11 Roderick Conway Morris, "Pleasure in the Floating World." International Herald Tribune, April

other hand, Cassatt’s lines are more deliberate and fragile, and she uses multiple fragmented

strokes to create a curve. The curves in the folds of her subject’s clothing are less boldly rounded than those of Utamaro’s.46

Figure 10. Utamaro, Kitagawa. A Woman Dressing a Girl for a Kabuki Dance “Musume Dojōji,” with “Brother Picture” (E-kyōdai) of a Monkey Trainer, ca. 1795-96. Woodblock print in the e-kyodai format. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Figure 11. Cassatt, Mary. The Fitting, 189091. Drypoint and aquatint, 16 13/16 x 11 3/4 in. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

The same holds true for Cassatt’s print The Letter (See Fig.12), possibly inspired by

Utamaro’s print Hinazuru of the Keizetsuro (See Fig. 13). Cassatt had continued borrowing

themes from ukiyo-e beyond mother-child relationships, unwittingly adopting the allusion of the

Japanese oiran (prostitute) with a towel to her mouth in this work. The Letter retained the same

modest downward glance as Utamaro’s depiction of the courtesan, with both women averting

46 Ives, The Great Wave, 53.

their eyes away from the viewer of the work.47 However, Cassatt toned down the sensuality

significantly in her depictions; once again, she still places all of her subjects firmly in a solid

environment and depicts wallpaper as visible in the background, forgoing Utamaro’s use of free, blank space.48

Figure 13. Cassatt, Mary. The Letter, 1890-91. Drypoint and aquatint. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Figure 14. Utamaro, Kitagawa. Hinazuru of the Keizetsuro, ca. 1789-1800. Color woodblock print. Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago.

The Influence of Cassatt’s Upbringing on Her Viewpoint

Cassatt’s devout adherence to social standards was also shaped by her upbringing and past experiences. Cassatt came from a well-bred, wealthy American family, enjoying a high

social status and refined upbringing. Her family had moved often during her childhood, taking

47 Johnson, “Cassatt’s Color Prints,” 31. 48 Ives, The Great Wave, 51.

their wealth and social position to cosmopolitan circles through the United States and Europe.49

In 1850, the Cassatt family left their home in Philadelphia to embark on an extended tour of

Europe spanning six years, allowing Cassatt her first taste of European life. Similar to many

Americans, Cassatt’s parents held firsthand knowledge of European culture in high regard and

considered it a distinct advantage in the education of their children. Their tour included

prolonged stays in the cities of Darmstadt, Heidelberg, and Paris, where the Cassatt children

were enrolled in school and the young Mary quickly picked up German and French. Cassatt must

have experienced the magnificent Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1855, with the family

returning back to Philadelphia later that year.

Five years later, at the age of sixteen, Cassatt enrolled at the Pennsylvania Academy of

the Fine Arts and began her formal artistic education as a full-time student. The academy

familiarized Cassatt with the classical European style, teaching her from its robust collection and

annual exhibition of Old Master works and contemporary European paintings. Cassatt underwent

two years of preliminary training, where students created copies of antique casts from the

academy’s collection before they were allowed to learn painting or sculpture.50 In the face of

contemporary changes in artistic styles, the Academy where Cassatt studied maintained a

reputation as a staunchly traditional art school.51 Cassatt met and learned from many peers at the

Academy, especially fellow female artists from the same social class. (See Fig. 14) She would

keep in contact with her Academy classmates for many years; Cassatt’s best friend at the

49 Mathews. Mary Cassatt, 11.

50 Mancoff, Mary Cassatt: Reflections of Women's Lives, 8.

51 Stephan Salisbury, "Old School Ties: There's Nothing Abstract about the Teaching at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts.," Philadelphia Inquirer (Philadelphia, P.A.), 1997. Proquest.

Academy, Eliza Haldeman, also moved to Europe to pursue an artistic career, traveling around

Europe with Cassatt for a period to explore genre painting (paintings featuring everyday peasant

life). 52

Figure 14. Cassatt (right) creates a casting of a hand with other students at the Academy. Photograph of Eliza Haldeman, Inez Lewis, Edmund Smith, Rebecca M. Welsh (?), and Mary Cassatt taken in the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, 1862. The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts Archives.

