The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Vol 15 (1) 2020

ISSN: 2519-5670

6.

22.

35.

The contribution of the e-tutor model in an open distance learning higher education institution: the perspective of the e-tutor YVONNE JOUBERT AND ANNETTE SNYMAN

Computer-assisted assessment: An old remedy for challenges in open distance learning MARTIN COMBRINCK AND WILLEM J. VAN VOLLENHOVEN

Exploring the impact of intimate partner violence on the women students living in cohabitation EMANUEL MASHABELA AND JABULANI GILFORD KHESWA

Mutual benefits of an experiential learning community project in South Africa: Perceptual skills development and learning support NKHENSANI SUSAN THUKETANA

63.

School-based professional development interventions: The effects of a lesson study approach for mathematics teachers DAVID MALEHO LETLOENYANE AND LOYISO CURRELL JITA

76.

Resilience and care: How teachers deal with situations of adversity in the teaching and learning environment ALICE WABULE

91.

101.

114.

49.

VOLUME 15 (1) / 2020

Micro commercialisation the new threat to teacher collegiality in Masvingo KUDZAYI SAVIOUS TARISAYI, EVERJOY MUNYARADZI AND MUNYARADZI CHIDARIKIRE

Practitioners’ Corner Exploring learner-centred approaches in Business Studies grades 10-12 MOFFAT XOLANI MAJOLA

Doctoral Corner

THE INDEPENDENT

Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning (IJTL) is an education-focused journal, published twice a year, online and open access [ISSN 2519-5670 (Online)] by The Independent Institute of Education. The aim of the journal is to make a difference to educators at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, providing a scholarly forum for academics and education practitioners to share research on teaching and learning. The journal as well as all submission and publication information can be found at https://ijtl.iie.ac.za/ The IJTL is intended to be a resource for education practitioners and researchers as it aims to provide useful, research-based resources and to provide a scholarly forum for academics and education practitioners to share in research on educational practices and teaching and learning at various levels.

The following contributions are considered for publication: • Research-based empirical, reflective or synoptic articles that would be of interest to education practitioners • Review articles that critically examine research carried out in a specific field • Discussion or advocacy papers • Book reviews that comprise a clear and concise evaluation of recently published books.

The journal accepts Doctoral Abstracts, which include the link to the full text thesis, from researchers that have graduated with a PhD/Doctorate in Education in the last two years. These are not peer reviewed and are published in a separate section of the journal.

Editor-in-Chief Professor Dolina Dowling BA; Dip Ed; Dip Sp Ed; APhS; MA; PhD Managing Editor Dr Brenda Van Wyk BA Social Science; BBibl; BBibl (Hons); M.Inf; PhD Editorial Advisory Board Professor Carmel McNaught BSc (Hons); Dip Ed; MEd; PhD Professor Andile Mji BSc; HDE; BEd; MEd; DEd Professor Michael Glencross BSc; PGCE; BEd; BSc (Hons); MPhil; DPhil Dr Felicity Coughlan B SocSc Hons (SW); B SocSc Hons (Psych); MSc; DPhil Dr Gillian Mooney BA (Psych); BHons (Psych); M Psych, PhD Dr Wafa Almansoori BSc; MEng; PhD Publisher The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning is published by The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd ADvTech House Inanda Greens Business Park 54 Wierda Road West Wierda Valley, Sandton South Africa www.iie.ac.za

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning – Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

Disclaimer The publisher and the Editor cannot be held responsible for any consequences arising from the use of information contained in this journal.

The views and opinions expressed in this journal do not necessarily reflect those of the publisher or the editor.

Address for correspondence Professor Dolina Dowling Editor-in-Chief The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning PO Box 2369 Randburg 2125 South Africa E-mail: editor@iie.ac.za

Contents Volume 15 (1)

1.

Notes on contributors

4.

Editorial Professor Dolina Dowling

6.

The contribution of the e-tutor model in an open distance learning higher education institution: the perspective of the e-tutor Professor Yvonne Joubert, University of South Africa, South Africa Annette Snyman, University of South Africa, South Africa

22.

Computer-assisted assessment: An old remedy for challenges in open distance learning Dr Martin Combrinck, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa Willem J. van Vollenhoven, North West University, South Africa

35.

Exploring the impact of intimate partner violence on the women students living in cohabitation Emanuel Mashabela, University of Fort Hare, South Africa Professor Jabulani Gilford Kheswa, University of Fort Hare, South Africa

49.

Mutual benefits of an experiential learning community project in South Africa: Perceptual skills development and learning support Dr Nkhensani Susan Thuketana, University of Pretoria, South Africa

2020

63.

School-based professional development interventions: The effects of a lesson study approach for mathematics teachers Dr David Maleho Letloenyane, University of the Free State, South Africa Professor Loyiso Currell Jita, University of the Free State, South Africa

76.

Resilience and care: How teachers deal with situations of adversity in the teaching and learning environment Dr Alice Wabule, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

91.

Micro commercialisation the new threat to teacher collegiality in Masvingo Dr Kudzayi Savious Tarisayi, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Everjoy Munyaradzi, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe Dr Munyaradzi Chidarikire, University of KwaZuluNatal, South Africa

101.

Practitioners’ Corner Exploring learner-centred approaches in Business Studies grades 10-12 Moffat Xolani Majola, University of South Africa, South Africa

114.

Doctoral Corner

122.

List of reviewers

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

1 Notes on contributors

Dr Munyaradzi Chidarikire is currently a Postdoctoral Fellow at University of KwaZulu Natal. He obtained his PhD in Educational Psychology at the University of the Free State (UFS). He also holds a Master’s in Educational Psychology from Great Zimbabwe University, Bachelor of Sciences Honour’s degree in Educational Psychology from Great Zimbabwe University, Bachelor of Science Honour’s in Counselling from Zimbabwe Open University and a Diploma in Further Education. His research interests are in drug abuse, inclusive education, rural learning ecologies and gender. He has taught and supervised Bachelor of Honour’s degrees and Master’s modules in Inclusive Education and Research Methods.

Dr Martin Combrinck started his academic career at the University of Natal in 2002 which later changed to UKZN in 2004. He taught Curriculum Studies and Assessment in Education. In 2012 he was appointed Manager Quality Assurance in the Unit for Open Distance Learning at NWU. In 2017 he was appointed as HOD in the Faculty of Education, CPUT, Wellington Campus. He widely published on Curriculum Studies, Assessment in Education and Distance Education and supervised several Master’s and Doctoral students.

Professor Loyiso Currell Jita obtained his PhD in Curriculum, Teaching and Educational Policy at Michigan State University, USA. He is a Professor in the School of Mathematics, Natural Sciences, and Technology Education at the University of the Free State (UFS) where he is also the holder of the South African National Road Agency Limited (SANRAL) Chair for Science and Mathematics Education. Professor Jita has published many articles on instructional leadership, teacher development and change, Science and Mathematics education, and has presented over 50 papers at local and international conferences. He has also supervised to completion more than 37 Master’s and PhD graduates, and is currently the Dean of the Faculty of Education and the editor-in-chief for the internationally accredited journal Perspectives in Education (PIE).

Professor Yvonne Joubert is an Associate Professor at the University of South Africa. She started her career at the University of South Africa after she completed her Honour’s degree in 2007. She obtained her Master’s degree cum laude in 2010 at the University of Pretoria. She completed her DCom degree in Industrial and Organisational Psychology in 2012 at the University of South Africa (UNISA). Yvonne has published several articles in accredited journals and presented papers at international conferences, such as the 10th International Conference on Diversity in Ireland (2010), The 13th European Congress of Psychology in Sweden (2013), and The 15th European Congress of Psychology in Amsterdam (2017) as well as at national conferences such as The First International Conference: Multi-Inter-Transdisciplinary (MIT) Research (2012), The Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of SA (SIOPSA) (2013) The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

2 and The Research Café (2015). She is also the author/contributor of three books. In 2017 she received an ATKV award for best article for 2016 in the South African Journal for Science and Technology (title of paper: Cardiovascular health risk under university students in South Africa) and in 2017 she was nominated as the Best Poster award at the 15th European Congress of Psychology, Amsterdam. She is a registered industrial psychologist at the HPCSA and is also registered as a HR Practitioner with the SABPP. Jabulani Gilford Kheswa is an Associate Professor in Psychology and acts as an HOD. He has published articles in the field of sexuality and presented conference papers in countries such as Ghana, Portugal and Canada, amongst others. His areas of specialisation are Psychological wellbeing, HIV/ AIDS, LGBTIQ+, Family studies and Inclusive Education. He is actively involved in providing workshops for Fort Hare students (Alice Campus) and neighbouring villages in the areas of depression, resilience and conflict management.

Dr David Maleho Letloenyane holds a Master’s in Higher Education Studies and a PhD in Curriculum Studies from the University of the Free State (UFS). His research interests include science and mathematics education as well as curriculum planning, development, design, implementation and evaluation. He is also interested in large scale quantitative studies. He is currently a lecturer for curriculum studies at the University of the Free State. He was previously employed as a curriculum development specialist at the Central University of Technology (CUT) in the Free State and a manager of information and communications technologies laboratories (ICT Lab) for physical science and mathematics education at the University of the Free State.

Moffat Xolani Majola was born, raised and studied in KwaZulu-Natal: Mthwalume Location. He trained as a teacher for Business Studies and Accounting, but is interested in improving teaching and assessment methods for Business Studies. He has taught in different schools – primary and high, and private and public – for a period of 10 years. He holds a Master’s in Education, majoring in Curriculum Studies. His interest within the field of Education is on Formative Assessment. He is working for the University of South Africa (UNISA) as a junior lecturer under Curriculum and Instructional Studies. While training beginner teachers, he is currently doing his DEd with UNISA. Emanuel Mashabela holds an M. Soc. Sciences Hons and B. Soc. Sciences from the University of Fort Hare, where he served as a Champion against Gender-Based Violence. He is an intern in the Correctional Service and he is passionate about law and order, women’s rights and HIV/AIDS. Everjoy Munyaradzi is a Master’s student at Great Zimbabwe University. She has more than 14 years of working experience as a high school teacher in Zimbabwe. She is also a national examiner in Physical Education. Her research interests are current issues in Zimbabwean education, physical education and curriculum innovation.

Annette Snyman is a lecturer in Labour Relations Management at the Department of Human Resource Management at the University of South Africa (UNISA). Annette Snyman obtained her MPhil in Labour Relations in 2014 at the University of Pretoria. She is busy with her PhD in Human Resource Management at UNISA. She is also a co-author of five published articles in accredited journals and she co-supervised a Master’s student who graduated cum laude in 2018. She is registered with the South African Board of People Practices (SABPP) as a human resource practitioner.

Dr Kudzayi Savious Tarisayi is a Postdoctoral Fellow in the School of Education at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN). He holds a PhD from UKZN, an MSc in Development Studies from the National University of Science and Technology (Zimbabwe), a Bachelor of Education degree from Midlands State The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

3 University (Zimbabwe) and a Diploma in Education from the University of Zimbabwe. He has more than 13 years’ working experience as a high school teacher. He has worked as a lecturer in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Tarisayi has also authored several papers in local and international accredited journals. His research interests are in contemporary issues in education, teacher migration and xenophobia.

Dr Nkhensani Susan Thuketana is a lecturer and the coordinator of the Learning Support modules at the University of Pretoria. The modules focus specifically on learners' school readiness and facilitate students' knowledge and understanding of Inclusive Education and the insights to the causes of barriers to learning. Students are taught how to support learners in building a positive self-esteem by providing opportunities for learning success, in so doing, learners believe in their own abilities. In her role as a lecturer, she conducts community engagement projects with students doing the third-year Learning Support module. The projects give students Work Integrated Learning experience and share research-based strategies with in-service teachers at schools. Prior to her current employment, Dr Thuketana worked in special education, coordinated the School Based Support Team and served in the District Based Support Team whose mandate was to outsource professional support for children with Special Needs in the district.

She pursued her Honour’s and Master’s degrees in Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) with the University of Pretoria. She completed her PhD degree with the Department of Early Childhood Education (ECE) specialising in Inclusive Education. Her research interests pertain to Inclusive Education, disabilities, learning difficulties and learner support.

Willem J. van Vollenhoven started his academic career at the University of Pretoria in Education Law in 2000 and has taught via distance ever since. In 2009 he was appointed as Associate Professor at North West University (NWU) and became academic manager for distance education for the Faculty of Education in 2013. In 2018 he was appointed Chief Director for the Centre for Teaching and Learning (CTL) at NWU. He is widely published in education law, human rights and distance education and was promoted for several MEds and PhDs. Dr Alice Wabule holds a PhD in Applied Professional Ethics from the University of Groningen, The Netherlands. She is a skilled educator, researcher and development ethics practitioner with management and leadership experience of 14 years at higher institutions of learning and the NGO sector. She is employed as a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Centre for Diversity Studies, University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg. As a researcher, she has contributed to knowledge production in areas of teacher professionalism, ethics education, diversity and governance. She specialises in the application of Participatory Action Research approaches with the aim of creating interventions that can empower the researched communities. She is interested in researching topics of professionalism and integrity in public service, social justice, community empowerment, diversity, human rights and governance.

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

4 Editorial Dolina Dowling

In the last decades, many governments wished to enhance socio-economic development through the creation of knowledge economies. To achieve this, access to higher education was at the forefront of the agenda. This generally yielded positive results and led to the massification of higher education (HE). South Africa was no different with access being embedded within the government’s transformation of higher education programme. More recently, along with the growth of student enrolments, the mode of study has been changing. There has been an exponential increase in online learning courses and programmes within traditional higher education institutions worldwide. These may be offered completely online or through a blended mode of delivery. An important aspect of online learning is that it offers students the flexibility to learn anywhere at any time. This is particularly suited to those in employment or who have responsibilities that do not allow for learning to take place at preset times in a particular location.

The advent of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) has opened further opportunities for learning.

These are offered by high-ranking universities through to smaller and emerging institutions. Knowledge, skills and competencies can be achieved without the concomitant fees, albeit without certification. MOOCs are sometimes hailed as the democratization of knowledge.

Innovation has occurred in pedagogy using technology, for example, the use of learning management systems (LMS), such as Moodle and Blackboard. More recently, virtual and augmented reality tools are being used. These can be delivered in virtual classrooms and provide students with learning experiences that would be otherwise very expensive both in equipment and in fees.

This first edition of the 15th volume of The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning (IJTL) coincides with the COVID-19 pandemic. Many countries, including South Africa, have shut down schools as well as vocational and higher education institutions in the last months in attempts to control the spread of the virus.

This has led to an uptake of online learning in institutions that may have limited or no prior experience in offering this mode of learning.

It is apt, then, that the first two articles deal with aspects of open and distance learning (ODL); i.e. the use of e-tutors and online assessment respectively. E-tutors’ experiences of online learning were sought in a qualitative study in South Africa’s largest ODL higher education institution. The model of using e-tutors was found to bring a number of benefits for students not only in learning but also in motivation and support that the e-tutors provide. This, in turn, improves pass rates. This model is worth pursuing, particularly in the current crisis. While the first article is concerned with the learning process in ODL, the second investigates computer-assisted assessment in an ODL context at a contact institution. (Of course, this type of assessment The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

5 is not only the province of ODL.) The authors use a qualitative study to determine lecturers’ experiences of computer-assisted assessment. Whilst challenges were identified, the study showed that it has a positive part to play in ODL assessment.

It is common knowledge that South Africa has a major problem with violence against women; sadly, its rape statistics are amongst the highest in the world. This violence extends to intimate relationships within institutions of higher learning. Needless to say, this severely compromises the mental and physical health of female students and negatively affects their education. In the third article, in a qualitative study using Emmerson’s social exchange theory, the impact of violent intimate relationships is investigated. The authors recommend that university management needs to be proactive in supporting and empowering female students. Whilst this is a societal problem, universities can do much to promote gender equality and contribute to changing notions of ‘masculinity’.

The last article in the higher education cluster considers experiential learning for third-year Bachelor of Education students through a participatory action research project in schools. The study found that stakeholder engagement was not only beneficial for students in the schools but also for in-service teachers.

The following four articles deal with various aspects of school education ranging from professional development of teachers and teacher resilience to teacher collegiality and to learner-centred teaching.

The first in this cluster, whilst acknowledging the need for professional development opportunities for teachers, evidence of effectiveness is scant. The authors explored through pre-testing and semi-structured interviews the use of Lesson Study as a means to yield improvement in teaching. The results were positive.

Structured collaboration, peer observation and critical reflection between teachers contribute to effective teaching. The author recommends that school-based professional development activities be used as these are grounded in everyday teaching. Since external workshops tend to be one-off, they may contain little context and not be translated into classroom practice.

In the following article, the notion of ‘teacher resilience’ and its manifestations in practising teachers is explored in a Ugandan school through a qualitative study. The author found that despite a challenging environment, teachers demonstrate resilience in their professional lives. This is worthy of acknowledgement.

The effect of teachers providing paid extra lessons to students is investigated in the next paper. It was found that this has a detrimental effect on teacher collegiality, which has a negative impact on student learning. The authors recommend that attention be given to working conditions of teachers so that this micro commercialisation activity is not needed to maintain a decent standard of living.

The article in the Practitioners’ Corner provides a literature review on learner-centred approaches to the teaching of Business Studies in the last three grades of schooling. A number of practical recommendations are made.

The Doctoral Corner comprises abstracts of recently awarded doctoral degrees. These are concerned with professional development, practical education, and student learning. The publication of abstracts alerts researchers and practitioners to new research in their areas of interest.

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

6 The contribution of the e-tutor model in an open distance learning higher education institution: the perspective of the e-tutor1 Yvonne Joubert, University of South Africa, South Africa Annette Snyman, University of South Africa, South Africa

ABSTRACT The objective of this exploratory qualitative study was to determine e-tutors’ perceptions (only e-tutors’ perceptions, not students’ or lecturers’ perceptions) of the contribution of the e-tutor model towards an open distance learning institution, as well as to its students, from a sample of 31 out of 50 e-tutors in the Human Resource Management (HRM) Department. Open-ended questions were emailed to 50 e-tutors in the HRM Department to be completed on a voluntary basis. The results indicated that according to these e-tutors, the e-tutor model may hold several benefits for the institution, including that it could assist to increase pass rates, provide support to students and lecturers, assist to bridge the ODL gap – the gap between students, lecturers and fellow students due to distance education, and provide a competitive advantage to the institution. The e-tutors’ views furthermore revealed that the model may hold substantial benefits for the students such as that it could assist students to understand the content and knowledge of the learning matter better, keep them informed, increase interaction, motivate them, and increase support and the ability of students to graduate. Therefore, the study demonstrates that the ODL institution's use of the e-tutor model could increase its student success rates and institutional competitiveness.1 Keywords: contribution, distance education, e-learning, open distance learning, e-tutoring, student support

INTRODUCTION The use of information technology in higher education is increasing, particularly in distance education.

Technological interventions, such as e-tutoring, become imperative for student success in distance education (Govender, 2018; Salmon et al. & Ross, 2016). The e-tutoring model first gained attention in 1984 when Benjamin Bloom (1984) recognised its possible benefits. E-tutoring is a form of e-learning and it entails tutoring (teaching) in an online environment, where the e-tutor offers personal guidance in a context – such as in an open distance learning (ODL) institution – in which regular face-to-face contact between supervisor and student is difficult (Ramorola, 2018; Salmon & Gregory, 2015). The main aim of the e-tutor model is to improve students’ learning experience and their success rate (Govender, 2018; Mashile & Matoane, 2012). Furthermore, this model aims to provide students with e-tutors who then ensure that the online learning space is managed so that it provides an appropriate environment for effective learning 1 Date of submission 3 April 2019 Date of review outcome 19 August 2019 Date of acceptance 7 February 2020

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

7 to take place. The model of ODL requires an institution to change its approach to teaching and learning, seeing that regular interaction between students and their lecturers and peers is difficult, to become more student-centred, and to focus on effective interaction as a way of motivating students and promoting student success (Govender, 2018; Joubert & Snyman, 2018; Matoane & Mashile, 2013).

In this article, the researchers examine the contribution of the e-tutoring model in an ODL higher education institution towards students as well as the institution, specifically from the perspective of the e-tutor. The ODL institution where this study was conducted has large numbers of students from diverse backgrounds who are widely spread across South Africa and internationally (Horner & Gouws, 2016; Joubert & Snyman, 2018; Ramorola, 2018), which necessitated the implementation of the e-tutor model in 2013.

Because this is a relatively new system, there is a need to explore whether the e-tutor model has had a positive impact and has made a valuable contribution to students and the institution.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study is to determine what the contribution of the e-tutor model in an ODL higher education institution is towards students as well as towards the institution; specifically, from the perspective of the e-tutor. In an ODL institution, there is a need for more interaction between students and their peers and between students and their lecturer/tutor. Through e-tutoring, which is an online platform, students can be reached more easily throughout South Africa and internationally (De Jong, Verstegen & Könings, 2018) than through a paper–based system. The e-tutor model, which was implemented at the ODL institution where the study was conducted, aims to improve students’ learning experience and their success rates (Horner & Gouws, 2016). According to Hew and Cheng (2014), e-tutoring has numerous benefits for the student and the institution; among other things, through e-tutoring, students enjoy more personal attention and quicker replies to their enquiries, and the students’ success rates will improve, which will benefit the institution. In a distance education context, students are often left feeling disconnected, isolated and demotivated (Salmon & Angood, 2013). This is why an environment such as an online platform, where students can learn from the e-tutor as well as from each other, can be immensely beneficial to the learning experience as well as to the success rates of students (Mashile & Matoane, 2012).

LITERATURE REVIEW Background The development of new technologies in higher education has advanced and changed dramatically over the past few years. Due to the technological advancements and increased reliance on technology, it became imperative that ODL institutions made use of technology-enhanced learning as a means of academic support to students (Abdullah & Mtsweni, 2014). ODL can be defined as a multi–dimensional concept aimed at bridging the time, geographical, economic, social, educational and communication distance between student and institution, student and academics, student and courseware, and student and peers (Simpson, 2013). From this definition, it is evident that ODL is focused on removing barriers to learning and providing more flexible and attainable access to learning for all students. The purpose of ODL is to provide learning, student-centricity and student support, and to construct learning programmes with the prospect of helping students (Abdullah & Mtsweni, 2014). The important aspect regarding ODL is that all systems in an institution have to be integrated to support the academic enterprise and the student.

According to Muirhead (2007), distance education throughout the world is provided increasingly using e-learning and, given the changing face of education provision and technological and advancements around the world, the ODL institution where the study was conducted began to move towards e-learning through a model of e-tutoring. E-learning can be defined as teaching that is delivered by means of computers using numerous methods, such as CD–ROMs, internet or intranet and has the following features (Salmon & Angood, 2013).

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

8 The purpose of e-learning ensures that the content is relevant to the learning objectives of the particular module/subject, and that the methodology makes use of teaching methods such as practical examples and application to practise in order to help facilitate learning, makes use of media elements such as words and images to enhance learning of the content, and builds new knowledge and skills linked to individual learning goals or to improved organisational performance (Salmon et al., 2016). E-learning leads to information being delivered in various formats such as graphics, videos, audios, animations, models, simulations and visualisations (Salmon et al., 2016). E-tutoring forms part of e-learning and it entails tutoring (teaching) in an online environment, where the e-tutor offers personal guidance in a context, such as in an ODL institution, in which regular face-to-face contact between supervisor and student is difficult (Salmon & Wright, 2014). E-tutoring can play an important role in distance education and the use of communication technology can be used to market educational products, to support communication and to increase student support (Govender, 2018; Heydenrych, Higgs & Van Niekerk, 2003).

E-tutors interact directly with students in order to support their online learning processes, notwithstanding being separated from their students by both time and space (Chuang, 2014). The past 30 years have seen a move in education theory towards the promotion of a constructivist theory of learning, which saw the role of the professor changing from that of being the ‘sage on the stage’ to that of being the ‘guide on the side’ (Chuang, 2014). Scholars suggest that this is also the most appropriate role for an online instructor or e-tutor (Simpson, 2013). The e-tutors employed at the ODL institution where this study was conducted provide support for students and lecturers through the e-tutor system – an e-learning electronic system that connects the e-tutors and the students as well as the e-tutors and the lecturers. It is required from the e-tutor to spend 75 hours of online contact per semester with students and to provide guidance and facilitate learning processes. A group of 200 students are allocated to one e-tutor. The lecturer has direct contact with the e-tutor. Lecturers are required to provide the e-tutor with a 15-week semester plan, to clarify uncertainties, to monitor the e-tutor sites for activity and subject-content discussions, to inform students of e-tutors in the tutorial letters – via SMSs or via email – and to inform students of the role of e-tutors.

