut off. To this day, I struggle to describe how that pain felt, but I know it was torture and I wouldn’t wish it on my worst enemy.’ Such testimony begs the question: how can participants justify such a practice to themselves? Many invoke that well-worn pretext: ‘tradition’. It is undoubtedly true that in some communities, FGM is seen as a rite of passage. In Sierra Leone for example, the process is known as bondo, or initiation. For many parents, rejecting such longestablished cultural and social norms can lead to being cut off from the community, with little chance of marriage for daughters (uncut women are generally seen as unclean or promiscuous). Dr Nawal Nour, who treats patients with FGM, recently stated in an interview with The New York Times ‘The parents do it because they think this is necessary to ensure that their daughters will get

married. They love their children’. Similarly, some see it as a question of hygiene in much the same way that North Americans advocate male circumcision, although this shows a kind of revulsion at female genitalia, suggesting a far deeper ingrained sexism. At its core, FGM is motivated by the age-old desire for female subordination. It is a practice believed by some to increase fertility, ensuring the continuation of a woman’s role as a stay-at-home mother, and more importantly that potential brides will be ‘pure’ and virginal. Once a woman is married, it is believed FGM helps guarantee fidelity, as sex is less pleasurable for women. With almost laughable hypocrisy, this can also be used to justify male polygamy. It is crucial to remember that, while many choose to focus on FGM as a ‘cultural tradition’, it is ultimately an act that reinforces female oppression and prevents women from having control over their own sexuality. Some would certainly argue, with a kind of misplaced political correctness, that those who criticise cultural practices such as FGM are at best insensitive, and at worst guilty of cultural imperialism. However, acts of oppression and brutality should be condemned wherever they are found: in Europe, Africa or elsewhere. ‘Tradition’ is not a justification. Moreover, Nimco Ali, another co-founder of Daughters of Eve, stated that it is ignoring FGM that is racist, as ‘it means that girls from some backgrounds are less protected than others’. Consequently, claiming to appreciate cultural difference can actually translate into failing the children of migrant communities. Fundamentally though, FGM is an act of physical violence that

generally takes place against children too young to resist: this is the bottom line. There has been some clear improvement in the last few decades. FGM is now outlawed in twenty-six African countries, although, as in Europe, enforcement proves difficult. A 2013 UNICEF report showed a downward trend in FGM in countries such as Kenya and Tanzania, with teenagers three times less likely to have been mutilated than middle-aged women. Furthermore, reversal surgeries, which can re-open the vagina, are becoming increasingly sophisticated, and clitoral reconstruction allows at least some sexual sensation to be restored. However, more to question an issue

there is clearly still be done. FGM is a of social norms, it is that must be tackled

at the grassroots and across communities, via campaigning, education and crucially, increased law enforcement. Such measures would also encourage a new dialogue between men and women, in the hope that FGM can be viewed in a new light. FGM is often viewed as a covert ‘woman’s issue’, however, the process undoubtedly affects the wider community. In the West, this issue deserves greater acknowledgement, not least because of its overwhelming presence in our own communities. On the dawn of the New Year, it is estimated that three million women may become subject to genital mutilation. Saying nothing about this fact is as good as condoning it; let this be the year that the international community speaks up. Eva Hodgkin, English Literature and History Combined Honours, Trevelyan College

'the charity ‘FORWARD’ estimates that 6500 girls are mutilated every year in the UK, and yet, in the 28 years since FGM has been a crime, not a single practitioner has ever been prosecuted.’

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â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;The modern world is universally rooted in patriarchy and masculinity, and it is not until this issue is discussed on an international scale that sufficient change will come and ensure the safety of women on the streets.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Women of India speak up: Femininity as a life sentence of inferiority and sexual objectification A year ago, news of the merciless beating and gang rape endured by a young medical student on a bus in New Delhi reached the international forum.

symptomatic of the standard manner in which perverted men take what they want: a brief cup of a breast in the street, a grope of a buttock, an eyeful of cleavage or more severe assault. The Bollywood portrayal of the shy virgin flirting with the hero whilst secretly loving the attention, waving her hips about and fluttering her eyelashes encapsulates this false image, and to quote Robin Thicke’s song, screams ‘I know you want it.’ For example, the case of a girl emerging from a club at approximately 8:30pm underlined in the recent BBC documentary demonstrates how for some men, stripping a girl in the street is

delusional patriarchy, which feeds sexual violence, blames and shames women, bestialises men and liberates rapists from responsibility.

It sparked a global outcry and awoke a latent rage from under India’s The fact is that to be born female skin, bursting into riots and cries in India is to be born second rate. for executions and an end to the The birth of a daughter is not horrors faced by women in India’s considered a cause for celebration ‘rape capital’. On 16 December 2012 but for disappointment; a girl after viewing The Life of Pi with a will only cost the family money, male friend, Jyoti Singh Pandey was will not continue the lineage, and gang raped by six men on a moving cannot make a family as proud as bus in New Delhi; her internal a son. Many women are forced to organs were so badly damaged abort countless babies until a male by the metal crow bar thrust into is conceived. Abortion on the basis her, that her attackers managed of gender is illegal and thus many to pull out a significant portion of women who cannot jump the legal her intestines before ‘to be born female in India is to be born second rate’ loops have violent they attempted to run and dangerous the bus over her limp practices performed body. Unsurprisingly, she died 10 legitimised by the fact that she upon them in order to abort the days later in hospital, unable to came from a club. Clubs are clearly child. Some newborn girls are speak or open her eyes once she for prostitutes, and therefore she is found by roadsides and taken to had acknowledged her father’s not respectable and in fact desires orphanages filled with girls who public humiliation and sexual have no opportunity to leave presence at her bedside. harassment - all to be filmed on a until marriage. What man will Though the reality of such horror mobile phone of course. The initial or can marry an orphan without is unspeakable, the silence over lawyer who took up the impossible a dowry? A man in love or a man sexual assault and shaming was task of defending the rapists in who has no need to respect a girl lifted: Indians marched through Jyoti’s case believed that Jyoti who has given nothing in payment the streets incensed and the cries was as equally responsible for the for the good deed he has done in against sexual violence rang incident as the rapists. Had she marrying her. Naturally there shrill in the air. Something in this been a respectable young woman will be hundreds of thousands of sexually aggravated murder broke she would not have been harmed; daughters who are cherished, loved the silence of India’s formally however, if your aura does not and nurtured as sons are within gagged women and they too emit respect, then of course you their families. However the social became Nirbhaya momentarily - can do nothing but expect rape. structure carved by tradition and The ‘spiritual guru’ Asaram Bapu religion shapes a world in which Hindi for ‘fearless’. believed Jyoti could have stopped the greatest honour for a woman The number of reported sexual the attack if she had ‘chanted is to marry into a prosperous and assaults has doubled since the God’s name and fallen at the feet respectable family, and, above all, attack in December 2012, and of the attackers’. Here religion to be a good wife. documentaries such as BBC’s and traditional cultural values are ‘India: A dangerous place to be a distorted to blame the woman; by Wives in arranged marriages are woman’ now reveal the fragment virtue of her ‘failing’ to stand as a expected to abandon free will, aid of Indian culture which breeds respectful, faithful Indian woman, husbands in fulfilling their dreams, misogyny and female subjugation. she brought a fatal gang rape upon obey the family in-law, complete This documentary highlights the herself. tasks on time, and of course come term ‘Eve- teasing’ as synonymous equipped with a satisfactory with sexual harassment and This is the mentality of dowry. Inter- familial threats are