Cassatt’s writings from her time spent painting in Spain also indicate her genteel attitude. After studying briefly in Parma, Italy for eight months in 1872, Cassatt took trips to Madrid and

52 Mathews, Mary Cassatt, 43.

Seville as she continued traveling around Europe to refine her artistic skill, painting portraits of

the local residents she encountered (See Fig. 15).53 As she continued her stay in Spain, Cassatt

viewed Spaniards as “odd” and “peculiar” for their skin color. In a letter to her sister in 1873,

Cassatt wrote that “The great thing here is the odd types and peculiar rich dark coloring of the models, if it were not for that I should not stay.”54 Cassatt also found her life in Spain jarring to

what she had experienced in the more genteel environment of her upbringing: “In her characteristic high-handed way, she judged ‘the Spaniards infinitely inferior in education and

breeding to the Italians’ and that they were ‘barbarians’ when it came to fashion.”55

Figure 15. Cassatt, Mary. Spanish Dancer Wearing a Lace Mantilla, 1873. Oil on canvas, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington D.C.

53 Adelyn Dohme Breeskin, A Catalogue Raisonné of the Graphic Work, 2nd ed. (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Pr., 1979), 29.

54 Mathews, Mary Cassatt, 84.

55 Mathews, 84.

In 1874, Cassatt stopped wandering Europe in search of artistic inspiration and instead

returned to Paris with the intention of settling in the city permanently to live a fashionable life

with her sister, Lydia. Cassatt then purposefully turned toward more socially acceptable subject

matter in creating her works, revealing her adherence to genteel European social standards.

Although she had spent a few years in the countryside painting themes of melancholy women,

“she had been so shaken by the lack of public appreciation of her work, as measured by sales, that she cast about for a surer foothold . . . Consequently, she abandoned her old interest in

costume genre pictures, such as the peasant paintings, Carnival subjects, and bullfighters, and set

about becoming a society portraitist and painter of fashionable life.”56

Gender Influence on Cassatt’s Conventionalism

Cassatt’s position as a woman among the impressionist also played a critical role in her

more orthodox depictions of subject matter, eschewing the raw and scandalous sensuality that

her male counterparts incorporated into their work. As Japanese culture became popular in

nineteenth century Europe, it was introduced differently to men and women. Texts written by

men, intended for men, emphasize “feminized delicacy of Japanese art and of the exotic beauty and sexual availability of their women.”57 For instance, geisha, or Japanese hostesses trained to

entertain men with conversation, dance, and song, were portrayed as exotic and deferential

females.58

However, for French female audiences, texts about Japan do not emphasize sensuality or

eroticism. Instead, journals focus on the role of women in Japanese society, highlighting

56 Mathews, 95.

57 Criss, "Japonisme and beyond,"39.

58 Criss, 39.

differences that would have appealed as fascinating to French readers. In Le Journal des

demoiselles (The Ladies’ Diary) author Ernest Chesnau, one of the leading collectors and

connoisseurs of Japanese artwork along with Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, observes how

marriage in Japan was “a true bond, a bond of affection and also business” that related to “the deepest respect, by foresight, by the cares, by the delicacies of attention for which many of our

European women could rightly be jealous.”59 French women would have actually perceived that

women’s rights in Japan surpassed their own, ingraining the strict and oppressive gender standards of France in their minds.

Unlike her male contemporaries, Cassatt also was confined solely to the domestic sphere

in choosing the subject matter for her paintings. While Manet often painted scenes of modern life

featuring locations such as the beer bar in The Beer Waitress (See Fig. 16), Cassatt painted

within private, elegant locations considered acceptable for women, rendering a fashionable lady

sitting in a tea room in Lady at the Tea Table (See Fig. 17). Although Cassatt still strove to break

the mold of formal classical academic painting in seeking commonplace scenes, her gender

obliged her to turn to elegant parlors rather than unrefined, plebeian settings.60 Cassatt’s gender restrictions created a paradox in her process of choosing subject matter: “Cassatt gave expression to the modern woman’s desire for autonomy and access to the public sphere, a desire based on

59 Ernest Chesneau, Le Journal des demoiselles 11 (November 1868), 322. Original text written in French, translated in this paper “Apprenez, d’autre part, que ces rigueurs assez rares en somme, qui forcent la femme a s’inquieter avec sollicitude des actes de son mari, et qui font par cela meme un lien véritable, un lien d’affection et aussi d ’affaires de l’union conjugale; apprenez, dis-je, que ces rigueurs sont compensées, dans l’ordinaire de la vie, par l’hommage constant du respect le plus profond, par des prevenances, des soins, des delicatesses d’attention, dont beaucoup de nos femmes europeennes pourraient a juste titre se montrer jalouses.” 60 Barbara H. Weinberg and Carrie Rebora Barratt. American Stories: Paintings of Everyday Life, 17651915. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2009.