The ODL institution where this study was conducted accommodates large numbers of students and has extremely high student enrolments compared to residential universities (Joubert & Snyman, 2018; Mashile & Motoane, 2012). During the first semester of 2012, student enrolment totalled 360 000, including international students from 130 countries worldwide, of whom around 83% are employed (DISA, 2011; Joubert & Snyman, 2018; Matoane & Mashile, 2013), which necessitated a change in the institution: to become more student-centred and to offer enhanced student support (Matoane & Mashile, 2013).

The formal e-tutor model was rolled out for the first time in 2013, when e-tutors were appointed for all students registered for National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Level 5 modules (E-connect 2015), where after it was expanded to all NQF level 6 (2014) and NQF level 7 (2015) modules. In 2018, student enrolment totalled over 400 000, which makes the need for a successful e-tutor model even more pressing (Unisa, 2019).

The main purpose of this study was to determine what the contribution of the e-tutor model in an ODL higher education institution is towards students and the institution, specifically from the perspective of the e-tutor.

The e-tutor model, as explained in the previous section, was implemented to bridge the learning gap (the physical, geographical and emotional distance between lecturers and students, and between students) in distance education in an ODL environment (De Metz & Bezuidenhout, 2018; Joubert & Snyman, 2018).

It is therefore aimed at student support and student success (Govender, 2018; Mashile & Motoane, 2012). However, the questions arise: ‘What do the e-tutors themselves regard their contribution to be?’; and ‘Do e-tutors believe that the e-tutor model, in which they play an integral role, really adds value to the students and to the ODL institution itself?’ The following section explores e-tutoring in the context of an ODL environment.

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

9 E-tutoring According to De Metz and Bezuidenhout (2018) as well as Quon (2006), the interaction of the distance education student with the institution by means of e-tutoring creates a sense of belonging and satisfaction with the learning environment. The following are important issues relating to e-tutoring: • Selectivity – e-tutoring does not need to be directed at all students; it could be directed only at those who need or want it; and • Purpose – e-tutoring should provide social integration, promote collaborative work and help with problems; and it should not be used to lecture.

Quon (2006) found that students enrolled at ODL institutions have three needs, namely: (1) they desire regular contact with the institution; (2) they need to be motivated; and (3) they want interaction with their lecturer, tutor and peers. The main role of the e-tutor is to ensure that the online learning space is managed in such a way that it provides an appropriate environment for effective learning to take place (De Jong et al., 2018; Mashile & Matoane, 2012). The e-tutor performs the role of facilitator of learning, guiding students through the module content so that they are able to complete it successfully (Matoane & Mashile, 2013; Ramorola, 2018).

Abdullah and Mtsweni (2014) explain that there are four main e-tutor roles, namely: • Pedagogical roles, which include tasks such as guiding and maintaining students’ involvement in discussions

• Social roles, which entail the creation of a friendly social environment for students

• Managerial roles, which involve arranging learning activities and tasks, clarifying procedural rules and decision-making rules

• Technical roles, which require the e-tutor to become acquainted with the information and communications technology (ICT) systems and software that form the basis of the e-learning environment.

There are three important aspects that are central to the success of e-tutoring at an ODL institution, namely: (1) participation of the e-tutor and the students, (2) contextualisation of the learning material to ensure that it is put into a meaningful and practical context rather than being treated as isolated items, and (3) presentation of the study material in the online context (De Jong et al., 2018; Gregory & Salmon, 2013).

In the HRM department at the ODL institution where the current study was conducted, in order to qualify for appointment as an e-tutor, an individual needs to have a Bachelor’s degree (Honour’s/Post Graduate Diploma) and undergo module-based assessment (Unisa, 2019). Each e-tutor is allocated to 200 students per semester on the institution’s online platform to which all students have access (Mkhize, 2014). E-tutors are expected to engage with students for at least 75 hours per semester, providing guidance to students and facilitating the learning process (Mkhize, 2014). Lecturers are also expected to engage with their modules’ e-tutors in order to streamline the learning process and consolidate the information provided to students (Mkhize, 2014).

Benefits and contributions of e-tutoring towards students and the ODL institution E-tutoring has numerous benefits for the student and the institution: students enjoy more personal attention and quicker replies to their enquiries and their success rate improves, which will benefit the institution (De Metz & Bezuidenhout, 2018; Horner & Gouws, 2016; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017). Active engagement with social and academic activities in an online platform was found to impact positively on student success The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

10 and support. One of the most important benefits of e-tutoring is that it creates a supportive learning environment for students in a distance education situation (Heuel & Feldmann, 2014).

Studying through distance education can be extremely challenging for students and they can be left feeling isolated and disconnected, and they can lose motivation (Mashile & Matoane, 2012). This is why an environment such as an online platform, where students can learn from the e-tutor as well as from each other, can be immensely beneficial to the learning experience as well as the success rate of students.

E-tutoring has the advantage of creating new opportunities for students due to students working together and engaging in problem-solving, which will enable them to learn from each other and gain practical experience (De Metz & Bezuidenhout 2018; Horner & Gouws, 2016; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017). Salmon and Wright (2014) further contend that a tutor system can prevent students from dropping out of courses, enhance a feeling of support, enhance problem-solving and prevent students from experiencing a feeling of isolation and disconnection. Through online teaching, a bond is created between students and their e-tutor. Because the e-tutor works with adult learners at an ODL institution, they learn from each other as well as from the e-tutor (Anderson, 2010). At an ODL institution, a large percentage of the students as well as the e-tutors are employed, and, in that way, students gain practical knowledge and experience through the e-learning experience seeing that they learn from each other as well as from the e-tutor (Heuel & Feldmann, 2014).

When taking the above discussion into consideration, the conclusion can be drawn that an e-tutor model can be vastly beneficial and can make a positive contribution to students and the ODL institution.

Students who experience satisfaction in their learning process are more likely to be successful (De Metz & Bezuidenhout, 2018). Successful students who complete their qualification will benefit the institution as the institution will have a higher pass rate and student numbers will most probably increase as a result of this (Anderson 2010; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017).

The importance of the perceptions of e-tutors An ODL institution needs e-tutoring for student support (De Metz & Bezuidenhout, 2018; Ramorola, 2018).

An extensive review of the current literature on e-tutoring revealed that several studies have been conducted on the perceptions of students and on e-learning, but limited literature is available on the perceptions of the e-tutors (De Jong et al., 2018; Joubert & Snyman, 2018; Salmon & Wright 2014). Perception is defined as apprehending by means of the senses or the mind and includes immediate or intuitive recognition or appreciation (Rolfs & Dambacher 2016). In order to comprehend how the e-tutors view their contribution to the students and to the institution, perceptions are important, especially in this qualitative study.

As the e-tutor model is a relatively new initiative (De Jong et al., 2018) and research on this specific topic is limited (De Metz & Bezuidenhout, 2018), the researchers in the present study deemed it important to examine the perceptions of the e-tutors themselves regarding the contribution of the newly implemented e-tutor model at the ODL institution where the study was conducted. The e-tutors are the teachers, mentors and contact individuals to the students and they interact with the students on a regular basis. E-tutors need to perceive their contribution to the students and to the institution to be valuable, otherwise the model could fail in future. They are expected to motivate students as well as to improve their success and to benefit the institution.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Research approach In this exploratory study, a qualitative research approach was applied. Qualitative research is intended to help researchers understand the views and perceptions of the participants being studied, and to focus

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11 on their interpretations and views rather than on the researchers’ own opinion on the subject (Maxwell, 2013). In this research, the qualitative approach is applied to give meaning to and interpret the e-tutors’ experience of the contribution that the e-tutor initiative has on the institution and its students. This would have been difficult to achieve if the researchers used only quantitative methods. The findings of this study are based on the literature review and the data obtained from the participants in this study. The e-tutor model is a recent initiative implemented at the ODL institution where the study was conducted, and due to the limited information available on e-tutor initiatives, a qualitative design was used to encourage the discovery of new ideas and insights. It also necessitated a flexible approach. The interpretive paradigm was used in this study because the researchers had to understand the way in which e-tutors interpret their experiences of their views regarding the newly implemented e-tutor initiative and what effect they perceive it to have on the institution and its students.

Research procedure E-tutors from the Human Resource Management (HRM) Department at the ODL institution where the study was conducted were approached to participate in this study. The researchers have been the e-tutor representatives of the Student Support Committee in the Department of HRM for the past six years and have personal experience of the contribution of the e-tutor model to the institution and its students, which increases the trustworthiness of this study. The researchers also know some of the e-tutors who participated in this study as they are both representatives of the Student Support Committee in the Department of HRM and have direct contact with the e-tutors. This is important as a good working relationship between the researchers and the e-tutors is necessary (Rossman & Rallis, 2011).

Sample and biographical characteristics of the participants The population for this study consisted of all e-tutors employed at an ODL higher education institution in the HRM department. A total of 50 e-tutors are employed in the HRM department. A purposive sample was used in this study. The researchers emailed all the e-tutors in the HRM Department. To be included in the sample, each participant had to have been appointed as an e-tutor in the HRM Department at the ODL institution where this study was conducted. The researchers asked open-ended questions that enabled e-tutors to answer with detailed narration, giving a deeper insight regarding the contribution of the e-tutor model in an ODL higher education institution towards students as well as the institution, specifically from the perspective of the e-tutor. A total of 31 e-tutors/participants (62%) out of 50 e-tutors in the HRM Department participated in the study.

Table 1: Demographic characteristics of the participants (N=32) Gender

Number

%

Female

20

65%

Male

11

35%

Race

Number

%

Black

15

48%

Coloured

2

6.4%

Indian

3

9.6%

White

11

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35%

12 Age

Number

%

26–30

4

13%

31–40

6

19%

41–45

7

23%

46–50

6

19%

51–55

2

56–60

4

61–65

2

Tenure (months)

Number

6.4% 13% 6.4% %

0–6

4

13%

7 – 12

6

19%

13 – 18

7

23%

19 – 24

5

16%

25 – 30

5

16%

31 – 36

4

13%

Qualification Degree

Number

%

6

19%

Honours degree

12

39%

Master’s degree

12

39%

Doctorate

1

3%

Data collection methods Open–ended questions were e-mailed to all the e-tutors in the HRM Department at the ODL institution where this study was conducted. The following two questions were asked: • In your experience, what is the contribution of the e-tutor initiative towards an open distance learning institution?

• In your experience, what is the contribution of the e-tutor initiative towards the student?

After the e-tutors’ responses were received, telephonic follow-up interviews, during which probing questions were asked, were conducted with three e-tutors to clarify some responses. The telephonic interviews were conducted to ensure that there was agreement with the responses received from the open-ended questions.

Data analysis Important concepts and recurring themes were identified from the responses. Tesch’s (1990) data analysis process was applied. The data were stored on a computer belonging to one of the researchers and they were password protected. During the data-analysis phase, the relevant data were assessed and grouped into broader categories (Lobiondo-Wood & Haber, 1994). The researchers analysed the data themselves The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

13 and it was unnecessary to utilise more formal methods such as the GABEK or Atlas TI data-analysis programs. All the responses were coded and a list of keywords was compiled. Keywords with similar meanings were grouped together into topics. The topics were abbreviated as codes and written next to the appropriate parts of the text. The most descriptive wording was found for each code and, from that, themes were created by clustering meaning-related codes together. A final decision was then made on the labelling for each theme. The grouping of the material within the themes was then done based on reflection on how the themes related to one another and to the research phenomenon. Lastly, the findings were reported on.

Ethical considerations Steps were taken to ensure that ethical procedures were followed. The participants were informed of the research and a written informed consent form was obtained from each participant (Silverman, 2002). The researchers ensured that the data were available only to them. Confidentiality was thereby maintained.

None of the e-tutors had access to the transcribed data and they remain anonymous.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Two themes were formulated in this study and will be discussed in this section: Theme 1: Contribution of e-tutor initiative towards an open distance learning institution Theme 2: Contribution of e-tutor initiative towards the student Theme 1: Contribution of e-tutor initiative towards an open distance learning institution It was evident from the participants’ views that the main contribution of the e-tutor initiative to the university is support for students and lecturers.

Subtheme 1.1: Student-support A total of 20 participants (62.5%) confirmed that the e-tutor initiative provides support for the student and lecturer. Some of the participants’ responses in support of this view were: This initiative gives students an opportunity to communicate with tutors online. Students feel comfortable to ask questions online. It gives students advantage, since some students are far from the lecturers. This helps students to use a simple communication tool to communicate. [P8] The knowledge that is available from e-tutors can have a huge advantage on the institution and it offers some opportunity for time management and workload distribution among the other permanent employees. [P22] Based on the findings, it is evident that there is a strong need for student support in ODL institutions, and the e-tutor initiative can bridge the need for student support in distance learning.

Sub-theme 1.2: Overcome distance learning gap Broadbent and Poon (2015) confirm that distance learning is a form of self-study and that the isolation and individualisation of the student is one of the most significant weaknesses of distance learning. But, how can ODL institutions overcome the distance learning gap? According to the participants in this study, the e-tutor initiative can be used to overcome the ODL gap. In support of this view 16.12% (5) of the participants confirmed that the ODL gap can be bridged by stating the following:

The e-tutor initiative takes away the distance in Distance Learning. [P18]

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ive students an opportunity to communicate with tutors online. Students feel comfortable to ask G questions online. It gives students advantage, since some students are far from the lecturers. This helps students to use a simple communication tool to communicate. [P8]

Sampson (2003) continues by stating that distance learners have a need for face-to-face consultations, which is undoubtedly important to the students, and if there is a form of interaction with tutors, high-quality learning will still take place. Sampson’s (2003) view was once again confirmed by the participants in this study.

A total of 12 participants (38.71%) concurred by stating that another contribution of the e-tutor initiative for an ODL would be an increase in the pass rate of students. Some of the participants’ responses were: The e-tutor initiative makes studying and succeeding at the university more achievable and manageable.

[P15] E-tutors assist the organisation by ensuring that the learners have access to information about the subject they are studying and e-tutors assist learners to know their study material better. [P28] After each examination period, lecturers have to submit a statistical analysis of the pass rate. Since the implementation of the e-tutor system, the pass rate increased with almost 18%.

Sub-theme 1.3: Increase in institution’s competitive advantage The pass rate and throughput rates of students in an ODL institution is a major concern. Should an ODL institution be able to give support, that is in the form of the e-tutor initiative to students, which will help them to be more successful, the pass rate or throughput rates will give the institution a competitive advantage over other ODL institutions.

This statement is confirmed by the participants in this study as a total of 16.12% (5) of the participants confirmed that the institution can increase its competitive advantage through e-tutor initiatives. Some of the responses were: It puts the university at the forefront of technology-based education, which is the future way that education will take place. [P15]

The e-tutor initiative makes this university a more attractive option for students to choose. [P13]

It can be concluded that the e-tutor initiative contributes towards the ODL institution in that it gives support to the students and lecturers, which in turn will help to overcome the ODL gap and increase the student pass rate. An increase in the throughput rate gives an institution a competitive advantage over other ODL institutions (Joubert & Snyman, 2018).

Theme 2: Contribution of e-tutor initiative towards the student Almost 400 000 students are enrolled with the ODL institution where this study was conducted (Unisa, 2019) and the enrolment figures are much more compared to other residential universities. As the ODL institution where this study is conducted is an open distance learning university, one of the main obstacles of this university is contact between lecturer and student. The question arises: ‘Can the e-tutor initiative overcome this obstacle?’

Sub-theme 2.1: Increased student centredness The ODL model necessitates an institution to change its approach to teaching and learning, to become more student-centred and to focus on effective interaction as a way of motivating students and promoting The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

15 student success (Unisa, 2019). Should it be possible to use the e-tutor initiative to overcome this obstacle, other obstacles such as students’ knowledge and students’ ability to graduate will increase (Joubert & Snyman, 2018).

Some of the responses from the participants in support of their views that the e-tutor initiative bridges the ODL gap were: The e-tutor creates an active online community of learners and thus minimises the isolation that comes with learning in an ODL institution. [P27] Students feel that the university is not so ‘cold’ anymore. They have a sense of being involved and have control over the studies on a daily basis. [P26] This view was supported by the participants as 25.81% of them were of the view that the e-tutor initiative can be used to bridge the ODL gap. Furthermore, the participants (19.35%) concurred that there is an increase in interaction between co-students, lecturers and e-tutors. An ODL institution offers distance learning where there is minimum or no contact between fellow students and limited contact between students and the lecturer. If the interaction is increased between students and their lecturers, it also means that the ODL gap is bridged.

Sub-theme 2.2: Increased interaction among students and with lecturers Some responses from participants in support of their view that the e-tutor initiative increases the interaction between co-students and lecturers were: The biggest benefit of the system for students is that they can combine what they learn from the subject matter with the view of their peers and the e-tutor. [P25] The interaction that students have with fellow learners helps to make their experience a positive one, because they no longer get that feeling of loneliness, thinking that they are the only individuals busy with their studies. [P17] The e-tutor system is an electronic system (e-classroom) that connects the e-tutors and the students as well as the e-tutors and the lecturers. The e-tutors are required to give guidance and execute the 15-week semester plan, received from the lecturer, to the students. The e-tutor is required to facilitate and constantly monitor both the learning processes and the pace of learning and respond to questions. The e-tutors must be active on sites, initiate discussions and exercises to students through the Discussion Forum on the e-tutor site, and add announcements on the Announcement tool, which is another link on the e-tutor site.

Sub-theme 2.3: Increased student motivation The study further revealed that the participants concurred in stating that the e-tutor initiative contributes to more motivated students (9.68%) and to more support for students (19.35%). As discussed in the literature above, students studying through an ODL institution often feel isolated, demotivated and disconnected.

However, if the e-tutor initiative contributes to a student’s motivation, and if it provides a platform where they can interact with co–students, lecturers and e-tutors, it will benefit the learning experience and will contribute to the success of the students. Stephens (2015) supports this view by stating that motivated and engaged students are those students who will perform better academically.

The following responses were received from the participants with regard to motivation – one of the contributions that the e-tutor initiative has for its students:

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Students who were reluctant to study and start with assignments are motivated by the e-tutor to do the work. [P17] E-tutors motivate students on a continuous basis to engage with their study material and to finish the assignments on time. [P4] Sub-theme 2.4: Increased student support Regarding support, the participants’ responses were as follows: Students feel that they receive personal attention and if they have questions, there is someone who can assist them with their queries. [P21] The main role of the e-tutor is to guide and support the learning process by helping learners to find and access additional resources, guide interaction with peers and provide support to empower the learners… Creating a comfortable learning environment where students feel respected and encouraged.

[P14] The participants further agreed that other contributions of the e-tutor initiative towards the student are students who are kept informed. When studying at an ODL institution, it is sometimes difficult to keep track of the due dates for all the assignment of different modules. It is the student’s responsibility to be aware of the due dates and to meet these deadlines. The risk is that students might hand in their assignments late, which could lead to them not being admitted to the exam. The participants (12.90%) agreed that students are kept informed through the e-tutor initiative and, in support thereof, the participants’ responses were: I think it is immense. The initiative provides regular guidance and reminders that certain tasks must be completed. [P16] The e-tutor sends reminders for students to participate from the e-tutor website as well as to make sure that they submit their assignments on time. [P9] Sub-theme 2.5: Improved student performance Another contribution of the e-tutor initiative to the students is that the students’ knowledge and understanding are increased. More than half of the participants (54.84%) concurred that the e-tutor initiative increases the students’ understanding of the content and their knowledge.

It provides students with an opportunity to critically evaluate the subject matter and to gain a better understanding of the practical implementation thereof on an actual environment that they are going to work in. [P25] The e-tutor contributes a lot to students, especially those who are struggling. The e-tutor can assist students with issues that lecturers may not have the time to explain in such detail. [P10] If students understand the content and are able to increase their knowledge, it would lead to a better chance of graduating. A total of 19.35% of the participants were of the view that the number of students graduating would increase.

Sub-theme 2.6: Better prepared graduates with increased job prospects There is a great possibility that the students could be successful in the job market after successful completion of their studies. In support of this view, the participants’ responses were the following: The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

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-tutors’ contribution towards the university is to produce quality graduates who are relevant in today’s E job market. [P27]

It provides students an opportunity to critically evaluate the subject matter and to gain a better understanding of the practical implementation thereof on an actual environment that they are going to work in. [P25] Authors such as Jelfs, Richardson and Price (2009), McGivney (2004) and Yorke (2004) are concerned about distance learning students in that they need more direction and assistance to enable them to manage the demands of this type of learning. Chang (2012) and Rovai (2002) elaborated on these findings by adding that the online learning environment divides students and lecturers and reduces the interaction between a student and his/her lecturer, which results in an increase in student dropouts. According to Chang’s (2012) study, the pass rate of students who study at distance learning universities has decreased by between 10% and 20% as compared to traditional universities.

According to Johnson and Bratt (2009) as well as Denard (2003), there is an increase in the demand for online tutors due to its proven effectiveness. Gulbahar and Kalelioglu (2015) are of the opinion that competent online tutors are essential towards the successful implementation of an e-learning initiative in higher education. According to Welch et al.’s (2015) research, there was an increase in student success rates (from 5% to 15%) where online tutors were able to meet the students’ needs.

This study concurs with the above authors: the e-tutor initiative contributes to the students in that the initiative motivates and supports the students, it keeps the students informed of important dates, such as assignment dates, there is an increase in interaction, and the ODL gap is bridged. This in turn will help the student to understand the content better and to increase their knowledge, which would lead to them graduating.

ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS The ODL institution in this research study implemented an e-tutoring model to assist the students in making a success of their studies because the students enjoy more personal attention and quicker turnaround on their enquiries. This will improve student success rates, which in turn will benefit the institution. In other words, it is a win-win situation in which the student, as well as the institution, benefits.

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18 Figure 1: Contribution of the e-tutor initiative to an ODL institution and students Contribution to ODL institution • Support to lecturers and students • Overcome ODL gap • Increased pass rate and student success • Competitive advantage

E-tutor intervention

Contribution towards students • Motivate and support students • Keep students informed • Increased interation • Better understanding of content • Knowledge increases • Graduation increases

Success

After streamlining and integrating the themes and subthemes, a model is presented as Figure 1. Figure 1 is a summary of the contribution the e-tutor initiative makes to an ODL institution and to its students. This figure confirms that the e-tutor initiative in the ODL institution of this study contributes to the success of the institution and its students.

CONCLUSION The objective of this study was to explore the contribution of the new e-tutor initiative to the institution and the students. The focus of this study was on the perceptions of the e-tutors in the HRM Department in the ODL institution. However, while e-tutor intervention may contribute to student success, it has to be noted that there are other factors that can affect e-tutoring, e.g. availability of resources, quality of teaching, and quality of teaching and tutoring.

The results indicated that the experience of the e-tutors was that the e-tutor initiative positively contributes to the institution and the students. The participants reported that the initiative contributes to the institution in that the pass rates increased, there is support for students and lecturers, the gaps are bridged, and it provides a competitive advantage over other distance learning institutions that do not have initiatives in place to support their students. This initiative also makes a positive contribution towards the students in that the students’ pass rates and performance increase, they are kept informed, interaction increases, they are motivated, they receive support from the e-tutors, and their ability to graduate increases. The three needs of students enrolled at ODL institutions, which are discussed in the literature – that is, (1) the desire to have regular contact with the institution; (2) the need to be motivated and (3) the interaction with lecturer, tutor and peers – are all satisfied through the e-tutor initiative.

The researchers interviewed only those e-tutors who are employed in the HRM Department at one ODL institution. Several other departments and ODL institutions should also be considered as e-tutor initiatives may contribute in the same manner to these departments and institutions The findings in this research demonstrate that ODL institutions make use of the e-tutor model to increase student success and institutional competitiveness.

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21 Ramorola, M.Z. (2018) The roles and responsibilities of e-tutors in open distance and e-learning environment. Paper presented at the South Africa International Conference on Educational Technologies 2018. http://aa-rf.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/SAICET-2018-Proceedings.pdf#page=85 Rolfs, M. & Dambacher, M. (2016) What draws the line between perception and cognition? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, doi: 10.1017/S0140525X15002617 Rossman, G.B. & Rallis, F.S. (2011) Learning in the field: an introduction to qualitative research. 3rd ed.

London: Sage.

Rovai, A. (2002) Building sense of community at a distance. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning 3(1) pp.1-16.

Salmon, G. & Angood, R. (2013) Sleeping with the enemy. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(6)5 pp.916-5925.

Salmon, G. & Gregory, J. (2015) Experiential online development for educators: The example of the Carpe Diem MOOC. British Journal of Educational Technology 46(3) pp.542-556.