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common if the dowry does not meet the demands of the son’s family and in some cases families have to downsize their homes and take out loans. In some extreme cases, the prospective wives have been doused in kerosene and burnt, or simply abandoned by the prospective husband. The practise of burning women in India has moved away from the use of kerosene and flames towards a preference for battery acid, which is cheaper and avoids the risk of arson. A recent case involved a 14-year-old girl who was attacked by a group of boys at 6:30am when she was on the way to a tutorial. One of the boys had tried to talk to her on multiple occasions but she had been uninterested in acquainting herself with him, and as a result of his damaged male ego, he felt an acid attack on her face and shoulders a fitting punishment. A beautiful child’s innocent face now bears the unsightly scars of a fellow-child’s misogyny; she cannot open her mouth wide enough to eat, she lives off liquids, she cannot show the remains of her face in public. Her face is the product of the misogyny and male egoism in India. Victims of fire or acid attacks have their shame permanently burnt on their skin; as long as they live their disobedience determines their identity. Branded like cattle their attackers claim ownership over these women even if they never see them again, for their pride and confidence is claimed forever. Like victims of sexual violence,

these burns victims too are tainted with a shame that composes their identity. Again, Bollywood perpetuates female subjugation by its continued portrayal of the rape victim as fallen, isolated and without a future. Her choice is to marry her rapist or commit suicide, both options preventing further shame for her family whilst saying farewell to happiness forever. Rape victims in India are not named, sparing their family further supposed shame. However reports of sexual violence and mistreatment of women continue to increase, and in our modern globalised world, Indian women cannot escape the tantalising liberation and empowerment exhibited by the West. A handful of women who brought their stories to the West, led by actress Poorna Jagannathan, came in the form of the hard hitting and compelling stage production ‘Nirbhaya’, directed and scripted by Yael Farber. This shocking and heart-breaking play came to London but rose to fame at the Edinburgh Festival this summer, and in a trend synonymous with popular entertainment, brought reality to the viewer in a gripping narrative that chilled audiences and brought streams of tears. The true stories of the actresses’ ordeals were revealed with brutal honesty in monologues, all involving interaction with the one male member of the cast

whose presence became symbolic of misogyny itself. Molestations by family members, marital rape (legal in India), gang rape and kerosene attacks featured in the confessionals from the actresses. Sneha Jawale, a dowry bride who had been doused with kerosene and set alight by her husband visibly stuck out from the rest of the cast, and the story of her son being stolen away 15 years ago by her husband’s family caused the sobbing in the Assembly Rooms to become clearly audible. However this extraordinary piece of theatre did not simply condemn the state of women’s social standing in India: it extended globally. The gang rape of a woman on a New Year’s Eve in New York provided the final autobiographical narrative. The condemnation of sexual assault and patriarchy by this piece is international; it transcends language, age, nationality and sex. The stunned silence and continuous tears from the audience upon exiting the Assembly Rooms stands as testament to the deep emotions stirred by this piece, mirroring the reaction a year ago on the streets of New Delhi. In the New Year ‘Nirbhaya’ is set to open in India, bringing the reality to the audience which desperately needs this reflection most.

‘the social structure carved by tradition and religion shapes a world in which the greatest honour for a woman is to marry into a prosperous and respectable family’

When will rape culture end? As India – a nation steeped in tradition and religion - comes to dealings with a more liberal, secular Western world with an open media - how can we do nothing for our sisters who long for freedom? Severe injustices continue, the youngest man ‘too young’ to commit Jyoti’s rape (17 years and six months) was condemned to three years in a reform facility, whilst the remaining four men (one was found dead before the verdict) await hanging. However, their appeals continue. The trial lingers a year on and four men clutch at straws for their lives, despite the public’s demand for their deaths.

UN Secretary, General Ban Kimoon, stated that, ‘Violence against women must never be accepted, never excused, never tolerated. Every girl and woman has the right to be respected, valued and protected.’ The West calls for a change in India, but the rape culture in the West can hardly be seen as a beacon of inspiration. The modern world is universally rooted in patriarchy and masculinity, and

it is not until this issue is discussed on an international scale that sufficient change will come and ensure the safety of women on the streets. Daisy Cummins, English Literature, University College

YOUR THOUGHTS: Could India ever be classed as a misogynistic nation? Tweet us @DurhamGlobalist

‘You cannot teach a crab to walk straight’ – Aristophanes Classical Athens was the jewel of the Aegean and commonly hailed as the ‘Birthplace of Western Civilisation’, where democracy, literature and art flourished alongside narcissistic and egotistical male misogyny. Was a single comedic author trying to change the ideas fostered in this patriarchal system in his plays Lysistrata and Thesmophoriazousae? Everyone who was anyone in Athens was male. Warriors, politicians, poets, authors. All men. Women were objects and possessions, and considered inferior within the city-state. According to Xenophon, an Athenian chronicler, all women should be encouraged to do housework as a form of exercise. Alongside this, Pericles, the glorified demagogue of the Athenian state, called for ‘silence’ from women on all fronts, for that was a sign of the ‘greatness of Athenian women’. Only through religious festivals and cults could women exploit the concept of individuality and freedom. Women often expressed

themselves in groups, under the pretence of worship. In Ancient Greece, the concept of women as leaders or even individuals was an anathema, and that is where Aristophanes stepped in. Aristophanes turns the fragile minds and bodies of women into those of warriors and proud leaders through one of the Athenians’ favourite past times - the theatre. Athenian theatre was the pinnacle of the arts; festivals requiring state holidays were regularly upheld and even a state subsidiary existed to allow the impoverished to attend.

Aristophanes depicts women infiltrating the meetings and doings of men in disguise. Such a scene was highly scandalous, and no doubt amusing, to the Athenian populace. Aristophanes depicts women controlling men, invading cities and making important political and strategic decisions; actions all believed to be beyond the capabilities of women. Women could not leave the home without permission, let alone rule the state of Athens. Was this ancient comic trying to ‘make the crab walk straight’?

‘Aristophanes turns the fragile minds and bodies of women into those of warriors and proud leaders’

In his play Lysistrata, Aristophanes displays Athenian women partaking in a sex strike against the men of the army until the war with Sparta is stopped; meanwhile the women of the city invade and occupy Athens’ Acropolis, the religious heart of the city. In Thesmophoriazousae,

Or, perhaps his comments are an ironic suggestion that the domination and control of women was comedy, and belonged in the theatre. Perhaps the Athenian patriarchal crab would never walk straight and Aristophanes knew it. So what does it mean for our modern society, that we still

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show the same faults and failings in inequality as those found in classical Athens? One would suggest that we have advanced culturally, socially and politically since classical antiquity, yet on the issue of equality we are still sadly under evolved. As Aristophanes said, can we not teach the crab to walk straight? Can we not change?

to suggest that we are built like this; we must allow ourselves to become an egalitarian society and learn from the past and its misgivings. It is surprising that even now, ‘feminism’ is commonly viewed as a meddling force of extremist women, yet 2400 years ago, a Greek comedian was arguably thinking exactly the same.

Must we learn that from its inception, Western civilisation has been built on the patriarchal model of the subjugation of women? Surely it would be narrow-minded

We have taken great leaps in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries towards equality between the sexes, and perhaps we can use other problems of

the ancient past - such as ethnic debates, religious struggles and the problems of differing ideologies to cure the similar issues of today. Let us change our society and become a model of tolerance. For if we persist with the misogyny of Ancient Greece, is modern society yet to be born? George McNeilly, BA Archaeology, St Hild & St Bede College

Literature in the globalised world: a reflection The literary world has changed substantially over the last three years. The inevitable digitisation of content has finally arrived in full force, with the sale of e-books growing by almost 50% in the US in 2012. At this point, the initial flurry of rapid change has slowed down, and the heat of examination and comment from the media has cooled. The present is the ideal moment to reflect on what has changed and how things may continue to grow over the next decade. The main casualty of these changes has been the collapse of many small, independent booksellers and publishers. Ninety-eight publishers in the UK alone went out of business in 2013, including Evans Brothers and Panos London. The rapid rise of e-books is an easy target of blame for the demise of small brick and mortar bookshops. However, the link is not as clear as may be assumed. It is difficult to establish how the rise of e-books have affected the income of publishers and booksellers. E-books remain classified as digital products, subject to 20% VAT in the UK, unlike physical books, of which are exempt from VAT. Nonetheless, the average price for an e-book in the UK is around £3, however, it is something close to £5.50 for a

physical book. One problem inherent in the e-book market is piracy. A study in Russia showed that while 70% of people read e-books, 92% of those admitted to downloading them for free. Moreover, the growth of the e-book market has slowed down considerably in 2013, following the initial burst with which it arrived. In the first half of 2013, 14% of books bought in the UK were e-books (a growth of only 1% from the first half of 2012). While this is no indication of a lost interest in e-books, the figures do suggest that the general shift towards e-books at the expense of physical books, may not happen as quickly as first expected. The problem for smaller booksellers and publishers may lie in distribution. Amazon currently holds 79% of the e-book market in the UK. This is an even greater problem for small, domestic businesses, particularly due to Amazon’s tax advantages as a global company. The company paid just £2.4m in tax to the UK in 2012, despite earning £4bn in sales. Even large chains can struggle to

keep up with this. For example, the national bookseller, Waterstones, ended April 2012 with a yearly loss of £28.7m. Nevertheless, there is confusion over Waterstones’ own tax behaviour following the discovery that their parent company is registered in Bermuda. Despite its size, Amazon is far from holding the monopoly on book distribution, as is widely believed. At the end of September 2012, Amazon owned 27% of all book sales in the US, yet this is not a monopoly size distance from traditional bookstore Barnes and Noble, who had 17%. Moreover, in Canada, Amazon is dwarfed by bookseller Indigo, who is responsible for over 50% of book sales in the country. 2013 also saw the creation of the world’s biggest publishing company in the merger of Penguin and Random House. The newly formed Penguin Random House holds 27% of the publishing market in the UK and 25% in the US. Even if such large companies are not monopoly holders, their size inevitably makes it increasingly difficult for smaller businesses to survive. The situation could develop even further in this