modern doctrines of rationality, progress, and ambitious individualism.”61 However, at the same

time, “her words betray signs of a conventional, almost essentialist belief in ‘women’s qualities,’ a femininity of sweetness and charm, an acceptance of the gender stereotypes that the mural

seems to defy.”62

Figure 16. Cassatt, Mary. Lady at the Tea Table, 1883-85. Oil on canvas, 29 x 24 in. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Figure 17. Manet, Édouard. The Beer Waitress, 1879. Oil on canvas, 77 x 65 cm. Musée d'Orsay, Paris.

Thus, Cassatt focused mainly on domestic themes, with scenes of children and mothers located

securely in the home, instead of adopting Utamaro’s themes of pleasure-seeking with yūkaku

(red-light-districts with brothels) scenes.63

61 Norma Broude. "Mary Cassatt: Modern Woman or the Cult of True Womanhood?" Woman's Art Journal 21, no. 2 (2000): 36-43. https://doi.org/10.2307/1358749, 36.

62 Broude, 36.

63 Goncourt, Utamaro, ix.

In placing her subjects within the domestic sphere reserved for women, Cassatt chose to

create an enclosed sense of privacy within many of her works. Instead of adopting the voyeur-

esque gaze of many of her male contemporaries as well as Utamaro’s more erotic ukiyo-e prints,

she defines the realms within her paintings as strictly private, personal to the mother and her

child only. In Maternal Caress (See Fig. 18), Cassatt employs many techniques drawn from

ukiyo-e compositional styles, drawing the figure forward to touch the edge of the print. She

flattens the perspective and, again, makes use of decorative patterns to place the subjects within a

defined, wallpapered background, confining them within the domestic sphere of the home and

creating an atmosphere of privacy.64

Figure 18. Cassatt, Mary. Maternal Caress, 1890-91. Drypoint, aquatint and softground etching, 14 3/8 × 10 9/16 in. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

In comparing Cassatt’s work with male contemporary and fellow Impressionist Edgar

Degas, two starkly different artistic approaches are again revealed. Although both artists depict a

64 Debra N. Mancoff, Mary Cassatt: Reflections of Women's Lives, 88-89.

bathing scene, a common theme in ukiyo-e, Cassatt keeps her subject matter at eye level in The

Child’s Bath (See Fig. 20) while Degas paints as if looking down at the woman that is his subject

matter in The Tub (See Fig. 21). Both artists use stylistic elements like asymmetrical composition

to emulate ukiyo-e in different ways, maximizing their two different intended effects. Ultimately,

“whereas the Frenchman’s scenes seem observed from a voyeur’s keyhole perspective, The

Child’s Bath and other Cassatt pictures are infused with a wholesome domesticity, as though

seen from the vantage point of a family member.”65 Unlike Degas, Cassatt refuses to adopt the

sensuality of ukiyo-e themes such as bathing, instead choosing a more chaste manner of

depiction.

Figure 19. Cassatt, Mary. The Child's Bath, 1893–1893. Oil paint, 3′ 3″ x 2′ 2.″ Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago. Figure 20. Degas, Edgar. The Tub. 1886. Pastel. Musée d'Orsay, Paris.

65 "Mary Cassatt, Genteel Powerhouse." World and I, March 1999, 96. Gale in Context: Biography.

Another comparison can be drawn with Cassatt’s against fellow impressionist Claude

Monet’s work. In La Japonaise (See Fig. 21), Monet paints his wife wearing a Japanese kimono

and holding a Japanese fan, with several more painted paper fans in the background. However, at

the time, it would only have been acceptable for male artists, and not female artists, to

exaggerate sensuality as Monet did in Japonisme: “Monet manipulated the perceived sexuality of Japanese geisha to his advantage and appropriated it to a distinctly European vision of male

desire, something that would never be seen in the works of Morisot, Cassatt, or Bracquemond.”66

Unlike her male contemporaries, Cassatt upholds a feminist stance in her works. Although far

more reserved and uptight in execution than those of male artists, Cassatt’s paintings show no semblance of the male gaze; Cassatt in no way attempts to sexualize her female subjects,

portraying them in a clear-headed light.