Salmon, G., Pechenkina, E., Chase, A. & Ross, B. (2016) Designing massive open online courses to take account of participant motivations and expectations. British Journal of Educational Technology, doi:10.1111/bjet.12497 Salmon, G. & Wright, P. (2014) Transforming future teaching through “carpe diem” learning design.

Educational Sciences 4(1) pp.52-63.

Sampson, N. (2003) Meeting the needs of distance learners. Language Learning & Technology 7(3) pp.103-118.

Simpson, O. (2013) Supporting students in online open and distance learning. London & New York: Taylor & Francis.

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Yorke, M. (2004) Retention persistence and success in on-campus higher education and their enhancement in open and distance learning. Open Learning 19(1) pp.19-32.

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22 Computer-assisted assessment: An old remedy for challenges in open distance learning1 Martin Combrinck, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa Willem J. van Vollenhoven, North West University, South Africa

ABSTRACT The article reports on the experiences of lecturers on the implementation of computer-assisted assessment in an open distance learning context. Open distance learning is growing rapidly worldwide. The North-West University and Unit for Open Distance Learning are no different and the institution has a large component of open distance learning students. The aim of the research was to reflect on the experiences of lecturers with regard to the use of computer-assisted assessment. The Technology Acceptance Model and ADKAR model were used as conceptual frameworks. This study adopted a qualitative approach: interviews were conducted with 26 lecturers during 2015 and 2016. The data showed that computer-assisted assessment (multiple-choice questions) have certain challenges, but can also contribute to a more effective open distance learning assessment strategy. Recommendations were formulated according to findings. The article concludes that computer-assisted assessment has a place in an open distance learning context.1 Keywords: open distance learning, computer-assisted assessment, formative assessment, summative assessment, multiple choice questions, qualitative research

INTRODUCTION The number of students at universities is growing rapidly worldwide (Crisp & Ward, 2008; Wilson et al., 2011). There is still a great challenge to provide access to students at higher education institutions (Stephens, Bull & Wade, 2006). One way of accommodating more students in higher education institutions is by means of open distance learning (ODL). Open distance learning is not new in South Africa (SA): the University of South Africa (UNISA) is one of the most well-known ODL universities in the world.

However, other universities in SA also offer ODL programmes. The North-West University (NWU) is one such university that has a large component of ODL students. At the time of this research, 31000 students were enrolled at the university for ODL programmes. Traditionally, NWU was a campus-based university, but in 2004, NWU started to offer ODL programmes to under- and unqualified teachers (Combrinck, Spamer & Van Zyl, 2015). In 2013, the Unit for Open Distance Learning (UODL) was established with its main function of delivering ODL to NWU students in Southern Africa. The growth in ODL programmes at NWU in the last decade is also in line with the new policy for post-school education (Department of Higher

1 Date of submission 29 April 2019 Date of review outcome 17 September 2019 Date of acceptance 12 February 2020

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23 Education and Training [DHET], 2014) in SA, which proposes that more South African universities should introduce ODL to create greater access for students in the country.

The aim of providing greater access to students will increase the number of students and will make it more difficult to use the traditional pen-and-paper assessment for ODL students. Therefore, the option of computer-assisted assessment (CAA) can play a bigger role in open distance learning. Combrinck, Spamer and Van Zyl (2015) defined ODL as an educational system which opens access to students and frees students from the constraints of time and space.

Although CAA is not a new approach to assessment, it was an initiative at the Unit for Open Distance Learning (UODL) at NWU to implement CAA to make assessment more manageable for lecturers (Ghilay, 2019). Wilson et al. (2011) and Ghilay and Ghilay (2012) confirmed this notion when they stated that CAA has become more important at higher institutions due to the increase in student numbers.

During 2015, NWU and the UODL began to implement CAA with limited ODL programmes. CAA is a broad concept that can involve a number of things but the UODL decided to make use of multiple-choice questions (MCQ) as a starting point in the development and implementation of a CAA strategy. Therefore, when referred to CAA in this article it is synonymous with MCQ. Although there is quite substantial research on CAA in other countries, research on CAA in an ODL context in South Africa is limited. This research attempts to fill that gap. The purpose of this research is therefore to reflect on lecturers’ experiences on the use of CAA as an assessment strategy for ODL programmes at NWU in South Africa.

To achieve this purpose, the research was guided by the following research question: • What are lecturers’ experiences of the implementation of a CAA strategy in an open distance learning context?

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A literature review was conducted to provide a critical synthesis of literature available on the topic. A summary of this literature is given in this section. Firstly, the concept of CAA is defined, and, secondly, the use of CAA at a few universities in selected countries is discussed. Thirdly, the advantages and disadvantages of CAA are considered, and, finally, the practice of MCQ as an assessment method is discussed.

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) offer new possibilities for assessment at open distance institutions today. The emergence of ICT over the last three decades contributes to the shift in assessment from traditional pen-and-paper assessment to CAA, also named e-assessment (Jamil, 2012). The concept of CAA is therefore central to this article as mentioned earlier and it is important to look at the definition.

Different scholars define CAA differently. Brown, Bull and Race (1997) state that it generally means the delivery, marking and analysis of examinations by means of computers and optical mark readers. Stephens et al. (2006) concurred and state CAA is an approach to deliver, mark and analyse examinations; record, analyse and report on achievement; collate and analyse data gathered from optical mark readers; and to collate, analyse and transfer assessment information through networks. Gretes and Green (2000), Thelwall (2000) and Marin, Nieto and Rodriques (2009) state that CAA includes the process whereby the computer selects MCQs from a larger database of questions. Jamil (2012) and Schoen-Phelan and Keegan (2016) further stated that CAA is any assessment that involves the use of computers for conducting or the marking of assessment products. Marin et al. (2009) expanded on this definition and stated that CAA is where computers are used to mark students’ work, to provide feedback to students and to evaluate assessment effectiveness.

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24 For the purpose of this article, CAA will have a narrower definition, and means the use of MCQs that are marked by an optical scanner as part of a computer-assisted strategy by the UODL at NWU. Due to the fact that CAA in this context consists of MCQ, the latter will be discussed in more detail later on in this section.

Computer-assisted assessment has a long tradition and many universities worldwide used this type of assessment during the 1980s. The Open University of the Netherlands is an example of an institution that began using it in 1984 (Wiegers, 2010). They realised that the pen-and-paper system had become very expensive and more inflexible. Their system selected the MCQs from a databank and also marked the answers produced on special answer sheets. By 1995, almost 50% of all examinations at The Open University of the Netherlands were based on this approach, and by 2000, the majority of examinations were done this way (Joosten ten Brinke, 2009). The popularity of CAA is quite widespread. In the USA, more than a million examinations were delivered and marked by computers during a twelve-month period (McKenna and Bull, 2000). This type of assessment is also widely used in Australia, specifically at the University of Sydney and Curtin University where 30000 students are assessed annually by means of CAA. Nicol (2007) stated that MCQs as part of a CAA strategy are increasingly being used by higher education institutions as a means of supplementing or replacing current pen-and-paper assessment practices. Computer-assisted assessment can be used as formative or summative assessment. Formative assessment, according to Dreyer (2014), is to determine the students’ progress towards achieving the outcomes and to enhance the learning environment (Wilson et al. 2011). It therefore takes place during the teaching and learning process. Summative assessment, on the other hand, is assessment that takes place at the end of the teaching and learning process and determines the overall achievement of the student’s academic success. It normally takes place at the end of a term, semester or year (Dreyer, 2014). Research found that many institutions used CAA more as part of their formative assessment strategy (Sim, Holifield & Brown, 2004, Nicol 2007, Wilson et al., 2011). This allowed them to be more student-centred and to provide feedback to the students. However, other institutions decided to use CAA more as part of their summative assessment strategy, which makes the assessment more formal, structured and organised, but it also requires more rigorous planning. McKenna and Bull (2000) stated that more than 70 universities in the United Kingdom use CAA mostly for summative purposes. Gikandi et al. (2011) support this claim by stating that online assessment (including CAA) is used more for summative assessment. The use of CAA at the UODL will be for summative purposes.

Bull (1999), Chalmers and McAusland (2002), Ricketts and Wilks (2002), Ghilay (2019) and Jamil (2012) describe a number of advantages of CAA. One such advantage is that it is possible to give quicker feedback to students once the marking is done by the computer. It also eliminates human error during marking and adding up marks. Feedback is important because it can motivate students when they receive feedback constructively and quickly. It can also help to identify students fairly quickly for additional support once an assessment was done (Bull 1999, Ghilay & Ghilay 2012). Crisp and Ward (2008) reported on the work of Black and Wiliam, who found that regular feedback yields substantial academic gains. Feedback is even more important for ODL students due to their limited contact time with lecturers.

Ghilay and Ghilay (2012) confirm this notion when they state that feedback is an important part of CAA. Bull (1999) further described that CAA also saves the lecturer time by assessing his/her examination papers. This finding was supported by Crisp and Ward (2008), Conole and Warburton (2005) and Ricketts and Wilks (2002) when they said that CAA is an attractive option for lecturers that have a large number of students. Bull (1999) and Jamil (2012) further elaborated on this advantage by stating that such assessment can reduce the administrative load of staff during assessment times. Crisp and Ward (2007) also found that CAA increases the motivation of students to learn. McKenna and Bull (2000), Chalmers and McAusland (2002) and Jamil (2012) mentioned another advantage: CAA provides accurate data on how students perform with each question and can assist in ensuring the development of good, quality

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25 MCQs. Multiple-choice questions can be grouped according to different categories, such as difficulty, topic, type of skill, and learning level. Assessment questions that draw from each category can then be designed.

It is, however, also important to find out if there are any disadvantages to CAA. Bull (1999) Crisp and Ward (2007) and Schoen-Phelan & Keegan (2016) stated that the use of CAA may have some disadvantages when they found that CAA often consists only of MCQs, which can lead to assessment questions that only focus on lower-order thinking. This notion is supported by Sim et al. (2004), who said that CAA cannot assess higher-order thinking. Heinrich and Wang (2003) supported this view when they said that MCQs are not sophisticated enough to examine complex content and thinking patterns. Jamil (2012) stated that the frequent use of MCQ can lead more to testing than assessment. McKenna and Bull (2000) also raised the concern that MCQs cannot assess students’ communication skills, and test items must therefore be carefully formulated to avoid decontextualisation, which can lead to a lack of contextual validity. Chalmers and McAusland (2002) also found that it takes quite a long time to set up an exam paper and they were also concerned about the quality of the MCQs in examination papers. Jamil (2012) identified more concerns with CAA when he stated that staff need additional training to use the system and that that can be time consuming.

As mentioned earlier, the practice of CAA at the UODL will consist mainly of MQCs that will be marked by an optical scanner (computer). It is therefore important to look more closely at MCQs. According to Ghilay (2019), MCQs are an objective type of assessment which require the choice of a number of predetermined answers. As mentioned earlier, a major concern for the use of MCQ is the tendency that it assesses lowerorder thinking. Ghilay (2019) and Nicol (2007), however, dispute this claim and said MCQ can also be used to assess higher order thinking. This can be done by asking questions that not only rely on memory to select an answer but that require more complex thinking skills to select the correct answer. Nicol (2007) also identified a number of principles that can be used to strengthen the implementation of MCQ during CAA. Firstly, students can be involved in the clarification of goals and assessment criteria. Secondly, MCQs can be administered as an open book examination which can lead to greater reflection on the part of the students. Thirdly, students can receive more in-depth feedback after an MCQ examination which assists them to link their current knowledge to more complex issues. Fourthly, lecturers can develop activities that students could engage in after an MCQ examination to deepen their understanding of the work. Lastly, lecturers can create opportunities for students to take the MCQ repeatedly so that they can improve their performance.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK This article reflects on the experiences of lecturers on the implementation of CAA in an ODL learning context. The review of the literature indicated the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis 1989) and ADKAR Model (Kamzi & Naarananoja, 2013) have relevance to this study. They will be used as a framework for the study.

The Technology Acceptance Model was developed to explain an individual’s or institution’s intention to use a technological innovation and consists of two major predictors: (1) perceived usefulness and (2) perceived ease of use (Davis, 1989). These two predictors are important starting points when considering data collection and data analysis for this study.

The second useful model is the ADKAR model of change (Kamzi & Naarananoja, 2013). This model was developed to guide organisations or individuals to successfully implement a new initiative. This model was developed based on research conducted in more than 900 organisations and was developed by J. Hiatt of

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26 Prosci Change Management in 2003. This model focuses on five steps that an individual or organisation could follow to change or implement an initiative successfully. The five steps are the following: • awareness of the need for change

• desire to participate in and support the change

• knowledge on how to change

• ability to implement required skills and behaviour

• reinforcement to sustain the change.

The study relates well to the two models in the sense that it is important to establish how lecturers experience the usefulness and ease of use of CAA. It was also important to establish if they were aware of the need of CAA and, additionally, if they had the knowledge and ability to implement such a new assessment approach.

All of the above are important concepts in this research and the authors synthesised these concepts into a framework that guided the data collection and data analysis Diagram 1: Framework indicating the implementation of CAA Implementation of CAA Questionnaire and analysis of data will be guided by:

Perceived usefulness of CAA

Lecturers’ awareness of the need for CAA

Lecturers’ desire to support and participate in the implementation of CAA

Perceived ease of use of CAA

Knowledge of how to implement CAA

Ability to implement CAA

Reinforcement to sustain the implementation of CAA

RESEARCH PROCESS The research team explored the experiences of lecturers regarding the implementation of a CAA approach in an ODL institution. The researchers identified a qualitative approach as the best means for conducting this study. The reason for this is because the data-gathering technique of an open-ended questionnaire employed elicited responses reflecting the experiences of key participants (in this case, the lecturers at the UODL who implemented CAA in their modules during 2015 and 2016) in the implementation process. Qualitative research, according to Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2011), provides an in-depth and detailed understanding of meanings, actions, attitudes and perceptions. Qualitative researchers emphasise the socially constructed nature of reality and attempt to study human action from the insiders’ perspective (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011). For the purpose of this article, the researchers were interested in the process of the implementation of a CAA approach in the context of ODL, and the insiders referred to above are the lecturers who implement such an approach in their programmes.

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27 Sample Twenty-three lecturers from the Faculty of Education Sciences and three from the Faculty of Health Sciences (specifically nursing) were purposively sampled to participate in this open-ended questionnaire in 2015 and 2016.

These 26 lecturers were selected because they were the only ones who used the CAA approach for the mentioned examinations. The UODL, Faculty of Health Sciences and Faculty of Education Sciences voluntarily made use of CAA and these lecturers were the ones who decided to use it. The Faculty of Education Sciences has by far the larger component of ODL students (28 000), while the School of Nursing has approximately 2 000 students. The number of ODL students in the other faculties were very low and the lecturers in these faculties did not use CAA. Data collection and analysis Participants were asked to answer a set of open-ended questions. After the researchers received the 26 completed open-ended questionnaires, they analysed and categorised the responses into meaningful units, whereafter the researchers assigned a code to the units. After the process of coding was completed, the researchers organised and linked related codes to form meaningful themes. Six themes were identified and will be discussed in detail in the next section. Nieuwenhuis described this as a process whereby a researcher ‘tries to establish how participants make meaning of a specific phenomenon by analysing their perceptions, attitudes, understanding, knowledge feelings and experiences’ (Nieuwenhuis, 2007: 99) - in this case, the experiences of the lecturers who used CAA for the first time.

Ethical guidelines All general ethical guidelines in qualitative research as well as university guidelines were adhered to. The lecturers voluntarily participated in the research and could withdraw from the process at any stage if they so wished. The questions were sent to them beforehand so that they could familiarise themselves with the questions. The questionnaire was accompanied by a cover letter which explained the aim of the research.

Anonymity of the participants was assured.

FINDINGS The qualitative data referred to in this research have been thoroughly analysed, interpreted and categorised based on their relevance The following six categories relating to lecturers’ experiences and perceptions of CAA emerged from the qualitative analysis: • reasons why lecturers participate in this CAA project

• lecturers’ knowledge on CAA and MCQs

• the support lecturers received during the implementation of CAA

• the benefits of CAA identified by lecturers

• the challenges of CAA identified by lecturer

• the expectations of the lecturers, and if these expectations were met, by using CAA.

Reasons why lecturers participated in this CAA project A number of participants indicated that they became part of the initiative because they were requested by the UODL and Faculties of NWU to do so. However, the majority of the participants indicated that they wanted to be part of the initiative because they wanted to develop further in their own practices and they believed in the value of adapting to new challenges.

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28 The majority of participants also said that they believed CAA (which consisted of MCQs) would minimise their marking time and reduce the volume of compulsory marking as agreed upon in their task agreements.

This reduction in the volume of marking would give them time to concentrate more on the development of their academic careers, such as conducting more research and publishing. One participant expressed his perception as follows:

It saves a lot of time in marking formal assessments, without jeopardising the quality.

Another participant said the following:

To address the amount of assignments, limited time available to mark the assignments

This is a sentiment shared by Bull (1999) and Jamil (2012), who stated that CAA can help to reduce lecturers’ workloads. One participant also mentioned that using CAA would save the Faculty money as these answer sheets would be marked by the computer and not by paid external markers. This perception was confirmed by research when Bull (1999) and Ghilay (2019) stated that CAA reduces the administrative load of staff during assessment times. Another participant mentioned that she participated in the project because she wanted to find out if students who were registered for the National Professional Diploma in Education (NPDE) would benefit from this type of assessment. In her experience, NPDE students often struggle with paragraph-type questions, and by using more objective-type questions, such students could probably benefit from that - an expectation that was difficult to achieve due to the fact that not all NPDE modules were part of this CAA initiative.

Lecturers’ knowledge on CAA and MCQs The majority of participants said that they had limited knowledge of CAA and MCQs, but after they attended the workshop organised by the UODL and Academic Support Services of NWU, they felt more comfortable about the process. The purpose of the workshop was to prepare lecturers to use CAA for examination purposes. The following response from a participant is a good summary of how the participants felt about this question on their knowledge about CAA and MCQs. Initially not much, but after reading ample articles on Google and attending a workshop, I have more knowledge, but still not enough to set a well-balanced question paper.

The qualitative data indicated that lecturers were still not completely confident in setting MCQs after attending a workshop on this topic.

The support lecturers received during the implementation of CAA The third theme is about the support lecturers received during the implementation of CAA. All the participants indicated that they attended a workshop on the use of CAA, as already alluded to in the previous theme. This workshop was organised and conducted by the Academic Support Services of NWU and UODL. The majority of participants felt that this workshop was sufficient to help them to use this type of assessment. The workshop helped them to better understand assessment through MCQs and how to go about formulating such questions. However, a few participants also said that the support they received was not enough. Although the Academic Support Services conducted the workshop, the participants felt that the Academic Support Services needed to support them through the whole process of setting up papers and formulating MCQs. In this regard, one participant stated:

I expected Academic Support Services to continue with support through to the exit point.

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29 When asked how they perceived the support they had received, specifically from the UODL and the Faculty, participant responses varied. Some indicated that they received very little support from the UODL. One participant said that when she asked for support, she was advised to contact Academic Support Services. Some mentioned that they received some initial support, with an introductory session and e-mail support when needed.

To a certain extent, I recall one workshop on designing questions and one generalised feedback based on statistics of students’ results.

However, some participants also indicated that the support they received was sufficient and helpful. This implies that participants were on different levels of development and therefore needed different levels of support.

The responses regarding the role of the Faculty were also very interesting. The majority of the participants said that the support was not very good and that it mainly consisted of a workshop and training session.

One participant said:

There was support, a workshop was arranged.

However, some participants stated that they did not expect a lot of support because they are professionals: they can find out what to do and how to do it. One participant was more concerned about the lack of support by the Faculty about the translation of papers and the technical layout of these papers.

The benefits of CAA that have been identified by lecturers All participants agreed that the benefits of CAA (MCQs) are indeed cutting both marking time and payment for markers. This view is supported in the literature. Bull (1999) as well as Crisp and Ward (2008) stated that CAA saves lecturers’ time when marking papers. Ricketts and Wilks (2002) and Ghilay (2019) strengthened this argument by claiming that CAA could reduce the administrative burden of lecturers during examination times. In this regard, one participant said the following: Although the compiling of a MCQs paper is much more time intensive, electronic marking is a huge benefit, especially if there are many students in the module.

This would imply that lecturers would have more time to focus on their own research, the development of study guides, and new programmes. This view is well summarised by one participant, who said:

It could free the lecturers from the burden of marking.

However, some participants indicated that they personally did not feel the effect of this ‘saved time’ as their task agreement marking had not been reduced, and they still needed to mark the same number of answer scripts that accumulate from their other modules. These statements should be explained against the marking policy of the Faculty of Education Sciences. At the Faculty of Education Sciences, lecturers receive a quota of assignments/examination papers to be marked before examination scripts can be outsourced to external markers. The result is that, even if lecturers use MCQs examination question papers, their quota, which is made up of their other modules, should still be marked before they can outsource marking. Although MCQs papers saved marking time, these lecturers did not feel the benefit of marking less due to the MCQs as they still needed to mark their quota. Therefore, only the Faculty benefits as it pays less marking remuneration. Another benefit, according to participants, is that the quality of marking is enhanced as it is more unbiased.

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30 One participant found it helpful that deep cognitive knowledge and application of theory in practice could be tested by means of MCQs. Another participant supported this by saying that the use of this type of assessment would benefit the cognitive development of students:

More assessing opportunities [formative assessment] would be possible, which will enhance the acquisition of skills, knowledge and values…

Another participant mentioned that CAA (MCQs) would also develop students’ reading speed as they are required to read quite a large number of questions. It is interesting to note that none of the participants mentioned that CAA can contribute to better and quicker feedback to students. The advantage of quicker feedback by using CAA is widely reported in the literature (Bull 1999; Ricketts & Wilks, 2002; Ghilay, 2019).

Another lecturer mentioned the following benefits:

The students benefit in that

• there is no bias • they are not challenged concerning written language, grammar and vocabulary (no paraphrasing or long sentences) • they don’t have to parrot-learn long questions, etc.

The benefit of language, as mentioned above, can, however, also be a shortcoming as will be discussed under the next theme.

The following responses also indicated lecturers’ positive feelings about this assessment: A much, much faster turn-around time for assignments will give the students opportunity to resubmit assignments should they wish to do so.

Quicker feedback after exams will open the possibility of a second opportunity, instead of waiting another six months and teacher-students could obtain their qualifications quicker, etc.

The challenges of CAA that have been identified by lecturers It was interesting to see that two participants indicated that there were no challenges when using CAA. All the other participants mentioned a number of challenges. The majority of participants were worried that this type of assessment will increase reading time due to the number of examination questions normally associated with an MCQ paper. Many of the students are second language English-speaking students who could find it more difficult to read and understand all the questions. That can be detrimental to students when using this type of assessment. The majority of the participants were also concerned about the time it would take to set a paper. One participant expressed it as follows: … time-consuming to build a question bank and I am currently not convinced that students become scholars in their learning by means of MCQs. They felt it would be much more time-consuming than setting an exam paper with paragraph and essay questions. There was also a sense that this type of assessment promotes rote learning and that the students who prefer reasoning-like questions would be influenced negatively: The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

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T hat the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy cannot really be assessed. Also, that students do not acquire the skills of the planning and then answering of long questions.

The participants continued with their concerns and mentioned that the focus on MCQs would lead to lecturers not seeing how students develop holistically with regard to the way they understand and answer questions, because, according to participants, MCQs tend to focus on objective questions. One participant emphasised the problem that students are not developing their writing style: One of the shortcomings in using multi-choice questions is that it does not benefit students’ writing style.

That is the reason why I emphasised that the question paper cannot only consist of multiple-choice questions, but should also have longer questions to teach students how to write.

On a similar note, they indicated that they were concerned that this type of assessment would not be able to assess application skills and higher-order thinking. This concern is also found in the literature: Heinrich and Wang (2003) and Sim et al. (2004) stated that CAA (using MCQs) cannot assess higher-order thinking. However, this is a contentious issue because some scholars also said that, with the correct type of MCQs, it is possible to assess higher-order skills (Thetwall 2000; Jamil, 2012). It was further mentioned that this type of assessment makes it difficult to assess students’ language skills. There were also concerns expressed that this type of assessment is not suitable for self-assessment, peer assessment, or reflection on assessment.

The expectations of the lecturers and if met by using computer-assisted assessment The majority of participants indicated that several of their expectations were met, such as an increased pass rate, and that computer-assisted marking increased the quality and reliability of the marking process.