direction. Victoria Barnsley, who stepped down as CEO of HarperCollins in 2013, predicted at a company conference in 2012 that one of the large London based publishers would collapse in the next few years. If this were to happen, it would mean even fewer large companies controlling the market. However, while smaller literary voices are struggling in the commercial world, they are finding life elsewhere. The Internet has brought not only e-books, but also many publications and communities allowing creative writing online. Alongside this, the number of creative writing courses and programs has increased to at least four hundred undergraduate courses in the UK. One of the most popular examples of this alternate literary world is National Novel Writing Month, or ‘NaNoWriMo’. The campaign is a global effort asking participants

to write a novel in the month of November, an estimated 300,000 people participated in November 2013. This sense of a global literary community is growing. Community writing websites such as Protagonize, Great Writing or Mibba are very protective of their authors, laying out strict guidelines on their websites and usually requiring a validated account to comment on shared work. Perhaps surprisingly, writing seems often only a first point of connection. Forums on such websites show group discussions on many topics, of which writing and literature is just one. If there is a transiency to writers’ work only being read and discussed in the moment, before being lost amongst other submissions on such websites, there is the increasingly popular option of self-publishing. Durham student Josh Yaxley has published two novelettes through

Amazon’s self-publishing service, which allows authors to retain 70% of the sale price in royalties and offers a KDP Select service with some promotional options in return for exclusivity on Amazon. Despite missing ‘the luxury of an editor’, Josh said the experience was relatively easy and ‘definitely made [him] feel ‘more’ of a writer.’ Such an option would have been unthinkable only 10 years ago. While individual voices are being pushed out of the commercial publishing world, they are finding new strength in the alternatives offered online. This division of elite literature controlled by large corporations and small, independent literature thriving online, looks set to grow in the years to come. Tom Rooney, BA English Literature, St Cuthbert’s College

Gold on the Ground – an introduction to the cloudberry in Finland Finland. For many people, the word conjures up images of snow, reindeer and Father Christmas. However, despite the commonly held perception that Finland is a frozen, barren land, this country enjoys warm summers that produce an abundance of flora and fauna and many commonly collected wild foods. As the home of Nokia, the rock band Lordi, and as a country whose economy is increasingly built around manufacturing and electronics, it is somewhat surprising that the Finnish maintain such a strong connection with nature, whilst in many other cultures, the link seems to be weakening.

a precious product of the Finnish culture and seasonal economy. The cloudberry grows in colonies close to the ground in forests and boggy, peaty conditions. Its small, plump, golden-orange fruit are reminiscent of raspberries or blackberries in shape, and shine out alluringly from the rough undergrowth, spangled between their roughly circular green or rust red leaves. Their jewel-like colour, it can be said, is symbolic of their significance within the country.

collecting berries. Finns regularly relocate to private cottages during their free time. Such retreats are usually situated in forested areas by lakes, offering a place for people to relax and connect with nature on a regular basis. Berry picking is an age-old tradition that has continued throughout countless generations and cloudberries feature high on the list. Many people exercise great secrecy concerning the location of their favoured berry spots, often returning year after year, both alone and with family and friends, Finnish laws recognise the Finns’ to pick bucketfuls of the fruit. affinity with the natural world, and There is even a name for the frenzy The cloudberry, with the Latin name common-law rights exist to enable of cloudberry picking which occurs annually from July ‘Finnish laws recognise the Finns’ affinity with the natural world’ through to early August – hilla hulluus, or cloudberry rubus chamaemorus, is largely all members of the public to move fever. unknown and mysterious to most, through the forests, engaging but to the Finns hilla or lakka, is in foraging activities such as With the increasing urbanization

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of the country, growing numbers of people are choosing to live in urban centres such as Helsinki and Tampere, and as such the percentage of people picking cloudberries has fallen. Nonetheless, the basic tradition of berry picking remains a staple within the culture; young people accompany their parents on trips or, at the very least, enjoy the culinary results of a day’s picking.

cloudberry liqueur, concentrate, yoghurts and puddings is considerable. The production of various cloudberry products has propelled the berry to economic significance in Finland. Helsinki maintains a strong connection with the cloudberry bogs, with numerous market stalls selling the

firstly due to the taiga/tundra conditions in this most Northern part of the country which allow the plants to thrive, but also because this part of Finland is the most deprived and suffers from the highest unemployment rates. As a result, cloudberry picking offers regular, if often variable, seasonal

‘Many people exercise great secrecy concerning the location of their favoured berry spots’

This nation-wide obsession is also kept alive in other ways. These specific, cultural tastes and practices are echoed in a variety of media forms. The spectrum ranges from recipes using cloudberries in (among others) the popular home magazine Kotiliesi, to news coverage of the harvest and advice to pickers. The cloudberry even features on the Finnish two Euro coin as a symbol and recognition of its importance.

fruit for common consumption. The berry is economically significant, selling for as much as 15-20 euros per kilo. Despite this, the limited growing season, wide variability in yield between years and difficulty in accessing many of the areas in which the plant grows means that the cloudberry is unlikely to become a major product in an international market.

Whilst the majority of picking is often for personal benefit, the sale of cloudberries, the production of

It is worth noting that the highest percentage of Finnish cloudberries are picked in Lapland. This is

employment. In Lapland, picking may also continue into the night, for during the summer months the sun barely sets below the horizon this far north. It is here on the fells that the hilla hulluus peaks each year, and will surely continue to do so for years to come. Katja Garson, BA Geography, St Hild & St Bede College

Planet of the Blockbuster As blockbuster thrillers with gigantic budgets continue to dominate our screens, Ruby Lawrence explores the cultural effects of this trend that’s reshaping the global film industry. Good guy(s) + bad guy(s) + fighting + compulsory romantic element + predictability + lots of special effects = twenty-first century big blockbuster thriller. If you think that this equation is perhaps a little simplistic, below is a list of comparative (US) domestic/ worldwide earnings of the top five live-action thrillers of 2010 vs. the top five live-action non-thrillers below: Live-action thrillers (2010): Alice in Wonderland / $334.2 / $1063.2

The Twilight Saga: Eclipse / $300.5 / $698.5 Iron Man 2 / $312.4 / $622.1 Harry Potter & the Deathly Hollows Pt. 1 / $295 / $954.5 Inception /$ 292.6 / $825.5 Live-action non-thrillers (2010): The Karate Kid / $176.6 / $359.1 Grown Ups / $162 / $271.4 Little Fockers / $148.4 / $309.5 The King’s Speech / $135.5 / $398.5 Sex and the City 2 / $95.3 / $288.3 The equation fits our big five action

thrillers. The above statistics further illustrate the vast earning potential of the blockbuster, often managing to generate strong earnings despite dismal reviews; Alice in Wonderland was largely panned by critics but sits at the top of the list, bringing in over $1000 million worldwide. Films deemed to be of meager artistic merit constantly hit the jackpot, appearing to be ‘review-proof’. This evidence says as much about the blockbuster audience as it does the avaricious attitudes of studio production executives. As you will have noticed if you’ve frequented the cinema over the past ten years, our screens are saturated with blockbusters - more so than ever before. Jaws (the first film ever to reach ‘blockbuster’ status) had the whole summer of 1975 to

itself! It owned the cinemas. Today, a major studio production roll is released almost every weekend. The reasons for this are global. Today, Hollywood earns less than 18% of its revenues from the domestic box office – the bulk of profitable earning comes from from overseas consumption, ancillaries and merchandising. The global market has become absolutely vital for profit. The result? Films need to appeal to a huge audience if they want to ‘make it’. Toward the end of the 1990s, the cost of promoting a movie in an increasingly crowded marketplace was growing at twice the rate of actually making a movie. Marketing expenses for any wide release now run somewhere between $30-40 million, and costs for big-budget summer thrillers are even higher. With blockbusters, the stakes are high; there is a huge potential for

profit, but if the movie is a failure - investors face crippling losses. Such is the predicated case for Keanu Reeve’s new epic, 47 Ronin; producers are anticipating a loss of as much as £90m. The future looks somewhat bleak for this ‘samurai suicide movie’, which has flopped like a dead fish in Japan (whose film market is notoriously difficult to penetrate). This pricey production cost a whopping $225m to make, but is rumored to be suffering from insufficient ‘buzz’ in the US. Lack of ‘buzz’ can spell doom for the blockbuster in this incredibly rapid and congested market. This all begs the question: why are big budget thrillers becoming integral to penetrating the global market? Why not the rom-com, for example? This brings us back to our equation. It is simple. Blockbusters transcend barriers of language and cultural nuance. A man in a suit of iron is as accessible to Canadian

audiences as it is to Vietnamese audiences. Action-driven plots function as a form of cinematic Esperanto. Blockbusters speak to everyone, albeit arguably, from a fundamentally shallow place of escapist irrelevance. And so, the money keeps on coming. You can wave a sad farewell to the classic films of the 1960s/70s, defined by complexity, moral ambiguity and unpredictability (although there are some exceptions to this modern day aesthetic nadir we appear to find ourselves in – The Bourne Trilogy constitutes a masterpiece, for example). These qualities, once so highly valued in mainstream cinema, now lack earning potential. Films that hereby possess such virtues appear few and far across our screens. Ruby Lawrence, BA English Literature, Josephine Butler