Figure 21. Monet, Claude. La Japonaise (Camille Monet in Japanese Costume), 1876. Oil on canvas, 91 1/4 x 56 in. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

66 Criss, "Japonisme and beyond,"147.

The European Exoticization of Japan

Cassatt’s perception of Japan ultimately was also shaped by the common exoticization, or

othering, of the country in European media at the time. The 1867 World’s Fair (Exposition

Universelle de 1867) played a major role in the initial introduction of Japanese culture to Europe,

with a model of a Japanese farmhouse and three Japanese women present in Paris as part of the

show. Exhibitions such as the 1867 World’s Fair left a monumental impact: nearly seven million people visited the six-month-long exhibition, of which the Japanese pavilion was one of the

noted highlights.67

Figure 22. Anonymous, 1867. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Images of Japan (See Fig. 22) became commonly published in newspapers and journal articles to

be disseminated to the European public. The text accompanying this image, written by Paul

67 Criss, 38.

Bellet, in the journal publication L’exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée [International

Exposition of 1867 Illustrated] reads:

Here is the farm with its straw roof which rises to a point on the edges and which carries

at its summit the protective divinities of the hearth, very pretty monsters! Here is the

women’s apartment; this is where three Japanese beauties stand . . . They do not seem to

suspect the presence of the public who crowd around them to see and admire them. They

go, come, get up, sit on their mats, cross-legged exactly as if they were alone in their

house of Yeddo [Tokyo] . . . The complexion of these young women is exactly that of

Andalusian brunettes, but they make the mistake of bleaching it with rice powder with a

profusion that proves that rice is a Japanese product!68

Bellet’s description of Japanese women as “pretty monsters” reflected the common intonation in Europe of the Japanese as “other” than themselves, contributing to readers of the journal viewing

the Japanese as a group designated to be “other” than civilized citizens.

Stereotypes propagated through media representations led to a resulting association of

Japan with passivity and sensuality in Europe. The three Japanese women’s presence in the 1867

World’s Fair appealed to the long-standing French belief in Japan as a nation characterized as

demure, feminine, and sensual. Their passive inclusion must have also appealed to how the

French exhibition goers imagined the Japanese to be, corroborating the widespread images of

Japanese courtesans that circulated around France in the wildly popular ukiyo-e woodblock prints

and in other media.69

68 Paul Bellet. "Les Costumes populaires du Japon" [Popular Costumes of Japan]. L 'Exposition Universelle de 1867 illustrée, 1867, 364.

69 Criss, "Japonisme and beyond, " 38.

Other widespread journal articles about Japan also created a specific image of Japan in

readers’ minds. In an 1869 article for the journal Femme et la famille (Wife and family), despite

her generally positive tone, author Julie Gouraud does not fully admire Japan. Describing

Japanese parents as “cruel pagans,” she writes:

The distinctive character of New Year’s Day in Yedo is to take care of the pleasures of childhood. If only the light of the Evangelicals would arrive in the heart of these cruel

pagans, and so they would understand that fathers and mothers have plenty of other

duties to fulfill than to give gifts to their children.70

With this critique of Japan, Gouraud emphasizes the differences between Japanese society and

that of the French. As was common in late nineteenth-century opinion writing, Gouraud

reinforces Western cultural and religious superiority to her reader audience of French women.71

Among the most influential publications in spreading knowledge of Japan and sustaining

interest in Japanese artwork within the European and American public was the journal Le Japon

Artistique, or Artistic Japan (See Fig. 23). Published in a run of monthly installments and printed

in three languages (French, German, and English), the magazine contributed to the Japonisme

movement on an international level. Helmed by leading art critic and connoisseur Siegfried Bing,

Artistic Japan was a product of interest from artistic circles including writer and collector

Edmond de Goncourt and art dealer Philippe Burty, who started the original attempt at a

Japanese art and culture magazine before Bing took over. The magazine appealed to an audience

70 Julie Gouraud, “Causerie,” La Femme et la famille 2 (December 1869), 37.

71 Criss, "Japonisme and beyond, " 57.

of not only experienced collectors but also members of the wealthy middle class, who were

seeking to discover more about how best to furnish their homes with Japanese objects.72

Figure 23. Le Japon Artistique, vol.3, no.17, 1888-1891. Cover. University of Edinburgh.