The majority of participants also stated that their expectation of CAA saving time during examination was met. However, the majority of participants also indicated a number of expectations that were not met. One such expectation is the fact that lecturers thought when CAA is introduced, it will lead to more time being spent on setting the paper, but will save them time when marking the paper. They hoped that the time they saved would allow them to have more time to do research, but the majority of participants said that that expectation did not realise. They also expected to get more in-depth analysis of the results and item analysis, which also did not happen. This is an important finding, because the literature (Stephens et al., 2006) clearly indicates that CAA makes it possible to obtain accurate data on the students’ performance and item analysis, and is an issue that should be looked into so as to help lecturers with setting MCQs. The expectation that this new assessment approach will lead to a change in their teaching style did not fully materialise. Quite a number of participants said that they did not really change their teaching style, but more than half of the participants stated that this new assessment approach forced them to think differently about their teaching style: To a large extent, it was necessary. It is still a challenge to align teaching methodology to the new style of assessment.

DISCUSSION The findings show that the majority of lecturers who participated in the study see the usefulness of CAA. They felt that CAA is useful because it can reduce their marking load and give them more time to do research or community work. Participants also felt that when CAA is used as formative assessment, it can contribute to deeper learning because the students will be assessed more frequently which will force them to study more regularly. It can also help to identify students at risk quicker. The main usefulness, however, when using CAA as summative assessment is the reduced marking load. Additionally, the results could be analysed for statistical purposes and such data can be used to analyse assessment trends.

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32 It seems that the ease of use of CAA was somewhat problematic. The majority of participants said that they did not have a lot of knowledge in the use of CAA and specifically in the setting up of MCQ, and, although they received some training, they felt it was not enough. This is further strengthened by the fact that they felt the training they received was not enough to make them comfortable in using CAA. They also indicated that they were not supported well enough by the UODL and the Faculties involved in this initiative.

Another concern for the lecturers pertains to the students involved with CAA. Many of the lecturers felt that the use of CAA, specifically MCQ, will be detrimental to the second-language speakers because they will now have to read more questions. This can cause them to struggle or to misunderstand the questions. The findings also suggest that MQC can lead to surface learning due to low cognitive questions.

The challenges of CAA as discussed can lead to a lack in sustainability of CAA and it is therefore important that the institution consider the following recommendations.

Recommendations for the use of CAA • On an institutional level, a coordinated CAA policy for all faculties involved with ODL and CAA should be developed and established. Furthermore, the UODL should establish a CAA unit to become the focal point for CAA implementation at the institution.

• The research further showed that, although the implementation of CAA at the UODL was relatively small, it has the potential to expand. The data clearly indicated, and it is therefore recommended, that this initiative should be rolled out to more subjects at the UODL, and, in doing so, more time would be created for lecturers to also focus on other activities such as research. In line with this, it is recommended that the Faculties revisit its assessment policy so that it allows lecturers the benefit of saving time when using CAA, which may, in turn, allow lecturers to also focus on other academic matters.

• The NWU and the UODL must provide good training in the use of CAA which include the development and implementation of MCQ.

• The NWU and the UODL must ensure that the technology and equipment used is of the best quality so that technical problems can be avoided.

• The data further suggested that lecturers need more support from the different departments within an institution. Not only is such support needed in the initial phase of the initiative, but also throughout the lifecycle of the initiative. Ongoing support for the lecturers in formulating MCQs and setting examination papers will contribute to the success of such endeavours. Lecturers must also see and experience the benefits of such assessment, because that will motivate them to take part in such an initiative. The Open University of the Netherlands is a good example of how a university started on a smaller scale with CAA and how they then expanded it to all their examinations (Joosten ten Brinke, 2009).

If the above recommendations are implemented there is a good chance that CAA at NWU and in the UODL will be sustainable and probably expandable in future.

CONCLUSION The literature clearly showed that MCQs as part of CAA are widely used at universities and that there is a place for such assessment in an institution’s assessment strategy. The UODL at NWU realised lecturers’ The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

33 enormous marking load when dealing with ODL students. This challenge can be successfully addressed with the use of CAA. However, it is imperative to have strategies and support available to lecturers to ensure not only the saving of time, but also quality assessment by enhancing higher-order development and thinking of students. Lecturers are willing to take on new assessment strategies and need to be supported by management in this regard.

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Chalmers, D. & McAusland, W.D.M. (2002) Computer-assisted Assessment, The Handbook for Economics Lecturers. In H. John & W. David (Eds.) Glasgow Caledonian University, Scotland.

Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2011) Research Methods in Education. New York: Routledge.

Combrinck, M., Spamer, E.J. & van Zyl, M. (2015) Students’ perceptions of the use of interactive white boards in the delivery of distance learning programmes. Progressio 37(1) pp.99-113.

Conole, G. & Warburton, B. (2005) A review of computer-assisted assessment. Research in Learning Technology 13(1) pp.17-31.

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DHET. (2014) White Paper for Post-School Education and Training. Department of Higher Education and Training, Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training.

Dreyer, J.M. (2014) The Educator as Assessor. Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Ghilay, Y. (2019) Computer assisted assessment in Higher Education: Multi-text and quantitative courses.

Journal of Online Higher Education 3(1) pp.1-21.

Ghilay, Y. & Ghilay, R. (2012) Student evaluation in higher education: A comparison between computer assisted assessment and traditional evaluation. Journal of Educational Technology 9(2) pp.8-16.

Gikandi, J.W., Morrow, D. & Davis, N.E. (2011) Online formative assessment in higher education: A review of the literature. Computers & Assessment 57(4) pp.2333-2351.

Gretes, J. & Green, M. (2000) Improving undergraduate learning with computer-assisted assessment.

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Heinrich, E. & Wang, Y. (2003) Online marking of essay-type assignments. Proceedings of the World Conference in Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications, pp.768-772. Hawaii, AACE.

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34 Jamil, M. (2012) Perceptions of university students regarding computer assisted assessment. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 11(3) pp.267-277.

Joosten ten Brinke (2009) Flexible Education for All: Open – Global – Innovative. Paper presented at the 23rd ICDE World Conference on Open Learning and Distance Education 7-10 June 2009. Maastricht, the Netherlands.

Kamzi, S.A.Z. & Naarananoja, M. (2013) Collection of change management models – An opportunity to make the best choice from various organisational transformational techniques. Journal of Business Review 2(4) pp.44-57.

Marin, D, Nieto, I. & Rodriquez, P. (2009) Computer-assisted assessment of free-text answer. The Knowledge Engineering Review 24(4) pp.353-374.

McKenna, C. & Bull, J. (2000) Quality assurance of computer-assisted assessment: practical and strategic issues. Quality Assurance in Education 8(1) pp.24-32.

Nicol, D. (2007) E-assessment by design: using multiple-choice tests to good effect. Journal of Further and Higher Education 31(1) pp.53-64.

Nieuwenhuis, J. (2007) Qualitative research designs and data gathering techniques. In K. Maree (Ed.) First Steps in Research. Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Ricketts, C. & Wilks, J. (2002) Improving student performance through computer-based assessment: Insights from recent research. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 27(5) pp.475-479.

Schoen-Phelan, B. & Keegan, B. (2016) Case Study on Performance and Acceptance of Computer-aided assessment. International Journal for E-learning 6(1) pp.1-6.

Sim, G., Holifield, P. & Brown, M. (2004) Implementation of computer assisted assessment: lessons from the literature. Research in Learning Technology 12(3) pp.215-229.

Stephens, D., Bull, J. & Wade, W. (2006) Computer-assisted assessment: suggested guidelines for an institutional strategy. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education 23(3) pp.283-294.

Thelwall, M. (2000) Computer-based assessment: a versatile educational tool. Computer & Education 34(1) pp.37-49.

Wiegers, J. (2010) Institute for Educational Measurement (Cito), The Netherlands. The 36th International Association for Educational Assessment (IAEA) Annual Conference, 22-27 August, Bangkok, Thailand.

Wilson, K., Boyd, C., Chen, L. & Jamal, S. (2011) Improving student performance in a first year geography course: Examining the importance of computer-assisted formative assessment. Computers & Education 57 pp.1493-1500.

Yorke, M. (2003) Formative assessment in higher education: moves towards theory and the enhancement of pedagogic practice. Higher Education 45 (4) pp.477-501.

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35 Exploring the impact of intimate partner violence on the women students living in cohabitation1 2 Emanuel Mashabela, University of Fort Hare, South Africa Jabulani Gilford Kheswa, University of Fort Hare, South Africa

ABSTRACT The aim of the study was to explore the impact of intimate partner violence on female students living in cohabitation in one South African tertiary institution. In a qualitative study comprised of 12 black isiXhosaspeaking female students, aged 19-24, from the University of Fort Hare (Alice Campus), a purposive sampling was followed. The study was underpinned by Emersson’s social exchange theory. The participants gave their informed consent to be tape-recorded prior to conducting the focus group interviews, which lasted for almost an hour. Safeguarding their dignity, privacy and confidentiality was achieved by using pseudonyms. To ensure trustworthiness of the study, Lincoln and Guba’s principles were followed, namely: confirmability, dependability, neutrality and transferability. The findings revealed that cohabiting female students are subjugated in terms of expressing their rights to negotiate safe sex and are physically abused when refusing to terminate pregnancies. Furthermore, an impaired sense of autonomy and deprivation to bond with their own biological children were reported. Based on the findings, the authors conclude that there should be empowerment programmes for gender equality at tertiary institutions and parental support for female students.12 Keywords: abuse, alcohol, culture, psychological distress, sex

INTRODUCTION Across the globe, sexual assaults and intimate partner violence (IPV) have become a focus of public concern at institutions of higher learning (Kaukenin, 2014; Voth Schrag & Edmond, 2018; Wood et al., 2018). Such IPV continues to reach unprecedented levels and South African feminist researchers such as Dosekun (2013) and Gqola (2007) are concerned because gender-based violence relegates women

1 Acknowledgements: We are indebted to the female students who live in cohabitation and who showed their willingness to share their stories. Our warm appreciation also goes to the Dean of Student Affairs and GMRDC for the permission to ensure that the study is conducted.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: This work is based on research supported by the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa. The opinions expressed and the conclusions arrived at are those of the authors and are not necessarily to be attributed to the NRF. 2 Date of submission 14 April 2019 Date of review outcome 28 November 2019 Date of acceptance 10 March 2020

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36 and constrains their behaviour to regard themselves as second class citizens. In a review report that commissioned the University of KwaZulu-Natal to investigate gender-based violence (GBV) in residences, MacKay and Magwaza (2008) found that more than 2 000 women students were sexually assaulted annually. In most cases, GBV at UKZN is experienced in heterosexual relationships just like at the University of the Western Cape (Clowes et al., 2009). Even outside South Africa, GBV escalated at Australian Universities in which heterosexual women undergraduate students experienced non-consensual sexual contacts owing to drug and alcohol abuse by their intimate partners (Durbach & Grey, 2018). In a survey conducted at one Zimbabwean university in Bulawayo, 49% of women students living in cohabitation reported high incidences of IPV (Svodziwa & Kurete, 2017). In African countries such as Nigeria, Zimbabwe and South Africa, research indicates that due to insufficient provision of hostel accommodation on campuses and high costs of university fees, the majority of women students find themselves living in cohabitation (Aluko, 2011; Mligo & Otieno, 2018; Pengdid & Peltzer, 2016; Svodziwa & Kurete, 2017).

Cohabitation refers to the sexual union between two people who are romantically involved and choose to share housing for a reasonable period before making the formal commitment of marriage (Greenberg, Bruess & Oswalt, 2014; Kasim & Falola, 2017). In this study, cohabitation is contextualised as involving heterosexual students at the universities, which is often precipitated by poverty (Kheswa & Hoho, 2017).

For example, Murudi, Mashau and Ramathuba (2018) found financial constraints due to unemployment of caregivers (for instance, biological parents, aunts or uncles) resulting in Mashamba College’s women students engaging in sex for money.

Furthermore, research indicates that university women students with a history of childhood physical abuse (Barrick, Krebs & Linquist, 2013) and absent fathers (Malhebere, 2015) tend to become comfortable with dating multiple sexual partners and engaging in hook-ups (Black et al., 2019; Kheswa & Mahlalela, 2014) despite being susceptible to IPV. The works by Gould and Ward (2015), Makusha and Richter (2015), and Ratele, Shefer and Clowes (2012) confirm that a father’s absence has a direct impact on the emotional stability, sexual behaviour and cognitive functionality of their daughters. The phenomenon of intergenerational sex (sexual relationships with older men) amongst women university students becomes common because women students would like to see their financial needs met (Masvawure, 2010). Such students may lack autonomy regarding their reproductive rights, and, owing to impaired self-esteem, they are most likely to engage in unsafe sex and become pregnant (Peterson, Carmen & Geher, 2013).

In Hong Kong, more than 46.1% of women undergraduate students reported physical abuse (Chan & Strauss, 2008). Epidemiological evidence shows that due to being submissive and fearful of physical abuse, women students living in cohabitation use condoms infrequently and consequently become exposed to unplanned pregnancies and/or contract sexual transmitted diseases (Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, 2016). Due to the lack in sexual values and self-control, their sexual partners introduce them to substance abuse (Shorey et al., 2014). Owing to socialisation, an alarming number of women students tend to submit to patriarchal norms and tolerate the extradyadic sexual involvements of their male partners (Kheswa & Van Eeden, 2018). No wonder the Central Statistics Office/Zambia, Ministry of Health (Zambia) and ICF International (2014) reported HIV prevalence to be higher among heterosexual women students than among their male counterparts. To confirm the above assertion, at the University of Venda in South Africa, 14% of cohabiting students did not use condoms consistently during sexual acts (Anyanwu, Ter Goon & Tugli, 2013). Ekpenyong and Ekpenyong (2016) reported that women students had to suspend their studies at the University of Ibadan, Adekunle Ajasin University and Olabisi Onabanjo University (all in Nigeria) to avoid discrimination by their peers.

As cohabitation is short-lived as compared to legal marriages (Tesfaye & Jibat, 2014), a potential breakup and infidelity frequently lead to psychological distress and, in turn, impacts negatively on the emotional well-being of women students (Kheswa & Hoho, 2017). In previous quantitative studies, which investigated The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

37 the correlation between emotional abuse and sexual relationships among college students, Vidourek (2017) found that the majority of women students reported low self-esteem. Regarding the causal factors and effects of cohabitation at the universities, Ekpenyong and Ekpenyong (2016) established that women students reported insomnia (i.e. lack of sleep), social withdrawal, anxiety and mood swings. Additionally, due to a lack of dedication to their studies, Tanzanian women students who lived in cohabitation reported poor academic performance (Mligo & Otieno, 2018).

Allen (2017) agrees that due to male dominance in many cultures, women students would be physically beaten, raped and kicked upon touching their partners’ mobile phones. Rather than terminating the relationships or laying charges for IPV and rape, women students would ruminate, apologise, promise not to touch the phones, and perform some domestic chores such as cooking and doing the laundry for their male partners (Coelho, Ribeiro & Valente, 2015). Due to socialised acceptance of the rape myth, an alarming number of victims or survivors of IPV tend not to report it to the authority figures at the universities or to the police (Adams, Mabusela & Dlamini, 2013; Dhlomo et al., 2012). There is a concern amongst feminists and activists that in countries such as Australia, the United States and South Africa, the judicial system is slow in convicting rape perpetrators and recognising the rights of women (Le Roux, 2016; Monchgesang, 2015; Phipps et al., 2018).

Given that female students living in cohabitation experience abuse, there is a need for the university management to implement programmes aimed at addressing gender-violence (Harper et al., 2018; Kamimura et al., 2016). Allen (2017) found that due to a conspiracy of silence, an alarming rate of female students living in cohabitation prefer not to report sexual abuse and other forms of exploitation directed at them. Critics allege that many policies are ambiguous and university staff members serving in disciplinary committees tend to be biased when female students bring their cases of sexual assault (Cantalupo, 2016; Portnoy & Anderson, 2015). It is therefore expected that university management take legal steps to protect the rights of students who experience(d) emotional and sexual abuse on campus (Weiss & Lasky, 2017) and provide psychological services that are accessible to these students (Sabina, Verdiglione & Zadnik, 2017).

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Emersson’s social exchange theory provides an in-depth understanding of why women students live in cohabitation and posits that unsafe sexual practices are common in sexual relationships characterised by gifts or money in exchange for sex (Emersson, 1976). In such relationships, due to financial power that the male partners possess over the female partner, emotional, physical and sexual abuse are likely to be reported by women students (Morrell et al., 2013). In their pursuit of a sense of belonging and identity, women students who have lived with absent fathers and who were reared in non-supportive family environments often fear rejection and are unable to stand up for their human rights (Kgadima, 2017).

Against this background, this study intends to answer the following questions:

(1) How do female students living in cohabitation cope with intimate partner violence?

(2) What are the effects of intimate partner violence on the psychological well-being of female students living in cohabitation?

METHOD Design An inductive, contextual, qualitative research design was employed by using focus group interviews. In focus group interviews, non-response is minimised while the quality of data to be collected is maximised

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38 because all participants tend to share their own experiences (Creswell, 2013). Open-ended, structured interviews were administered to every participant in a private office in the Psychology Building.

Sampling and sample This study opted for the non-probability procedure owing to the sensitivity of the topic. In non-probability sampling, not all the participants in the population stand an equal chance to participate in the study (Babbie, 2015). Thus, the researchers employed purposive sampling. Purposive sampling refers to a procedure in which the participants are selected based on sharing characteristics such as the same culture and similar life experiences (Welman, Kruger & Mitchell, 2015). The authors agree with Shen (2014) that knowledge about dating violence is derived from research conducted abroad; it is clear that even by race, in South Africa, studies on sexual harassment at universities have had limitations. For example, at the University of Zululand (UNIZULU), black women students represented only 20% of participants in Nene’s study (2010). In the Western Cape, white women participants were overrepresented in Steenkamp’s study (2010). It is for this reason that the present study intends to conduct qualitative research among women students experiencing IPV while in cohabitation at one South African institution. It is important to note that the 12 isiXhosa-speaking participants, aged between 19 and 24 years of age, are some of the students receiving counselling and coaching from the programme that addresses gender-based violence at the University of Fort Hare. One of the researchers is a trained champion against GBV and works in that programme under the mentorship of the Dean of Students. As suggested by Creswell (2013), the researchers ensured that the participants shared the same characteristics: they were all full-time students in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities. There were six participants from first-year level, four from second-year level and two from third-year level.

Trustworthiness In pursuit of trustworthiness, the researchers followed four criteria as suggested by Lincoln and Guba (1985), namely: credibility, dependability, confirmability and transferability. To ensure that the study was credible, the researchers’ questions revolved around GBV and cohabitation, and the participants shared the same characteristics. For dependability, the researchers ensured that the research methodology and data analysis are explained thoroughly as suggested by Houghton et al. (2013). Furthermore, de Vos et al. (2011) encourage the researcher to ask the participants the same questions through probing to get clarity. For confirmability, the researchers transcribed the responses verbatim and involved the participants in discussion to avoid bias (Houghton et al., 2013; Krefting, 1991). Furthermore, the researchers did not fabricate the responses. Finally, the researchers ensured transferability by comparing their findings to those of previous scholars (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Ethical considerations Prior to conducting the study, the researchers applied for ethical clearance from the Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre (GMRDC) to safeguard the dignity of the participants. The researchers explained the objectives and the significance of the voluntary participation in the study. Thereafter, the participants gave their informed consent and agreed to be audio-recorded for trustworthiness. None of the participants withdrew from the study although it was time-consuming. To achieve anonymity and confidentiality, participants used pseudonyms. For privacy, the focus group interview was conducted on a weekend in one of the designated laboratory rooms in the Psychology Building, Alice Campus. At the end of the interview, the participants were also debriefed to ensure that they do not judge themselves as inadequate because they showed signs of depression.

Data analysis Tesch’s (1990) method was followed to analyse data qualitatively. After data collection, the researchers listened to the responses, which they had audio-taped. To capture the pattern as suggested by Braun and The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

39 Clarke (2006), the researchers familiarised themselves with the data by listening to verbatim transcripts repeatedly. Thereafter, the researcher grouped similar ideas to identify codes. The codes were further broken down to form categories and themes.

RESULTS Biographical information of the participants Of the 12 participants in this study, six of them indicated that they had been raised by unemployed single parents while four were raised by two parents, and only two lived with relatives prior to pursuing their tertiary education. Furthermore, five of the participants mentioned that they had children during their teen years as compared to the seven participants who had no children.

Categories and themes The categories with themes identified following Tesch’s method of data analysis as conducive to IPV suffered by female students living in cohabitation are abuse, constriction of contraceptive rights, sexual assaults, cultural practices and psychological distress.

Six major categories and two sub-themes emerged from the analysis of interviews.

Abuse When the participants were asked to describe how their sexual partners treat them, it was clear that women students in cohabitation are exposed to emotional abuse and their reproductive rights are constricted Emotional and physical abuse In a patriarchal society where power imbalances between women and men reign, most female students living in cohabitation often terminate friendships with significant others because their sexual partners always suspect them of hooking up with the male counterparts.

He has insisted on my phone’s pin code to access my WhatsApp and Facebook and told me that he disapproves some of my friends since they are well known on campus. He insulted me upon scrolling my phone and found out that I was chatting with my male classmate. [Zowi, aged 19] Nobantu (aged 22) and her boyfriend used to live together. She was quoted as follows regarding how badly she would be beaten by her boyfriend: My boyfriend used to beat me. He will lock the room and play music loud and beat me. When I ask him why is beating me? He would say that his friends told him that I am cheating although I was not cheating.

Ntyebokazi (aged 22) with tears in her eyes, narrated as follows: I remember one day he came and he started kicking me, accusing me of cheating him; like he use to beat me several times and for no reason. He is a violent person. I remember he was even beating me during my pregnancy.

Constrained movements In addition to being controlled regarding friendship formation, another participant highlighted that even in social spaces such as the cafeteria, sports grounds and computer laboratories, her movements have been constrained by her sexual partner’s low regard for others. She mentioned that she is not supposed to mingle with other fellow students.

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I f I had known that my boyfriend was this cruel, I would not have listen to him when he suggested that I should rent my room to come and stay with him. I have stopped playing for the netball team and when we go to watch soccer games, he does not want us to join other students. He has beaten me twice and claimed to assault me if I argue with him. [Ntsiki, aged 20]

Constriction of contraceptive rights This theme relates to constriction of contraceptive rights. For example, upon Thembi discovering that she had missed her periods and that she might be pregnant, she informed her boyfriend. He forced her to terminate the pregnancy. The extract below attests to that.

He told me that he was not ready to be the father, I should abort and he was not serious about our relationship. If not, I should leave his place.

Julia also found out that she was pregnant and decided to terminate pregnancy because she had already noticed that her boyfriend was cheating on her with another other lady and has been controlling her.

I booked at Victoria Hospital when I was 12 weeks pregnant for termination of pregnancy as I was going to be an embarrassment to my family with two children with different fathers. Moreover, I have learnt my lesson, no more cohabitation while still studying because men don’t care about us.

Sexual assaults Sexual coercion Rape at the tertiary institutions is common in cohabiting relationships where women students are financially dependent on their partners. As a result, women students succumb to coerced sex for fear of reprisal. One participant reported that her male partner insisted on having unprotected sex even though she had her periods at the time.

He came late drunk from the tavern and when he got into the room, he grabbed me and penetrate me when I tried to explain that my periods have started, he told me that I had sex with someone while he was gone. [Thembi, aged 19] Gang rape Furthermore, Bibi (aged 22), a second-year student, who stayed outside the campus, cried when relating that her boyfriend, aged 34, brought his friend to their room and she apparently had been drugged and had a threesome. She narrated as follows: It was on Saturday night and we had agreed with my boyfriend that we would go to the Welcome Party of the first years. His friend came with alcohol and videos. They played music on the laptop and after an hour or so, they watched pornography. Because I also drank wine, I can’t recall what happened except waking up in bed naked with my partner and his friend.

Cultural practices Due to the myth that traditionally circumcised males are less prone to contracting STIs, some participants felt that their sexual partners who were circumcised overpowered them. Hence, they refrain from suggesting condoms. Furthermore, rather than to feel rejected and isolated, they succumb to unsafe sex.

He always tells me that he won’t wear a condom because he went to the mountain, and he does not care whether I contract HIV and as a Xhosa man, he doesn’t feel sexually satisfied to sleep with one woman. [Nobantu, aged 22]

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y partner told me that in his culture, men a have the right to dominate. sexually and should he M contract any disease, it would be my promiscuity. [Zowi, aged 19]

Psychological distress It became evident that the participants were not coping and that their psychological well-being was impaired. For instance, Bibi nearly risked her life. ‌ I attempted to commit suicide because the rape ordeal left me thinking that I might have contracted HIV. I was depressed and I drank alcohol because my boyfriend whom I trusted betrayed me.