‘ Blockbusters transcend barriers of language and cultural nuance. A man in a suit of iron is as accessible to Canadian audiences as it is to Vietnamese audiences’

YOUR THOUGHTS: What is the best way to approach the situation in India? Are smaller budget films being driven out by the blockbusters - and is this a bad thing? Tweet us @DurhamGlobalist

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Economics & Business Africa’s development: The future is bright for the rising continent I recently watched a Ted Talk entitled ‘Africa’s Next Boom’ by economist Charles Robertson. I was struck by the optimism he used to describe his expectation for development in Africa over the coming decades, given the popular held view of Africa as something of a hopeless continent. Roberston paints the following picture: Africa’s GDP per capita has doubled since 2000, life expectancy has increased, HIV is under control, and the political situation is the most stable it has ever been. Both public and private debt is low which means more money can be spent on education and health. As Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is beginning to pour into Africa, Robertson argues that Africa now sits in a similar position to that of Turkey, Mexico and South Korea thirty years ago. As such, he predicts household incomes to increase seven-fold in the next thirty years, replicating the rapid growth of giants such as China, India and Brazil. The question remains, to what extent is this a realistic vision or a utopian fantasy?

Resource optimism: onwards and upwards Looking at Africa’s prospects for economic growth, there is indeed vast potential. Sub-Saharan Africa is rich in natural resources. Africa holds huge quantities of oil, gas and mineral reserves; in addition it owns 60% of the world’s uncultivated land, estimated to be worth $900bn by 2030. Investment into these industries brings great developments in the technology and infrastructure of African cities. Wolfgang Fengler points to both demography and

geography that will further enable Africa to reap the benefits of these resources. Fengler claims that Africa will become the ‘new demographic powerhouse of the world’; with increasing school attendance and achievement, the number of skilled, working adults will reach new heights as life expectancy increases and the African population nears 2.4 billion by 2050. Moreover, it is projected that these workers will congregate in expanding cities, surrounded by a thriving business environment and a budding economy. This potential has indeed been realised. The 2013 UN report on FDI, by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, shows developing countries taking the lead. The advance of developing countries has been triggered by an increased investment into such countries by multinational companies owned by both developed and developing nations alike. Though investment may be increasing, it is often suggested that the wealth does not trickle down. One only has to look at the role of multinationals in the Nigerian oil industry, or the resource-fuelled civil war in Sierra Leone, to see that these corporations avoid tax and fail to uphold environmental regulations, siphoning wealth back to the developed nations it originated from. Multinational corporations thus exercise a new form of imperialism; leading to a state of inequality where profits go to a minority elite whilst the majority of the populations are left almost nothing. As The Economist writes, the oil and gas industry in Angola has produced this exact disparity between rich and poor: in Luanda, only 9% have access to

running water. In light of this, real reductions in poverty are mixed. The Afrobarometer Research Project reported this year, that ‘whilst over the last two years, we do see reductions in ‘lived poverty’ in five countries (Cape Verde, Ghana, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe), we also find increases in five others (Botswana, Mali, Senegal, South Africa and Tanzania).’

African politics: from Somalia to South Africa The common perception of African politics is one of corrupt regimes that pocket most of the available profits where real societal improvements can only be achieved by paying bribes to government officials. In poor countries such as the DRC and Chad, and even wealthier countries such as South Africa, corruption is rife. From high-level political graft to low-level bribes to police officers, corruption imposes a direct financial toll on a country, corroding political and institutional trust. The Council on Foreign Relations reported that corruption also encourages politicians to buy votes and rig elections, as staying in office grants access to the country’s coffers, as seen in Nigeria’s 2007 elections. So how can this corruption be tackled and has there been any progress? Firstly, the role of anticorruption agencies can help nations deal with the problem. These agencies, working with governments, have seen successful in recovering public funds in Nigeria, Namibia, and Malawi. Secondly, the strengthening of existing institutions mitigates

corruption. As democracy prevails over Africa and institutions are made increasingly transparent, it is estimated that corruption will reduce. Additionally, the corruption that surrounds foreign aid is widely publicised; reducing this foreign dependency through the triumph of transparency and democracy, will also reduce levels of corruption. As African nations receive more investment, the hope is that projects to help the poorest will be financed by the governments themselves.

reasons to be hopeful. Firstly, health and education rates continue to improve as expected, SubSaharan Africa will have skilled labour in abundance. Secondly, as labour costs increase in Asia and governments become increasingly stable in Africa, the business environment will become more attractive, transparent, and better regulated. As a result, equitable economic growth fuelled by investment should be achievable. Thirdly, as mobile communications technology improves, economic opportunities will be more frequent for struggling landlocked countries as the costs of business reduce. Mobile technology also allows for greater political participation and awareness of the effectiveness of government policies.

To assess these measures, the Corruption Perception Index measures the level of corruption per nation. As seen, if you compare the results from 2006, with the results from 2013, there has been a noticeable ‘Assessing the potential reduction in for growth involves corruption.

At worst, SubSaharan Africa debunking the myths that r e p r e s e n t s An additional surround African politics’ a hopeless c o m m o n region, subject misconception about Sub-Saharan to corruption, political Africa is that its development is incompetence, and imperialist stunted by continual conflict in exploitation. At best, it offers an the region. Research by political opportunity for economic growth scientist Scott Straus, suggests unprecedented on a global scale. to the contrary that war in Sub- Assessing the potential for growth Saharan Africa is decreasing. It has involves debunking the myths been estimated that there has been that surround African politics and a reduction in national warfare looking at long-term opportunities. by a third in the last decade, The region’s recent developmental compared to levels in the early- growth indicates that the potential to-mid 1990s. Another prevailing is being realised. One thing is view is that Sub-Saharan Africa is for sure: Africa, as a developing the most war-endemic region. Not so, since 1960, in measuring warsper-country, Asia experiences the most frequent conflict. Lastly, the nature of warfare is changing. With the exception of Mali, today’s wars are not typically fought for state control, but are smaller, often involving insurgencies based on the peripheries of states. This kind of conflict, whilst damaging, is less likely to hinder the overall development of a nation.

The way forward All in all, there are a number of

region, has more opportunity than any other in our history to learn from the past to achieve equitable development. Let us hope that this opportunity is fully realised. Tom McGivan, Combined Honours in Politics & Economics, St Cuthbert’s College

‘Africa will become the new demographic powerhouse of the world’

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India’s rise: Exploring the potential of the future world giant As the second most populous nation in the world, with 1.2 billion inhabitants; India is a country of polar contrasts due to its inherent diversity. With an estimated four hundered different languages, geographical landforms ranging from deserts to snow-capped mountains, and an intrinsic religious and racial mélange across these different regions, India is undoubtedly a unique place. However, the question remains: where does India’s potential lie for the future?

successful, it will become the fourth space programme to reach Mars following the Soviet Union, the United States, and Europe. The UK Foreign Secretary William Hague has himself stated, ‘I believe that the twenty-first century, more than any previous period, will be shaped by India’.

