2023-24
Mitra FAMILY GRANT Recipient
From Togas to Blackshirts: Augustus Caesar’s Influence on the Propaganda of Benito Mussolini
Trisha Iyer
FromTogastoBlackshirts: AugustusCaesar’sInfluenceonthePropagandaofBenitoMussolini
TrishaIyer
2024MitraFamilyScholar
Mentors:Mr.CliffordHullandMrs.MeredithCranston
April10,2024
Inthelate1930s,theItalianpeoplegainedanotherholiday:the Giornata della madre e del fanciullo (MotherandChildDay).Acrossthecountry,butespeciallyinitsmanyrural regions,Italywascelebratingitswomen.Itdidnotdosofullyofitsownvolition,however The PartitoNazionaleFascista(PNF;Italy’soneandonlyNationalFascistParty)addedthedaytoits calendarofofficialholidaysin1935andenjoyedenoughstrengthatthattimetorigorously enforceitscelebration.1 Infact,theholidaywasdesignedtoincreasetheverystrengththathad broughtitintoItaliandailylife,fosteringgoodwillandcheerthroughthealmostcomicalscene thatplayedoutinmunicipalitiesacrossthecountry:asortofBabyOlympics.Otherfestivals awardedprizesthroughgames.OnMotherandChildDay,Italianwomeninsteadsteppedupto proudlyreceivebronze,silver,orgoldmedalsforhavingsix,eight,ortenchildren,respectively Simultaneously,inRome,auniformedDuceBenitoMussoliniledprocessionsinmilitary formation.2 ThefascistdictatorhadsuccessfullylinkedmotherhoodwithItalianstrengthand aggression,consideringeverybirthtobeacontributortothenationworthformallycelebrating. ThisdecreewouldbeneitherthefirstnorlasttimeMussoliniwouldmakesuchaconnectionto reshapeItaliannationalidentity,hiskeyexigencywhileheadofstate.
MotherandChildDaywasasymboloftwofoldsignificance.First,itexistedasa culminationoftenyearsMussolinispenttryingtoincreasethebirthrate.Hehadtried everything,includingestablishingtheagencythatwouldlaterputonMotherandChildDay,the Opera nazionale per la protezione della maternity e dell'infanzia (ONMI;Nationalagencyfor mothersandchildren),inDecember1925.3 YettheholidayandthedebatearoundtheONMI’s purposealsoreflectedthediscussionofMussolini’smotivationsingeneral.Manydifferent
1 RJBBosworth, Mussolini's Italy: Life under the Fascist Dictatorship, 1915-1945 (NewYork:PenguinBooks, 2007),268
2 Bosworth,268.
3 Bosworth,244
interestscompetedfortheDuce’sattentioninearlytwentieth-centuryItaly.Forinstance, rebelliousyoungmenformedanaestheticmovementcalledfuturismthatprioritizedviolence, likethePNF 4 Meanwhile,thefamily-sanctifyingCatholicChurchcouldalsobetakentohave playedastrongroleinMussolini’spopulationpolicy 5
Nevertheless,muchliketherestofMussolini’spropagandaandpolicyeffortstomake ItalyFascist,MotherandChildDaymustbeconsideredthroughathirdlensthatprioritizedyet anotherpillarofItalianculture:ancientRome.WhileMussolini’sfascismquicklyencouraged copycatmovementstosimilarlylookatantiquityforfuel,theworkoftheDuceandthePNF duringthe1920sand30s—especiallywhentheystagedanextravaganzainthelate1930sto honorAugustusCaesar’s2000thbirthday—remainedtheblueprintforhowpropaganda transformedapopulace’sself-perceptionthroughskillfullydrawingonnostalgiaandpastfigures. Augustusembodiedthepastthatfascistswishedtore-attain.Asstrikinglydemonstratedinthe 1937-38MostraAugusteadellaRomanitáandsurroundingBimillenariocelebrations,Benito Mussolini’sfixationonemulatingAugustusCaesarshapedthepropagandausedtosowfascism inItalianlife,moresothancontemporaryaestheticmovementsoranauthoritarianimpulseto controlsubordinates.
Whetherbecauseofaskewedchildhoodeducationorbecauseofanintensifiedformof thenostalgiadictatorstendtoadopt,BenitoMussolinilongdreamedofrestoringhiscountryto theextentofprosperityenjoyedbytheRomanEmpire.Borntoaworking-classfamilywitha nationalistandpoorlyeducatedfather,youngBenitoheardmanytalesofancientRomethatwere notnecessarilyaccuratebutneverthelessinstilledanappreciationforItaly’spast.6 Infact, analysisofhisregimemaybenefitfromtheviewthatItaly’sDucesoughttorecreatethelopsided
4 AnneBowler,"PoliticsasArt:ItalianFuturismandFascism," Theory and Society 20,no 6(1991):764,JSTOR
5 Bosworth, Mussolini's Italy,244.
6 DenisMackSmith, Mussolini (NewYork:VintageBooks,1983),12
butempoweringancienteducationhehadreceivedforallotherItalians,now“bornagain”and presumablyreadytolearn.7 Beforeheembarkedonhispoliticalcareer,ayoungMussolini driftedfromonetemporaryjobtoanother,firstteaching,thenwritingforanewspaper 8 World WarIputawelcomeendtohisrestlessness.Inthe1910s,whenthenationwasdebatingwhether toenterWorldWarIorremainneutral,Mussolinifoundacallingasajournalistadvocatingfor entryintothewar.WhenItalyeventuallydidsoonthesideoftheAlliedPowers,hequickly enlisted.9 Themartialenvironmentgalvanizedhisideologicalshifttowardnationalism.He exaggeratesmuchinhisautobiography,buthisdawningreverenceoffightingforone’scountry islikelyoneofthemostauthenticpartsofthework.Hewritesthatwarshowedhim“[i]ncertain contingenciesviolencehasadeepmoralsignificance.”10
ThoughaccordingtoDenisMackSmith,Mussolinihadarathermediocremilitarycareer, hisrewardsarrivedafterthewarended,whenhecapitalizedonthepatriotismsignaledbyhis service.HedeftlylinkedthetraitbacktoRoman-nessinhismemoirs,wherehecallshistermof serviceachancetoappreciatethat“[a]fterathousandyearswe[Italians],awakened,wereagain givingatangibleproofofourmoralandspiritualvalor.”11 Likehisdescriptionofhisown militaryservice,thiswaslikelyanexaggerationthatneverthelessshowcasedhiseagernessto advanceapoliticalagendapushingforItalianstrengthtoonceagainreachRomanheights.This purposeadvancedhisownpoliticalcareer.Notingthattensionsbetweenneutralistsand interventionistswerepersistingafterWorldWarIended,MussolinifoundedPNFprecursor Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (ItalianFascesofCombat)in1919.12 Throughthisorganization
7 SimonettaFalasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy,repr ed (Berkeley, Calif:Univ ofCaliforniaPress,2008),35
8 MackSmith, Mussolini,10
9 Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle,34
10 BenitoMussolini,"MyAutobiography,"1928,accessedMarch1,2024, https://archiveorg/details/myautobiography00muss/page/n13/mode/2up?view=theater,121
11 Mussolini,55.
12 Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle,34
andsomefierynewspaperarticles,MussolinirecruitedmanymensimilarlylongingforRometo hiscause,culminatingwithaPNFpowerfulenoughtothreatenacoupin1922.Thefateful MarchonRomeslottedforOctoberofthatyearwasthoroughlyplanned,andasMussoliniboasts inhismemoirs,“IhadintheCapitalsixtythousandarmedmenreadyforaction.TheMarchon Romecouldhavesettragicfires.”13 Suchashowofforceneverquitetookplace,asKingVictor EmmanuelwassufficientlyspookedtoimmediatelygrantMussolinithepositionofprime minister.14 TheItalianFascistPartyhadnowreachedtheapexofpoliticalpower.
Tobesure,fascistmovementsaboundedin1920sEurope,wellbeyondItaly.While radicalpoliticalmovementsonthelefthademergedthecenturybefore,fascismemergedasthe naturallycorrespondingconservativeurgeto“politicizemassesfromtheright,”ashistorianPeter Clarkedescribesit.15 JuliaAdeneyThomasinturnattributesfascism’srapidpropagationacross thecontinenttoamiasmaofthreefactors:Europe’smodernization,whichlentvigorandenergy tofascistregimes;aconflictbetweenproletarianandbourgeoisieclassesintheindustrial capitalisteconomiesthatwererisingtoprominence,hencefascism’spopuliststrains;andmost importantly“politicaldisarray,”whichsettledintomanynationsafterWorldWarI.16
Asaresult,fascismaroseintheEuropeannationsarguablymostaffectedbyboththe IndustrialRevolutionandWorldWarI:Germany,Russia,andofcourse,Italy (Spainfollowedin 1939whenthecivilwarthatwouldinstallFranciscoFrancoasdictatorbrokeout.)Allthese fascistmovements,notjustthatofMussolini,manifestedaspecifickindofpoliticalnostalgiaas theirmainnarrativetowinoverthepeople.WhenJosephStalinbecamepremieroftheSoviet Unionin1924,helaudedRussia’sSovietreinventionasreturningthestatetothefiercenatureof
13 Mussolini,"MyAutobiography,"190
14 Bosworth, Mussolini's Italy,180
15 PeterClarke,quotedinJuliaAdeneyThomas,"APortableConceptofFascism,"introductionto Visualizing Fascism: The Twentieth-century Rise of the Global Right,ed GeoffEleyandJuliaAdeneyThomas(Durham:Duke UniversityPress,2020),1.
16 Thomas,"APortableConcept,"introduction,7
pre-colonialRussianpeoples.Stalinwouldexpressmostofhispropagandainfilm:he commissionedtwoprojectsfromfilmmakerSergeyEisenstein, Alexander Nevsky and Ivan the Terrible,toportrayRussians’respectiverallyingagainstimperialGermanicinvasionandlater corruptnoblemenknownasboyars.17 Thefilmswerehugelysuccessfulandspoketoatimein Russianhistorythatexperiencedthegratifyingsuccessofvictoryagainstaclearenemyina straightforwardbattle,thesimplicityofwhichwasnodoubtlongedforduringtheevolvingand strategiccombatofWorldWarI.
NazileaderAdolfHitlermorecloselyresembledMussoliniintryingtoevokehisnation’s antiquity.HeproposedthatGermansweretheIndo-Germanicethnicgroup’spurestdescendants, whomhewouldfamouslytermtheAryanrace,tracingGermanancestrytothe westward-migratingpeoplesofnorthernIndia.18 Hesoldanarrow,mythicizedviewof Deutschtum (German-ness),anideadirectlyparallelingifnotcopiedfromMussolini’s Romanità. 19 ThesimilaritiesbetweenRussian,Italian,andGermanfascismareeasilyexplained bythefactthatMussolinisettheprecedentwithhisnarrativeofresurrectingantiquityinfascist Italy;whensubsequentfascistmovementsfollowed,theytookthisfocusaswell.Nazism especiallyresembledItalianfascismduetoHitler’sdeepadmirationforMussolini.Heissaidto havehungaportraitoftheDuceabovethedeskinhisMunichoffice.Hisactionsemulated Mussolini’sclosely,asexemplifiedinhisBeerHallPutsch,animitationofMussolini’s successfulMarchonRomein1922.20 Heremainedsensitivethroughouthiscareeraboutthe failureofhiscoup,preventinghimfromgainingpowerforanothertenyears,andthisfed Hitler’sinferioritycomplexconcerningMussolini.