Neglect of biological children Two participants, who left their children in the care of their single mothers, described how hopeless and helpless they felt because their partners would not allow them to visit home. They were quoted as follows: I was going to be in my sixth month now not seeing my 4-year-old boy because he would refuses to let me go home even on weekends. He would asked me what if I was going to meet my son’s daddy when I went to the village. [Julia, aged 20] I had promised my mother to come home during the Easter holidays since she takes care of my 2-yearold daughter. I failed because Mandla, aged 26, deliberately refused to give me money. He told me that I should stop mentioning my daughter because he has also abandoned his two kids. [Babalwa, aged 19] However, Sizakele, aged 24, a final-year student and a mother of an eight-year-old boy, lives in cohabitation. She expressed the unconditional support and love from her sexual partner of three years as phenomenal. She said: He regards my son as his own. During school holidays and long-weekends, he is the one asking me to request my parents to allow my son visit us. He tells me how fortunate he is to be with me and has promised to marry me.

Substance abuse Amahle (aged 23) has been living in cohabitation for two years and that she was raised by an unemployed single parent, she mentioned substance abuse as a form to cope with psychological distress.

Alcohol helps me to cope with my daily challenges and just to think I have no financial support back home, I am even afraid to report my boyfriend to the university that he abuses me.

Gender-based programmes The majority of the participants highlighted the need for empowerment programmes aimed at equipping female students with skills to prevent IPV and rape when asked to respond to the question: What steps do university female students in cohabitation take against oppression of their human rights? For example, Julia (aged 20), Zowi (aged19), Amahle (aged 23), and Sesi (aged 21) agreed that due to patriarchal structures within the campus, their grievances are not taken into consideration. Thus, some victims suffer in silence and do not report sexual assaults to the university management and the police. In this regard, they suggested that the university should organise rallies, campaigns and workshops against women abuse irrespective of the kinds of sexual relationships they have. Sesi in particular was quoted as follows: The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

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t other universities like Rhodes, Wits and UCT, there are forums for addressing gender inequality and A the management plays a pivotal role in ensuring that the male perpetrators are dealt with.

Thembi mentioned that she could not even go to the police station after her boyfriend raped her because the police officers lack professionalism. She echoed…

My friend told me that she got humiliated by a police officer in front of other patrons by asking her to speak louder when reporting a sexual assault.

DISCUSSION Findings from this study clearly indicate that women students living in cohabitation suffer emotionally owing to IPV. More than half of the participants expressed that their sexual partners would start by accusing them of cheating and then severely punch them with fists. As a demonstration of gender inequality, which emerged as the main driver of oppression of women’s rights, women participants no longer had friends or were not actively involved in group discussions with other students. They highlighted that when living in cohabitation, once their sexual partners return from drinking alcohol, they would insist on checking the phones of their sexual partners to determine if they did not cheat by calling or chatting with other men. This finding aligns with the study that found that the majority of women students living together with their sexual partners illegally are more likely to experience cheating and physical and emotional abuse. Given that some of the participants have children whom they should visit, especially during school holidays, it is clear that they have neglected them. Ricks et al. (2016) noted that in cohabitation, IPV is perpetuated by increased negative communication between couples as a result of spending less time together, especially in situations where men would go to bars and come back home drunk. Drawing from the theoretical framework of this study, Emersson’s (1976) social exchange theory affirms that when women students are financially dependent on their sexual partners they compromise their life and stay in abusive relationships. Hence, some of the participants remained subservient to the demands of their sexual partners such as practising unsafe sex because of cultural precepts attached to traditional male circumcision. When traditionally circumcised men ascribe to the norms of masculinity by forcing women to engage in sexual intercourse, the chances of contracting sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, are higher. In societies which embrace culture, women are bound to be stigmatised should they mention that their sexual partners have infected them with an STI (Fleming et al., 2017). To prove how dangerous unsafe sex is, Chanda et al. (2014) found that a disproportionate number of male students at one college in Lusaka, Zambia reported to have infected women students with STIs. It is of paramount importance to empower women students to be assertive because Ayiga’s (2012) study conducted in Uganda clearly shows that women’s rights to contraceptives or family planning are equated to infidelity by their male partners when they try to negotiate safe sex. In another study, Saha and Saha (2017) noted that, in India, owing to their poor-economic status, college female students had no say over challenging the risky sexual behaviour to which their male partners subjected them.

Another finding relates to gang rape, where one participant confirmed that her male sexual partner, aged 34, brought a friend to their house and raped her following a blackout amnesia. It is a fact that excessive alcohol use could lead to blackout amnesia as it impairs judgement. Blackout amnesia (sometimes referred to as ‘alcohol-induced amnesia’) is a type of forgetfulness in which an individual cannot recall what happened after drinking alcohol (Hingson et al., 2016; Tokuda, Izumi & Zorumski, 2011). This could be the reason women who have been raped do not lay charges. Milhausen et al. (2018), therefore, caution female students to be modest during the initial stages of cohabitation because some of the male partners might be anti-social. In their study among Canadian University female students who were living in cohabitation, a large number of female youths had contracted STIs from strangers. As much as the participants were never asked about their health status for ethical reasons, however, they might have The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

43 contracted HIV or other STIs, such as syphilis and chlamydia, because their male partners would not talk about practising safer sex and had been involved with multiple sexual partners.

Owing to power dynamics, there are participants who were forced to terminate pregnancies. This could be risky and lead to haemorrhage (i.e. heavy bleeding) that can be deleterious to the cervix as cautioned

by Kheswa and Takatshana (2014). No wonder some participants reported impaired psychological wellbeing or psychological distress. Women students emphasised alcohol abuse as a form of coping and, in some instances, they attempted suicides. This affirms that when women have reached the stage of hopelessness, they devalue themselves and life seems to be meaningless for them. Kheswa (2017) is concerned that these women students might have been reared in dysfunctional families characterised by domestic violence; thus, they lack leadership qualities and are unlikely to report anxiety and depressive symptoms. However, one final year student’s relationship was characterised by warmth, emotional connectedness, commitment and passion, which extends to her son because she was never ill-treated by her sexual partner. Instead, her male partner was supportive because he never capitalised on his financial position to suppress her rights to bond with her son. One of the factors could be maturity as compared to other participants who were still in their first year of study and never learnt their lovers’ personalities.

Yan et al. (2010) are of the opinion that women students, especially in their first year of study, should not be easily pressured into premarital sex and being accommodated by their male partners to avoid abuse.

The need to empower female students manifested in their desire to restore their dignity, sense of autonomy and purpose in life. De Wet and Gumbo (2016) agree that cohabitation has the propensity to diminish the future prospects of any women student lacking in emotional maturity and self-esteem. There was thus one women student who regretted having stayed in cohabitation.

CONCLUSION AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY In conclusion, the participants suggested there needs to be involvement of the university management in implementing programmes aimed at destabilising hegemonic masculinity to fight the spread of HIV/AIDS and tyranny brought by gender-inequality in sexual relationships marked by social exchange theory and cultural practices.

Although this study achieved its objectives, there are limitations related to demographics such as the race of the participants, the small sample size (only 12 participants) and the location since the study was confined to only one tertiary institution.

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49 Mutual benefits of an experiential learning community project in South Africa: Perceptual skills development and learning support1 2 Nkhensani Susan Thuketana, University of Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT This paper draws on Kolb’s experiential learning theory. Experiential learning can be used to create and verify knowledge or to analyse truths and belief systems. The experiences of third-year Bachelor of Education (BEd) students and the benefits of stakeholder engagement in the delivery of teacher training are highlighted in this paper. Although learners were the focal point of this community engagement project, both in-service and pre-service teachers benefitted in terms of skills transfer and upskilling. Special emphasis was placed on reading comprehension and the effects of the underdevelopment of perceptual skills on learning. The epistemological theoretical insights in this paper contribute to teaching practice, equipping in-service teachers with the skill to link perceptual skills development to learning. The project made use of participatory action research (PAR) underpinned by Kolb’s interactive learning cycle of active experimentation, reflective observation, concrete experience and abstract conceptualisation. Two hundred and seventeen (217) student teachers, 20 Foundation Phase teachers and 300 learners from one school participated in this project. The results of this community engagement project revealed that community projects are essential in disseminating theoretical knowledge to in-service teachers, and thus, in sharing learning support strategies for children with special needs.12 Keywords: Community engagement, experiential learning; in-service teachers, mutual benefit, perceptual skills development, pre-service teachers: school readiness, teacher development

INTRODUCTION According to the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), which is conducted every five years, 78% of children in South African Grade 4 classes lack reading comprehension skills (Zimmerman & Smit, 2014). Reading comprehension encompasses skills such as phonological awareness, word decoding, vocabulary, spelling, and handwriting, which are all considered prerequisites for children to be able to read and understand written text (Zimmerman & Smit, 2014; Nel, 2011). Children whose reading comprehension competency is not well developed have difficulty excelling academically (McClelland, Pitt & Stein, 2015) and being adept professionals (Ness, 2016). In this regard, Kivunja (2015) reiterates that 1 There was no competing interest that may have induced the author to write this article. However, the paper reports on the work funded by the Department of Higher Education’s Scholarship of teaching and learning programme.

2 Date of submission 30 May 2019 Date of review outcome 2 September 2019 Date of acceptance 3 March 2020

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50 the world of the 21st century requires a population with information, literacy, social and communication skills for survival.

In support of the above, Wickramasinghe et al. (2019) state that countries everywhere require an accountable citizenry – that is, they must be able to make transparent decisions, among others. It is evident that a workforce without these core skills would remain underprivileged, which would be detrimental to national progress. In many African countries, children’s ability to acquire reading comprehension skills that are necessary for progress at schools is impeded by a number of factors, most notably socioeconomic factors, a lack of conducive and stimulating environments, and structured developmental opportunities for them (Murray-Kolb et al., 2014).

The interaction of the realities in a South African context results in most children in the Foundation Phase starting school without the necessary competencies to be able to learn, therefore being labelled as children with learning difficulties. Cortiella and Horowits (2014) refute this claim and state that learning difficulty is neurological in origin, as children with learning difficulties struggle to store, process, and retrieve information as required. Nevertheless, the above authors agree that children from a disadvantaged environment are at risk and call for early identification of specific learning difficulties and support.

In South Africa’s inclusive classrooms, consisting of children with diverse cognitive abilities, Donohue and Bornman (2015) and Forlin (2010) found that teacher attitudes impacted on the learning abilities of learners with special needs. They recommended a holistic assessment of the environment, including children’s cognitive abilities, to garner the support needed. Although the underdevelopment of perceptual skills greatly affects reading comprehension in children, the skill is underrepresented in research.

The South African school curriculum prescribed in the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS) states that children in schools should be able to read and write fluently at the end of Grade 3 (Department of Education, 2009). However, Grilli et al. (2016) point out a worrying factor: according to the PIRLS, children in Grade 4 still have not acquired reading comprehension skills. Spaull (2015) investigated teacher content knowledge and the unavailability of resources in schools in order to determine real factors contributing to learners’ inability to develop reading comprehension skills. The findings confirm that teachers’ poor content knowledge is a causal factor and recommend the retraining of in-service teachers, among other things. However, retraining of teachers may not be practicable. It is from this perspective that authors such as Thompson et al. (2013) recommend an upskilling and reskilling approach to deal with in-service teachers’ inadequate skills and knowledge.

This paper reports on a community project implementing such an approach with pre-service teachers in their third-year teacher training programme. The aim was twofold: firstly, to offer students hands-on experience in assessing perceptual skills development in children and the effects of the underdevelopment thereof, focusing specifically on reading comprehension; secondly, to investigate in-service teachers’ knowledge of perceptual development and their understanding of the effect of underdevelopment of these skills when learning. The process lent itself to sharing theoretical knowledge with in-service school teachers. The interface between in-service and pre-service teachers does not only have the potential to initiate a scientific debate on the insufficient knowledge of in-service school teachers but may also (among other things) influence the way teachers support learners with learning difficulties in their classrooms.

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Having identified the factors impacting reading comprehension, this section discusses the development of perceptual skills and then merges these skills to highlight the effect of a lack of such skills on reading comprehension. Perceptual skills underlie a child’s ability to read, write, learn and behave appropriately.

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51 The brain plays a key role in the development of perceptual skills, which is the process of taking in and processing visual and auditory information and responding accordingly (Durso, Rawson & Girotto, 2017). Grossman, a neuroscientist (2015), points out that brain injury (as well as the side of the brain injured) determine, among other things, the type of perceptual skill that is affected in children. This paper does not discuss brain functioning in depth, but concentrates on the development of perceptual skills and the effect it has on learning.

The literature reports on many types of perceptual skills, such as visual memory, figure-ground discrimination, and form constancy and visual discrimination (Joubert, Bester & Meyer, 2008). What sets these apart is their manifestation during learning. In his study, Goswami (2015) reports that while investigating skills such as visual processing and offering early intervention for children with special needs may improve their reading ability and quality of life, he questions the authenticity of the research results of many studies.

Goswami (2015) recommends a combination of longitudinal studies, training of teachers and testing cognitive systems of children in order to improve the credibility of the results. Goswami (2015) also acknowledges the absence of studies reporting on factors affecting reading comprehension in typically developing children. In his argument, he states that the lack of a base to work from renders results of studies of children with special needs obsolete. In different circumstances, Karmiloff-Smith (2018) argues that genes and environmental factors also contribute to developmental disorders and the inability to read.

With this in mind, the following section discusses the skills required for reading comprehension.

In a study on the relationship between phonological awareness, Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) and reading, Song et al. (2016) found phonological awareness and an inability to decode words to affect reading comprehension. Song et al. (2016) opine that a holistic assessment, including cognitive functions required for reading comprehension, should be conducted before stating that this relationship was an outright cause. In a longitudinal study, van Steensel et al. (2016) analysed the effects of word decoding and metacognitive knowledge on reading comprehension for children in Grade 7. These authors found there was no significant effect on their literacy skills; however, they found the reading comprehension of Grade 9 learners to be below proficiency when prerequisite skills were underdeveloped. As these results were inconclusive, the authors recommended that multi-samples with a clear scientific basis must be provided to present clear causes of reading comprehension difficulties. Nevertheless, the underdevelopment of the necessary skills was assumed to be responsible for affecting reading comprehension.

In the multilingual South African context, many children in the Foundation Phase are taught in mother-tongue, but switch to English (which is their second or third language) in Grade 4 (Evans & Nthulana, 2018).

Teachers in these schools use a translanguaging approach to teaching. While Makalela (2015) argues that multilingualism exacerbates reading comprehension challenges in children, Roskos and Newman (2014) believe that it has dire consequences for children with limited second language proficiency. The research was carried out involving children between the ages of 10 and 14 years in the Intermediate Phase. Regarding the research conducted with children in this age group, Suggate (2016) argues that phonetic awareness interventions are mostly beneficial for younger children.

Indeed, it is worth noting, as Silva and Cain (2015) reiterate, that early identification of the prerequisite skills may be beneficial for children in the Foundation Phase. Furthermore, the above authors hold that the level of these skills depends on the availability of teachers with professional competency to identify any lack of the required skills and systematically planned remedial strategies. In addition, Nel (2011) states that it cannot be disputed that the teachers will also need to have the capability to differentiate the curriculum for the benefit of children with heterogeneous abilities. Winch (2014) is yet another author who highlights the significance of early screening and intermediation. In short, it cannot be disputed that the early identification of deficiencies and the continuous assessment and remediation of literacy abilities are some of the strategies to improve reading comprehension.

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52 The dearth of teacher skills to address reading comprehension issues in a diverse South African context has long been a matter of concern. Zimmerman and Smit (2014) argue that the lack of teacher training contributes to illiteracy and the social exclusion of many South African citizens; likewise, Maringe and Moletsane (2015) note that the lack of teacher skills to remedy reading comprehension challenges perpetuates children’s inability to read and write as adults.

Zimmerman and Smit (2014) also consider important that the skills needed for reading are taught during children’s early education years. A longitudinal study conducted on children between four and six years of age confirmed improved reading comprehension when literacy skills were assessed and remedied in children’s Foundation Phase years (Silva & Cain, 2015; Kendeou et al., 2009). Additionally, Lepola et al. (2016) found that reading literacy contributed to reading fluency, and, therefore, to reading comprehension, in children whose lack of prerequisite skills was identified early in their school years. Nel (2011) postulates the importance of using multi-theories and assessment strategies to develop a functional model to remedy challenges associated with reading comprehension.

It is because of teachers’ inability to identify the underdevelopment of perceptual skills and to understand its effect on learning that the community engagement project was initiated. Within the abovementioned context, the researcher sees Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) as key collaborators in continuously engaging student teachers in community service projects aimed at upskilling in-service teachers to improve teaching and learning. Soini, Piettarinen and Pyhalto (2016) also support continuous training for inservice teachers to enable them to keep up with renewed demands in their classrooms. The collaboration will not only produce teachers that are ‘fit for purpose’ (Richmond, 2017), but also reduce discrepancies between learners’ needs and the training that pre-service teachers receive.

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING AS THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Experiential learning is conceptualised differently in the academic literature. Roodhouse and Mumford (2010) call it work-based learning, Peach and Matthews (2011) and Sharlanova (2004) conceptualise it as Work Integrated Learning (WIL), and Kolb (2014) calls it experiential learning (EL). What seems common among these authors is that the strategy aims to integrate theory and practice for students in different fields of study, thereby enhancing workforce competency. Ferns, Campbell and Zegwaard (2014) declare the strategy to be the future of learning, as it offers students opportunities to work alongside experienced staff, and to draw on the economic, cultural, environmental and social practices of those communities. This paper was premised on Kolb’s experiential learning (EL) as the conceptual framework.

According to Kolb (2014), EL is widely applied in beginner teacher education to provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to learn the principles of the teaching profession in real-life school settings. In this particular case, the key consideration is co-sharing of experiences between pre- and in-service teachers to identify the underdevelopment of perceptual skills in children and the effect thereof.

The ultimate aim of this community engagement project was the mutual benefit to all participating stakeholders. The project was explicitly designed to support practical understanding of the effects of the underdevelopment of perceptual skills on learning at Foundation Phase level. It was assumed that student teachers would benefit by practically learning how to assess perceptual skills development in reallife contexts. Furthermore, exposure of student teachers to research-based intervention strategies would support children experiencing barriers to learning in inclusive classes which could benefit teachers at school.

A baseline assessment was conducted with Foundation Phase teachers at school to establish their understanding of the impact of the underdevelopment of perceptual skills on reading comprehension skills.

The body of this paper will critically examine the extent to which the expected mutual benefit of the WIL

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53 project was achieved. The results of this scrutiny will contribute to future practice and the improvement of both community engagement projects and teacher training programmes.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ON EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING The theoretical background underpinning this paper is Kolb’s experiential learning (EL) theory (Kolb, 1984). The theory suggests that learning is not linear but cyclical – a ‘process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience’ (1984: 38). Authors differ with regard to the theoretical base of Kolb’s theoretical framework. In 1993 already, Hopkins (1993: 48) asked: ‘How can we know what experiential learning is when we do not have a coherent theory of its main constitutive component experience?’ In support, Austin and Rust (2015) criticised EL for its lack of theoretical foundation. On the other hand, authors such as Scogin et al. (2017) hold the theory in high esteem for its ‘firm theoretical base’. Nevertheless, these authors are firmly grounded in Kolb’s (1984: 41) statement that ‘[k]nowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience’.

Kolb’s EL theory posits that individuals/children learn differently and that they benefit optimally when a learning style compatible with their learning needs is employed. Furthermore, the theory holds that individuals/children are either visual, auditory or kinesthetic learners. Willingham, Hughes and Dobolyi (2015) dispute these claims and state that until relevant evidence is presented, this claim still lacks validity.

They further argue that the learning ability and style of children in different classrooms have yet to be distinguished for these claims to be accepted.

It is from the perspective above and the interactive learning styles, encompassing concrete experience, reflective observation, active experimentation and abstract conceptualisation, that EL was selected as the lens through which this community project was conceptualised. This paper does not aim to ascertain which of the learning styles is better than the other, but to illustrate the outcomes of socially and culturally based practical experiences in decontextualising learning and pedagogy. Furthermore, although it is not the aim of this paper to develop theories through which community projects may be conceptualised, it may prompt debate in this regard.

The reality is that schools in many countries, including in South Africa, comprise linguistically, culturally, cognitively and socially diverse learners (Alexander, 2016). Hence, the preparedness of student teachers for the envisaged realities is key. Since this project aims to benefit all stakeholders, no attempt will be made to demarcate who benefited the most or the least from this stakeholder involvement.

In this community project, student teachers were exposed to a concrete experience where they assessed perceptual skills development hands on while in-service teachers were watching. This stage was abstract for in-service teachers and is called reflexive observation, in the sense that they begin to link the underdevelopment of perceptual skills to the learning difficulties that learners present in class. It was also during this stage that students and in-service teachers met to discuss assessment results and to challenge perceptions regarding perceptual development. As teachers watched the student teachers performing the exercises, they started planning for the exercises that they would conduct with the excluded learners.

In this cyclic and iterative process, students and teachers began to form an idea of perceptual skills development. In Kolb’s theory (1984), this stage is called ‘abstract conceptualisation’.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS The research questions below were posed at the beginning of the research project. The first question was aimed at directing the project to ascertain whether the mutual benefits were harnessed by all participants.

The second question was posed in focus groups interviews during the baseline assessment to both pre- and

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54 in-service teachers. For in-service teachers, it was meant to assess their comprehension of perceptual skills development and how it affects learning. Whereas, for pre-service teachers, it was meant to verify the understanding of theoretical knowledge learned in class, to provide an assessment platform for perceptual skills development and to share the skill with in-service teachers.

• What are the benefits derived from stakeholder involvement in community projects conducted with student teachers studying a Learning Support module?

• How does the underdevelopment of perceptual skills affect reading comprehension in children in the Foundation Phase?

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Qualitative research, using a participatory action research approach, was employed in this project.

This research design was premised on Paulo Freire’s (1998) view that reflection without view is sheer verbalism. The idea is that reflection by teachers at the school and by student teachers would result in mutual enrichment of the teaching experience. According to Morales (2016) and Alexander (2016), reflection is part of participatory action research, and community participation reduces inequalities and improves peoples’ lives.

Research design: Participatory action research (PAR) An interpretivist paradigm was used as proposed by Creswell (2013) which involved conducting research engaging in-service teachers’ views regarding their understanding of perceptual skills development. These detailed responses were collected and analysed. The co-construction and co-sharing of assessment strategies between pre- and in-service teachers were developed during the research project. PAR characterised by the collaboration of the researchers, community-based organisations and the ability to appraise the entire research process (Morales, 2016). Most importantly, the roles of the different participants in the research process was clearly designated, and the idea was to carefully determine whether the intended outcomes were reached or not.

Mayan et al. (2016) opine that PAR bridges the gap between theory and practice through stakeholder participation. They further state that the process is not linear, but involves a cyclical and systematic method of planning, taking action, observing, evaluating and critically reflecting prior to planning the next cycle of the project. In this study, the process was aimed at integrating new insights into participating in-service teachers’ knowledge of the effect of the underdevelopment of perceptual skills on learning.

Selection of research sites and participants A school was purposefully selected as the unit of analysis for this community project. The criteria for inclusion were, firstly, that the school had to be located in a semi-rural area, as factors related to the socioeconomic status of communities (among others) affect perceptual skills development. Secondly, the school had to be close to the university because of the cost of transporting the participating students. Thirdly, learners at the school had come from diverse economic and cultural backgrounds. Hence it was assumed that learners who would avail themselves would have varied levels of perceptual skills development.

Participants consisted of 217 student teachers clustered into 10 groups, 20 in-service teachers, nine Foundation Phase classes with between 26 to 35 learners, the lecturer of the module that the pre-service teachers were enrolled for as the researcher and the facilitator of the research process, and two research assistants. Pre-service teachers were expected to both provide resources and use the theoretical knowledge learned in class to assess perceptual skills development from learners at the schools on a weekly basis.

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55 Each student was allocated two learners. Twenty learners (20) were excluded from participating in student assessments. However, since assessments were play based, the learners were allocated to the research assistants, who used other resources than those used by student teachers to assess the learners included in the project. The excluded learners were deliberately left under the impression that they were doing the same assessments as the assessed learners. The reason for excluding 20 learners from the initial assessment with student teachers was that in-service teachers could then use these learners to assess perceptual skills development after concrete observation of student teachers’ assessments. In-service teachers’ assessments were facilitated by the researcher after the community project had been concluded.