with a country set to be a future world leader. Moreover, although British trade with India has steadily declined following the end of colonial rule, this trend is quickly beginning to reverse; UK-Indian trade is set to double by 2015. Many UK companies that are looking for The UK and India a new market to invest in are now It is irrefutable that the country choosing India as their preferred has recently gone through One of the clearest markers of location, and the integration economically tough times: the India’s rise to prominence can be of these Small and Medium volatile Rupee fell to its lowest seen through changing foreign Enterprises (SMEs) is being rate against the US Dollar in policy and diplomatic relationships fostered by the UK India Business eighteen years last August. This with the UK. Following Prime Council (UKIBC). Furthermore, in Minister David Cameron’s recent drop had considerable effects on trip to India he stated, ‘This is a September this year, the UKIBC the economy, opened its particularly ‘there are clear benefits to Britain in laying the foundations of a first Business on inward solid relationship with a country set to be a future world leader.’ Centre in investment. Gurgaon, However, providing a space for UK businesses this should not detract from the vitally important friendship for to set up. As the first of six new considerable economic potential the United Kingdom’. A number business centers that are in the that India could achieve. The of government initiatives have pipeline to be rolled out across the UK based Center for Economic been aimed at cementing these country, this is undoubtedly a very cross-country ties. In education, and Business Research (CEBR) positive step for India. has estimated that, in terms for example, Cameron and Indian of economic output, India will Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan The development of cross-country overtake Britain by 2017. Indeed, Singh have extended the UK India ties exists in more subtle ways as CEBR go on to predict that by Education Research Initiative well. India has spent more than 2022 the Indian economy will be (UKIERI) for another fiveyears until $600 million on space projects, the fourth largest in the world. 2015. This initiative is principally thus it is inevitable that criticism With a current economy valued at aimed at strengthening education incurs of the UK providing India $2 trillion and an average yearly relations through the carrying $280 million in aid each year. growth rate of 7% since 1997, this is out of research and sharing of However, there is a need to look experiences between cultures that certainly unsurprising. The recent at this gesture from another Space launch to Mars further would previously not have been stance; to see this act at face value underscores India’s technological possible. To date £25 million has simplifies a clever diplomatic prowess and advances. If been invested by UKIERI into three main strands; Higher Education & play of friendship. Apply a more Research, Schools & Professional critical lens and it could be argued and Technical Skills. With a world that this aid goes beyond aiding order inevitably set to change over development: it has strengthened YOUR THOUGHTS: How do the next century, there are clear our ‘special relationship’ with you think India will develop? benefits to Britain in laying the India; acting as an olive branch in Should we be worried about it as a rising power, if indeed you foundations of a solid relationship the hope that it will be remembered in the future, when India assuredly think it is one? Tweet us becomes one of the most powerful @DurhamGlobalist

‘the remarkable rate of growth of Internet usage in India is promising for the future’

nations in the world.

An investor for the future When it comes to overseas investments, India is a country that is clearly looking to secure itself for the future. According to data from the Europe India Chamber of Commerce (EICC), investment by Indian companies in the European Union stood at $56 billion during 2003–2012. The US Indian Business Council (USIBC) has also emphasized that investments by India in the US currently stand at $11 billion. Over the last few years, international attention has focused on exponential Chinese investment in Africa and there is no doubt these have been substantial. However, what many people disregard is that Indian trade and investment in Africa has also been steadily increasing. In June 2013, Indian companies invested $2.5 billion in a Mozambican oilfield, and in

networks. Although China’s annual trade with Africa stands at $200 billion, compared to India’s $70 billion, it is expected that by 2015 Indian trade is likely to rise to $100 billion. Thus there can be no doubt that, along with China, India is also beginning to position itself in anticipation of a future change in world power politics.

The Internet: a revolution for education

It goes without saying that for successful development and future economic success to take place, education is essential. Although competition for Indian Universities is amongst the most ferocious in the world - the Indian Institute of Technologies’ (IITs) only admits 1% of applicants - new technologies are enabling education for the masses. India is ranked third in the world with regards to the numbers of people connected to the Internet. Standing at around 138 million, the potential for this resource to rapidly advance levels of education in India is colossal. Indeed, new online degree courses developed by the world’s premier universities are ‘India is beginning to witness is a reversal now being fully utilized by of the outward pattern of migration; a Indians. In 2012, sizable skill base is actually beginning to a new education return to the country’ p l a t f o r m called ‘edX’ was established as a joint venture August 2013, the Indian firm Oil Harvard University and Gas Corp invested $2.6 billion between Massachusetts Institute in a 10% share in a Mozambican and of Technology (MIT). What is offshore gas field. Investments by so groundbreaking about this Indian firms is not just limited to the energy sector: a plethora of platform is that it is free for anyone Indian private sector firms have to use worldwide and there are no made savvy investments in other admission requirements. It is no areas, such as pharmaceuticals, agriculture and mobile phone

surprise that India has second highest number of enrolled students on the programme from any one country. The completion of these online courses has the potential to provide inordinate benefits for both career advancement and educational development. However, Internet access is heavily urbanised. Only 2% of those living in rural areas are connected to the Internet, despite the fact that rural areas of India hold 70% of the population. Thus, though 138 million people have access to the Internet in India, out of a population of 1.2 billion, the national proportion of Internet users in the country is relatively low. Despite this, the remarkable rate of growth of Internet usage in India is promising for the future. Robert Pepper, Vice President for Cisco Systems, claims ‘Internet traffic growth in India is the fastest globally’. Indeed, Cisco themselves predict that by 2017, the number of Indians with Internet access will stand at a staggering 348 million. If these figures prove to be accurate, the possibility of India becoming a well-educated and developed nation may become a reality.

Beyond the Stereotype The stereotype of the Indian ‘brain drain’ has been endlessly repeated: stories of Indian engineers, mathematicians and scientists moving to Silicon Valley are commonplace. However, is this still really the case? What India is beginning to witness is a reversal of the outward pattern of migration; a sizable skill base is actually beginning to return to the country: the decaying economies of the West coupled with a growing Indian economy has provided a strong incentive for Indians to return. Bangalore, the Indian

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equivalent to Silicon Valley, is home to a number of expanding IT firms that are looking to employ talented western-educated individuals. The Indian government has heavily influenced the prosperous IT sector. The government have sought to encourage the return of Indian born scientists and engineers though the Ramanujan Fellowship, Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research (INSPIRE) Programme and the Ramalingaswamy Fellowship. This has been a considerable success: around 500 scientists have returned to India as a result of such programs. However, the extent to which Indian students are deciding to stay in India through personal choice should not be over exaggerated. Indeed, Harshita

Lall of Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi has expressed, ‘It’s true that [India] does look very promising now. Yet, the fact remains that there’s still a long way to go. Though some professions have come up in India which are now as good as those abroad…it’s going to take some time before the majority of Indian students start thinking that their prospects here are as bright as they are abroad’. The declining value of the Rupee has made it very expensive for Indian students to study abroad, and with little options of funding; they are forced to remain in India.

Conclusions

that continue to blight India. However, it must be recognised that potential Indian growth is on the horizon, Indeed, though the Rupee has fallen considerably over the last few months as the Indian economy has begun to wain, this should not detract from what, in the longer-term, looks to be a very prosperous future. British foreign policy towards Indian highlights that international governments already recognise India’s budding potential. Indeed, if India’s potential is unlocked then we will doubtless witness a global shift in world power, a shift away from traditional Western predominance with an increased focus on the East.

This article does not present an attempt to gloss over the problems

Will Burke-Nash, BA Geography, Collingwood

Tax Avoidance: A Question of Morality or Legality? A group of British MPs recently opined that Her Majesty’s Revenue & Customs (HMRC) takes too soft an approach on transnational companies, like Google, Vodafone and Amazon, when it comes to paying corporation tax. This judgement has reignited the debate on whether these titans of technology are really paying their fair share. What must be made clear from the outset, however, is that this concerns tax avoidance not tax evasion, the difference being that the former is legal whilst the latter is not. Thus, though what these companies are doing is technically legal, does it mean it is right? Consider the question in light of this: countries, like the UK, lose out on billions of pounds of revenue every year as multinationals use clever methods to exploit tax loopholes in order to avoid paying as much corporation tax as possible. Furthermore, the recent financial crisis and everfrequent cuts to government spending show that this source of revenue is needed now more than ever. Avoidance of paying this tax

is a hot topic that needs immediate attention. So, what can be done? Some would suggest assessing the reprehensibility of companies’ actions – namely that of their leaders and CEOs – and ask whether a change of culture within multinational corporations is what is needed. Thus, the role of morality is highlighted - are the leaders of these companies morally culpable for their companies’ actions? Should companies be castigated for doing something ‘morally wrong’? Of course the answer to these questions is not so straightforward. Whilst distinguishing between what constitutes ‘moral’ and ‘immoral’ actions may seem, to some, a relatively clearcut task; reality would suggest otherwise. Lest this develop into a philosophical discussion on the precise definition of morality, suffice it to say that this is a grey area. Pragmatically speaking, a discussion of morality is unlikely to deter multinational companies from corporation tax avoidance.