17 JohannChapoutot, Greeks, Romans, Germans: How the Nazis Usurped Europe's Classical Past,trans RichardR Nybakken(Oakland,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2016),21
18 Chapoutot,21
19 Chapoutot,2.
20 Chapoutot,74
Mussoliniexperiencedaremarkablylongtimeinpower,especiallywhencomparedto Hitler.Afterthatfirstappointmenttoprimeminister,atitleheformallychangedtodictatorin 1925,MussoliniwouldruleformorethantwodecadesuntiltheendofWorldWarIIinEuropein 1945.AsheexpandedthefascistpresenceinItaly,henaturallysoughttoshapeItalians’daily livesuntiltheirattitudeswerestaunchlypro-fascistandpro-Duce.Yetmostofhisattemptsat propaganda—fromgivingspeecheswhileelevatedonabalconytoresurrectingRoman artifacts—havebeenconsideredthroughalensthattreatshimasanyotherdictator,followinga simpleimpulsetocontrolothers.Thisexistingscholarlylenscertainlyholdsconsiderablemerit. Forinstance,prominentItalianhistorianEmilioGentileshrewdlycontextualizesMussolini’s personalitycultaspartoftheentirefascistmovementbeinga“politicalreligion,”withMussolini astheirMessiah.21 Nevertheless,currentanalysisunderweightstheancientRomeconnection. ImportantscholarssuchasBosworthhaveonlyexploredsuchmaterialtotheextentofnotingthe sharednamebetweenItaly’scapitalandtheempire,ortheubiquitoussymbolofthe fasces,a bundleofrodswithanaxheadprotruding,beingborrowedfromRomantimes.
ConnectingMussolini’sactionstohisrespectfortheglorifiedRomanEmpireenriches theunderstandingofhispolicy Itwasapotentandmisinformednostalgiathatdrovehim, especiallyintheearlyyears,whenhewasstillbuildinghisfascistfollowing.Beforeitbecamea broadpoliticalforceofitsown,Mussolini’sstrainoffascismbeganasarevivalistattitude towardRome.BylookingtoItaly’sbrightpast,theDucepromisedabrighterfutureahead.
MussoliniinsistedontheRomeconnectionwhilewritingtheDoctrineofFascism, extolling“thewilltoexercisepowerandtocommand”as“theRomantradition...embodiedin aconceptionofstrength.”22 HereheindicatesthatRomeprovidednotonlyhisprimemotivation
21 EmilioGentile,"FascismasPoliticalReligion," Journal of Contemporary History 25,no 2/3(1990):231, JSTOR.
22 BenitoMussoliniandGiovanniGentile,"TheDoctrineofFascism,"SalemHistory,1932
todesignItaly’sresurgence,butalsothemeans(thetraditionofstrength)fordoingso.Informing Italiansoftheirpastwouldawakena“Latinsenseofdiscipline”inthem,aqualitywhichhe tracedinhismemoirtohismilitaryservice.23 TheintentionwasthatItalians,armedwith knowledgeofthepast,wouldwillinglyempowerMussolinitocreateasimilarfuture.
Inthe1930s,MussolinifurtheredhisagendaofteachingancientRomethroughaseries of mostre (exhibitions)thatpresentedartifactsexcavatedfromancienttimes.Thegrandestof theseexhibitionsemergedin1937tocelebrateAugustusCaesar,makinghisadmirationand fixationonRomeclear.Yetthe Mostra Augustea della Romanità (MAR;theAugustan ExhibitionofRoman-ness)didnotoccurinavacuum.Itservedasascholarlycornerstonetoa broaderBimillenarioAugusteo(AugustanBimillennial)celebration,anextravaganzalasting from1937to1938tocelebrateAugustus’s2000thbirthday 24 Bimillennialcelebrationshadbeen previouslyheldin1930forthepoetVirgil.25 ThepoetHoracehadreceivedhisturnin1935.26 However,whatmadeAugustus’sturninthespotlightnovelwasthedevotionandunprecedented scaleoftheproject.AsMussolinilaudedandglorifiedAugustusCaesar,heinfusedthemesof nationalism,jingoism,andmorethroughouttheexhibitions.TheMARremainedthepillarand culminationoftheseefforts,requiringateamofaccredited(butfascist-approved)scholarsto curatetheexhibitandsourcereplicasofRomanartifactsfromalloverEurope.27
ThoughtheMARwasnamedforitsAugustantheme,itsscopereachedbeyondjustthe lifeandtimesofAugustus.ThebimillennialbirthdayservedastheoccasionforMussolinito discuss Romanità,thetermforRoman-ness,morewidelywiththeItalianpeople.Through
23 Mussolini,"MyAutobiography,"55
24 AristotleKallis,"'Framing'Romanità:TheCelebrationsfortheBimillenarioAugusteoandtheAugusteo Ara PacisProject," Journal of Contemporary History 46,no 4(2011):811,JSTOR
25 TheodoreZiolkowski, Virgil and the Moderns (Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1993),18
26 JoshuaArthurs, Excavating Modernity: The Roman Past in Fascist Italy (Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,2012), 101.
27 Arthurs,98
replicatedartifactsassembledfromeveryformerprovince,ubiquitousvisualsoftheformer Romanempireplasteredoneverywall,andapresentationofartifactsusedindailylife,the exhibitioninawaypresentedItalianswithapictureoftheirformerselves.28 Serving enthusiasticallyatthehelmofthismassiveendeavorwasleadingarchaeologistGiulioQuirino Giglioli,whoseloyaltieswereunquestionablyFascist.Hehadconnectionstoeveryechelon withinthePNF.29 Somecriticsfoundtheintellectualmeritofthisandother mostre tobelacking, becausemanyartifactswerenotoriginalsbutcopies,especiallythosefromthemoredistantareas ofEurope.30 Eventhischoicecouldbeframedascalculatedtomaketheexhibitmore approachabletoalaymanviewer.ItscreatorsfeltthatwhatmadetheMARdistinctinitssuccess wasitsscope:theyaspiredforittobecomea“totalitarian”institutionthatwouldpresentaview ofRomefurtheringtheDuce’svaluesofstrengthandnostalgia.31
Violenceasavirtue
ThoughMussolinididnotformallyoverseethecurationandassemblyoftheMARand itsexhibits—thatwasGiulioQuirinoGiriglioli,anenergetic,fascist-alignedarchaeologist—he privatelyfundedtheprojectwithasignificantgrantofoverfourmillionlireandhadasignificant sayinshapingitsnarrative.32 Therefore,Mussolinicanbecreditedfortheshowcase’smartial themes,astheMARpainstakinglyandbluntlyemphasizedAugustus’smilitaryprowesstothe viewer.ThoughtheexhibitsontheupperandlowerfloorsportrayedRoman-nessthroughthe manyfacetsofdailylife,fromthebureaucraticofficestofashion,thegroundfloorwas noticeablyfocusedontheeponymousfigurehimself,witheightofthetwenty-fourrooms devotedexplicitlytohisreign.33 However,asArthursmentions,nonegave“avividsenseofhis
28 Arthurs,104
29 Arthurs,98
30 Arthurs,104
31 Arthurs,93
32 Arthurs,102.
33 Arthurs,115,117
personalityorinternallife.”34 Theexhibitioninsteadseemedtocreateanindirectbiographyout ofAugustus’sinfluenceonvariousrealmsofRomanlife,includingthearmy,contemporary poets,andhismonuments.Thispurposeindicatesaspecialemphasisonmilitaryconquestsand expansionism.RoomXIVdepicted“AugustanCampania,”aregionofItaly,whilethenext discribed“Augustanmonumentsintheimperialprovinces”distinctfrommonumentswithin Italy,whichearnedtheirownroom.35 Forhisconquests,asevidencedbythenumerousstatues fromParthiaandotherregionshehadbroughtunderRomancontrol,Augustuswashailedasthe “founderoftheEmpire.”36 IftheconnectiontoMussolini’sideaswerenotclearenough,the groundfloorconcludedwitharoomcontainingbustsofKingVictorEmmanuelIIIand Mussolini,alongwithphotographsofmonumentsrecentlybuiltbythelatter Together,theywere theimpliednextchapterofRomanimperialism.37
DepictinghispowerthroughconcreteresultswasachoiceAugustushimselfwouldhave approvedof,asitservedasevidenceforhismoreidealisticlinkbetweenmilitarystrengthand happiness.JustasMussolinihonoredthatmessagethroughthestructureoftheexhibition,he wouldpropagatehismessageacrossfascistItaly.Thegeniusinbothmen’sinterpretationsof strengthlayintheconnectionbetweenmilitarismandtheflourishingthattheypromisedwasin store.Withouttheuseofsomebrainwashing,askingonetodieforone’scountrywasasacrifice thatwouldnothavecompelledmanyyouthsineitherantiquitynorthetwentiethcentury.Yet, AugustusandMussolinibothprocuredtheloyaltytheysodesiredbysubtlytwistingstrengthasa concepttotieintoother,moreattainable,andmoredesirableaspectsoflife.
34 Arthurs,110
35 Arthurs,109
36 Arthurs,110.
37 Arthurs,113
Augustus’sdescriptionofthebattleofActiuminhismemoirs Res Gestae Divi Augusti (DeedsoftheDivineAugustus)servesasafittingcasestudyforthisphenomenon.Thework’s overallthemeistochroniclehislifeandreigninthemostflatteringlight.Hisdescriptionofhis teenagedmilitaryvictoryagainstMarcAntonyatActiumservesthispurpose,markingitasthe momentwhenRomesubmitteditselftohimasitsleader.“ThewholeofItalyvoluntarilytook oathofallegiancetomeanddemandedmeasitsleaderinthewarinwhichIwasvictoriousat Actium.”38 Here,Augustusframeshimselfasalmostpassiveandmakeshimselfthedirectobject ofItaly’sallegedlyvoluntaryandindependentlychosenoath.AsAugustuspreparedthis manuscripttobeengravedforpublicviewing,heneededtostressthechoicethatallItalianshad inthematter Themainvirtueatplayinthisepisodeisnothisowncapabilityasamilitaryleader oreventheloyaltygainedfromtheItalianpeople;rather,itisthefreewillthattheItalianpeople exercisedtochoosetheirnextleader.Underhisrule,Romewasbynomeansademocracy,but morechoiceandqualityoflifewerehallmarksofhisreign’simpactuponthepopulace.