Data collection strategies Strategies for data collection as discussed by Fusch and Ness (2015) were used in this community engagement project. The project commenced with baseline semi-structured focus group interviews with teachers at the school to ascertain how they perceived perceptual skills development and its effects on learning. Subsequently, assessments were conducted by student teachers, with teachers at the school observing, and both groups making notes in their reflective journals. After the sessions, pre-service and post-service teachers met to discuss the findings of assessments conducted and to link perceptual skills to learning difficulties whenever necessary.

Focus group interviews Two sets of focus group interviews comprising 20 teachers from the Foundation Phase (Grades 1-3) were conducted using a research schedule with five questions. The initial focus-group baseline assessment with the teachers took place at the school and ran for an hour. The second focus group interview with in-service teachers took place at the school after the project had ended to establish the benefit of the project to the participating teachers.

Learner assessments The assessments of learners ran for 11 consecutive weeks, for an hour at a time. The assessments were conducted at the schools and teachers were expected to observe how student teachers conducted the assessments. Both the teachers and the student teachers recorded the findings of the assessments in reflective journals provided by the researcher. Following the weekly assessments, a meeting was held between class teachers and student teachers to discuss the findings of the assessments. The resources that students made were used on a weekly basis to conduct assessments and exercises aiming to improve the underdeveloped perceptual skills in children and linking the skills to learning difficulties, particularly reading comprehension in this case.

According to Joubert, Bester and Meyer (2008), a psycholinguistic view incorporating the convergence of perceptual skills and language development was key to identifying points of intervention. Holistic observations, including the inability of children to make decisions, were made for the purpose of suggesting interventions in this community engagement project (Thuketana & Lieshof, 2018).

After the 11 weeks, a follow-up focus group interview was conducted with teachers at the school. The aims were, firstly, to ascertain whether the teachers’ conceptualisation of perceptual skills and how their underdevelopment manifested in learning had improved, and, secondly, to determine whether teachers had mastered the skill of using the resources to assess perceptual skills development and to identify its effect on learning.

To follow up the focus group interviews with in-service teachers, the researcher randomly assigned two learners to the teachers at the school from those excluded from students’ assessments. Each teacher was expected to assess and record their findings, and to present for discussion with the lecturer/project The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

56 coordinator the identified learning barriers/difficulties identified and associated with perceptual skills development in the allocated learners.

Focus group interviews with pre-service teachers After every visit to the school, reflections were submitted to the lecturer by pre-service teachers. At the end of the assessment period, focus group interviews were conducted with student teachers to ascertain the gains from the community project conducted at the school.

Photographs The consent of the parents and the assent of the learners were obtained, and student teachers were encouraged to take photographs of the perceptual skills assessment exercises conducted using the resources they had provided. The photographs were used to present the project at the University Social Responsibility (USR) week where all community engagement projects of the University were showcased. In order to comply with the ethical rules of the study, learners’ faces were not revealed.

Ethical considerations Permission to conduct the research project was issued as part of the module requirement for community engagement at the University of Pretoria. Ethical clearance from the ethics committee and permission from the dean were sought and provided. The ethical clearance and permission were issued on condition that the data would be handled with confidentiality, including the identities of all participants. Furthermore, the data would be safely stored in the Department of Early Childhood Education for a duration of 15 years.

Data analysis The saturated data collected were transcribed, coded, categorised and inductively hand analysed according to the emerging themes as identified by Gunawan (2015) and Saldana (2015) from the baseline focus group interviews, observing in-service teachers assessing learners and the reflections of data sets captured in research journals by both in- and pre-service teachers. Descriptive data analysis, as elucidated by Nowell et al. (2017), is incorporated in this paper. Sutton and Austin (2015) and Mackenzie et al. (2012) indicate as limitation a tendency by researchers to exclude parts of data from different stages in PAR for the purpose of steering the findings to their advantage. Furthermore, Mackenzie et al. (2012) opine as a limitation the time aspect in PAR. However, this paper presents empirical data as captured from different data sets and sources by means of the services of research assistants to analyse the data. The richness and accuracy of the data presented enhanced the trustworthiness at the end of the project.

Trustworthiness The interpreted data from different data sources were triangulated and member-checking was conducted (Gunawan, 2015) with the help of the research assistants. The credibility and conformability of the data were ensured in this project. Consequently, the data collected guaranteed reliability in answering the research questions.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS The findings and discussions below are presented according to the research questions asked, keeping in mind the results of in-service teachers’ baseline interviews, and the observations of and reflections on all the participants.

In-service teachers’ baseline interviews The results of the baseline focus group interviews with in-service teachers from the school varied considerably. The teachers’ conceptualisation of perceptual skills development was vague as stated by The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

57 Donohue and Bornman (2015), Forlin (2010), Spaull (2015) and they were, therefore, unable to identify its manifestation during learning (Lepola et al., 2016; McClelland et al., 2015). Three teachers explained the concept as follows:

Perceptual skills are children’s understanding of the content that is taught in the classroom.

Perceptual skills are the skills that children need to have to be able to understand teachers in the classroom.

Perceptual skills are learners’ ability to explain what is taught in the class.

Although in-service teachers were of the view that learners with learning difficulties such as difficulties related to reading, writing and language comprehension were found in different classes, they could not link these difficulties with the underdevelopment of perceptual skills (Song et al., 2016). One of the teachers said, I ended up thinking the struggling learners were acting or were attention seekers as I did all I could to support them but they could not improve.

Interestingly, during the active experimentation phase, teachers could ascribe learning difficulties in children to the underdevelopment of specific perceptual skills. At the end of the project, the teachers had a clear understanding of the concept and how it manifests in learning. Furthermore, they were able to use the resources that students provided to assess learners and conduct exercises to improve perceptual skills development.

The in-service teachers’ attainment of the skill to identify the underdevelopment of perceptual skills and assign the effect to a specific learning difficulty was confirmed during the observation and discussion stage.

The teachers could use the relevant resources and associate learning issues to the underdevelopment of specific perceptual skills.

Of the 20 learners assessed by in-service teachers, five had one or a combination of two perceptual skills difficulties. Five learners battled with fine motor skills and had difficulties with handwriting. Six learners struggled with visual discrimination, form constancy and visual analysis, and synthesis. The learners struggled with b/d, n/u, f/t confusion, which affected sound and word recognition. Three of the learners also experienced difficulty with visual analysis and synthesis: they would see the word ‘cat’ and read it as ‘dog’. Two of these learners also had trouble segmenting words and joining them, e.g. bed – b-e-d and dog – d-o-g. It was interesting to note that five of the children discussed above struggled with reading, writing and had reading comprehension issues. This supports the assumption that the underdevelopment of perceptual skills affects reading comprehension in children (Lepola et al., 2016).

Pre-service teachers’ reflections Time was an issue during the community project (Mackenzie et al., 2012), as students only had 11 weeks to conduct assessments at school. However, they were able to apply theoretical knowledge taught in class, carry out the assessments and discover hands on the influence that the underdevelopment of perceptual skills has on learning. The theoretical background allowed pre-service teachers to plan for the community project and prepared them for the forthcoming responsibility as school teachers (Ferns et al., 2014). Remarkably, pre-service teachers could pin down the relationship between the underdevelopment of specific perceptual skills and reading comprehension (Kolb, 2014). As envisaged, the research-based strategies were transferred to in-service teachers at the school. During the discussions with in-service The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

58 teachers, it was confirmed how learning difficulty was associated with the perceptual skills identified during assessment. One of the student teachers mentioned that It is interesting to link the theory that was taught in class to the real-life situation of learners with learning difficulties.

In-service teacher’s interviews at the end of the project A clear understanding of perceptual skills development was established following the participation of in-service teachers in assessments and interventions conducted by student teachers. In this regard, one teacher said,

Ah, this is why this learner has a problem with reading.

At the end of the community project, in-service teachers were able to assess the learners and use the resources that students had provided to give learners exercises to facilitate the development of perceptual skills. Interestingly, at the end of the community engagement project, the principal of the school realised the benefits the project had brought to the school. The principal said: We have many problems presented by learners with learning difficulties. Some become frustrated, drop out of school and begin traumatising the communities. If universities could share with us strategies to help, it would help us understand children’s learning challenges and offer the support they need.

As a result of children’s poor socioeconomic backgrounds, Cortiella and Horowits (2014) and MurrayKolb et al. (2014) observe that many parents from these poor socioeconomic environments cannot afford the psychological and physiotherapeutic support that children need. The principal asked if the lecturer could arrange with students from the university studying the relevant modules to follow up the assessments with interventions. Unfortunately, this was not possible, as in South Africa students may not practise until they are registered with the Health Professionals Council (HPC). However, this should not deter universities from conducting community engagement projects in the future but should motivate them to act as anchor institutions and upskill teachers to the benefit of underprivileged communities.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS In conclusion, the findings of the community project presented in this study confirm that in a South African context where skills shortages and teacher training issues are continuously under investigation, EL can be used as a skill-transfer strategy for in-service teachers in schools. Education is a societal matter. Therefore, combined efforts by multiple sectors to address the challenges in schools may be of mutual benefit to all stakeholders and may improve the sustainability of the intervention strategies applied. Based on the contention that the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SOTL) encompasses issues of discovery, integration, practice and teaching, this paper recommends that HEIs conduct community engagement projects to address skills shortage and to benefit schools in need.

This research paper described one collaborative effective strategy to upskill teachers in schools and to assist learners with learning difficulties due to perceptual development, to improve reading comprehension and to enhance implementation of the prescribed curriculum. Significantly, not only did the school benefit from the skills transfer predicted, but each of the 10 groups of students donated the boxes of resources to each class teacher who had participated, thus enabling the teachers to continue assessing the underdevelopment of perceptual skills in learners in their classrooms long after the project had been completed.

There is a strong case in South Africa to come up with strategies to upskill in-service teachers’ pedagogic and content knowledge against the backdrop of the skills required to teach children on a spectrum of

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59 abilities. This study found mutual benefit in the collaboration between in-service and pre-service teachers and recommends that HEIs collaborate with schools to share research-based strategies and identify teacher support needs for the benefit of learners in schools. It is hoped that the findings inform policy and practice on teacher requirements for improving learner outcomes. The study recommends that follow-up studies are conducted in deep rural areas to determine if socioeconomic factors and low literacy levels of parents contribute to the underdevelopment of perceptual skills. Furthermore, the study recommends that parents should be involved and trained in facilitating the identification of the learning difficulties that children experience, and that parents should work with schools to outsource relevant support from the Department of Basic Education.

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63 School-based professional development interventions: The effects of a lesson study approach for mathematics teachers1  David Maleho Letloenyane, University of the Free State, South Africa Loyiso Currell Jita, University of the Free State, South Africa

ABSTRACT School-based professional development interventions are regarded as one of the most efficient ways to facilitate teacher learning. However, the available evidence supporting their effectiveness is limited.

This paper assesses and seeks to understand the effects of a school-based professional development intervention that uses Lesson Study to foster improvements in the teaching and learning of primary and secondary school mathematics. Retrospective pre-testing and semi-structured interviews reveal that teachers perceive changes in their curriculum decisions and instructional practices after participating in the intervention. Furthermore, the findings suggest that collaboration, peer observation and critical reflection are essential components in assisting teachers with the selection and implementation of effective teaching strategies. The findings suggest that school-based professional development interventions can be effective in improving teachers’ instructional practices and curriculum decisions. The authors therefore recommend a shift towards more situated, collaborative and school-based professional development approaches for teachers.1 Keywords: school-based professional development, instructional practices, curriculum decisions, lesson study, communities of practice

INTRODUCTION Professional development (PD) is often used in many countries, including South Africa, as a means of improving the quality of teaching and learning. Teachers are exposed to a variety of PD interventions that may take the form of seminars, workshops and conferences. Although these PD approaches are favoured by many in-service training providers, they are often criticised for being incoherent, short and sporadic encounters that do not address the fundamental challenges related to real classroom change (DarlingHammond & Richardson, 2009). Researchers thus argue that PD interventions should address classroom practice and student achievement more directly if they are to be successful (Desimone, 2009).

It is thus not surprising that South Africa has also experimented with a variety of approaches to PD over the years, but very few of them seem to have made a substantial impact on the classroom practices of many teachers across the country (Botha, 2012). It is in the context of this diversity and multiplicity of innovations 1 Date of submission 12 June 2019 Date of review outcome 16 September 2019 Date of acceptance 13 March 2020

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64 around PD that one local university adopted Lesson Study as a vehicle to help mathematics teachers reconfigure their classroom practices. Amongst other formulations, Lesson Study can be considered to be a school-based professional development (SBPD) approach where teachers work collaboratively to plan, implement, and reflect on lessons designed to improve student learning on a particular topic (Lewis, 2009). Whether this latest innovation will succeed or not remains an open question at this stage.

This paper seeks to determine whether teachers from the Free State province changed their curriculum decisions and instructional practices after participating in the activities of Lesson Study, which include research and common planning; teaching and peer observation; and post-observation group reflection.

The authors also assess how teaching practice is changed as a result of participating in the community of practice (CoP) and then attempt to identify aspects of the CoP that are responsible for the perceived changes in practice. Instructional practices are specific practices that instigate and support efficient and effective classroom interaction with a view to enhance learners’ conceptual understanding (Schulman, 2016).

Effective instructional practice has to do with the quality of content presented and the manner in which it is presented (pedagogy). Curriculum decisions involve the conceptualisation, planning, implementing and evaluation of curricula (Svanes & Klette, 2018) and in this specific case, mathematics curricula. We specifically seek to assess and understand the effects of a school-based intervention programme that uses Lesson Study on the mathematics teachers, by answering the following questions:

1. What are the effects of Lesson Study on teachers’ curriculum decisions?

2. What are the effects of Lesson Study on teachers’ instructional practices?

3. How can these effects, or lack thereof, be understood?

REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE The school as a site for professional development Numerous PD interventions occur outside the school and while some of them have merit, many questions have often been asked regarding their ability to initiate and sustain changes in teachers’ classroom practices. This is because many of these interventions do not seem to address the challenges faced by teachers in their day-to-day teaching and learning of mathematics for example. Consequently, there is a call for researchers and developers to look at schools as possible sites for PD. This call stems from the general concerns with the so-called ‘one size fits all’ type of PD interventions that occurs mostly in seminars, workshops and conferences (De Clercq & Phiri, 2013). The argument is that the school is the context in which most of the teacher’s work occurs, and, therefore, it makes sense that teacher learning should also be deliberately structured to occur within a similar context and space.

SBPD interventions may take many forms: teacher coaching or mentoring, critical friends (knowledgeable teachers who advise on issues of teaching and learning), collaborative action research, COP and teacher clusters, to name but a few. In this context, Vescio, Ross and Adams (2008) explain that these SBPD approaches occur through the formation of professional learning communities (PLCs). Lesson Study therefore represents one form of PLCs in that the teachers who constitute a Lesson Study group become a community who are brought together by the goal of seeking to make changes to their instructional practices. When such PLCs involve teachers in one or more schools, they become another example of a SBPD. Thus, in this paper, we use the terms SBPDs and PLCs interchangeably. Jita, Maree and Ndlalane (2008) contends that the mere formation of these PLCs does not necessarily lead to more effective teaching, and that there are some preconditions that have to be taken into account. The main focus of the PLCs should be to address teacher performance with a view to improve student achievement (Jita et al., 2008).

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65 Communities of practice One feature that seems to stand out in most SBPD interventions is their ability to create platforms where teachers can collaborate effectively. In fact, numerous researchers posit that SBPD interventions improve teaching and learning by promoting collaboration and reflective dialogue between teachers (DarlingHammond & Richardson, 2009; Desimone, 2009; Saunders, Goldberg & Gallimore, 2009). This collaboration between teachers approximates what Wenger, McDermott and Snyder (2002) describe as CoPs. A CoP describes a situation where people come together both to share a problem, a concern or their enthusiasm on a certain topic and to improve their expertise and knowledge through frequent and deliberate interaction (Wenger et al., 2002). Therefore, Lesson Study in our case represents a form of CoP where teachers work together to enhance teaching and learning by focusing on the complexities of classroom instruction.

The problem While the literature on CoPs is encouraging, Saunders et al. (2009) suggest that there is a need to pause and reconsider. Despite the compelling logic of PLC’s benefits regarding teaching and learning, the available evidence is too limited to make strong inferences regarding their effectiveness. There are, however, a few promising examples. Andrews and Lewis (2007) found that learning in professional communities not only enhances teachers’ knowledge but that their classroom work is also affected.

Cordingley, Bell, Evans and Firth (2005) agree that collaborative learning within communities lessens teachers’ anxiety about being observed and, consequently, that teachers show a commitment to changing their practices and trying out new things. The results of the two studies indicate that CoPs can have positive effects on teachers’ practices.

On the other hand, Bryk, Camburn and Louis (1999) argue that instead of promoting change in classroom practice, some of the communities may emphasise conserving the current ones. This may be brought about by power relations where experienced teachers dominate the community and they resist change based on their past experiences. Furthermore, Vescio et al. (2008) note that most studies concerning CoPs indicate changes in teachers’ practices but do not specify how teaching practice is changed as a result of participating in the professional community. Part of the reason is that most of these studies do not present data on pre-intervention practices, and, as a result, the claims that they make regarding teacher changes are somewhat weakened. Additionally, Botha (2012) notes that there is no research-based evidence in South Africa pointing to the effects of CoPs on teaching and learning. This is surprising considering the recent efforts of the Department of Basic Education (DBE) to improve teaching and learning by encouraging the formation of functional CoPs in schools. There is, therefore, a need to study what and how teachers learn in CoPs, and to understand the kinds of conditions and knowledge that instigate changes in teachers’ classroom practice. This is essential, in part because this knowledge will enable policy makers and PD providers to make informed decisions regarding appropriate SBPD initiatives.

This study uses teacher perceptions to assess the degree of change, if any, in their instructional practices and curriculum decisions as a result of participating in a Lesson Study intervention over a period of between six and12 months.

FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY Situated learning and Lesson Study Whenever teachers are involved in collective inquiry that involves their content knowledge and teaching, the collaborative spaces created provide an effective and efficient form of experiential learning, which fosters the adoption of new instructional practices (Desimone, 2009). If professional learning takes place in the context in which it is applied, it resembles situated learning as described by Lave and Wenger (1990) where learning occurs by participation in a CoP (Wenger et al., 2002).

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66 Lesson Study is premised on the idea that teachers will likely alter and improve their classroom practices by observing other teachers’ lessons and critiquing those lessons in a natural setting such as a classroom (Burghes & Robinson, 2010). The three stages of lesson study, which involve research and common planning, teaching and peer observation, and post-observation group reflection, are critical for fostering change in teachers’ instructional practices and curriculum decisions.

At the research and common planning stage, the goal of the intervention is set and clarified. The lesson study group collaboratively chooses a research theme to work on during the intervention, and it plans a series of lessons and chooses one research lesson to be presented (Ono & Ferreira, 2010). The teaching and peer observation stage involves the presentation of the planned research lesson by one teacher while other members of the group observe the lesson presentation (Lewis, 2009). The observations focus on the students’ learning and their engagement in the lesson (Puchner & Taylor, 2004). In the post-observation group reflection stage, the group comes together after the presentation of the lesson to discuss their lesson observations, including what they identified as strong and weak points of the lesson in terms of learner engagement.

Collaboration, observation and reflection One of the key features of lesson study is collaboration, which allows teachers to undertake action research with the intention of improving instruction (Ono & Ferreira, 2010). The presence of other teachers observing the lesson provides an opportunity to observe learning without the burden of teaching. Teachers are required to be reflective practitioners; hence numerous opportunities for reflection are required to enhance teachers’ capacity for critical reflection (Suh & Fulginiti, 2012). Lesson Study affords the opportunity to collaborate, observe and reflect with other teachers. Therefore, Lesson Study was considered to be an efficient vehicle for supporting teacher change in terms of instructional practices and curriculum decisions.

METHOD Description of the intervention The mathematics workshop was a product of a partnership between the University of the Free State (UFS) and the Free State Department of Education (FSDoE). The partnership for PD, which was implemented for six days over a period of six months, sought to provide opportunities for teachers to re-examine their teaching of mathematics topics with a view to improve teaching and learning in the schools. During the implementation of the FSDoE-UFS PD intervention, teachers were expected to initiate and sustain lesson study groups in their respective schools even after the intervention has ended.

Sample The sample consisted of novice and experienced primary (59%) and secondary (41%) teachers (n = 85) from various schools within the Motheo district of the Free State province. The teachers were nominated randomly by their employer from a population of mathematics teachers within said district. Approximately 7% (n = 6) of the original sample of the participants were randomly requested to participate in the semistructured interviews. Two of the participants were from secondary schools and the remaining four were from primary schools. The participants were anonymised through the use of pseudonyms.

Measures The study used surveys to answer the first and second research questions. For quantitative data (surveys), retrospective pre-testing was used for data collection (see Howard, Schmek & Bray, 1979). Retrospective pre-testing, which addresses a phenomenon known as ‘response shift bias’, is regarded as a more desirable approach for assessing the effects of PD interventions than traditional pre- and post-test approaches (Hetcher, 2011). A 5-point Likert-scale (1 = strongly agree; 2 = agree; 3 = not sure; 4 = disagree; 5 The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

67 = strongly disagree) self-administered questionnaire, which contained before- and after-the-intervention sections, was used to collect the data. Items for the questionnaire were developed and modified from sources in the literature that measure changes in teacher practices and instructional decisions. The items were based on Klein’s (1991) categories of curriculum decisions and Windschitl et al.’s (2012) ideas regarding instructional practices. The survey was administered six months after the commencement of the intervention (which was on the last day of the workshop).

The semi-structured interview, which assisted in answering the third research question, was designed to understand the nature of teacher changes as a result of participating in the lesson study intervention.

The interview protocol endeavoured to understand the changes that were brought about by teachers’ participation in the lesson study groups at schools. This was achieved by requesting teachers to talk about the changes they had experienced in the previous interventions they attended. The strategy allowed the researchers to discern the changes that were brought about by other interventions and by lesson study. The interviews were conducted approximately six months after the collection of the quantitative data.

Reliability and validity The Cronbach alpha for the three subscales (research and common planning, teaching and peer observation, and post-observation group reflection) indicated that items were sufficiently reliable (α > 0.7) for both curriculum decisions and instructional practice constructs (Table 1).

Table 1 Cronbach alpha for the subscales Construct

Subscale

Cronbach’s Alpha

Number of Items

Instructional Practices Research and Common Planning

0.72

7

Teaching and Peer Observation

0.73

5

Post-observation Group Reflection

0.70

4

Research and Common Planning

0.87

6

Teaching and Peer Observation

0.72

4

Post-observation Group Reflection

0.75

3

Curriculum Decisions

The semi-structured interview protocol was checked and verified by knowledgeable others to confirm that the qualitative tool will likely elicit responses that will assist the researchers to answer the research questions.

The instruments were subjected to content and construct validity tests. Content validity is established when the instrument fairly and comprehensively covers the domains that it claims to explore (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007). The items in the instruments were compared to the ideas of Klein (1991) and Windschitl et al. (2012) regarding instructional practices and curriculum decisions, and the items were considered to resemble the ideas of the cited researchers. Construct validity is concerned with whether the items or questions in the instruments relate to the recognised theoretical construct of the phenomenon under study (Cohen et al., 2007). To ensure construct validity, different conceptions of instructional practices and

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68 curriculum decisions were sought. They were then compared to our concepts and it was determined that the instruments were sufficiently valid.

Analysis Percentages, mean ranks and means were calculated to show the differences in teachers’ retrospective pre-testing choices. Additionally, the null hypotheses were tested for significance using the Wilcoxon signed rank test, which is the non-parametric equivalent of the paired sample t-test (Cohen et al., 2007).

Effect sizes were also calculated to determine the relative size of the effects on teachers.

The recorded interviews were transcribed and the researchers read and re-read the transcripts to understand each participant’s point of view. The researchers then identified recurrent and common themes in the data. These themes were coded so that they could be easily fragmented, examined and categorised.

The qualitative data from the semi-structured interviews were used to corroborate the quantitative data findings.

FINDINGS The findings on the first research question are presented first, followed by the second and third research questions.

The first research question sought to determine if there were changes in the teachers’ curriculum decisions as a result of participating in Lesson Study. Data indicates that there are differences in teachers’ retrospective pre-test scores. There was a general shift in teachers’ choices to mostly agree and strongly agree as indicated by the mean of each subscale (Table 2).