As the craze for Japanese art and culture grew over the course of the mid to late

nineteenth century, Japonisme became considered fashionably exotic in bourgeois French

society. A high demand for decorative fans, screens, and all other japonaiserie objects emerged,

with these artisan items described in the Petit Journal de la Mode [Little Fashion Journal] as “the

character of a very presentable exoticism” that had enraptured French society.73 Artists were

72 Gabriel P. Weisberg, Muriel Rakusin, and Stanley Rakusin, "On Understanding Artistic Japan," The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts 1 (1986): 6.

73 Criss, 82.

especially dedicated collectors of Japanese art objects and often painted them into the

compositions of their paintings. French painter James Tissot’s studio collection included a Japanese black lacquered household altar, embroidered silk kimonos, Japanese dolls, and folding

screens along with many others; Tissot assembled these items into paintings featuring young

women admiring the Japanese objects. 74 (See Fig. 24) Cassatt herself decorated her apartment

Figure 24. Tissot, James. Young Ladies Looking at Japanese Objects, 1869. Oil on canvas. Cincinnati Museum of Art, Cincinnati.

74 Lawrence Helman, "Resplendent James Tissot Works at Legion of Honor," San Francisco Examiner (San Francisco, C.A.), 2019, 14, https://puffin.harker.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/resplendent-james-tissotworks-at-legion-honor/docview/2309273495/se-2?accountid=618.

in Paris with these fashionable objects. When Cassatt and her sister Lydia entertained guests,

they served chocolat, or Parisian hot chocolate, in the finest china sets and their guests sat among

the statues and “exotic” curiosities of their home.75 Her decorative furnishings also inevitably

became the subject matter in many of her drawings and paintings. Cassatt created multiple

artworks featuring women holding uchiwa paper fans imported from Japan, which must have

been part of her everyday collection of art objects in her home.

Figure 25. Cassatt, Mary. Tea, ca. 1890. Drypoint, 12 × 9 3/8 in. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

In Tea (See Fig. 25), Cassatt creates an intimate, quiet atmosphere of elegance and wealth

using carefully placed Japanese objects. Atop the table sits a cup and saucer decorated with

cream and deep blue motifs from Cassatt’s prized tea set, which she believed to be Japanese porcelain, and a paper uchiwa fan dangles from the hand of the sitter. Her inclusion of the gilded

75 Mathews, Mary Cassatt, 97.

tea set and the uchiwa fan reinforce the fashionable bourgeois setting, achieving her intention of

emphasizing the elite social class of her sitter. Similarly, the young woman in Girl in Pink with a

Fan (See Fig. 26) holds a painted uchiwa fan in one hand. Cassatt’s depictions of Japanese art objects in her works reference her identity as a fashionable upper-middle class woman who

collected highly sought-after objects from a popular, elite Japan that influenced both French art

and society in the late-nineteenth century.76

Figure 26. Cassatt, Mary. Girl in Pink with a Fan, 1889. Pastel on paper, 59.8 x 49.5 cm. Tokyo Fuji Art Museum.

76 Criss, 163.

Conclusion

Mary Cassatt was among the most passionate admirers of Japanese artwork as well as the

most successful in creating her own emulations of ukiyo-e. Cassatt pushed Japonisme to new

limits, studying carefully from ukiyo-e masters and working fervently at perfecting her own

printmaking techniques. However, ultimately the elements that Cassatt drew from Japanese

artwork were toned down, molded by Cassatt to fit the upper-middle class experience of living in

bourgeois Paris. While Cassatt admired Japanese art objects for their innovative techniques and

artistic style, she still adopted the widespread European mindset of Japan as “other” or as exotic.

Through a combination of media circulation and exhibitions, the rise of Japonisme created a

wave of cultural influence in France, Europe, and America, with audiences adopting their

perceptions of Japan based on the artwork and media they were consuming. Cassatt played a

pivotal role in creating some of the most influential works of the Japonist movement, most

notably her series of ten drypoint aquatints featuring the ukiyo-e theme of mother-child

relationships and women’s interior lives. Japonisme’s nineteenth century influence still can be felt in the modern day, with remnants of overly stereotyped attitudes still remaining in Western

perceptions of Japanese artwork and visual culture. Cassatt’s response to Japanese artwork left a lasting impression on the realm of Japonisme both artistically and culturally, providing valuable

insight into how she perceived Japan as an American woman living in the bourgeois circles of

French society in the late-nineteenth century.

Bibliography

Abou-jaoude, Amir Lowell. "A Pure Invention: Japan, Impressionism, and the West, 18531906." The History Teacher 50, no. 1 (2016): 57-82. http://www.jstor.org.puffin.harker.org/stable/44504454.