Inanotherinstance,Augustusimbuedeverydayobjectswithnationalism,whichhetiedto morality.ManyofthereconstructedbuildingsthatAugustusoriginallybuilt,andwere showcased,includedsecularobjectsthatweregivenreligiousundertones,arthistorianPaul Zankerargues:“Thereishardlyasinglemonumentorbuildingthatdoesnotincludeinits decorativeschemetheskullsofsacrificialanimals,offeringbowls,priestlytokens,orgarlands woundwithfillets,evenwhenthestructureitselfispurelysecular.Theseimagesrecall sacrifice.”39 Theultimateeffectwouldhavebeentofosterasenseofwonderfortheeveryday andahealthyappreciationofreligion’sovertonesofpurity,bothvirtue-adjacenttraits.Inthis
38 AugustusCaesar, Res Gestae Divi Augusti,trans FrederickW Shipley(LoebClassicalLibrary,1924),Section25, https://penelopeuchicagoedu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res Gestae/homehtml
39 PaulZanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus,trans.AlanShapiro(AnnArbor,MI:Universityof MichiganPress,1998),116
masterstroke,Augustustiedhispresenceasamilitaryandthentotalleadertothebenefitand bettermentofthepeople.
Mussolinidrewonthissameveinofempowerment.Heenvisionedinthefutureofhis fascistnationareturntotheglory,happiness,andextentthatItalyenjoyedunderAugustusin antiquity—astatehecouldachievethroughmilitarization.Augustus’snationalisticworks,onfull displayduringhisbimillennialcelebration,imbuedtheeverydaywithallegiancetohimand thereforethenation.Mussoliniaspiredtodothesame.Thoughhedecriedthenotionof imperialismingeneral,becauseofwhichhewasalwayshostiletoFranceandtheUnited Kingdom,heviewedItalianexpansionismdifferently.Hestatedmanytimesthatitwasamere reclamationofwhatItalyhadheldinthepast,asRome,andwasthereforerightfullyowed.40 For thisreason,helaunchedmilitarycampaignsintoLibyaandEthiopiatoreabsorbwhathadbefore beenRomanNorthAfrica—thoughthesecampaignshadvaryingdegreesofsuccess.41 Afterall, ancientRomehadcontrolledtheMiddleEast,NorthAfrica,andEuropeanregionstosuchan extentthattheMediterraneanwasdubbed mare nostrum (oursea)inLatin.Forthisreason, MussoliniextolledservingintheItalianarmy,ashehaddoneduringWorldWarI,throughmany differentavenues.ThisportrayalofarmyactivitywouldbeinlinewithAugustus’sgoalsforhis time,whichwere“renewalofreligionandcustom, virtus,andthehonoroftheRomanpeople.”42 Militarystrengthservedthelattertwopurposes.Infact,thoughMussolinimaynothavebeen consciousofAugustus’sexactwordingspecifically,theword virtus isfittingforhistwofold goals.InLatin, virtus canmeanboth“courageorstrength”andmoreliterally“virtue”itself.This dichotomyrepresentshowMussoliniconnectednationalloyaltytoamoralobligation.
40 MackSmith, Mussolini,33
41 Bosworth, Mussolini's Italy,362;396.
42 Zanker, The Power of Images,101
Mussolini’spropagandaregardingtheneedtorevitalizeandexpandItalymilitarilywould likelynothavebeensuccessfulifnotforWorldWarIandthecollectivetraumaitcaused.The GreatWarwasthewartoendallwars,foughtonanunprecedentedscale.Ittookupwardsof 55,000Italianlivesandfracturedmanymore.43 ManyItaliansoldiersinWorldWarIexperienced disorientationandlackofpurpose—indeed,manypoliticianshadopposedItaly’sveryentrance intothewar.Mussoliniseizedthechancetotransformamemoryofconfusionandfearintoan inspiringsourceofmotivation.Hehadnochoice:tojustifyfuturemilitaryaction,heneededto somehowretroactivelyromanticizewhathadtakenplacesothathecouldmakeitmorebenign, oratleastpalatable,totheItalianpeoplewhohadsufferedsomuch.Inasense,thefractious impactofWorldWarIonItalyregardingeconomy,personalstrife,internationalreputation,and morecanbereflectedinthemicrocosmthatwasthearmy—andhenceMussolinisoughtoutto improvetheimageofthearmytoelevateItalyitself.Justlikethenation,divisionswererifein theItalianarmyofWorldWarIevidencedbythefactthatonemilitarychaplainreportedmany menreflectingintheirprayersthattheyprioritizedloyaltytotheirfamilyorregionaloriginover loyaltytothenation.
44 BosworthnotesthatWorldWarIincurredasmanyItalianprisonersof war(numbering530,000)ascasualties(578,000).45 Hecreditsalackofnationalallegiancefor theseemingwillingnessofItaliansoldierstogivethemselvesup.46
DespitethedesolationexperiencedbyItaly’slukewarmarmy,Mussolinisawinthe country’slingeringpostwartensionstoabolishsuchdivisionsandpromotenationalunity.When recountingthecaptureofthetownTrentonearthemuch-covetedTriesteinhismemoirs,he emphasizesthesenseofacollectiveoverindividuals,writingrapturously:“Thefinalvictorywas
43 AlessioFornasin,"TheItalianArmy'sLossesintheFirstWorldWar.," Population (00324663) 72,no.1(2017): 53,EBSCOeBookCollection
44 Bosworth, Mussolini's Italy,72
45 Bosworth,73
46 TheRomanswouldhavecalledthis pietas,atermwiththreebroadbutintersectingdefinitions:loyaltytofamily, loyaltytocountry(patria),andloyaltytothegods
notonlyavictoryofawar.Isawmorethanthat.ItwasavictoryforthewholeItalianrace.After athousandyearswe,awakened,wereagaingivingatangibleproofofourmoralandspiritual valor Wewerelivingagainonwarliketradition.”47 Glorifyingpastfightinginthiswayallowed Mussolinitoframemilitaryinvolvement,alongwithviolenceingeneral,asacontributortoa greatergoodandtotheprosperityofRome.
Mussolinitookcaretoappealtoindividualismbymentioningabenefittowarbeyond seeingone’scountryrisetogreatheights.Apurificationsuchasapersonaltransformationhe experiencedwhileservinginWorldWarI.Inhismemoirs,hereminiscesthatwarmadehim developa“sternLatinsenseofdiscipline,”yetanotherreferencetoethnicityandhow military-adjacentqualitiessuchasrigorwereinherentethnictraits.48 Further,Mussolinilaments thatuponfinishingserviceashisregiment’sallegedsolesurvivor,“mylifeandmyfuturewere againdistendedwithuncertainty.”49 Mussolinistruggledtoholdalong-termjobbeforethewar began;hencetheroutineandsingle-mindedpurposeofthemilitaryhadasoothingeffectonhim, eliminatingtheuncertaintiesfromhislifeandgivinghimasingle-mindedpurpose.His determinationtosharetheeuphoriaofhismilitaristicreinventionwithothersshouldnotberead asaltruistic,however Everyyouthwhoenlistedorjoinedthearmyoutoffearforasimilarly misguidedlifewouldbecomeanotherassetoncehebecametheheadofstate.Mussolini’seulogy fortherestorativepowerofmilitarizingone’spersonallifecaneasilybeextendedtoimplythe sameaboutmilitarizingthenation,restoringittoanidealofabeneficialandcalmingstateof order,sosharplycontrastedwiththechaosofapostwarnationwrackedwithpovertyand politicalsquabbling.Indeed,in1921,theFascistmovement’spropagandapublication, Il Fascio, generalizedthebenefitsofaggressiontothewholecountrywhenitstatedthat“TheHoly
47 Mussolini,"MyAutobiography,"55
48 Mussolini,15.
49 Mussolini,17
Communionofwarhasmouldedusallwiththesamemettleofgeneroussacrifice.”50 Intheyear beforehisMarchonRome,Mussoliniwasnolongercoylyhintingathisjingoism.Rather,he wasexplicitlypraisingWorldWarIasashared,unifyingexperience.TheItalianviewofmilitary servicehadevolvedfromrestorationtoevenareligion-imbuedsanctification.Thestrengththata warlikeattitudeprovidedtoempowerthenationalsobecameapowertotakeonthenationand disruptthestatusquowhenMussolinifinallystagedhisMarchonRomeinOctober1922.The Marchwasundoubtedlyawatershedmomentinhiscareer,securinghimthepositionofPrime Minister,butbecauseofitsmilitaryaspect.Indeed,itwasasorryshowofforce.Theassembled massesreadytostormRomeneverbegantheirmarch,andtheprocesionendedbeforeitbegan whenaspookedKingVictorEmmanuelIIIpreemptivelyofferedMussolinipower 51 Evenyears aftertheevent,Mussolinidesperatelyneededtoreassertthebloodandforcehecouldhave unleashedonthetiresomepoliticalstatethathehadoverhauled.Catalyzedbytheexaggerated violenceandforceunleashedonRomein1922,ItalywasrebornintowhatMussolinihoped wouldbecomeanotherRomanEmpire.Thereligiousundertonesofafiercebutnecessarybirth forthenationaregrittyandundeniable,revealingthefanaticextentofMussolini’sobsession withviolenceasvirtue.
Mussolini’sportrayalofviolencecanbeseeninmorethanthewordsofhis1928 autobiography.GiventhepopulistnatureoftheDuce’sappeal,thewrittenwordwasfarfromthe onlymeansbywhichhecommunicatedhisvisiontotheItalianpeople.Hesuffusedtheirdaily liveswithimagerythatimprintedonthemanew,morebelligerentnationalidentity.Italian militarismcanbeseenappliedinMussolini’sbreedofexpansionism:ahopetoreclaimterritory formerlyheldbytheRomanEmpirebutnowformedintoothernations.Asignificantvisual
50 Gentile,"FascismasPoliticalReligion,"234.
51 Mussolini,"MyAutobiography,"190
symbolofhisexpansionistambitionswastheVia dell’Impero (theAvenueofEmpire,astreet runningdownthecenterofthecapitalcity)aroundwhichrenovationprojectssuchasthe Ara Pacis andpastimperialforumswouldsooncluster InApril1934,Mussoliniinstalledlarge marblemapsalongtheroadtoimpressuponpassersbythesizeoftheRomanEmpire.Thefourth mapinparticularshowedtheEmpireatitslargestgeographicalextentundertheemperorTrajan, encompassingterritoriesasfarapartaswhatwouldbecomeCroatia,Spain,Germany,anda portionofLibya.
52 ThisstrikingvisualcontributedtotheoverallsentimentthatledMussolini andotherPNFmemberstoproclaimanimperialistagenda,whichculminatedmostnotablywith acampaigninEthiopia,astakingbackwhathadbeenrightfullyItaly’sinpriormillennia.
EverydayItalianscouldseeforthemselvestheMediterraneanasabygone mare nostrum,tobe attainedonceagain.
Augustusalsooftenexaltedtheconquestofnon-Italianpeoplesthroughpervasive,and sometimessmall,imagery.AfterheconqueredParthia(theRomantermforwhatisnownorthern Iran),receivinganoathofvassalagefromtheParthiankingPhraatesandseveralhostagesfrom theking’sfamily,theSenatedevelopedanimageofakneelingParthian.Augustusseizedupon thispersonificationofsubjugationandinfusediteverywhere.Hestampedtheimageon everythingfromsilver denarius tojewelry,namelyrings,sothatnoRomanwouldmissthe visual.53 MussolinimostdirectlyparalleledAugustus’sactionsthroughhisowncampaignto remaketheRoman fasces,whichembodiedthepowerofacollectivewithitsax-headprojecting fromabundleofrods,intowhathecalleda fascio andthenstampthesymboleverywhere.As shallbediscussedlater,theimagewasalwaysinsight.