Table 2 Means for the summed curriculum decision subscales Mean (Before Lesson Study)

Mean (After Lesson Study)

Research and common planning

2.16

1.47

Teaching and peer observation

2.19

1.47

Post-observation group reflection

2.14

1.41

Subscale

The first research question was a test of the following hypothesis: There is no difference in teachers’ curriculum decision scores before and after the intervention as a result of research and common planning, teaching and peer observation, and post-observation group reflection The Wilcoxon test statistic indicated that the hypothesis for the curriculum decisions construct were not supported. The test revealed that there were significant differences in the teachers’ curriculum decisions as a result of their participation in research and common planning (Z = -7.54; p < 0.01), teaching and peer observation (Z = -7.20; p < 0.01) and post-observation group reflection (Z = -7.11; p < 0.01). Effect sizes (r) for the subscales revealed that the difference between the pre- and post-test scores was moderately large for all the subscales (Table 3).

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69 Table 3 Wilcoxon test statistics and effect sizes: curriculum decisions Subscale

Z

p-value

r

Research and common planning

-7.54

0.00

-0.82

Teaching and peer observation

-7.20

0.00

-0.78

Post-observation group reflection

-7.11

0.00

-0.77

The second research question sought to determine if there were changes in teachers’ instructional practices as a result of participating in Lesson Study. Similar to the first research question, there was a general shift in teachers’ choices to mostly agree and strongly agree as indicated by the means (Table 4).

Table 4 Means for the summed instructional practices subscales Mean (Before Lesson Study)

Mean (After Lesson Study)

Research and common planning

2.27

1.59

Teaching and peer observation

2.04

1.47

Post-observation group reflection

2.26

1.40

Subscale

The second research question was a test of the following hypothesis: There is no difference in teachers’ instructional practices scores before and after the intervention as a result of research and common planning, teaching and peer observation, and post observation group reflection.

Similarly, the hypotheses for the instructional practice subscales were also not supported. The Wilcoxon test statistic revealed that there were significant differences in teachers’ instructional practices as a result of their participation in research and common planning (Z = -7.41, p < 0.01), teaching and peer observation (Z = -7.05, p < 0.01) and post-observation group reflection (Z = -7.50, p < 0.01). The effect sizes indicated that the magnitude of the difference between the pre- and post-test scores was large for the three subscales (Table 5).

Table 5 Wilcoxon test statistics and effect sizes: instructional practices Subscale

Z

p-value

r

Research and common planning

-7.41

0.00

-0.80

Teaching and peer observation

-7.05

0.00

-0.76

Post-observation group reflection

-7.50

0.00

-0.81

To answer the third research question, which was to understand the perceived effects of Lesson Study, we sought to find out which curriculum decisions and instructional practices changed as well as which elements of the Lesson Study activities instigated and supported these perceived changes.

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70 Collaboration Collaboration between teachers was an important factor in their attempt to reconfigure their practices.

Most teachers suggested that planning collaboratively with their colleagues led to improvements in their content knowledge or, at least, that it assisted them to recall and engage with content they had earlier learnt. This is illustrated when Miss Pitso commented that I did not imagine probabilities could be so tricky because we teach it to relatively young students and one typically teaches it up to a certain level. ... With the Lesson Study, we learnt exactly how deep we should delve into this concept with the students. Some of these things we did back in teacher education colleges but since we do not teach them now, we sort of forgot about them but now we have renewed interest in these things.

Teachers also indicated that through this collaboration they were able to learn a variety of methods and strategies that enabled them to present content to learners in an understandable way. Mr Selikane explained that When sitting around a table planning... maybe you have this idea and then the other teacher, when discussing the planning will say ‘no, don’t do it that way, do it this way, it will be easier’.

Teachers reported meeting more regularly and planning for lessons collaboratively and, in one instance, teachers reported that they started planning for the whole term in advance. Ms Pitso indicated that Like now when the term ends, we are going to meet and plan together for the next term. We even do the pace setters together and the lesson plans for the next term so that we have all the lesson plans done... it helps a lot.

Interactions and discussions with other teachers presented an opportunity for teachers to increase the breadth of their teaching methods. Mr Mokgadinyana noted that Initially, I used only my ideas because we did not share ideas; it mattered very little whether they work or not. With Lesson Study, we plan as a group and individuals bring different ideas when we deal with a particular concept and at the end of the day, these ideas will influence the way I will present the lesson.

Teachers even started to engage in common marking and the analysis of assessments. In a sense, teachers started to use student assessment data to gauge student learning. Mr Selikane pointed out that We even came up with this thing of common marking where we ... sit together as mathematics teachers and assess, let’s say grade 4 answer sheets together and each and every one will pick up errors or problems of that class with a particular question. Even when you move to another grade, then you can see that with this class, the problem might be learners or teachers with this concept. So from that point of view, we can even sit down and improve from there.

Observation All the teachers mentioned that as a result of the intervention, particularly by observing other teachers, they employed more student-centred approaches in their classrooms. In one case, Mr Mahabuke noted that he had attended numerous mathematics interventions but that they did not lead to a change in his classroom practices. While the interventions he had attended, to some extent, increased his mathematics content knowledge, he remained a chalk-and-talk type of teacher. Mr Mahabuke explained that although

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71 they were continually told about student-centred approaches in workshops, as teachers, they often had a difficult time with the implementation of such approaches. He added that observing other teachers helped him make sense of some of the approaches that he always considered too impractical for a secondary school mathematics classroom. Mr Selikane held a similar view as he commented that I think after the Lesson Study I understood that I have to... guide and allow students to do the work on their own while I monitor the situation. At the end of the day, you show them that you made a mistake here and this is how you should have done it. What is important is that you should encourage the students to work on their own.

Some teachers suggested that participation in peer observation increased their awareness of student interactions and learning. Teachers looked for signs of learning during the lesson and they took appropriate measures if learning was not successful. Mr Masuha mentioned that When you present a lesson, you can’t see where the mistakes are but when you are observing someone, you can see them and you think to yourself ‘maybe I could have done it this way’. If the reaction from the students is not satisfactory, you know that this approach is not effective and another approach is required.

Reflection All the teachers seemed to value constructive criticism from their colleagues in the reflection sessions.

Although teachers cited some sort of anxiety regarding being criticised, they also mentioned that their confidence increased because of the positive feedback they received from their colleagues. Mr Selikane commented that After the lesson, colleagues... will start telling you how your lesson can be improved and then you consider what they said and try to improve on those elements of your lesson the next time you present the lesson.

In one school, the idea of reflection became so popular that it was extended to students as well. Students were afforded the opportunity to reflect on the lesson after tuition hours which led to the establishment of a mathematics centre at the school. Mr Masuha explained that Maybe I extended the idea we were exposed to at the University; we come here and reflect on what was done in class that day... If we did not get to certain points in class, after school we have something like reflection where we discuss what we learnt on the day and it is more like a summary to determine if the learners understood the concept.

Mr Masuha further explained that, in these sessions, learners are afforded the opportunity to suggest possible ways and strategies that the teacher could have used if learning was not successful in a lesson.

DISCUSSION The school is a place where knowledge is produced and in which this knowledge is used to ignite conceptual change, which ultimately leads to a change in the way teachers think and act (Katz & Earl, 2010). It is no surprise that Vescio, Ross and Adams (2008) believe that teacher PD should thus be based in the school and its focus should be on teacher learning and on improving teacher practices. This study sought to determine if teacher curriculum decisions and instructional practices changed as a result of their participation in this SBPD as well as the possible reasons for these changes.

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72 The Wilcoxon signed rank test suggested that there were significant changes in teachers’ curriculum decisions and instructional practices after participating in Lesson Study. Furthermore, the means suggest that the changes were positive, which suggest that not only did their curriculum decisions and instructional practices change, but that these decisions and practices might have improved as well. The findings therefore suggest that this SBPD where teachers were able to plan collaboratively, observe one another and reflect together provided a conducive learning environment which, in turn, possibly instigated changes in teachers’ practices. Similar to our findings, Sandholtz and Ringstaff (2013) find that rural teachers’ instructional practices in science improve after participating in a PLC. They attribute the success of their intervention to its ability to create a platform for increasing teachers’ knowledge and motivation.

In our attempts to understand the findings, we quickly realised that collaboration was important for teacher learning in PLCs. Teachers appreciated the different ideas in terms of planning and teaching that their colleagues shared with them. Some teachers even began to plan for the entire term together. This supported their perceived changes in practice as a result of different ideas and methods that emerged from such interactions. The support teachers received from their colleagues in such collaborations increased their confidence and lessened their anxiety both when presenting lessons to students and when being observed by their colleagues. This is not unlike what Tam (2015) observes: most teachers shed their conservatism and take an active stance in curricular planning and decision making after participating in PLCs. Teachers supported one another in their attempts to understand and correctly implement effective strategies.

Cordingley et al. (2005) found that teachers’ use of inquiry-based methodologies increased together with their ability to correctly implement new teaching strategies when they undertook professional learning collaboratively. Through mutual support and collaboration, teachers were prepared to incorporate useful ideas and strategies that were suggested by their colleagues into their lessons. All the teachers reported a shift towards more student-centred approaches and this was critical because of the known deficiencies of the lecture method in schools (Bland, Sounders & Frisch, 2007). Similarly, Tam (2015) finds that teachers participating in PLCs recognised the value of student-centred approaches and they lessened their use of the transmission of knowledge approach. The different ideas teachers were exposed to led to improvements in teachers’ content knowledge and effective teaching strategies for specific topics in mathematics. Teachers had the opportunity to observe the implementation of these student-centred approaches, and, therefore, the subsequent implementation of the approaches in their own classrooms was easier.

One other factor that provided the impetus for change was the student achievement data. It was clear that teachers used student data to diagnose and detect problem areas that students encounter and to discuss possible solutions for such problems. Teachers also thought of the future in that they compared their assessment data with other data from different grades in an attempt to understand the problems faced by learners as they progress through the grades. A spinoff that resulted from the Lesson Study was the reflection session that involved students and teachers. It is important for learners to direct their own learning in line with current practices in teaching and learning (Loyens, Magda & Rikers, 2008).

There was an overall appreciation of the opportunity to observe learners during a lesson. Prolonged interaction between teachers assisted them with a new understanding of student learning, and the teachers’ perspectives changed from viewing student learning as static to a more constructive view (Tam, 2015).

Through these observations, teachers noticed signs of student learning, and, in cases where the signs from students were not satisfactory, teachers indicated that they were prepared to change and look for better methods to present a topic. Teachers, in this case, indicated that they were more attentive to student needs than before and that they focused mainly on student learning. Strahan (2003) also finds that PLCs become more successful when the focus is on students’ needs and learning.

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73 Teachers were very enthusiastic regarding the reflection sessions. This was as a result of the constructive feedback they had received from their peers during reflection. In their review of collaborative PD interventions, Cordingley et al. (2005) found that collaboration increased teachers’ awareness of student learning and that teachers reflected more deeply on their lessons as a result.

CONCLUSION This paper sheds more light on the SBPD’s ability to provide a space where teachers reflect on and reconfigure their classroom practices. Additionally, some empirical evidence on the effectiveness of SBPD interventions in South Africa is presented. The data reveal that the SBPD intervention has a positive effect on classroom practices. Moreover, the paper identifies specific classroom practices which change as a result of SBPD, together with the elements of SBPD that support or instigate the changes. The findings therefore suggest that teachers improve their content knowledge, instructional strategies and change their approach if learning has not been successful. Furthermore, teachers are more attentive to their students’ needs and they are more aware of how students learn increases. Teachers start to use student data to inform their practices and students engage with the teachers regarding best practices in the teaching of mathematics.

The collaborative nature of the intervention played a major role in ensuring that teachers change and improve their classroom practices. Regular meetings and support from colleagues play a pivotal role in ensuring that teachers are confident regarding teaching some of the problematic sections in the curriculum.

Consequently, teachers will not be afraid of trying new things in the classroom which may result in increases in student achievement. If the results of the present study are anything to go by, then we suggest the need for a deliberate shift towards more situated and collaborative SBPD approaches for teachers in South Africa.

In terms of teaching and learning, Lesson Study through the formation of CoPs seems to present opportunities for learning to teachers. The components of Lesson Study (collaboration, observation and reflection), if undertaken in the context of a school-university partnership, may help enhance teachers’ curricular decision making and the manner in which they undertake instruction in classrooms. The data therefore suggest that SBPD as a form of CoP may be effective in instigating and fostering a change in teachers’ instructional practices and curriculum decisions.

We do realise, however, that the findings of this one study represent just the beginning in the attempts to map out the effects of SBPD on teachers’ instructional practices and curriculum decisions. The results should therefore be approached with the necessary caution. For one, the findings are derived from teachers’ perceptions and may thus need to be confirmed against what actually occurs in the classroom. There may also be a need to study the effects of this type of intervention on separate groups of teachers, i.e. novice and experienced, primary and secondary school teachers. Retrospective pre-testing also presents some challenges. The participants are required to recall their initial state after six months and they may overor underestimate their initial states. Some participants may feel the need to make the intervention seem effective by structuring their responses to reflect effectiveness.

REFERENCES Andrews, D. & Lewis, M. (2007) Transforming practice from within: The power of the professional learning community. In L. Stoll & K.S. Louis (Eds.) Professional learning communities: Divergence, depth and dilemmas. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

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74 Botha, E.M. (2012) Turning the tide: creating Professional Learning Communities (PLC) to improve teaching practice and learning in South African public schools. Africa Education Review 9 pp.395-411, doi.org/ 10.1080/18146627.2012.722405 Bryk, A., Camburn, E. & Louis, K.S. (1999) Professional community in Chicago elementary schools: Facilitating factors and organizational consequences. Educational Administration Quarterly 35 pp.751781, doi.org/10.1177/0013161X99355004 Burghes, D. & Robinson, D. (2010) Lesson study: enhancing mathematics teaching and learning. CfBT Education Trust. http://www.cimt.org.uk/papers/lessonstudy.pdf (Accessed 11 August 2017).

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De Clercq, F. & Phiri, R. (2013) The challenges of school-based teacher development initiatives in South Africa and the potential of cluster teaching. Perspectives in Education 31(1) pp.77-86.

Desimone, L.M. (2009) Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher 38(3) pp.181-199, doi. org/10.3102/0013189X08331140 Howard, G.S., Schmek, R.R. & Bray, J.H. (1979) Internal invalidity in studies employing self-report instruments: A suggested remedy. Journal of Educational Measurement 16(2) pp.129-135, http://www. jstor.org/stable/1434456 (Accessed 5 March 2014) Hetcher, R.P. (2011) Changes in pre-service elementary teachers’ personal science teaching efficacy and science teaching outcome expectancies: the influence of context. Journal of Science Teacher Education 22 pp.187-202, doi.org/10.1007/s10972-010-9199-7 Jita L.C., Maree J.G., Ndlalane T.C. (2008) Lesson Study (Jyugyo Kenkyu) from Japan to South Africa: a science and mathematics intervention program for secondary school teachers. In B. Atweh, A.C. Barton, M.C. Borba, N. Gough, C. Keitel, C. Vistro-Yu, R. Vithal (Eds.) Internationalisation and Globalisation in Mathematics and Science Education Dordrecht: Springer Science, doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-59087_25 Katz, S. & Earl, L. (2010) Learning about networked learning communities School Effectiveness and School Improvement 21(1) pp.27-51, doi.org/10.1080/09243450903569718 Klein, F. (1991) The politics of curriculum decision making: Issues in centralizing the curriculum. Albany: State University of New York Press.

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75 Lewis, C.C. (2009) What is the nature of knowledge development in lesson study? Educational Action Research 17(1) pp.95-110, doi.org/10.1080/09650790802667477 Loyens, S.M.M., Magda, J. & Rikers, R.M.J.P. (2008) Self-directed learning in problem-based learning and its relationships with self-regulated learning. Educational Psychology Review 20(4) pp.411-427, doi. org/10.1007/s10648-008-9082-7 Ono, Y. & Ferreira, J. (2010) A case study of continuing teacher professional development through lesson study in South Africa. South African Journal of Education 30 pp.59-74.

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American Educational Research Journal 46(4) pp.1006-1033, doi.org/10.3102/0002831209333185 Schulman, C. (2016) Curriculum decision-making processes of beginning special education teachers. The Graduate Review 1 pp.54-63.

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Svanes, I.K. & Klette, K. (2018) Teachers’ instructional practices during pupils’ individual seatwork in Norwegian Language arts. Education Inquiry 9(3) pp.247-266, doi.org/10.1080/20004508.2017.1 380485 Tam, A.C.F. (2015) The role of a professional learning community in teacher change: a perspective from beliefs and practices. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice pp.1-22, dx.doi.org/10.1080/1354 0602.2014.928122 Vescio, V., Ross, D. & Adams, A. (2008) A review of research on the impact of professional learning communities on teaching practice and student learning. Teaching and Teacher Education 24 pp.80-91, doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2007.01.004 Wenger, E., McDermott, R. & Snyder, W.M. (2002) Cultivating communities of practice: a guide to managing knowledge. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. http://cpcoaching.it/wp-content/ uploads/2012/05/WengerCPC.pdf (Accessed 23 May 2013).

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76 Resilience and care: How teachers deal with situations of adversity in the teaching and learning environment1 Alice Wabule, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

ABSTRACT Focusing on the notion of teacher resilience, which has attracted much attention on teaching and teacher education in contemporary research, this article discusses manifestations of resilience and care in the professional practices of teachers in one school in Uganda, while navigating the challenging and competing demands of the job, their personal welfare and social needs. I draw on in-depth interviews and Focus Group Discussion (FGDs) with 32 teachers to show that teachers are not always indifferent to their job obligations and do not lack commitment to quality teaching as oftentimes presented in public discourse.

I examine acts of professionalism such as care for learners and resilience that manifest both implicitly and explicitly, when faced with adverse conditions. By exploring their working lives, I present the various factors that lead to the successful and sustainable long-standing careers as teachers. I argue against the dominant discourse of criticism that is harmful and counterproductive to their self-esteem, morale and enthusiasm. The article suggests positive feedback that motivates self-evaluation of both strengths and weaknesses, and recognition of small acts of resilience and initiatives undertaken by individual teachers as a way of uplifting the public image of teaching.1 Keywords: resilience, care, emotional competence, teacher motivation, school-based practices

INTRODUCTION …For us, you cannot lecture to a primary 1 kid. You can’t. You have to make a lesson plan. Then you have to make attractive teaching materials. You can’t stand before a primary 1 child and you expect that child to look at you without a material in your hands. You have to involve those children in a lesson.

In other words, it has to be a practical lesson for such a child to learn…Then every day you have to lesson plan even the teaching materials… which teaching materials you do not even have, because the school can’t provide the materials you need…It doesn’t have money there. Because [with] UPE [grant] takes months and months without coming…They can provide some markers, manilas, yet for you, you need specific things for specific learning areas and for specific concepts to be grasped. Then you start saying I have to be creative. I am a teacher; I have to be creative. Then you start thinking of which instruction material to use. Then you begin behaving like a mad woman…going to the dustbins to look for used straws, plastic bottles… (Lisa) 1 Date of submission 26 June 2019 Date of review outcome 3 September 2019 Date of acceptance 29 January 2020

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77 In the excerpt above, Lisa, a teacher of primary one children emphasises creativity, a resiliency strategy that she employs while going about the complexities of her work of teaching in a stressful and deprived school environment. Research has helped explain the challenging nature and conditions of schools in Uganda such as heavy workloads, lack of support, challenging learner behaviour, meeting the complex and diverse needs of learners and low public image (Aguti & Fraser, 2005; Busingye & Najjuma, 2015), but little is done to understanding the actual dilemmas or difficulties encountered and the different acts of resilience and care that teachers depict in dealing with the complexities in their daily professional encounters. Cognisant of most countries’ policy agendas that put top priority on teacher quality, this article is concerned with the phenomenon of criticism that tends to dominate contemporary public discourses on the teachers in most Sub-Saharan Africa countries where the image of teachers is presented as ‘failing’ (Bennell, 2004; Jansen, 2004; Rogers & Vegas, 2009; Griffin, 2012; Tao, 2013). The Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality (SACMEQ 2005-2010) blames teachers for taking more interest in personal welfare and for lacking commitment and dedication to quality teaching (SACMEQ 2005-2010). Studies in the Republic of South Africa and Tanzania position teachers at the forefront for declining education quality and the collapse of the education system (Bennell, 2004; Halsey & Vegas, 2009; Griffin, 2012; Tao, 2013).

In Uganda, contrary to the above excerpt that presents Lisa as a resilient and caring teacher who plans, and reflects creatively before conducting her lessons, teachers are criticised for lacking practical skills, creativity, knowledge and motivation to engage meaningfully with the communities or influence change in society (Kasente, 2010; UWEZO Uganda, UWEZO 2013; Daily Monitor, 2019). My thesis is that it is not possible to improve teaching and the status of the teaching profession with disregard for the struggles that teachers encounter in their professional practices. Acknowledging and honouring the work teachers do, including their abilities, achievements and strategies for dealing with adversity, are vital for cultivating a sense of worth and continued commitment to the profession (Ellis & Bernhardt, 1992). Scholars point to a substantial link between the teacher’s emotional competence (SEC) and wellbeing to classroom teaching and learner outcomes (Jennings et al., 2013).

Jennings et al. (2013) believe that social recognition improves the teacher’s ability to develop and maintain a well-managed learning environment that provides optimal and instructional support to learners.

Accordingly, social emotional competence (SEC) mediates the teacher-student relationship as well as classroom management; SEC also impacts social emotional learning (SEL). Hargreaves (2001) contends that the emotional practice radiates through a person’s body and streams of experience, leading to the culmination of thoughts, feelings and actions. Similarly, Fullan (2009) and Sahlberg (2011) point to the importance of strong public support and a broad agenda that enhance teachers’ emotional wellbeing and competence. It is argued that teachers who experience more positive recognition develop positive emotions in their work lives, are more resilient in responding to work stressors, and able to create and maintain supportive learning environments.

In contrast, negative discourses and standards-based cognitive reforms, although perceived as being significant for school improvement in some circumstances (Dworkin, 2001; Hargreaves, 2001; Jansen, 2006), contribute largely to challenging professional contexts that exacerbate individual teacher demotivation, burnout and loss of morale (Dworkin, 2001). The article is concerned with highlighting the acts of resilience that sustain teachers working in adversity. The picture that emerged from interactions with this group of teachers showed that some of the assumptions held about the teachers are overgeneralised, biased and misleading. Thus, the article aims at sharing school-based practices on what makes a difference in the lives of teachers who persist in adversity, which could help overturn the dominant negative discourse about the teaching profession.

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RESILIENCY, CHALLENGES AND DILEMMAS: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE The concept ‘resilience’ according to Masten (2014) has roots in the Latin verb ‘resilire’ which means to rebound. Rooted in research and theory in child development, clinical sciences and the study on individual difference (Masten, 2014), it has been adopted by many fields concerned with how complex systems anticipate, adapt, recover and learn in the context of major threats, surprises and disasters. In the social sciences, resilience is used in studies that attempt to understand how people escape harmful effects of severe adversity, cope well, bounce back or even thrive (Masten, 2014: 8). In psychological studies, resilience is defined as a personal quality of individuals faced with challenging circumstances such as chronic illness, abuse, or poverty (Yonezawa, Jones & Singer, 2011: 916). For Rutter (2012), resilience involves processes and turning points where engagement with stress serves to prepare the individual for better subsequent adaptation.

Research on teacher resilience is a relatively recent area of study mainly triggered by the growing problem on improving teacher motivation and retention (Beltman, Mansfield & Price, 2011; Mansfield et al., 2012; Clara, 2017). In Uganda, as mentioned earlier, more is documented about the challenging nature of schools, but no data are available on actual practices of teachers in enduring unfavourable circumstances (Wabule, 2017). And as practitioners in which various stakeholders – citizens, taxpayers and consumers – have interest (Kennedy, 1991), all these construct for them work environments with multiple rules to follow and expectations to meet. Of course, most demands on the teachers are often contradictory and difficult to meet as they practice their crafts. Consequently, as frontline workers in delivering education services (Kennedy, 1991), teachers have to negotiate compromises among varying interests, constraints, and regulations as well as balancing the need for survival with the need to grow and develop over time. Yet the much needed support for teachers is lacking, and little attention is paid to understanding the actual dilemmas encountered in their daily professional practice (Fullan, 2010; Wang, Spalding, Odell, Klecka & Lin 2010).