Amon Carter Museum of American Art. "Amon Carter Museum of American Art Announces Major 50th Anniversary Acquisition by Mary Cassatt." News release. October 21, 2011. https://www.cartermuseum.org/press-release/carter-museum-announces-50thanniversary-acquisition-mary-cassatt.

Bellet, Paul. "Les Costumes populaires du Japon" [Popular Costumes of Japan]. L 'Exposition Universelle de 1867 illustree, 1867, 364.

Brodskaya, Nathalia. Impressionism. Parkstone International, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/harker-ebooks/detail.action?docID=886932.

Broude, Norma. "Mary Cassatt: Modern Woman or the Cult of True Womanhood?" Woman's Art Journal 21, no. 2 (2000): 36-43. https://doi.org/10.2307/1358749.

Chesneau, Ernest. Le Journal des demoiselles 11 (November 1868).

Chiba, Yoko. "Japonisme: East-West Renaissance in the Late 19th Century." Mosaic: An Interdisciplinary Critical Journal 31, no. 2 (1998): 1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44029769.

Criss, Jennifer T. "Japonisme and beyond in the Art of Marie Bracquemond, Mary Cassatt, and Berthe Morisot, 1867–1895." Abstract. PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2007. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/i-japonisme-beyond-art-mariebracquemond-mary/docview/304821496/se-2?accountid=206816.

Goncourt, Edmond de, Michael Locey, and Lenita Locey. Utamaro. New York: Parkstone International, 2012.

Gouraud, Julie. “Causerie,” La Femme et la famille 2 (December 1869).

Ives, Colta Feller. The Great Wave: the Influence of Japanese Woodcuts on French Prints. New York, N.Y.: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1974.

Johnson, Deborah. "Cassatt's Color Prints of 1891: The Unique Evolution of a Palette." Source: Notes in the History of Art 9, no. 3 (1990): 31-39. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23202649.

Lambourne, Lionel. Japonisme: Cultural Crossings between Japan and the West. London: Phaidon, 2011.

Mancoff, Debra N. Mary Cassatt: Reflections of Women's Lives. New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang, 1998.

Martin, Kelsey, and Nicole Myers. "Women Artists in Europe from the Monarchy to Modernism." Dallas Museum of Art. 2018. https://collections.dma.org/essay/ogGq1G4j.

"Mary Cassatt, Genteel Powerhouse." World and I, March 1999, 96. https://link-galecom.puffin.harker.org/apps/doc/A54662818/BIC?u=harker&sid=summon&xid=4e98d4e 8.

Mathews, Nancy Mowll. Mary Cassatt. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.

Morris, Roderick Conway. "Pleasure in the Floating World." International Herald Tribune, April 17, 2004, 10. https://link-galecom.puffin.harker.org/apps/doc/A115471915/GIC?u=harker&sid=summon&xid=049e1d 3b.

Napier, Susan Jolliffe. From Impressionism to Anime: Japan as Fantasy and Fan Cult in the Mind of the West. New York, N.Y.: Basingstoke, 2008.

Potter, Polyxeni. "Women Caring for Children in 'The Floating World.'" Emerging Infectious Diseases 12, no. 11 (November 2006): 1808. https://link-galecom.puffin.harker.org/apps/doc/A154561290/ITOF?u=harker&sid=summon&xid=8ce7d 076.

Salisbury, Stephan. "Old School Ties: There's Nothing Abstract about the Teaching at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts." Philadelphia Inquirer (Philadelphia, P.A.), 1997. https://puffin.harker.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/oldschool-ties/docview/1842127302/se-2?accountid=618.

von Seidlitz, Woldemar, and Dora Amsden. Impressions of Ukiyo-E. New York, NY: Parkstone International, 2016.

Weinberg, H. Barbara, and Carrie Rebora Barratt. American Stories: Paintings of Everyday Life, 1765-1915. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2009.

Weisberg, Gabriel P., Muriel Rakusin, and Stanley Rakusin. "On Understanding Artistic Japan." The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts 1 (1986): 6-19. https://doi.org/10.2307/1503900.

Wichmann, Siegfried, and Mary Whittall. Japonisme: The Japanese Influence on Western Art since 1858. London: Thames and Hudson, 2007.

Yoshihara, Mari. Embracing the East: White Women and American Orientalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.