52 MackSmith, Mussolini,184.
53 Zanker, The Power of Images,187
JustasAugustusframedhisoverhaulofRomandemocracyasthebeginningofaGolden Peace—ironicallysecuredthroughhisconstantconquestsandproliferationofamilitarypresence toadministrateandpacifyprovinces—Mussolini,too,markedanewagestartingfromthePNF’s risetopower 54 InlinewithhisspecificviewofthisnewMussolini-ledItalyasarebirth,he focusedonindoctrinatingthenextgeneration.Mussolinicreatedafreshmilitarypolicyfocused onrecruitingyouththroughforce.Hepassedalawmandatingmilitaryinstructionfromthe tenderageofeighttothirty-two,atwhichtimethemenwouldpresumablyenteractiveserviceif needed.55 TheinitiativedemonstratestheextenttowhichMussoliniwishedtoeliminateand replacetheattitudesofthepre-Mussoliniera,evenintherearingofchildren.Hedidnotaspireto createamoreloyalnextgeneration,asmanydictatorsdo,butinsteadviewedchildhoodasthe firstopportunitytocreateRome’snextsoldiersandthereforealsothefirstpointatwhichprior leadershadfailedinthisverytask.MackSmithcapturesMussolini’smentalitytowardplayand otherhallmarksofchildhood:“Thedutyofordinarycitizenswasto'workandobey',nottoenjoy themselves:peoplewhowantedamusements[ratherthaninstruction]wouldbecomesoft.”56 MussoliniexplicitlystatedhisexpectationsofrigorinthemanyissuesofthePNF-runyouth magazine Gioventú Fascista (FascistYouth).Eachcoverfeaturedthisquoteattributedtothe Duce:“il fascismo non vi promette ne' onori ne' cariche ne' gvadagni ma il dovere e il combattimento”(Fascismdoesnotpromiseyouhonorsorpositionsorrewardsbutdutyand fighting.).57 Thissternpaternalismrecallstherigidfigurethatalate-lifeAugustusprojected,a characterSuetoniusdescribesindetailaslivingaspartanlifestyleandimposingstricterand
54 Augustus, Res Gestae,Section16
55 MackSmith, Mussolini,186
56 MackSmith,186
57 CoverofGioventúFascistaMagazine,September1931,illustration,accessedNovember25,2023, https://postermuseumcom/collections/all/products/gioventu-fascista-magazine-cover-32-gioventu-mag
strictermoralitycodesuponRomancitizens.58 Theirlifestylescouldbeenjoyable,theemperor allowed,butnotoverlyso,norshouldtheydepartfromthatqualityMussoliniwouldlaudasan innateLatintrait:discipline.ThistenetrecalledRomantimes,whenworking-classmenwould servefortwentyyearsbeforeretiringtoaprivatelife.Intandemwithmilitaryinstruction, Mussolinimadeiteffectivelymandatoryforbothboysandgirlstojoinyouthorganizations,a fascinatingcasestudyinhowpropagandacantellastory.Here,enjoyinganafter-schoolactivity orweekendcontest,childrenwouldabsorbMussolini’swarlikeagenda,fromaseemingly innocuousorganization.Taketheprominent Opera Nazionale Balilla,foundedin1926.Though itbilleditselfasthesimplebutstrident“NationalAgencyforBoys,”anaggressiveundertone wasclear Themissionstatementwastotrainboysagedeighttothirteen59 inbeing“strong, courageous,intelligentlypreparedandmilitarilyorganized.”60 BecauseMussolini’s nationalizationofchildcareandeducationbroughtthestateintoeveryhousehold,childrennever hadachancetoforgetthefuturethatawaitedthemasproudItaliansoldiers.Indeed,ina testamenttothepervasivenessofstate-runyouthorganizations,theBalillahadastaggering enrollmentof1,576,925childrenin1937.Suchanumberdemonstratesthatthoughparticipation wasstatedtobemandatory,itwascertainlyunderstoodtobeso.Bythen,theBalillahadalso acquiredacounterpartforgirls,the Giovani Italiane Aco-educationaldivisionforyounger childrenagedsixtosevenalsoemerged,namedthe Figli e Figlie della Lupa (theSonsand DaughtersofLupa)asamythologicalallusiontotheshe-wolfwhosuckledRomulus,founderof Rome.61 Thereferencemadethedivision’smemberskinwiththeverymanwhohadruledtheir homeland,strengtheningasenseoffealtyandobligationtothe patria asifthesequalitieswere
58 GaiusSuetoniusTranquillus,"TheLifeofAugustus,"in The Twelve Caesars,ed MichaelGrant(London: PenguinBooks,1990),Section73
59 Bosworth, Mussolini’s Italy,289
60 Bosworth,293.
61 Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle,101
themoralsofafierce,Duce-tingedfairytale.Romulusissaidtohavekilledhisbrother,making himaquestionablerolemodelinoneaspect,yetinatestamenttothebloodthirstymindof Mussolini,everychildwasintendedtodonaBalillauniformdreamingofbecomingaRomulus oratleastdefendingwhathehadcreated.MussolinimadeRomuluswasahouseholdnamein everytextbook,butitisworthreiteratingthatAugustuswasalwaystheRomanfigurewhomost fascinatedhim.
ChildrenandsoldierswerenottheonlyoneswhohadtowearuniformsinMussolini’s Italy.MembersofthePNFwerealsorequiredtowearuniformsdaily,atestamenttotheextentto whichmilitarycultureandconformitypervadedeverydaylife.Whilechildrenneededjustoneor afewuniformstoweartoyouthmeetings,cabinetministerscouldownuptotendifferent uniformsintheirclosets.Evennewbornswerephotographedwearingblackshirts,whichthe MarchonRomehadmadeafascistsymbolovernight.62 Theadultuniformincludedabadgewith theparty’sofficiallogoinvolvingthemodified fasces.By1926,allcivilianshadtosportsucha badgeontheiroutfits,andmanyoptedtoweartheirallegianceinpinform(seeFig.1).63 With thisdresscodeofsorts,Mussolini’sFascistpartyunilaterallyabsorbedeveryItaliancitizento theirranks,inappearanceifnotinideology Thefloodsofdarkclothingthatcoveredthestreets ofRomeeverydayservedasanimpressivevisualmarkerofhowdeeplythefascistregimeand valueswerestampedoneveryItalian.Theuniformreducedeachindividualtooneofmany soldiersforaresurrectedRomanEmpire.Frustratedwiththeoveralldecayindressingand standardsheperceivedinancientRome,Augustushadattemptedasimilarhomogenization project.Hefixatedonthetoga,thatquintessentiallyRomangarment,astheuniformhewishedto bringbackintofashionamonghispatrician(upper-class)peers.LikeMussolini,heimposeda
62 MackSmith, Mussolini,176.
63 Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle,98
strictdresscodeintheForumandsurroundingareasrequiringthatpatriciansremovetheircloaks anddontogastoenter,whichtheygrudginglydid,lesttheyloseaccesstotheirfavoritehubto visittemples,goshopping,giveapoliticalspeech,ormakeabusinessdeal.64 Augustushimself almostalwaysportrayedhimselfwearingthetogaorsomemodificationofitinportraitsand statues.Mussolini,too,beganexclusivelywearingauniformforpublicappearancesinthe 1930s,aconstantandfrozenarchetypeofadictator.
Figure1.Themodifiedpartybadgethatciviliansandpartyofficialswereexpectedtowearfrom 1925to1943. PNF button badges,WarRelicsForum.
Justlikemanholecoversandpins,stationerydidnotescapethestampofthe fascio (the termforthespecificimageofthe fasces inthePNFlogo).TheweaponappearedonPNF-made calendarsandthetoysthatthepartydistributedatcelebrationsoftheChristianholiday Epiphany 65 Asthepartylogo,thesymbolservedaspowerfulshowofmight.Itwasacallbackto Roman lictores,the fasces-wieldingbodyguardsofprominentpoliticians,butwithapersonal twistfromMussolini.Hedroppedtheax-head’spositionfromthetopofthebundletothe
64 Suetonius,"TheLifeofAugustus,"Section40.
65 Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle,97
middle,forreasonsunknown.66 Mussolinimayhaveredesignedthevisualthustobetteralign withhispopulistagenda.Inhisversion,theforcecomesfromthemiddleofthebundleof individualsticks.Metaphorically,Mussoliniconceptualizedstrength,bothmilitaryand otherwise,ascomingfromthepeople.
Mussolini’seffortstocreateamorejingoisticItalyinvitecomparisonsbeyondAugustus Caesar.Forone,theBalillaeerilyresembledtheHitlerYouthinintentandexecution.However, astheBalillapredatedtheHitlerYouthbyseveralyears—thelatterwasonlycrystallizedand promotedbytheNaziPartyinitsfinalformstartingin1933—itthereforewasalikely inspiration,explainingthesimilaritiesbetweenthetwoorganizations.67 Nevertheless,whether theBalillainspiredtheHitlerYouthornot,Mussolini’sinitiativewhenfoundingayouth organizationwasdecidedlyoriginalandindependentofHitler’sinfluence.Thepremisewent beyondthetypicalauthoritarianimpulsetoindoctrinatethenextgeneration,too.Mussolinihada clearlyoutlined,impressivelyvisualizedidealofaresurrectedRomanEmpire,ofwhichthe youthwouldbecomefront-linesoldiers.
Mussolini’sbrandofenergeticaggressionalsoinvitesparallelstofuturism,a contemporaryaestheticmovementthatproducedarchitecture,literature,andmoreafteritfirst emergedin1909.FounderFilippoMarinetti,apoet,appealedtomanyyoungmenwiththeclaim thatthetwentiethcenturyheraldedanew,industrializedworldorderthatprioritizedmasculinity, rawpower,andtheunfeelingaggressionofmachines.68 Onthesurface,futurismhadquiteafew similaritieswithfascism.Marinettihimselfhadlonghadtiestothefascistmovement.He participatedinburningdownthesocialistnewspaper Avanti’sheadquarters(Mussolini’sformer workplace,beforehereversedpoliticsanddecriedthepublication)andevenappearedalongside
66 Falasca-Zamponi,96
67 MichaelH.Kater, Hitler Youth (Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,2006),10.
68 Bowler,"PoliticsasArt,"763
MussolinionthefirstlistofcandidatesthePNFconsideredsupportingincampaignsforpolitical office.69 Naturally,then,MarinettiandMussolinisharedthesameoptimismaboutItaly’sfuture asaconqueroroncemore.Marinettioncewrote“[t]hefatherlandisthegreatestextensionofthe individual,”aclassicallynationalistline.70 EventhecampaigntomaketheRomansaluteItaly’s officialgreetingseemedtocoincidewithfuturism.MackSmithexplainsthatthehandshakewas replacedinfavorofthesalutebecauseitwas“lessaestheticandlesshygienic.”71 Thisreasoning echoedthesameobsessionwithefficiencyandcleanlinessthatfuturismtouted.