Thus another, less conjectural, approach is needed. One pragmatic suggestion would be that if multinationals are finding ways of legally avoiding paying this tax, simply tighten regulations or change the law altogether. The current international practice allows transnational companies that have a presence in many different countries to effectively pick and choose in which country they wish to pay a substantial amount of their corporation tax. Perhaps unsurprisingly, these are countries with low tax rates; the lower the tax rate, the less corporation tax the company is required to pay. For example, Company X has a presence in the UK and a substantial amount of their customers are based there. However, Company X manages to shift these profits to a country with a lower tax rate, such as Ireland. If this situation is rectified through a tightening of UK corporation tax laws, it is possible that market distortion may result. This is

So what can the government do to minimise tax avoidance whilst avoiding market distortion? One approach the government can continue to implement is that of naming and shaming those who use tax avoidance schemes. Whilst this may seem a somewhat crude method, it can nevertheless produce results. The damage to a company’s reputation that naming and shaming can do is worthy of attention. This method was recently used against Starbucks, who were named and shamed for their avoidance of paying corporation tax. They were accordingly subjected to pressure from customers and campaigners, which led to the company paying corporation tax for the first time since 2009 (albeit only a fraction in comparison with sales). Whilst this approach is relatively simple and effective, it still indicates that, for multinationals,

Alec Morris, Master of Laws (LL.M), St Chad’s College

‘for the government to deal with tax avoidance most effectively, it needs to look at it not as a solely national issue, but as an international one.’

because national corporations would have to pay comparatively more corporation tax than multinational companies, who would continue to exploit their presence in low-rate tax countries. Additionally, a tightening of UK corporation tax laws may also dissuade new companies from establishing base in the country.

paying corporation tax is voluntary - and this is obviously not the message the UK government wishes to present. Therefore, in order for the government to deal with tax avoidance most effectively, it needs to look at it not as a solely national issue, but as an international one. A recent government publication states that the government is working with the G8 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), having established an Action Plan that (amongst other things) seeks to deal with tax avoidance. However, this plan has only recently implemented and it is yet to be seen just how effective this programme will be. What can be said is that the programme’s timescale of two years is perhaps unrealistically short for it to be able to see any real results. Extension of this programme is therefore something the government and the OECD will need to strongly consider in the very near future. If corporation tax avoidance is not tackled on an international platform, the UK will continue to lose billions of pounds in potential revenue every year, causing unprecedented damage to the economy.

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Fires and fashion factories - what does the future hold? With Primark reporting remarkable sales during 2013 and opening 16 new stores with more to follow in 2014, it seems like the discount fashion retailer is only growing in success. Yet the store, amongst others, has been widely criticized for its use of cheap labour overseas, promoting poor working conditions in order to maximize profits. In April 2013, Primark came under fire from human rights activists and shoppers alike, following a factory collapse in Bangladesh, killing more than 1,100 people. Whilst Primark was not the only high street store linked to this factory (in fact there were 28 brands being supplied from this particular factory), the tragedy drew attention to the serious problem of working conditions in garment factories of developing countries. Primark responded to the crisis with a food donation to 1,300 families affected, as well as six months paid salary to more than 3,600 workers based in the factory, in an attempt to clear its name. For some, this factory disaster represented as a wake up call to Western consumers. However, the more skeptical suggest that it represents just another unfortunate accident in a series of industrial disasters. Critics have rightly called for a regulated improvement in working conditions, yet this raises a whole series of issues in how exactly this can be enforced and where responsibility lies. For example, does responsibility lie with the Bangladeshi government, the local factory owners, international clothing brands, or the consumers to enforce change? Clear and direct government regulation is key to ensuring higher working conditions are enforced and maintained. However, with the garment industry representing 80% of Bangladesh’s annual

income and employing over four million workers, it seems unlikely that the Bangladeshi government would be willing to enforce such strict measures; fearing possible economic repercussions. For the large stores like Primark, there will always be another country willing to supply cheaper labour. If Bangladesh tightens its regulations, such brands may simply relocate, shifting misery and trade elsewhere. Perhaps then, there should be greater onus on the international community to black mark brands which seek to maximize profits through cheap labour and poor working conditions. Author Elizabeth Cline (Overdressed: The Shockingly High Cost of Cheap Fashion), suggests that a mere £320,000 per factory is required to increase working standards, calling upon the UK and EU to help fund this as a matter of human rights. However, the working standards of international fashion factories appears to rank particularly low on the agenda of Western governments. Alongside this, many question the legitimacy of Western intervention altogether. Economist Jeffery Sachs, for example, speaks favourably of such garment factories, describing them as the first rung of the ladder of development; a step up from the often poor rural lives of workers’ ancestors. It is by imposing Western standards of our own understanding of what is good and what is bad, that we come to see the factory conditions in countries like Bangladesh as negative and unjust. More attention needs to be paid to the workers themselves, and what they want. In our images of dingy and dangerous factories, we often fail to consider the possible positive

effect these factories have also had on working communities in developing countries. Nevertheless, with ongoing disasters and factory fires, this brings into question the real price of ‘development’. Whilst boycotting might not be the answer, stricter regulations are indispensable if we are to break this ongoing cycle. Elizabeth Moseley, Geography, Grey College

YOUR THOUGHTS: Do such stories put you off from shopping in stores like Primark, or are all high street stores equally at fault? Whose responsibility is it to address this? Tweet us @DurhamGlobalist

‘does responsibility lie with the Bangladeshi government, the local factory owners, international clothing brands, or the consumers to enforce change?’

Western Masculinity After the Global Financial Crash White men have never truly faced serious social and economic barriers like women and those of colour. Thus, the opportunity for male self-reflection has never really arisen. Has this led to a neglect in the study of masculinity, both personally and politically? In a recent interview with The Independent, singer-song writer Billy Bragg raises the interesting point that there has been no singular event in our generation that has shaped masculinity. In our grandparents’ generation, World War Two was for many, a ritual in manhood. Thus, without a defining opportunity to socially explore modern manhood, Bragg raises the question, do men urgently need a role model to stand up and state that manhood is ‘this’? Perhaps the years after the global financial crash in 2007-8 provide an opportunity to do just that. Preconceptions of traditional masculinity; the ‘macho man’; the aggressor; ‘the boss’ are slowly disintegrating in the aftermath of the global recession. Such preconceptions of traditional masculinity, also known as ‘hypermasculinity’, are often blamed for the actions of the men on the trading floor, who pursued financial risk-taking as an outset of their masculine bravado. Similarly, the rapid demise of industry in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century has further disintegrated traditionally held preconceptions of masculinity. From the Industrial Revolution onward, the Western man has been defined by his physical ability in the industrial work place: bravery in the dangerous coalmines and the tenacity needed to work in the steel industry. However, in 2014, it is tertiary service sector roles that are the primary occupation of the ‘modern man’. The demise of the

blue-collar industry, coupled with the rise of the white-collar men, has encouraged a re-evaluation of modern masculinity. What now, are men defined by? In 2010, publishing house Bauer Media presented the new ‘4D man’. According to a Bauer spokesman, this 4D man is ‘confident, individual and has varied interests and passion’. The 4D man was contrasted with previous dichotomous male stereotypes: the metrosexual and the lad. Perhaps this notion of the 4D man fits the bill of the modern man just right. The 4D man appears to encompass many recent male archetypal constructs; the urban playboy, the Spurmo (Single Proud Unmarried Man Over 30). The 4D man is a definition of ‘masculinity with a million dimensions’, moving past rigid stereotypical conformity and restricting identification. It is also significant that in the four years since the notion of the 4D man was publicised, the phrase hasn’t become part of our everyday vocabulary. It is possible that we have moved beyond simplistic, juvenile and dichotomous definitions of masculinity. Perhaps, in the midst of our cultural preoccupation of formulating new and challenging identities of women, we have in fact allowed men the freedom to construct their identity themselves. Maybe, the 4D man is the unspoken definition

of modern masculinity. Recent cultural criticisms of hyper-masculinity represent the ultimate stab in the coffin for the default masculine bravado. Vince Gilligan’s award-winning television drama Breaking Bad illustrates the demise of traditional family man Walter White into hyper-masculine drug lord. It is Walter’s formulated hyper-masculinity that leads to his ultimate self-destruction. One hopes that it is not naïve to believe that society has moved beyond rigid constructs of masculinity. From January 21st – February 2nd, the Southbank Centre is set to host the event ‘Being a Man’, inviting men of all ages, from diverse backgrounds to lead conversations and debates on what it means to be a man today. It is possible that this open forum may pave the way for varying and conflicting notions of masculinity to blossom. Our cultural obsession to put every Western man into the same hyper-masculine box has oppressed male freedom of identification for generations. Perhaps now, in the face of a rapidly changing economic structure and social life, men can formulate their own image of themselves in a world of increasing gender equality. Sophie Tulley, History, St Hild & St Bede College

