Topic 2 | The Archaeologist

4.3 Life in Ancient Rome Roman society was patriarchal; the father was the head of the family. Patrician men were magistrates or senators, while plebeian men were traders, craftsmen or shopkeepers. A patrician woman supervised the slaves, who did the housework, while plebeian women might have worked in the family business. However, women had very little freedom and they did not have the same legal status as men. They were not allowed to vote or run for political positions. At the age of 7, children were sent to a ludus for reading, writing, and arithmetic. At age 12, boys went to the grammaticus for subjects such as history, rhetoric, and oration. At age 12, girls stayed at home and learned how to run the home. Men wore a shirt-like tunicand a toga over their tunic, while women wore a stola (dress) and a palla (shawl). Children wore a lucky bulla (a locket around their necks to protect them). Slaves were usually captured during wars and then sold. Many were manual workers who worked in farms, mines, and shops, while educated slaves were doctors, teachers, or secretaries. They were owned by those who bought them and had to work without pay. Slaves were often treated badly, but could become freedmen by buying their freedom (manumission). Approximately 25% of all people in the Men Women Education Clothing Slaves SAMPLE Roman Empire were slaves. Music The Romans were the first civilisation to use music at large events and celebrations. It would be played at arenas, festivals, and religious events. Singing was accompanied by instruments such as aulos (pipes), lyres, and percussion. Religion Romans worshipped at temples; for example, the Pantheon. They were polytheistic and believed in many gods; for example, a solider going to war might pray to Mars. Food and Cena (main meal) consisted of fruit, meat and seafood. Rich Romans might eat eating crow, dormice, swan and peacock. Some Romans used garum (fermented fish sauce) to disguise the taste of rotten food. Poorer Romans were given a dole (free grain). They ate at thermopolia (takeaways).

Topic 4 4.4 Roman Entertainment

> Circus maximus/Hippodrome: Chariot races were held in a 250,000-capacity stadium.

> The Colosseum was a 50,000–70,000-seat amphitheatre in which gladiator contests were held. Many gladiators were slaves. They ate a carbohydrate-rich diet and trained in ludi. They wore armour, used weapons, and had to fight each other. > Venatores gladiators were trained and had weapons; they engaged in staged hunts of wild animals such as lions and bears. > Bestiarii gladiators were criminals or prisoners who were forced to fight wild animals without weapons.

> The Romans enjoyed going to the theatre to watch staged scenes and plays; for example, comedy plays by Plautus and tragedies by Seneca were very popular. > Huge aqueducts moved water into cities to supply the Roman baths. Romans went to the baths every day to exercise, relax, do business, or socialise. > The baths consisted of a caldarium (hot room), tepidarium (warm room) and a frigidarium (cold room), with a palaestra (exercise court), libraries, and gardens. Chariot Racing at Circus Maximus SAMPLE 4.5 The Roman Army

> The army was divided into legions of about 4,000 soldiers. Each legion was then broken into smaller groups of 100 soldiers called centuries.

> They were very disciplined; they had to live in a barracks and had to be able to complete 30-km marches several times a month. > They carried all their equipment (40 kg) – for example, a shield (scutum), a dagger (pugio), a javelin (pilum), and a sword (gladius) – and they wore helmets. Soldiers served for 20–25 years. When they retired, they were each given a plot of land.

LIFE IN AN ANCIENT CIVILISATION OUTSIDE IRELAND – ANCIENT ROME 4.6 Sample Question A

(i) Identify a historical figure from an ancient civilisation who you believe is an important person in history. (ii) Explain why you think this person is such an important person in history.

(i) Named historical figure: Julius Caesar (ii) Explanation: Julius Caesar was born in July, 100 B.C in Rome into an aristocratic and influential family; his parents were well-off. At the age of 6, he began his education. He was educated by a tutor, and he learned how to read and write. He also learned about Roman law and how to speak in public. These were important skills he would need as leader of Rome. Caesar's father died when he was 16 years old, and he became head of the family. At the age of 17, he married the daughter of a powerful Roman politician. He joined the army and proved himself as a very able soldier and officer. On his return, he impressed people with his skill as an orator. He married twice more, each time into other influential Roman families, creating alliances with important figures. Undoubtedly, his leadership and his military successes highlight how important he was. In Spain, he became a governor, bringing peace to an area troubled by warring tribes. When he returned to Rome, he jointly ruled with Pompey and Crassus, bringing in some popular reforms. He was governor of Gaul for 8 years, subduing tribes and conquering new lands in Belgium and Britain. This expansion of Rome’s territory increased the power and influence of the Roman empire and helped spread Rome's achievements and advances further. When his opponents in Rome demanded his return, he used plundered riches from Gaul to support his army and marched them across the Rubicon, from Gaul into Italy. It sparked a civil war between Caesar’s forces and those of his main rival for power, Pompey, from which Caesar emerged victorious and became a dictator. He is important due to his influence when SAMPLE he was in power. He used his power to enlarge the senate and he decreased Rome's debt. He sponsored the building of the Forum Iulium and rebuilt two city-states, Carthage and Corinth. In addition, citizenship was granted to foreigners living within the Roman Republic. Julius Caesar was important in the history of Ancient Rome because he was responsible for Rome changing from a republic to an empire. He ruled without consulting the senate, which made other senators unhappy. Some senators plotted his death, and he was assassinated by stabbing on 15 March, 44 B.C.

Topic 4 4.7 The Contribution of Ancient Rome to Europe and the Wider World

Aqueducts

Primary sources and artefacts They created well-built aqueducts that carried water into the cities; for example, Nimes in France. The Romans left behind an array of primary sources. Ancient ruins and artefacts (Herculaneum, Pompeii, the Colosseum) give historians a lot of information about life in Ancient Rome.

The Romans were great engineers and builders. They were the first in Europe to discover concrete, which helped make their buildings more durable. They learned how to build rounded arches, columns, and domes. Many Roman buildings are still standing today; for example, the Pantheon, which shows how well-built they were. Many techniques developed by the Romans were used in the Renaissance and influence modern architecture today. The Romans were impressive road builders. They built 84,800 km of roads using large stones on sand or gravel. As the empire spread across Europe, Southwest Asia and North Africa, they brought their traditions and the Latin language with them. Although not spoken today, Latin was the basis of languages like Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, French, and Romanian. Around a quarter of English words today are directly influenced by the Latin language. The Roman Julian calendar was used until the 16th century. It had 365 days and was divided into 12 months. Despite changes in 1562, it remains the basis for the calendar we use today. Many of the months are named after Roman emperors and gods. I = 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 50, C = 100, D = 500, M = 1,000.

Constantine converted Rome to Christianity in 312 A.D, and the Catholic faith spread with the Roman Empire. The Vatican in Rome is still the centre of the Catholic Church.

They created sewage systems in their towns. The Romans designed the first systems of underfloor heating. Trajan’s Forum is considered to be the first shopping centre in the world. They established a system of state and civil law. The Romans created beautiful mosaics on floors and walls.

Engineering and architecture Roads Latin language Calendar Roman numerals Christianity Sewage systemsSAMPLE Central heating Shopping centres Law and order Mosaics