However,thetwomovementsdisagreedononefundamentalideologicalpoint:the purposeofItaly’spast.MussolinienthralledtheItalianpeoplewiththepromiseofpastItalian greatnessreturnedoncemore,andthefantasyhemeticulouslyconstructedhingedonRomanand evenRenaissance-eraculturalelements:ayouthorganizationborrowingitsnamefromRoman wolf-motherLupa;Mussolini’sglorificationofAugustusandotherprominentRomans;eventhe descriptionofItalyFascistnationalanthem“Giovinezza”as“la vision de l'Alighieri”(thevision of[thepoetDante]Alighieri).72 Mussolini’sfondnessforhistorywouldhaveviolatedaprincipal tenetoffuturism,i.e.,anobsessionwiththefutureasadeathofthepastratherthanarebirthof anything.FuturismfoundnouseorinterestforItaly’spastactivitiesandinsteadsawscrapping nationalhistoryaltogetherasanecessitytoreinventmanhoodandinvitethenewageofthe machine.73 Thoughonce-aligned,fascismandfuturismdivergedsosignificantlyonthetopicof historythatby1928hecalledtherivalmovement,asBowlerphrasesit,a“movementofthe past.”74 HisfixationonAugustusandotherRomanfigures,then,wasnotonlyaproductofthe Duce’sideologybutanassetindistinguishingbetweenhispoliticsandthoseofapoliticalrival.
69 Bowler,763
70 Bowler,773
71 MackSmith, Mussolini,176
72 Bosworth, Mussolini's Italy,198
73 Bowler,"PoliticsasArt,"774.
74 Bowler,787
Mussolinisoldnostalgia,wistfullyposingthequestionofhowRomehadlostallits romanità sinceimperialtimes.Violencewastheanswerhesuppliedtohisownquestion.
Fertilityandmorality
ToreassertItaly’sstrengthontheworldstage,Mussolinineededsoldiers.Towillthose soldiersintobeing,helaunchedamassivepushtoincreasethenationalbirthrate.Hecouldnot haveaccomplishedwhatprogresshedidmaketowardthatgoalwithouthavingthefigureof Augustus,thatkindlyandremovedpaternalfigure,asreference.Withinthegeneralyearningfor antiquitythatMussolinicultivatedlayaspecificpushtoreturntothetraditionalfamilyvalues thatencouragedyoungpeopletomarry,buildnuclearhouseholds,andhavemanychildren.The prospering,fertilesocietythatAugustuspresidedoverwithsimilarintentservedbothasan inspirationforMussoliniandasampleillustrationofthenuclearfamilyideal.
ItalianswhovisitedtheMARdidnothavetogofartoseefamilyimagerysurrounding them.Anentireroomontheexhibit’sgroundfloorwasdevotedtoAugustusandhisfamily.
ThoughAugustuslackedabiologicalsonandeventuallyhadtoadopthisstepsonashisheir,he strovetopresenthimselfasaveritablefamilyman.Hisbeliefinthepowerofthenuclearfamily expressesitselfthroughoneofhisfinalactions.AccordingtoananecdotedetailedbySuetonius, whenAugustusmadehisfinalwill,hebequeathedmostofhisestatetohiswifeLiviaandher son(andhisheir)Tiberius.However,heincludedonestipulation:that“Tiberius...adoptthe name‘Augustus,’whileLiviaadoptedthename‘Augusta’”inhishonor.75 Augustus’sbehavior expresseshisobsessionwithusinghisfamilytoextendhislegacyevenbeyondhislifetime. Further,byrenaminghiswifeandstepsonafterhim,herevealedhisinterestincreatinga cohesive,indivisiblefamilyunit.
75 Suetonius,"TheLifeofAugustus,"Section111
Despitehisownstrugglestoconceiveanheir,AugustusencouragedhisfellowRomans toplacethesameimportanceonfamilyandchildrenthathedid.Hedidthisbyplayingon symbolsoffertilitythatwereubiquitousfromthetime.Toproperlyunderstandhismethodsand whatexactlyMussoliniattemptedtoreplicate,theMARmustbecontextualizedasjustonepart, arguablythecapstone,ofthelargercelebrationofAugustus’sbimillennialbirthday.The Bimillenario,asitwasknown,servedasanimpetusforMussolinitolaunchmassive reconstructionprojectsthatwouldvisuallyresurrectAugustanRomeforhispeople. Mostnotableamongtheseprojectswasthe Ara Pacis (theAltarofAugustanPeace).Though Augustushadnotconceivedtheideaforthestructurehimself,itremainsnotableasa culminationofhisreign.OrderedbytheRomanSenateinAugustus’shonorafterhis“successful operationsinthoseprovinces[ofSpainandGaul],”ashenarratesinthememoir Res Gestae,the altarwasraisedinthe Campus Martius (fieldofMars)andwasthelocationofanannual sacrificebymagistrates,priests,andVestalVirgins—thuslinkingAugustus’sworktothedivine sanction.
76
Augustus’spropagandisticgeniusliesinhowheelaboratedonthereligiousthemeofthe altarthroughthedecorativeartinscribedonthestructure’ssides.Theextenttowhichhe controlledtheAraPacis’slookisdebatable,sincetheSenatewasresponsibleforthealtar’s designandconstruction;however,giventhatgoverningbody’sgoodwilltowardshimandthe factthatAugustushadbefriendedmanysenatorssinceenteringtheirranksatagenineteen,itis plausibleandevenprobablethattheirvisionreflectedthegoalsandvaluesofAugustus’sregime. Manydesignscarvedontothealtarreferenceabundance,inextricablylinkingfertility(andhis reign)totheideasofpurityandmorality.Mostnotably,thealtar’smostprominentrelieffeatures ananthropomorphizedgoddesssurroundedbyabundance.Scholarsspeculatethatthegoddessis
76 Augustus, Res Gestae,Section12
Tellus(theearth),oftenknownasTellusMater(earthmother).Hersurroundingssupportthe theory.Twochildrenplayonherlap,reinforcingthematernalqualityofthefigure.Barley, poppies,andothertallplantsswaybehindher;toherleft,anoxrestsafterpresumablyalongday ofplowing,cementingtheagrarianfeeloftheimage.77 Theplentifulvisualhintstowardfertility ofthelandmirrorthefertilityofthestateandtheindividualswithinit.WhetherAugustus envisionedthedepictedwomanasTellusornot,herdepictionasmaternalandearth-affiliated communicatesthattheenvironmentitself,actinginaMotherNature-likepersona,hadapproved ofhisregime.Thefurtherimplicationthatsheisagoddess,assignaledbythetwo aurae (wind spiritsrepresentedasyoungmen)whoattendher,placedadivineblessingonhisone-manreign, whichwouldhaveotherwisealarmedhispoliticalpeerswhorememberedthetyranny characterizingRome’spastageofmonarchy AsarthistorianPaulZankerwrites,“The[visual] enumerationofthegoddess’smanyqualitieswasintendedtoleadtothevenerationofher powers—andthoseofAugustus.”
78 Indeed,theso-calledPaxAugusta(AugustanPeace)that beganwithhisreignandwouldlasttwohundredyearsmayhaveneededdivineinterventionin ordertoovercometheRomans’warlikenatureandmaintainsuchanenduringGoldenAgefor Rome.
Mussolinispent7.2millionlireonreassemblingthescatteredpiecesofthismonumentto Augustus’sgreatness.79 Thelastprojectthefascistregimewouldsuccessfullycomplete,the restoredAraPacis—whichstillstandstoday,flockedtobytourists—wasinandofitselfan attemptedvisualrepresentationofItaly’spurportedreturntoancientlevelsofpower.80 Though thetwentiethcenturyItaliancrowdwassofarremovedfromancientRomethatthemythological
77 Zanker, The Power of Images,172
78 Zanker,175
79 Kallis,"'Framing' Romanità,"829.
80 Kallis,829
referencesandallusionswouldnothavebeenappreciatedinalltheirsubtlety,theluscious images,burstingwithlife,thatadornthealtar’ssideswouldneverthelesshaveimpressedupon themthelinkbetweenfertilityandtheprosperityMussolinipromised.
Mussolinienthusiasticallyfurtheredthissymbolicconnection.Beyondprovidinghim withmorefuturesoldiersforhisreconstructedRomanEmpire,amorefertilenationcarrieda specialmagnetisminitspromisetore-attainthepurityandfantasticalstrengthheassociatedwith Augustus’sorderly,nuclear-family-boostingstate.HisobsessionwithincreasingItaly’sbirthrate canbeconstruedasanaspirationalparalleltoAugustusrenewingtheearthandabundance depictedonhismonuments.Mussolini’sinterpretationoffertilitywasmoreliteralthan Augustus’s,butalsohardertopromise.Inhis1927AscensionSpeech,heoutlinedspecific intentionstoincreasethepopulationfromfortytosixtymillionpeopleby1940andamassan armyfivemillionstrong.81
ThemechanismbywhichMussoliniprogressedtowardthisgoalmimicsAugustus Caesarevenmoreeerily.Tyingtheabundanceofthelandandthewombtogether,ashedidwith theAraPacis’sstrikingvisuals,gaveAugustusthelanguagetostresstheimportanceofmoral behavior,fromfidelityinmarriagetohavingmanychildren,toperpetuateRome’sdivine prosperity From1926to1943,Mussoliniimposedacelibacytaxonunmarriedmenbetweenthe agesof25and65(singlewomenwereunaffected)topressurethemtomarryandhavechildren. Thosewhodidnotcomplyquiteliterallypaidasteepprice,fortheamountintaxestheywere forcedtopayeveryyearnearlydoubledinsizeduetothebachelorfine.82 Mussolinihelddeep emotiontowardsthefamilyunit,andhefiercelyuphelditinpublicwithhisownfamily.His 82 "TaxonBachelorsDecreedinItaly," New York Times,December6,1926,accessedJanuary4,2024, https://www.nytimes.com/1926/12/07/archives/tax-on-bachelors-decreed-in-italy-men-between-25-and-65-must-pay. html 81 "FullTextofMussolini'sSpeechOutliningHisPlansforaGreaterItaly," New York Times,May28,1927, accessedJanuary4,2024, https://timesmachinenytimescom/timesmachine/1927/05/29/106926131pdf?pdf redirect=true&ip=0
childrenallfellinlinewiththeirfathertheDuce.HiseldestandmostbelovedchildEdda marriedahigh-rankingPNFofficial,theeventualForeignMinisterGaleazzoCiano,andnamed oneofherthreesonsMarzio(Mars)aftertheRomangodofwar 83 Meanwhile,Romano,the thirdson,rosetoprominencewithhispopularjazzpianotunesthatappealedwidelytoItalian youth.84 Mussolini’swifeRacheleservedasacornerstoneofthefamily.Thoughhewas unfaithfultohernumeroustimes,hestilltoutedherastheultimatefascist donna madre (esteemedmother)inpubliccommunications,arolethatsheplayedwellinherrarepublic appearancesbyprojectingasteelydemeanor.85Thedomesticidyllwascompletedwithafamily cat.86 Allinall,thefamilywasapropagandisticelementthatMussolinihelddear.Hedevotedly propagatedthemotifstartinginhisownlifeandextendingoutwardstostressitsimportancein allofsociety Tostrengthentheoveralleffectofthismessaging,Mussolinisoughttomoralize aspectsofeverydaylife.Onecampaign,thepushtoreplacethehandshakewiththeRoman salute,wouldproduceanenduringsymbolofItalianfascism.LaterrecreatedbytheNazis,the salutewasaformalextensionofthearmabovethehead.WiththeencouragementofPNF secretaryAchilleStaracewhowasarchitectoftheentireendeavor,Italiansquicklyincorporated thesaluteintotheirdailyroutines,performingthegreetingwhentravelingabroadorupon hearingtheDuce’sname.87 SimonettaFalasca-Zamponidescribedthesaluteasintendedby StaraceandMussolinitobemore“antibourgeois...efficient,harmonic,anddynamic”thana handshake,thoughtheDucecontinuedshakinghandsinprivate.88 Thissimplebutrecognizable gesturealsoconnotatedhygiene,asitavoidedtheskin-to-skincontactofthehandshake,and thereforerepresentedpurity.Byperformingonegesture,Italianscouldfrequentlyanddaily
83 Bosworth, Mussolini’s Italy,344
84 Bosworth,346
85 Bosworth,344
86 Bosworth,343
87 MackSmith, Mussolini,176.
88 Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle,110
contributetotheregime’sfigurativehealthandprosperity.Themessaginginthecaseofthe Romansalutefellshortoffertility,butitneverthelessindicatedanewfoundconsciousnessof moralbehaviorinItalianlife.