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Science & Technology 3D Printing - the dawn of a wiki-world? 3D printing is predicted to be the next big thing; it promises to bring everything to everyone for less. So, what is its Achilles heel? 3D technology grabbed headlines when a group based in Austin, Texas released a video of one of its number firing a 3D printed gun. It promised to publish the blueprints online, for free. This, perhaps, ushers in the age of what has been

translates to greater convenience and cost efficiency. The law in England as to what exactly is considered an infringement on a registered design is complicated; Bradshaw, Bowyer and Haufe draw our attention to The Registered Designs Act 1949 which protects the ‘appearance of the whole or a part of a product resulting from the features of, in particular, the lines, contours, colours, shape,

‘unlike the music industry in which files can be shared illegally easily, the 3D industry faces higher barriers to entry especially for private usage’ termed ‘wiki-weapons’. We know well that the online wiki-world where any information we want is simply a few clicks away (and largely with no cost). However, is this transfer to the real world something to embrace or shy away from, and more importantly, will it even happen at all? Critics propose that the ability to manufacture anything in one’s own home would mean that gun crime could be taken underground; policing exactly who gets a gun then becomes much more difficult. This, however, is a very specific example. Consider instead the issue of intellectual property. Bradshaw, Bowyer and Haufe introduce the idea that historically, if a person requires a certain property, they do not produce it themselves; rather, they purchase it off someone else. For example, suppose someone breaks an existing ‘widget’, as it stands today, he would simply purchase a replacement and part of the revenue would eventually reach the person who owned the rights to that ‘widget’. 3D printing, however, allows one to omit the producer as one can just print out a replacement for their self. This

texture or materials of the product or its ornamentation’. There are a number of exceptions to this. Still, one key fact is that providing that the 3D printing is done ‘privately and for purposes which are not commercial’, even if a registered design is copied, it is not an infringement. Clearly the printing and selling of a product that looks and operates like a widget made by ‘Company A’ by an individual would be an infringement. On this one level then, designers are still protected. However, if we delve a little deeper into the issue, it becomes evident that this is not quite so straightforward. The production of an exact replica of an Aston Martin DB4 may lie within the bounds of the law, but is it really fair that someone have something for but a fraction of the price of the original? Though this example is not

flawless (the engine of the replica will come from a Nissan and so the version pictured (right/left/ below) is by no means an Aston Martin), that someone may copy a product, and therefore enjoy the benefits that that product brings, seems, in principle, to be highly questionable. This applies to the dissemination of the designs as well. Despite the assurances of the law, rights holders invite comparisons between the 3D printing process and the way that music has been shared over the past couple of decades. In many ways the two problems are very similar; in practice it may be that ‘purely local and personal infringements (e.g. format shifting from CD to MP3) are…impractical to pursue’ – indeed, many ‘rip’ CDs - but commercial gain from copying of files is not condoned at all. The important difference, and the factor that means that designers will not face the problems that musicians faced to the same extent, is that the 3D printing industry requires some real world development to get to the stage proposed by the most pessimistic of critics; this ‘real world development’ slows the process down, as it can possibly be contained and controlled in

a manner that was impossible with music sharing. In this sense, unlike the music industry in which files can be shared illegally more easily, the 3D industry faces higher barriers to entry especially for private usage; to print something complicated requires a complicated machine and a complicated design. The immediate reproduction of identical copies of a product seems highly improbable, at least in the near future.

Although in theory the ‘wikieverything’ world is a possibility, it is highly unlikely that legal systems around the globe will fail to protect the rights of those who wish to develop ideas. Equally, it is somewhat inevitable that, compared to the protection afforded today, in a world rife with 3D printers; rights will be infringed far more widely despite any legislation that may exist. Potentially, this is 3D printing’s

biggest issue. The trick then will be in finding the best solution for both the consumer and the producer. Perhaps, a kind of Spotify for 3D designs could be the solution? Hugo Brown, LLB Law, Trevelyan College

Against a Science of Sex In recent years we have begun to question engineers alike, and we should love really is. There may be the deep-seated assumptions of sexuality – never take these advances for scientific approach of explaining for instance, whether or not sexuality it granted. With all that said, we how love can be explained by the is necessarily laden within the biology of cannot assume science provides chemicals produced in our body one’s anatomy or, perhaps, the cultural the answers to everything in the that trigger responses which fire milieu of the age. Through the rapid world: by the very inductive nature through synapses, but these all progress of technology, we have been able of the scientific method, we cannot fall short of getting to the heart of to pioneer new techniques of conception, say with absolute certainty that we what love is, of why it even exists so that couples that are infertile can know what we know. Gravity exists at all. Science can only explain that still have babies. Even more prevalent, insofar as it is a highly plausible which we can conduct experiments amongst modern teens that commonly theory that has been tested by on, but if we cannot conduct seek to instant gratification through observing things falling to the experiments on love, and if there sex, are contraceptives, products that ground; however, science does not are so many types of love that we are used to prevent conception. Should claim to say that invisible fairies cannot test, we can only conclude one relegate the act of having sex are not pulling the apple – it only that love eludes the paradigm of merely to the corporeal, ignoring any means that it is extremely unlikely science. possible intangible such as love, one and utterly useless to assume that can understand why so many indulge it is fairies doing the work. In short, Sex, on the other hand, has come such banal acts of pleasuring and being science only provides a theoretical to be understood as thoroughly pleasured. The question turns to this– framework to explain how the distinct, and has been widely in the advancement of science, could it world works, but not why it works, studied and analysed in as ironically have spelled the regression or even exists in the first place. objective a manner as possible. Sex, of humanity as one that is capable in this sense, now belongs merely of love, its ultimate manifestation Now, what does this philosophical to the bodily, the scientific. As being irrational, one appeals to poetic capacity to ‘if there are so many types of love that we cannot test, we the biological sacrifice one’s life for can only conclude that love eludes the paradigm of science’ determinism of another? human beings as creatures The pursuit of science has made our nature of the scientific method who crave sexual relations, this world infinitely more efficient and have to do with sex and love? Things justification allows one to throw convenient. One can travel across undoubtedly would get more away whatever preconceived continents thanks to the airplane, tedious at this point. Assuming that notions of sex being related to love. countless lives have been saved love does exist, we are sure that it Simply, sex is easier to scientifically due to the discovery of penicillin, manifests itself in many different analyse than love, and therefore and now even omelette does not ways; as Tolstoy said, ‘there are as we only focus on the former. Now, stick to pans due to Teflon. Such many loves as there are hearts’. Yet the question must turn to this: why developments can all be attributed for all of humanity, we have been then have love and sex been so to the endeavours of scientists and utterly inept at figuring out what drastically divorced?

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It is apt we return to the pursuit in an attempt to better explain the then I believe that science, as the of science, to the history of world. progress of humanity, has indeed scientific thought. Ever since Therein lies the precise problem ironically ended the humanity of the Enlightenment, humans of love and sex. To engage in us all. have pursued ‘reason’ as the core theoretical discourse based on value of humanity to further our sexuality, to label lovers merely Yet, if just for an instance, one progress, led by Francis Bacon’s as heterosexuals, homosexuals, believes that there is more to love scientific method. This is all fine or bisexuals etc. is precisely to say than the sexual attraction between and good, until now two bodies, then where we stand: in the ‘sex is easier to scientifically analyse than love, perhaps it is timely cusp of postmodernity. and therefore we only focus on the former’ we critically question Academics, having seen our theorising of the rigour of building a gender, and our scientific explanation to solve the that humans are individuals who dichotomy of sex and love. That world’s problems through research either wish to have sex with males, said, it in no way detracts from the on physics, chemistry and biology, females or both, and nothing else. utility of science as having made have now attempted to ‘scientify’ The religious fundamentalists the world much more convenient the subjective human sciences as have gotten it all wrong: the issue and comprehensible; looking well: psychology, anthropology was never about the homo, it had around, we indeed see the wonders and sociology are just a few of always been about the sexual. If, of science. The thing to do is to the modern sciences that have by the progress of science, we appreciate it for what it is worth, been established as attempts to have managed to finally elude the and ultimately, recognise its limits provide a theoretical framework idea of love being an existential in explaining the intangible. to explain human behaviour. sacrifice for another – its highest Queer theory, heteronormativity, form giving one’s life for the sake Jorel Chan, PPE, St Cuthbert’s College gender-neutrality and sexuality of another – and instead reduce are ideas that are worth exploring. it merely to a synaptic, hormonal Ultimately, however, we must rush that results in a biological understand that they are precisely attraction to another, with all what they are, theories, that have debated narrowly focused solely been distilled from empirical data on the kind of genitalia they have,