Augustus’sapproachtopopulationpolicyandfamilyvalueswaseerilysimilarand certainlyamodel.Thesimilaritiesbetweenthetwomentracebackeventotheincitingincidents thatsparkedtheirrespectivepushesforfamilypolicy.Augustuscarriedthesamefearof shrinkingbirthratesthatMussolinihad.Whenhetookpower,beingasexuallyextravagant bachelorwasbecomingincreasinglyfashionableamongtheyoungerandmoreartisticurbanset. Evidencingthetrendwastheavant-gardepoetCatullus,whoalongwithhisartisticcircleof neoteroi (thenewones)rejectedconventionalmarriageforloveaffairs.Hecapturesthisattitude inpoemslike“Carmen5,”whichremarkscuttinglyuponthe“senum severiorum”oldguard: “Vivamus,meaLesbia,atqueamemus “Letuslive,mydearLesbia,andletuslove rumoresquesenumseveriorum andasfortherumorsofratherstrictoldmen, omnesuniusaestimemusassis!” Letusvaluethemalltogetherasworthapenny!”
TheRomanhistorianCassiusDioattributesthefollowingquote,addressingsuch unmarriedyouth,toAugustus:“Foryouseeforyourselveshowmuchmorenumerousyouare thanthemarriedmen,whenyououghtbythistimetohaveprovideduswithasmanychildren besides,orratherwithseveraltimesyournumber.Howotherwisecanfamiliescontinue?How cantheStatebepreserved,ifweneithermarrynorhavechildren?”90 Dio’sAugustuscontinues withanundertoneracialsuperiority.“Andyetitisneitherrightnorcreditablethatourrace
89
89 GaiusValeriusCatullus,"Carmen5,"in Nugae,1-3 Alltranslationsaretheauthor’sunlessotherwisenoted
90 CassiusDio, Roman History,trans.EarnestCary(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1914),56:7.3-4, accessedOctober29,2023,https://penelopeuchicagoedu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/cassius dio/56*html
shouldcease,andthenameofRomansbeblottedoutwithus,andthecitybegivenoverto foreigners Greeksorevenbarbarians.”91
Augustus’sresponsetothe neoteroi andlike-mindedbachelorsextendedfarbeyond words.Hebegantoregulatepersonalliveswithaheftyseriesofmoralitylawsknown collectivelyasthe leges Iuliae (Julianlaws),employingthekindofintrusiveauthoritynotagain seenuntilMussolinibeganthebachelortax.92 Ofthese,the Lex Papia Poppaea incentivized families,especiallythoseinthepatricianupperclass,tohavemanychildren.Itestablishedthe ius trium liberorum (ruleofthreesons).Forfamilieswiththreeormoreadultsons,thefather wouldreceivecertaintaxbreaks,whilethemotherwouldbegiventheautonomytoenterpublic spaceswithoutamaleguardian.93 Unconventionalforthistimeperiodwasthefocusonwomen. Ratherthanofferingbenefitstothemanofthehousehold,Augustustookaboldsteptoappealto womendirectly.Inatimewhenwomenhadlittleautonomy,herecognizedtheircontrolover theirbodiesandofferedthemthechancetoregainsomeagency.Mussoliniwouldreplicatethis masterstrokelaterwithhispageantsofmedal-winningmothers,givingempowermentby installingarewardforhavingmorechildrenthatlackedacounterpartpunishmentforhaving less.
ArelatedandsignificantpieceofAugustanlegislationwasthe lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus.Itusedacomplexsystemofrewardsandpenaltiestoessentiallyforcesenatorsto marrywhilealsospecifyingthattheycouldnotmarryunsavorycourtesansandother “libertinae,”closingalong-neglectedloophole.94 Insum,thoughAugustusdemonstratedthat
91 Dio,56:75
92 JamesA Field,"ThePurposeoftheLexIuliaEtPapiaPoppaea," The Classical Journal 40,no 7(1945):402, JSTOR
93 Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (LawbookExchange,2002),sv "Iusliberorum,"byAdolfBerger,last modified2002,accessedJanuary4,2024, https://wwwgooglecom/books/edition/Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law/iklePELtR6QC?hl=en&gbpv=1& bsq=trium%20liberorum.
94 Field,"LexIuliaEtPapiaPoppaea,"402
Mussolini’sfearwasnotuniqueorunprecedented,thesimilardesignsoftheirpoliciesindicate thatMussolinitookacuefromAugustus.HisRomanidolhadconfrontedachaoticenvironment rifewithmoraldeclinethatcloselyresembledpost-WorldWarIItalyinmanyways.Inboth instances,mythologicalpurityprevailedasthemeansforrestoringorderandstructuretosociety ThoughMussolinicouldnothavedrawnonthesameallusionsasAugustusforhisRoman Catholicsubjects,heneverthelessaccomplishedthecruxofAugustus’spolicy:connectordinary Italianmenandwomentoastirringmovementlargerthanthemselves.Augustushadreminded hisfellowpatriciansoftheirnoblerootsbymandatingtogasandmarriages,hallmarksof upper-classpropriety.MussolinisimilarlyshiftedItalians’self-perceptionbyinsteadlooking forwardtoanimaginedfutureofmorepure,vigorousItalianculture.Throughthehumbleactsof havingafewchildrenandsettlingdownintoconventionalstructuresofmarriageand single-familyhouseholds,Italianmenandwomencouldcontributetonationalwelfareas Mussolinienvisionedit—andearnafewmedalsintheprocess.
Self-deificationinpersonalitycults
Eventhefirststepsintothe Mostra Augustea della Romanità revealedanattemptto coupleMussoliniandAugustusastwolike-mindedstrongpersonalities.Anenteringvisitor wouldbetreatedtoanunexpectedsight:narrationbyRomans(orwould-beRomans),both contemporaryandpast.Inscribedonthewalls,alongsidequotesfromMussolini,werequotes fromancientRomanauthors,likethe historianLivy,politicianCicero,andepistolistPliny.95 MussolinialsoexcerptedfromSuetonius’sbiographyofAugustusCaesarandaddedhisown nationalistspin,gushingthatAugustuswas“thefounderoftheEmpire;hewasthepacifierofthe ancientworld;hewasoneofthegreatbenefactorsofhumanity,whocreatedanorderof
95 Arthurs, Excavating Modernity,101
things.”96 MussolinitookcareinsoemphasizingAugustus’scapacitytorestorepeaceamidst chaossothathecouldthenglorifyhimselfbyassociation.Tolegitimizehisownone-manrule, Mussoliniaddedanotherremarktothedisplay “Inthesilentcoordinationofallforces,underthe ordersofasingleindividual,liestheeternalsecrettoeveryvictory.”97 Theremarkmayhave seemedoutofplaceforbeingneitheracalltoarms,thelikesofwhichwerescatteredthroughout theMARandtheBimillennialproceedingsatlarge,noracommentonman-of-the-hour Augustushimself.Ofcourse,itneverthelessservedacalculatedpurpose:furtheringMussolini’s self-aggrandizingefforts.Asdiscussedearlier,Mussoliniworkedhardtoconveythathewas healingItalybyrestoringitsformerRomanqualitiesofaggression,strength,andfertility.As Duce,hewishedtogofurtherandmakeItalydohimaserviceinreturnbydeifyinghim.To achievesuchastatus,hehadtoborrowfromandtriedtocopyhowAugustuspositionedhimself asagodthroughvisualsandliterature.
Mussoliniwasobsessedwithappearingtohispeopleasastrongman,moresothan becomingone.Bythe1930s,adecadeintohisregime,thepressstoriesportrayedhimasmuch grimmerandfiercerthanhewas.BreathlessarticlesplantedbyMussoliniclaimedthathewasso industriousthathisdailyschedulesbarelyallowedforfivehoursofsleep.Inreality,hewould regularlysleepmorethanninehoursanight.Thoughthesestoriesclaimedthattheremaining hoursofhisdayweredevotedtopaperworkandotherpressingmattersofstate,hisdeskwas rarelyseenwithpapersonit.98 Thisblatantduplicitymaywellhavearisenduetothe1931death ofhisbrotherandconfidentArnaldo.ManybiographersincludingBosworthandMackSmith considerMussolinitohaveretreatedfromtheformerlysmilingdictatorofthe1920sintoa caricatureofastern,uniformedDuce,completewithhisrecognizableshavedhead,aresultofhis
96 Arthurs,110
98 MackSmith, Mussolini,111 97 Arthurs,110.
grief.99 Nevertheless,protocolsfromthedecadebeforepavedthewaytostate-runmediawhich enabledMussolinitomendaciouslyreinventhimself.By1928,thePNFrequiredeveryItalian journalisttoregisterasafascist,whichenabledthepartytostandardizeandmonopolizethe perspectivespresentedtotheItalianpeopleinnewspapers.Publicationswhoresistedthis mandatehadtheirmastheadsforciblyscourgedandfilledwithPNFaffiliateswhowerenot necessarilyexperiencedinjournalismbutcouldbe“reliedontonotthinktoomuch,”asonesuch editor,LandoFeretti,wasdescribed.100 State-sponsoredpublicationswerealsowidespread.For instance,theculturemagazine Critica Fascista (FascistCriticism)washelmedbyGiuseppe Bottai,onesuchinsidejournalistwithPNFmembershipwhowouldlaterbecomeMussolini’s MinisterofEducation.101 TheDuce’sinsistenceonatightlyandneuroticallyregulatedpress spoketohisdesperationtoadvanceanexaggerated,superhumanversionofhimself.Indeed,the fantasticalliesofthe1930sItalianpressironicallyindicateadeep-seatedinsecuritywithinthe Duce,onethatdrovehimtodemandloyaltyfromjournalistsratherthancompetence.Hisurgeto controlthenarrativearoundhimselfwasfeverish,thoughnotuncommonlysoforadictatorwith hisinfluences.Augustusactedwithsimilardedication,usingstrategicconnectionstocuratehis portrayalincontemporaryliteratureasacapableruler
WhenAugustusascendedthethrone,hebecamethemostpowerfulpatroninthesocial hierarchyduringatimewhenthereweremanymeritoriousauthorsrequiringpatronage.The patronagesysteminancientRomewaswellestablishedbythelateRepublicperiod:menfrom allclasseswouldactas clientes (clients)curryingfavor,gifts,andbeneficialintroductionsfrom theirpatrons,menafewsocialstrataabovewhowouldreceivetheclient’spoliticalsupport,
99 MackSmith,163
100 Bosworth, Mussolini's Italy,217.
101 Gentile,"FascismasPoliticalReligion,"239
companyinpublic,andtestimonytotheirpopularityandgenerosity.102 Thesepatrons,inturn, wouldhavepatronsfromhigherranks,andsoonallthewayupthehierarchytoitscapstone,the princeps Augustus.Augustus’sreignprovedfruitfulindeedformanytypesofliterature,andthe periodfrom23BCEto14CEisconsideredagoldenageforpoetry,producingseminalworks frompoetsVirgil,Horace,Ovid,andothers.
103 Thesewriterswerecarefultoglorify,oratleast notantagonize,theirultimatepatronforbeingasoleexecutive.Virgil’sepic,the Aeneid,was arguablythebestproductofthiseffort,asVirgillikelydrewinspirationfromAugustustocreate hisprotagonistAeneas,ancestorofRomulus.However,hisintentremainshotlydebatedby scholars.IsAeneasanadmiringorsubtlymockinglikenessofAugustus?Todiscusstheepicin allthecomplexityitdeserveswoulddemandanotherpaper Thispapershalllookatashorter poemfromVirgil’scelebratedpeerHorace.Horaceproducedoneoftherosierdepictionsofthe emperorandhiseffectuponRomeinhispoem Carmen Saeculare,whichromanticizesAugustus asrestoringorderafterthechaoticcollapseoftheRepublic.Oneversefromthepoemgoes:
“IamFidesetPaxetHonorPudorque
“NowFaithandPeaceandHonorandancient PriscusetneglectaredireVirtus DignityandVirtue,afterbeingneglected, Audet,adparetquebeatapleno daretoreturn,andblessedabundance Copiacornu. isevidentwithafullhorn. Auguretfulgentedecorusarcu Theseeradornedwithhisgleamingbow, PhoebusacceptusquenovemCamenis, Apollo,havingreceivedthenineMuses, Quisalutarilevatartefessos hewhoraisestohealthwithhisskill Corporisartus, thewearylimbsofthebody, SiPalatinasvidetaequusarces, ifhe,ajustman,seesthePalatinecitadels, RemqueRomanamLatiumquefelix heprolongstheRomanstateandluckyLatiuminto Alteruminlustrummeliusquesemper another[five-year]cycle
102 "Patron,"in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature,3rded,ed M C Howatson(Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress,2011),426
103 "PeriodsofLatinLiterature,"in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature,3rded.,ed.M.C.Howatson (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2011),332
Prorogataevum.” andanever-bettergeneration.”104
JustastheAraPacispresentsapersonificationofMotherEarth(Tellus),hereHorace anthropomorphizescertainvirtuesintogoddessestostressthedivineblessinguponAugustus’s reign.ThemythologicalsceneinvolvingApollothatfollowsthecatalogofgoddessescontinues thisthemeandconnectsAugustustotheidylliclivesthattheRomangodswerethoughttohave.
Finally,theversecloseswithapredictionforthefutureof“luckyLatium”thatoptimistically referencesAugustus.ThoughHoracecoylyneglectstomentionAugustusbyname,thePalatine citadelsmentionedwouldhavebeenunderstoodbyallreaderstomeanAugustus’sfamousregnal residenceonRome’sPalatineHill.105 ThoughthispoemseekstocloakHorace’sconnectionwith theemperorthroughover-generalizationsandindirectallusions,hismotivationforwritingthe poemisneverthelessevident.The Carmen Saeculare wascommissioneddirectlybyAugustus fortheSecularGamesof17BCE,andgiventhatHorace’spatronwasGaiusMaecenas,a prominentRomaninAugustus’sinnercircle,thepoet’spoliticalaffiliationspeaksforitself.106
Despitedesiringthesameeffect,itisnotablethatAugustusandMussolinidifferedintheir methodsforself-aggrandizationthroughliterature.Mussolini’scontroloverthepresswasnotas absoluteasAugustus’sbecauseAugustushadaprestigiousbloodlineandmanyconnectionsto backhim.Heconvertedexistingheavyweights(suchasHoraceandVirgil,respectedpoetsin theirownright)tohissidewhileMussolinisimplyreplacedjournalistswithpartymembersof questionablecompetence.Mussolini’splansalsohadnosubtlety Theirintentionswereobvious toanyone,makinghimmorefallibleandthuseasiertoridicule.
104 Q HoratiusFlaccus,"CarmenSaeculare,"in Horace Odes and Epodes,ed PaulShorey(Boston:BenjaminH Sanborn&Co,1898),57-68,previouslypublishedin Carmen Saeculare, https://wwwperseustuftsedu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008010537
105 Suetonius,“TheLifeofAugustus,”Section72
106 "Horace(HoratiusQuintusFlaccus),"in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature,3rded.,ed.M.C. Howatson,305
SuetoniusassistedinpreservingandamplifyingAugustus’slegacy,thoughhewrotehis biographyofAugustusdecadesaftertheman’sdeath.Nevertheless,hisromanticizedprofileof theemperorthematicallymimicsthenarrativesAugustuscreatedabouthimself,atestamentto howdeeplyembeddedandenduringthesenarrativeswere.Thebiographybrimswithfantastical talesinvolvingateenagedAugustusandechoesHorace’shintingatdivinepredestinationofhis reign.Inonesuchtale,SuetoniuswritesthatAugustus’scoming-of-age(toga virilis)ceremony wasmarkedbyadivineportent.“WhenAugustuscelebratedhiscomingofage,theseamsofthe senatorialgownwhichCaesarhadallowedhimtowearsplitanditfellathisfeet.Someofthe bystandersinterpretedtheaccidentasasignthatthesenatorialOrderitselfwouldsomedaybe broughttohisfeet.”107 AsimilartalehadearlierjustifiedthereignofKingServiusTullius.An eaglesnatchinghishatandthenreturningittohisheadwasinterpretedasasignthatheoughtto ruleanascentRome.Keepinginthistraditionwhilebringingbackanageofsingle-manrule, AugustanRomehadpasseddownthislikelyexaggeratedstorytoindicatehissimilardivinely mandatedrighttothethroneofRome.
SuetoniusimbueddivinityinAugustus’sverynamebysharinganotherfantasticalstory. “[L]ightningmeltedtheinitialletterof[Augustus’s]nameontheinscriptionbelowoneofhis statues.Thiswasinterpretedtomeanthathewouldliveonlyanotherhundreddays,sincethe remainderoftheword,AESAR,istheEtruscanfor'god'—CbeingtheRomannumeralone hundred.”108 Suetonius’sanecdoteexplicitlyjustifiedAugustus’sapotheosis,whichhecemented throughgrandiosemonumentsandfavorableliteraturelikehisownself-congratulatory Res Gestae.Deificationofemperorswasatraditionthat,thoughformallybegunposthumouslywith Augustus,inrealitydatesbacktoJuliusCaesar’slifetime,whenhewasglorifiedwithspecial
107 Suetonius,"TheLifeofAugustus,"Section94.
108 Suetonius,Section108
gamesandstatuesboldlyinscribedwith“Deo Invicto”(thegodunconquered).109 Thetradition wouldbecomecementedwiththesamepracticeafterAugustus’sdeathandwouldcontinuefor subsequentRomanemperors,withFlaviandynastyemperorVespasianreportedlyremarking cheekilyonhisdeathbed,“Ohno,Iambecomingagod.”110 Inapotheosis,then,Augustuswas takingadvantageofatideofpopularopinionthathisadoptivefatherandgreat-uncleJulius Caesarhadbegun.
Thelightningstorypresentsanotherinstanceoftheneedtoinvokeanadoptivefamily. AugustuswasbornGaiusOctavius,aCaesaronlyonhismaternalside,andhecouldonlyclaim thesurnamefullyafterbeingadoptedbyJuliusCaesar,whosebloodlineallegedlytracedbackto thegoddessVenus,andbecomingGaiusJuliusCaesarOctavianus.111 Hence,Augustuswaseager tocapitalizeonthemythologicalpotencyoftheJuliusCaesarname.Helikelyproducedhisown literature,namelythe Res Gestae,inparttofurtherlegitimizehisfilialconnection.Augustus referredtoJuliusCaesaroftenashisfather,elidinganymentionofadoption,andframedhisown actionsasfollowinginpaternalfootsteps.Forinstance,hedetailshowherebuilttheRoman Forum’stemplesofCastorandSaturn(renovationswhichhisfatherhadbegun).112 Healso discusseshisroleoftheroleof Pontifex Maximus (chiefpriestoftheRomanstatereligion)that hedescribesasthesamerolehisfatherhadalsoheld.113
Whenhewrotehis Res Gestae,Augustusveryintentionallydeifiedhimselfbyincluding manyreferencestohisfamous,posthumouslydeifiedadoptivefather.Further,hepushedfora veryflatteringnarrativeofhimselfthatpersistedlongafterhisdeath,asevidencedbythe freshnessofSuetonius’sposthumousbiography,andtookpainstoconnecthimwithdivinity.
109 HenryFairfieldBurton,"TheWorshipoftheRomanEmperors," The Biblical World 40,no 2(1912):82,JSTOR
110 Burton,89
111 "Augustus,"in Historic World Leaders,ed AnneCommire(Detroit,MI:Gale,1994),GaleinContext:World History
112 Augustus, Res Gestae,Section20.
113 Augustus,Section10
Horace’spoemfrequentlyalludestotheRomangodsandthedivinepatronageofPhoebus Apollo,whileSuetoniussharesmythicaltalesframingAugustusaspredestinedtohavean illustriouscareer Signsofdivinityintheliteraturewhichhedirectlyandindirectlyinfluenced helpedrendermootsomeofthepatricianoppositiontowardasingleruler Mussolini,incontrast, couldnotconvincinglyconcoctsimilarfantasticaltalesforhisaudience,whosubscribedto RomanCatholicismandhadgrownskepticalofRomanmythsbeinganythingmorethanjust stories.AdivinemandatecarriedlesspowerforMussolini,sohelegitimizedhisoverhaulofthe Italiangovernmentinotherways.Hedidnoteliminatedivineundertonesaltogetherbutrather optedformoresubtleframingofhimselfassuperhuman.Mussolini’sgriponthepressallowed himtosolidifyhisimageinprint,asheplantedaccountsofhisfranticschedulesandmorein manynewspapers.Nevertheless,theblatancyofhiscontroloverthemediasomewhat underminedhisefforts,preventinghimfromreachingthefullsuccessthatAugustusenjoyed throughamoresubtletactic:persuadeexistingliteraryheavyweightssuchasHoraceand arguablyVirgiltohissideandinfusetheirmeritoriousworkwithhisagenda.Augustushadmore controlthanMussolinioverthemediagiventhatliteracywasconcentratedwithintheupper-class socialcircles.Bythetwentiethcentury,literacyandpoliticalwritinghadbeengreatly democratized,givingmoredissidentsavoice.Perhapsbecausewrittennarrativesweretooopen tosubversionorridicule,MussolinitookanothercuefromAugustusandreliedonvisual,along withwritten,propaganda.Throughsimpleandstrikingimages,heassertedhisauthorityand strengthtobuildapersonalitycultlikeAugustus’s,thoughmoresecular.