Fracking-the desperate tactics of an addict? Our world is addicted to fossil fuels. The International Energy Agency estimates that in 2011, eighty-four million barrels of oil were consumed daily the world over; this is to say nothing yet of coal and natural gas. This figure will probably increase up until at least 2035 as the economies of countries like China and India continue to boom. The most obvious and worrying consequence is the now-undeniable trend of global warming we are experiencing. It has been estimated that at sometime between 2030 and 2060, the atmospheric CO2 concentration is expected to reach double what it was before the Industrial Revolution. When this happens, temperature rise of between 2-5oC is expected. Anything over 2oC is likely to be ‘the trigger point’

that causes extremely dangerous climate change. Just some of the possible effects include the virtual destruction of tropical agriculture, an acceleration of sea level rise and the exposure of 40-60 million new people in Africa to malaria. Evidently, there is an urgent need to curb our dangerous habit before it is too late. However, as the rise of fracking shows, the attention of world leaders appears to be invested in other political matters. Hydraulic fracturing, popularly known as ‘fracking’, is a method of increasing the productivity and lifespan of oil and natural gas fields. Sand and other substances are combined with fresh water and pumped under high pressure into deep layers of shale rocks, cracking

them and allowing trapped oil and gas to flow back up the well. The definition referenced is one typical of a proponent of fracking, almost certainly glossing over what those ‘other substances’ are. Often, the oil and gas industry have no obligation to tell you, or anyone else for that matter, what these ‘other substances’ actually are. In the US for example, the ‘Halliburton Loophole’ exempts the oil and gas industry from disclosing the ingredients of their fracking fluids, which would normally be required under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This is fortunate for them, considering many of these ingredients are either known to be or suspected of being carcinogenic or otherwise toxic. The most dangerous include substances like

benzene, and glycol-ethers, which are odourless and colourless and so difficult to detect in drinking water. Contamination of groundwater, including drinking water, is undoubtedly the biggest threat fracking poses. The liquid waste left over from fracking is politely called ‘produced water’ by the industry, but a far more accurate term would be ‘dirty water.’ Of all the water that is pumped down into the well, only about half returns as ‘flowback’ - what happens to the rest? This is not clearly known. Yet it seems all too likely that it could eventually make its way into underground aquifers, upon which entire towns and cities depend for their drinking water. The fluid that does resurface is supposed to be dumped into surface pits, where it can easily just seep back into the ground, but there are a worrying number of reports that it is often dumped illegally in streams and fields. Evaporation sprayers are used in the pits to expose the fluid to sunlight and speed up its evaporation, but this causes problems of its own. Chief among them is acid rain and the production of ozone, essential in our atmosphere but highly dangerous at ground level. In addition, no one is sure how long the steel and concrete cases around the wells are likely to withstand the intense pressure of the fracking fluid, and there have been several accidents already. In 2011, a well near Killdeer, North Dakota ruptured and contaminated the town’s aquifer. It has recently emerged that Botswana, a country hailed as one of the most democratic in Africa, has been secretly handing out fracking licenses in the Kalahari Game Reserve for over a decade, apparently without the knowledge of their own population. So much so, that half of the world’s second biggest wildlife reserve is likely to have been allocated to multinational

oil and gas companies. This is a perfect example of the lengths governments will go in satisfying their addiction to fossil fuels. Botswana has scarce water resources, and the huge demand on them imposed by fracking could see water tables drop by hundreds of feet, ruining local communities. Not only that, but the reserve is home to the largest remaining population of African elephants, some 30,000-60,000 strong, which is entirely dependent on water from a series of boreholes. Should fracking in the area lead to contamination of these sources (as it has elsewhere), the effects on the elephants could be devastating. Overall, the arguments used to justify fracking fit perfectly into the long line of arguments used to criticise sustainable energy: that oil is not running out, that renewable energy is too expensive, and that global warming has not been proven. As it has been argued, ignoring the last one in particular will not save us from the consequences. Must we wait for the devastating effects global warming will have upon the environment and our livelihoods for us to be motivated to act? As for the ongoing ‘peak oil’ argument, it is irrelevant whether we have enough oil to last for a thousand years or ten. Our continued use of it is unsustainable regardless, and the effects it is having on the global environment and climate are becoming increasingly serious. By endorsing fracking, the governments of our day are sending a clear message, that because we can now increase our reserves of oil and gas, we should continue using them in abundance. This is used as an excuse to avoid kicking the habit and to delay the development of renewable energy. However, following the same logic, does this mean that we do not need to reduce heroin use in the world, since reserves do not appear to be running out? The arguments

remain tenuous, and there is much to be considered and rectified in light of the seriousness of this matter. Matthew Champion, BSc Geography, Van Mildert

‘Must we wait for the devastating effects global warming will have upon the environment and our livelihoods for us to be motivated to act?’

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Sustainability: Burgeon or Burden? The issue of climate change constantly appears in the media - whether it is about rising anthropogenic emissions, ice melt, extreme weather events or rising sea levels – headlines often appear dramatic, and even pessimistic. Unfortunately, climate-sceptics (including those who could be possibly misinformed, or to a more dire extent, individuals who are stakeholders within international energy companies) remain rife, misconstruing information and disseminating it in order to perpetuate an environmental myth: that no matter how much of the earth we destroy, the world as we know it will simply remain go on to exist as it has always been. While the certainty of human impact on the current and future climate is not immediately verifiable, it is naïve to assume that we are not making an impact at all. If we look at hard facts, as opposed to mere conjecture, it is much simpler to establish the real effects humanity is having on the planet - the Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago, and people first began developing (in agricultural terms)

8,000 years ago. In that time period (0.0017% of the Earth’s lifetime) we have used up 63% of the planet’s oil reserves, cut down 32% of global rainforests and covered 12% of the land surface with concrete. There can be no accurate dates given for when resources will run out, as all predictions are subject to complex interactions and assumptions about human behaviour. It is, however, clear to state that if ‘development’ continues at a constant rate, the rate at which we are consuming the resources will exceed the rate at which they are renewed. This includes oil, gas, coal, wood, and to a lesser extent, water. In fact, not only will these resources be exhausted eventually; they may very well be exhausted within our lifetimes. It now appears that our inability to pinpoint how long these materials will last is perhaps the very reason why little is currently being done to tackle this issue. Humans have the propensity to work towards deadlines; be it at school, in the

office, or even using food before the expiry date, everything is given a definitive time by which it must be completed. The concept of sustainability, however, is the reverse of this; the very definition of the word is ‘the capacity to endure’. While in our day and age it does seem as though ‘sustainability’ constitutes one of the many buzzwords used throughout media, one ought to take a closer look and recognise that sustaining in this respect refers to achieving a balance between humanity and the natural world, so as to allow future generations to meet their own needs. Global leaders have recognised that if no action is taken, and the world population continues to behave the way that we have in the past in a myopic and hubristic manner, resources will soon be depleted and the temperatures will rise around the world. In the worst case scenario, this could lead to drought, famine, disease, and even war, all as a result of habitable

space getting smaller, populations getting larger and available resources being depleted. In order to ensure that these outcomes do not manifest, it is imperative that we maintain the current conditions in which we live in. Simply put, the solution is to lead sustainable lifestyles.

who are visionaries and those who are myopic, rings true for governments and individuals as well. Countries such as Germany and Iceland, are striving towards a more balanced future, while there are others such as rapidly developing China that ignore the negative impacts that development

future generations. In this sense, sustainability for some is viewed as a burden: it is an unnecessary ‘do-good’ activity that they believe will not encourage economic prosperity nor overcome social or political issues. Yet for others, sustainability has been embraced and is burgeoning, flourishing

‘We have used up 63% of the planet’s oil reserves, cut down 32% of global rainforests and covered 12% of the land surface with concrete.’ Some large corporations have embraced the concepts of ‘systemsthinking’, circular economies and most commonly, recycling. They recognise that innovation and thinking outside the box are key to enable companies to become market leaders and ensure that their services remain relevant for the foreseeable future. On the other hand, other corporations, such as those that are unwilling and unable to efficiently use its supply of resources, including smaller firms that do not have the capital or labour to do so, have been unable to wholly embrace this ‘sustainable outlook’. This dichotomy between those

brings, focusing only on economic and political objectives at the cost of environmental concerns. At the same time, there are also individuals who protest and advocate environmental causes, change their diets, and travel on public transport to reduce their energy consumption. Such individuals exist amongst an arguably apathetic majority, ignoring their carbon footprint, continuing to consume goods at an unhealthy rate. Sustainability, in this sense, is always a choice; it is only through making a conscious effort to alter one’s lifestyle that one can do one’s part in sustaining the earth for

under their leadership. Ultimately, it is the ratio of people who hold the two contrasting views – and the subsequent actions that will incur that will determine how long this population, and this world, will last. Rebecca Dawkes, BSc Natural Sciences, Collingwood

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