Asmentionedpreviously,theMARmentionedlittleaboutAugustus’sprivatelifeor familyinteractions.Thecuratorswereinsteadpreoccupiedwiththeverystatuaryandother mythicizingiconographythatAugustushadcurated,allowingthemantobecomethe
posthumousstorytellerofhisgreatness.Mussoliniwouldattempttoemulatethesesamecunning andself-promotingqualitiesthroughhisartworkandcommissionedprojects.
In27BCE,whenAugustusbecameRome’sfirstemperoror,ashepreferredtobecalled, princeps (chief),hereinventedRomeaestheticallyaswellaspolitically Hebeganbysuffusing thenationwithmass-producedsculpturesofhimself—orrather,ofaheavilycuratedversionof himself.InthelateRomanRepublic,beforethepoliticalturmoilthatsparkedwithJulius Caesar’sassassinationin44BCE,politicianscommissionedbustsofthemselvesthatemphasized realnessinportraiture,warts,wrinkles,andall.Thisartstyle,calledverism,drewinfluences fromtherough,rusticartofancientItalicpeoples.Itwasastaunchrejectionofthesofter,ageless imagesofHellenistictyrantswhorepresentedwhathadblemishedRomangovernment: monarchyandtyranny ThroughoutthedurationoftheRepublic,thecollectivetraumaof arrogantkingshadlingeredsosteadfastlyinRomanmemorythatverismsymbolizedRome’s proudanti-monarchypoliticalidentityatthetime.114
Withthesubliminalmessagingofafewbusts,Augustusrejectedhissociety’sdeepfear ofmonarchyandencouragedtheRomanpeopletoembracetheideaofone-manruleonceagain. Hereintroducedanairbrushed,youthful,andperenniallymuscularlookinpoliticalportraiture. WhenSuetoniusdescribesAugustus’appearance,henotesthat“[h]isteethweresmall,few,and decayed[...]hiseyebrowsmetabovethenose;hehadears...anoseprojectingalittleatthetop andthenbendingslightlyinward.”115 Thosewhometthemaninpersonwouldsurelyhave discoveredtheseflawsconcealedbytheportraits.Nevertheless,overthecourseofhis forty-five-yearreign,allhissculptureswereconsistentlysmooth-skinned,well-proportioned,
114 GiselaM A Richter,"TheOriginofVerisminRomanPortraits," The Journal of Roman Studies 45(1955): 39-40,JSTOR.
115 Suetonius,"TheLifeofAugustus,"Section79
lackingnothing(noteventeeth),andperenniallyyouthful.116 Augustusshiftedhisfaultlessnew lookfromsymbolizingdepravitytoportendinganewage.Seeingtheagelessbustseverywhere, fromimperialhallstohouseholds,wouldhaveimpressedhisstabilityandvigoruponhispeople. Infact,subsequentJulio-Claudianemperorswouldadoptthesameartisticapproach,solidifying anewimperialstylethatoverturnedverism.117
Mussoliniachedtoachieveasimilaraestheticreinvention,bringingItalybackto pre-industrialtimesthatheperceivedasuncorruptedbyurbanizationandtheriseofmass production.118 ThoughheadmiredhowAugustushadcommunicatedanewagethroughart,his firstattemptstosignalasimilarculturalreinventioninthe1920swereunimaginative.Tobuild fervoraroundRome’slegacy,heusedartfromRome,installinganancientstatueofJulius CaesarinRome’scitycouncilchamber Further,hemadereproductionsofitandattachedthese tohisownpublicworksefforts,namelyahighwaycuttingthroughRome’scenter,inaclear visualmessageofsharedgreatness.
119 MaryBeardremarksonhowunapologeticallyMussolini borrowedfromhispredecessorAugustus,writingthatthestatueinitiativewas“uncannily reminiscentofthereplicationofCaesar’sstatuestwothousandyearsearlier.”120 However, Mussolinieventuallyrealizedthepoweroflookinginward.LikeAugustusgavehimselfthe agelessbeautyofadeity,Mussolinibeganelevatinghispersona.Hispublicappearancesbecame calculated,cunningphotoops.HewasphotographedwiththestatueofCaesartoencourage Italianviewerstodirectlycomparethetwopoliticians.Ontheverysamestreetonwhichhehad
116 MaryBeard, Twelve Caesars: Images of Power from the Ancient World to the Modern (Princeton,NJ:Princeton UniversityPress,2021),70
117 Beard,70
118 "FullTextofMussolini'sSpeech," The New York Times
119 Beard, The Twelve Caesars,55.
120 Beard,55
installedaCaesarstatuereplica,theViadell’Impero,heinstalledandthenproudlyposedbefore thepreviouslymentionedmarblemapsofancientRome’sstaggeringgeographicalextent.121
ThoughhecouldnothavedrawnonRomanmythologicalthemesaseffectivelyas Augustushad,Mussoliniinjectedgrandioseandsacredimagerywheneverpossibleintoparty efforts.Inthe1930s,thePNFbegantodiscussbuildinganewpartyheadquarters,aprojectthat nevercametofruition.DesignsfortheimaginedCasaLittoria(HouseofLictors,areferenceto theoriginalwieldersofthe fasces)evokedreligioussymbolism.Atower,ashrineforthe movement’smartyrs,andahugeopenspaceformassrallieswereallfeaturedinearly blueprints.122 PerhapstheprojectnevercametocompletionbecauseitsRomanpaganinfluences weretooobviousachallengetotheCatholicChurch,theprimerivaloftheDuce’s pseudo-religion.
Mussolinialsocreatedanauraofsanctityaroundhimself.Likemanyotherpolitical leaders,heoftenphysicallyelevatedhimselfabovehisaudienceofeverydayItaliansbygiving speechesfrombalconies.However,WalterBenjaminhasinterpretedtheaestheticsoftheimage assomethinguniquelyfascist,mirroringBolshevisminvigorthoughnotideology.
Thegrowingproletarianizationofmodernmanandtheincreasingformationofmasses aretwoaspectsofthesameprocess.Fascismattemptstoorganizethenewlycreated proletarianmasseswithoutaffectingthepropertystructurewhichthemassesstriveto eliminate.Fascismseesitssalvationingivingthesemassesnottheirright,butinsteada chancetoexpressthemselves.123
121 MackSmith, Mussolini,168
122 Gentile,"FascismasPoliticalReligion,"240
123 WalterBenjamin,"TheWorkofArtintheAgeofMechanicalReproduction,"in Illuminations: Essays and Reflections,ed.HannahArendt(NewYork:SchockenBooks,1969),19,accessedDecember8,2023, https://webmitedu/allanmc/www/benjaminpdf
WhenAugustusCaesarrosetopowerattheendofthefirstcenturyBCE,he accomplishedwhatwouldhavebeenconsideredunthinkableagenerationprior:restoreone-man ruletoRome,whoseoriginstorywasintegratedwithtraumafromtheruleofthesevenkings. Moreover,hewoulddoafantasticjob,makingtheRomanpeopleagreeabletothefoundingofan empirethatwouldenjoyagoldenagefortwohundredmoreyearsandthenanextendedperiod ofhegemonyinEuropeafterwards.Unbeknownsttohim,Augustus’spainsinsecuringa favorableandenduringlegacy—viaprintmedia,fromsweepingpoetryabouthisreigntoa fairytale-likebiography,andvisualsthathecarefullyconstructed—wouldinspireayoungBenito Mussolinimillennialater.ThoughMussolinilackedthesocialpowerthatAugustusheld,hewas anenthusiasticifonlymoderatelysuccessfulemulatorofthepersonalitycultofRome’sfirst emperor Findingcommonalitiesintheirdecayingpoliticalenvironments,Mussoliniexpounded totheItalianpeopleonthevaluesthatAugustushadgestated:militarydiscipline;fertilityasa deviceformoralityandpurity;andimmensedevotiontoasingleauthorityordainedbyahigher powerandthesolepersoncapableofrestoringItalytoitsgloriousRomanpast.
Mussolini’spropagandawasfarfromperfect.Hepresentedanexaggeratedviewof Rome,openedhimselfuptoscrutinythroughtheblatantlydoctorednarrativesheplacedinthe press,andsawmanyprojectsgoingawry TheAraPacisrestoration,forinstance,wassixmillion lireoverbudgetandthusquestionablybecameconspicuousconsumption.124 Nevertheless,his workcontributedsomethingalarmingtotheinternationalcommunity:anunderstandingofthe timelessaspectsofhumannatureuponwhichanauthoritariancouldpreybyteasingoutthe comparisonoftwentieth-centuryItaliansocietywithancientRomansociety.Mussoliniachieved twokeygoalsthatsustainedhispropagandaandborrowedfromAugustus.First,heexcusedhis peoplefrompast,pre-takeoverdisorder,whichheretroactivelyframedasworse.Heassured
124 Kallis,"'Framing'Romanità,"829
themthattheirsqualoranddissatisfactionwasnottheirfault,andinsteadtheycouldlooktothe devastationofWorldWarIasanopportunityforafreshstart.Havingreassuredthem,Mussolini movedtothecrucialsecondstage:framinghimselfastherestoreroforder,whichhepretended atbyimprovingItalianlivesinsuperficialways(impressivemapstoposeinfrontof;imposing butacademicallyquestionableexhibitions;aspiffynewnationalanthem,“Giovinezza,”speckled withallusionstotheRenaissance).Hecoaxedpeopletoattaintheglamorous,reinventedsociety bysacrificingpersonalliberties:becomingapartofthePNF’suniformedmassoreschewing familyplanning.Authoritarianstodaycontinuetodanglethehopeofarestoredstateinfrontof theirsubjectstoextractthesacrificesofcivilliberties.
Evenfewerradicalreformerspracticetheseprinciplesineverydaypolitics.Thecampaign thatelectedUnitedStatesPresidentDonaldJ.TrumphingedonthesloganofMakeAmerica Great Again,(author’semphasis).Thisrevisionistandromanticapproachtohistoryresembles Mussolini’sownreferencetotheRomanEmpire.JustasMussolinineededtheanathemaof WorldWarItowarranthisrisetopower,heneededAugustusCaesar—asmorethanaman,but asamythicizedfigurerepresentativeofallItalystoodtogain—togivehispropagandaitsforce anditsenduringeffect.ThoughMussolinididspreadfear,forhewasatextbookdemagogue,he specificallyplayedonanunusualfear,thatofstagnation.Hismorepotenttacticwasto simultaneouslysellhopeforabetterfuture,whichinawayisfundamentaltoallpoliticians’ agendas.Todistinguishthenextdemagoguefrombenignleaders,itiscrucialtorecognize Mussolini’sspecificbreedofaspirationguisedinpropagandaofaseeminglybetterpastinfused withinaccuratehero-worshipingnarrativesthatframeviceasnoblevirtue.
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