Specifically, in Sub-Saharan Africa economies, little is documented on what sustains and enables teachers to deal with the challenges faced in their daily work encounters (Tao, 2013). A question of concern, thus, is how the public expects teachers to maintain their self-esteem and efficacy when no one seems to understand their dilemmas. Whereas teachers have a responsibility in sustaining some level of professionalism that could improve the image of teaching (Campbell, 2003), they in part feel embarrassed due to continued criticism and in part abandoned because there is no space created for them to share information on either their challenges or school-based good practices (Razer & Friedman, 2017).

Situating my argument in the international research literature that emphasises appreciation and recognition as important incentives for enhancing morale, enthusiasm and a strong connection between teachers and the communities in which they work (Sahlberg, 2011; Fullan, 2009; Ellis & Bernhardt, 1992; Schön, 1987; Renz, 2006; Dworkin, 2001), I argue for appreciation of the acts of resilience and care among the teachers as being beneficial for enhancing their motivation. Research shows that recognition offers a valuable contribution to overcoming teacher isolation as well as the lack of connection and fragmentation in their practices (Heikkinen, 2003; Willis & Varner, 2010). Renz (2006) contends that lack of emotional, political and social recognition undermines the factors that build moral capacities and ethics, which prevents individuals from performing well or from developing their full potential. For Schön (1987), professionals are participants in a large societal conversation, whereby the public image and policies can either give a sense of pride, or serve to put down the profession. Thus, in situations where teachers are portrayed as playing their part well, it has a positive effect on their self-perception and supports selfreflexiveness. In contrast, negative feedback leads teachers to judge their effectiveness in the same way as they are evaluated by the public (Schön, 1987; Van Veen, 2008).

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79 Understanding resiliency for the teaching profession Resiliency is believed to be a key factor in school and teacher reform and has emerged as an important field of inquiry in contemporary research (Patterson, Patterson & Collins, 2002; Mansfield et al., 2012; Clara, 2017). Mansfield et al. (2012) acknowledge that different circumstances influence how resilience is described by the community and the teaching profession, thus, accounting for the complexity and multifaceted understandings of the concept. This article acknowledges the link between teacher resilience and particular contexts to show that there is no standard measure of teacher resilience. Rather, it examines the different approaches that are adopted by Ugandan teachers by valuing their own perspectives on their practice, their insights and their reflections on their lives (Stanford, 2001) depending on the situation and their state of distress.

In the teaching professions, Mansfield et al. (2012) identified four broad dimensions of teacher resilience based on Kumpfer's (2002) framework: professional related dimension, emotional dimension, motivational dimension and social dimension. From these, they conceptualise resiliency as a process that emerges in the interaction over time between the individual and the external environment. According to Luthar, Cicchetti & Becker (2000), resiliency involves a dynamic process encompassing position and adoption within a context of significant adversity, while Patterson, Patterson and Collins (2002: 3) regard resiliency as the ability of teachers to use energy productively to achieve school goals in the face of adverse conditions.

A common thread is that resilient teachers are those who see themselves as having a positive capacity to cope with stress and direct their own lives. Characteristics such as insightfulness and independent relationships, initiative, creativity, humour, morality, persistence, determination and optimism are all linked to resilient teachers (Patterson et al., 2002).

Patterson and others identified seven key strengths that bolster teacher resiliency: 1) being positive in spite of adversity; 2) staying focused on what you care about; 3) flexibility in how you achieve your goals; 4) taking charge; 5) creating a climate of personal and professional support; 6) maintaining high expectations for success for students, teachers and parents; and 7) creating a shared responsibility and participation. These characteristics acknowledge professional resilience as an involving process, mode of interaction with events, and interplay between individuals and their supportive contexts. The positive elements portrayed of resilient teachers also resonate with Ungar's (2012) thesis of resilience being embedded in the local opportunities for adaptation.

According to Mansfield et al. (2012), teachers who possess characteristics of resilience are more likely to persevere in adverse conditions, find it easier to adapt to change, and are more inclined to the profession. In their view, attributes such as a strong sense of competence, efficacy and accomplishment, purposeful career decision making, self-insight, professional freedom, agency and the use of coping strategies manifest. They identify factors that contribute to teacher resilience and sustain them in the face of difficulties to include personal strengths such as altruism, strong intrinsic motivation, perseverance and persistence, optimism, willingness to take risks, emotional intelligence, and flexibility. Literature also identifies particular coping skills associated with teacher resilience as proactive problem-solving and help-seeking skills, strong interpersonal skills that enable the development of social support networks, and the ability to accept failure and move as enablers for teachers to bounce back despite the challenges encountered (Mansfield et al., 2012; Oswald, Johnson & Howard, 2003).

From another angle, Pollard et al. (2014) and Campbell (2003) emphasise self-reflection as specifically vital for developing sociocultural awareness, contextual, interpersonal skills, self-understanding, risk taking and professional efficacy for teachers. Borrowing from the abovementioned framework for teacher resilience, this article is concerned with explaining the qualities that enable Ugandan teachers to maintain commitment to teaching, the strategies they use to adopt in the face of adverse conditions, including The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

80 the ability to solve problems, and the capacity to successfully overcome personal vulnerabilities and environmental stressors.

METHODOLOGY The article uses part of data generated from a larger qualitative study undertaken between 2012 and 2015 on teacher professional integrity (Wabule, 2017). Because of the range of data, this article is largely based on a question that aimed to understand the challenges and dilemmas encountered by the teachers and to share experiences and examples of how they manoeuvre through dilemma situations (Wabule, 2017).

Six institutions – four primary schools, namely, Nakasero, Kabojja, St Edward and Bunyinza primary schools and then Nyondo teachers and Ggaba teacher training colleges – were selected to represent the rural and urban divides. However, this article is based on findings at Nakasero, an urban public primary school where the major part of the study took place. The intention of the study was neither to draw a comparison between rural and urban schools nor to generalise data but rather to cater for the urban and rural differentials (Krueger, 1997). The article mainly draws on cases derived from in-depth interview narratives and focus-group discussions with 32 teachers purposively selected. Most teachers had over 20 years’ experience (Creswell, 2015) and had taught in more than one school. The majority of them had education past the Grade 3 teaching certificate, as required by government for one to teach in a primary school (Aguti & Fraser, 2005; Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES), 2012). The interviews were unstructured (Creswell, 2015; Riessman, 2008) and started by asking general research questions such as: What are your perceptions on the conduct of teachers?; Why do the teachers behave the way they do?; and, What school-based practices help bring about improvements in the teacher’s conduct?

(Wabule, 2017).

All participants involved in the study voluntarily gave their informed consent (Hennink, Hutter & Bailey 2010) and were informed that they were free to withdraw at any time. This is grounded in the view that the views and decisions of participants are honoured (Hennink, Hutter & Bailey, 2010). Besides, I was conscious about balancing my own interests as a researcher against any threat or harm that the research could cause, given the authoritarian and hierarchical nature of the school’s management. The interviews that lasted for 60 to 90 minutes were audio and video recorded so as to avoid any distortions in the data generated (Flick, 2018). These were transcribed verbatim and the transcripts were then uploaded to the analysis software ATLAS.ti (Flick, 2018). Engaging with basic questions of what, how, who, and for what (Flick, 2018) during open coding led to familiarity with data, facilitated making comparisons, clarifying relationships and merging codes that appeared to be similar. The meaning-making process generated concepts and rich descriptions that were grouped into themes from which the study results were presented. Data were validated at four different workshops conducted at different phases of the study and at feedback meetings with a smaller group of selected teachers and other education stakeholders before writing the chapters to ensure that the themes adopted during data analysis were relevant to the study problem (Wabule, 2017). The validation exercise also facilitated interactions and provided useful insights that guided the entire research process (Wabule, 2017). I use excerpts from interviews and Focus Group Discussion FGDs to illustrate the participants’ voices and pseudonyms are used to conceal their identity.

FINDINGS The findings in this article emanate from a range of views from the teachers that demonstrate multifaceted approaches employed in coping with adversity in their career. The frustrations with the low status and harsh conditions often found in schools lead many teachers to stray from their professional obligations.

Thus, although some of their strategies may seem to be detrimental to effective teaching and learning, they The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

81 were nevertheless interpreted by the teachers as mechanisms through which they adapt to the challenging nature of their work. Such strategies enabled teachers keep a positive outlook despite the odds, rather than being disgruntled, filled with rage and hopelessness.

General elements of resilience in the way the teachers perceive their role The teachers that participated in this study perceived their role as being crucial to the country’s development.

This strand of thinking was emphasised by the majority of the teachers who felt that they were the makers of society. Thus, expressions depicting teaching as a noble profession featured prominently in interviews (Wabule, 2017). Many participants highlighted the key roles of a teacher as that of a guide who is responsible for enforcing change among the young, a moral generator who instils discipline in children, a parent, advisor, counsellor, planner and role model. Some teachers equated their role to that of a ‘babysitter’, explaining that they had the responsibility to ensure a holistic transformation of the life of the learner. Similar to what Patterson, Patterson and Collins (2002) emphasise, the teachers indicated that the purpose of teaching is to prepare the child for a holistic life in society. Thus, for teachers like Noel, values such as self-drive, being concerned about the children, mental preparation, having a sense of duty and understanding one’s role as a servant, cultivated in him a positive attitude despite the challenges that he faced: I have a self-drive in me and I have feelings for the child… I also have mental preparation before I meet children… I may not get monetary values per day but I have a sense of duty. It is just a question of adjusting one’s thinking… why I am here. (Noel) The teachers were found to be particularly committed to the social justice aspect of teaching children (Patterson et al., 2011), despite the lack of emotional support from stakeholders in the environments where they work. While stressing the importance of teachers, they fondly mentioned the National Teacher’s Union slogan: ‘The nation is, because teachers are’ by explaining that they had a responsibility to nurture children into becoming productive citizens who could create a positive change in society. Their submissions conform to international goals which stress the developmental roles of teachers (UNESCO, 2014) such as imparting knowledge and skills to help learners develop both the desire and ability to learn and to develop their individual personality through the formation of positive and acceptable social values. Such positive identity with their roles serves as a protective factor that sustains the teachers in the professions despite the odds (Clara, 2017) as discussed next.

Qualities that enable Ugandan teachers to maintain commitment to teaching Although specific teaching contexts and cultures influence the mode of resilience (Beltman, Mansfield & Price 2011; Hargreaves, 2001), at a more personal level, most teachers revealed that their love for the job motivated them to teach. Their interpretations were inclined to the intrinsic factor of gaining job satisfaction after doing a ‘good’ job and attaining desirable outcomes (Noels, Clément & Pelletier, 1999; Guay, Boggiano & Vallerand 2001). Racheal explained that she found her job fulfilling and loved it more especially when the children performed well: I love teaching, I love teaching… I love the profession especially when children do well, I get motivated, and when they are performing poorly I feel bad and I normally look for ways of making them improve.

That is the motivation. I think… I like my job. I don’t know why I like it, but I like it. I come, teach and go away and the things which make me very happy is when those learners pass. When they perform well, that is when I get encouraged. (Racheal) Enjoying the job, according to Beltman, Mansfield and Price (2011), provides an important motivational and emotional dimension of resilience in that it helps the teachers to adapt using a range of strategies The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

82 when responding to different situations. For Racheal above, love for the job enables her to focus on things that make her happy, thus, maintaining enthusiasm. Racheal defined her success in terms of student achievement, which resonates with studies (Noels, Clément & Pelletier, 1999; Guay, Boggiano & Vallerand, 2001) that point to student’s achievement as a motivation for the teachers to push on.

A considerable number of teachers shared positive experiences in their careers and counted themselves as successful, even though their conceptions of resilience differed by career stage, experience and achievement (Mansfield et al., 2012). Teachers who had stayed longer in the profession assert that through commitment and hard work, they had achieved as much as their colleagues in other professions. Personal narratives showed that the teachers who embraced positive elements such as respect and the value of hard work brought about improvement in their lives and gained material and educational benefits. Kintu, who had worked as a primary school teacher for the preceding 37 years, advised younger teachers to take charge of their destinies by having, for example, realistic expectations and goals. In his view, teaching is rewarding with proper planning. He considered the values of creativity, discipline and self-reliance as earning teachers respect in society: I have got a house in Kampala [city]. I live in my own house. I bought 10 acres of land out of my job, but I didn’t cheat anybody. Other people fail to live within the limits of their economy because they stretch to live other people’s lives. Teachers should adjust and live within their own means… they should not live the life of other people. (Kintu) Further, Kintu urged teachers to be more creative and innovative while budgeting for their limited resources by reminding them that no amount of money is enough. Dani, a headteacher, advised teachers to utilise their free time by engaging in constructive activities that could supplement their income rather than presenting themselves as vulnerable. Many teachers disclosed that they benefited greatly by engaging in a range of activities such as farming and private businesses, which of course, had negative repercussions such as giving less priority to the teaching responsibility (Worldbank, 2007).

Wilhem, another participant, acknowledged the value of peer guidance and healthy competition as important for leading a focused life. He urged fellow teachers to strive towards socioeconomic development by learning and adapting certain practices from their colleagues. He revealed that collegial guidance and advice had motivated him to work hard: There is this issue whereby, when you get to a certain community, sometimes community influences you.

When I got here someone told me, ‘You have come here a teacher, you need to work hard, you need to make your life better’. So that trickled my mind. (Wilhem) Wilhem’s and Kintu’s narratives point to the importance in the school community of role models who would guide and inspire other teachers to take a positive direction. Willingness to seek help and take advice from others is an important aspect of social resilience and for strengthening emotional bonds (Hargreaves, 2001). Mansfield et al. (2012) contend that constructive advice was specifically necessary for novice teachers to adapt to prevailing circumstances. Wilhem, while declaring his personal achievements, advised that teachers should endeavour to exploit the available opportunities within their work environment instead of being afraid and self-pitying. By holding that teachers should embrace hard work and healthy competition, Wilhem pointed to the idea of self-belief and confidence, which according to Clara (2017) are necessary for effective goal setting.

Similarly, Racheal believed that teachers may achieve great benefits if they are more creative and innovative. While recounting experiences on the differences between teachers of her school time and the teachers of today, she commented: The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

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T hese teachers are so instrumental. They are so instrumental in that some… most of them have come from one level to another. For example, they have interest in studying. You find a teacher… in fact in the villages you find people saying, ‘A mere teacher having a degree?’ They are so instrumental that they even have some small businesses running aside with their salary so that they can improve on their wellbeing. They are not stagnant like the teachers of those days... (Racheal)

Whereas several strategies that were undertaken by the teachers to improve their wellbeing often led to negative consequences for job effectiveness, multitasking and adjusting to different roles keeps teachers positive and optimistic despite challenges, as pointed out by Clara (2017).

Strategies teachers use to adjust in the face of adverse conditions a) Connecting with significant stakeholders Firstly, holding school events such as music, dance and drama, open days, science fairs and sports days and inviting parents to participate helped to bridge the relational and communication gap between the teachers and parents. Although not all parents turned up for school events, parental participation in school events boosted the morale of both the teachers and children, and provided opportunities for the teachers to meet with parents to discuss children’s concerns.

Secondly, in-depth interviews with the teachers indicated that teachers established connections and networks with peers and teachers in other schools. This helped in providing each other with the emotional support necessary for career development and growth into durable and reflective practitioners: We look at other schools, what do they do? You know you cannot be an island. What does Greenhill do that can be brought this way? Much as it is a private school that promotes its own standard, but somehow, somewhere we meet… ‘What made you get these good first grades?’ Sometimes when it is like teachers’ day or you meet anywhere, you discuss and you get those tips… when we give extra time to these children, even the slow learners catch up, slowly by slowly. (Susan) Seeking out what colleagues in other institutions do to improve performance mirrors an element of care and willingness to help children do well (Campbell, 2003). It also shows teachers in different spaces seeking different expertise to collaborate with one another on issues and problems emerging from teaching practice, which is vital for professional improvement. b) ‘Exploiting the available opportunities’ and ‘making ends meet’ The above phrases were frequently used by the teachers to describe how they deal with adverse times.

Exploiting the available opportunities enabled them to survive in the complex system. To elaborate on this, they disclosed that they engaged in a wide range of activities side by side with their normal work routine in order to ‘make ends meet’, by, for instance, engaging in small businesses inside or outside the school.

Most common was that teachers undertook the ‘risk’ of private tutoring of learners at an extra cost. It was regarded as a risk and unprofessional because teachers were aware that the government did not approve of the practice.

Other teachers had attempted writing books but were frustrated because primary school textbooks never attracted a large market. For those with gardens, as is the case with their village folks, they spent time cultivating their gardens in order to get something to eat. Others sought more qualifications through upgrading with the optimism of finding better paying jobs to improve their living conditions. Although these practices actually reduced the presence of teachers at schools and led to committing less time to their professional duties such as forging friendships or taking interest in the non-academic needs of the learners, the teachers perceived exploiting available opportunities as a worthy risk. On the other hand, ‘making The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

84 ends meet’ was nuanced by the teachers to mean the socioeconomic distress that they encountered, as well as their daily struggles to cope with the situation. In essence, this concept was used to imply difficult experiences but also to explain the different survival mechanisms. Susan narrated that the teachers were ‘chasing deals’ to make ends meet, implying that it was inevitable for them to sacrifice their professional duties in order to attend to personal problems.

There is no way you can sit comfortably in class whole heartedly when you have your own child who is in secondary, because if it is primary a teacher can take his child here [primary] but a child who is in secondary and is still at home or a child at university and he would be asked to apply for a dead semester because his fees has not been paid… So, because we feel that we are lacking a lot… somehow one has to make ends meet. (Susan) Other teachers just like Susan admitted that they found considerable difficulties when budgeting their modest income so as to fulfil their personal needs and, at the same time, meet work-related costs. For instance, most schools in the country did not provide accommodation to teachers. Therefore, ‘making ends meet’ was even more challenging for those teachers who lived away from school premises. For instance, James explained that he woke up earlier to catch a morning bus despite the inconveniences: I come from far and I have a problem of traffic jam, and the moment you delay, you find that a vehicle takes about two hours on the way. For my case, I come from (place). I wake up very early in the morning and because of the little money… I use the bus. However, they can stop there [bus stop] for other people to fill the bus, and sometimes I reach here very late… The bus delays at the stage. You have left early but the bus delays, and you cannot walk out because you have already been issued a receipt. (James) James’ conclusion indicates that he values being at school on time, a quality of many teachers, which the public often overlooks.

Manifestations of resilience through care for children Contrary to the negative public discourses, teachers perceived their role as parental and understood the school to serve as children’s second homes. Many teachers just like Lisa were found to act as loving parents and their work highlighted virtues of care and passion (Noddings, 2015; Fried, 2001) and concern for learners. Teachers made efforts to understand a child’s circumstances and made every effort to assist them in tackling their problems.

Susan pointed out that the teachers had the goal of helping children excel academically. Although her narrative indicated that complying with school regulations like providing extra lessons to children had elements of benefiting teachers, it had a positive influence on the teachers’ conduct and benefited the children to a certain extent. By assigning extra time, children were guided and counselled on both academic and social issues. Successively, children were inspired to be open, confident and assertive.

The teachers also encouraged them, especially the girl children, to report issues that violated their rights.

Attending to children’s problems had facilitated a trusting relationship between children and teachers. A case in point was narrated by Patrick, a teacher of Shallot, a young girl of 12 years whose mother had forced her into prostitution for survival. Confiding in her teacher showed the trust that learners have for their teachers (Wabule, 2017). It is the sort of trust can only be achieved when the teachers have genuine interest in the learners and if teachers are seen to be approachable, kind and willing to help. Creating ample time with the learners according to Susan, helped teachers to understand the children’s problems, leading to a successful learning environment:

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ctually here we stress that when you see something wrong in class and it is affecting children, then A you must spare some time to counsel these children. It is not only academics. We emphasise that to an extent we should go informal, play the role of parents. So I say, ‘Each one of you should be disciplined.

You are supposed to behave like this as a girl and like this as a boy.’ We go back to what the parents are supposed to do and the moment you do this then your lesson becomes successful. (Susan)

The teachers disclosed that they used private schools that were performing well as benchmarks and borrowed their best practices in order to keep the academic standards high. Creating peer networks with colleagues in well-performing private schools as commended by Beltman et al. (2012) facilitated sharing information on new strategies. Consequently, daily morning work, homework and weekend assignments were given to pupils in order to keep the performance at a relatively higher standard. Furthermore, children were required to have extra exercise books for practising spelling and handwriting, and they were encouraged to do independent study and research. Giving extra time and work to children helped them, especially the slow learners, to improve. Although extra assignments were given to children at an extra cost and did not benefit all of them (Wabule, 2017), the teachers reasoned that it was inevitable to charge a modest amount of money due to the costs incurred in printing.

Additionally, the teachers stressed that they checked pupils’ books regularly to ensure that all assignments were done and marked. They pointed out that it was compulsory for parents to comment and sign the children’s books on a daily basis in order to get them involved in monitoring the academic progress of their children. Besides signing children’s books, the new parents were initiated into the school’s culture at the time their children joined the school. The headteacher reported that specific meetings were conducted with new parents and then separate meetings with parents of children in all classes to introduce them to the teachers of their children. The parents were also occasionally invited to discuss issues concerning individual learners, like making decisions on promotion of a child to another class. Communication and interaction encouraged dialogue between parents and teachers on children’s issues, including those children who were identified as academically weak. Teachers reported that children conducted themselves well when they understood that closer relationships existed between their teachers and their parents.

The deputy headteacher explained that teachers endeavoured to help children with poor academic grades and those with other social challenges. She narrated that teachers often intervened to establish reasons for the behaviour of children, which efforts helped children to adjust both socially and academically: This is a Universal Primary Education (UPE) school, children are supposed to be welcomed anytime.

As a result, the school has a collection of children with different academic backgrounds and different ways of behaviour. So as a teacher, I struggle to make sure that we put this child somewhere and fit in society and fit in that very class. (deputy headteacher) The narrative from the deputy head teacher indicates the readiness of the teachers to welcome and help children, thus, confirming a caring attitude that teachers have for the learners. Showing a caring attitude according to Pollard et al. (2014) helps in the development of positive experiences in children. They also become better learners when they feel welcome in the school or classroom.

Apart from responding to children’s academic needs, the interviewed teachers explained that individual teachers extended material help to vulnerable children. They did this by encouraging well-wishers who were more advantaged to contribute material items that they no longer needed to those in need. The teachers were glad that the children occasionally contributed modest amounts of money to buy shoes and clothes for a friend in need, which in their view, was instrumental to inculcating in children a spirit of giving, sharing and concern for others.

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Often when discussing how to improve the quality of education and schools, explanations via tangible resources such as infrastructural development, teaching and learning equipment as well as teaching skills are emphasised (Sahlberg, 2011; Tao, 2013). However, it also true that due to resource constraints, the promises to the teachers of providing the requirements are often not fulfilled. Yet, the teachers do not give up their work, implying that resilience is a significant factor for their perseverance.

Literature suggests that resilience is multi-dimensional and includes personal qualities of teachers and dispositions that impact the strategies used in adverse conditions and the capacity to bounce back from difficult situations (Mansfield et al., 2012; Beltman et al., 2011). The article has shown how Ugandan teachers develop professional resilience, sustain optimism and foster healthy relationships with colleagues and learners that support them in their professional tasks. Reflection on their lives, having a positive attitude, creativity, multitasking and peer support were among the common approaches that were adopted by the teachers when working in a context of significant adversity.

The introductory excerpt presented Lisa as a resilient teacher who reflects and responds creatively to the challenging nature of her classroom teaching. Her actions relate to what Mansfield et al. (2012) refer to as the profession dimension of organising, planning, use of effective teaching skills and being reflective in the teaching practices. Also, as pointed out by Clara (2017), resilient teachers were those who saw themselves as having a positive emotional attitude to cope with stress, adjust to different roles and direct their lives. The conclusion drawn from this is that intrinsic motivation is a significant factor for teacher resilience, manifesting through both explicit and implicit acts. Positive attitudes for the interviewed teachers were invoked to make ends meet not only in terms of negotiating the difficult terrains of their work lives, but also in designing innovations for survival and for embracing hard work as a value for improving on personal welfare socially and economically. The narratives of the teachers also show the emotional dimension of resilience, specifically teachers who imagined their role in line with social justice and nation building, thus, maintaining commitment to the learners. Altruism, as pointed out by Patterson et al. (2002), acts as motivation for the teachers to push on despite the stress. Other narratives present teachers as possessing a strong ability to manage their emotions, for example, by living within oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s means and having realistic goals and expectations, which, according to Mansfield et al. (2012), give the teachers some form of emotional stability, a sense of competence and accomplishment. Moreover, the ability to live within oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own means as a resilience strategy used by Ugandan teachers resonates well with the ability to accept failure and move on, as pointed out by Beltman et al. (2011). Thus, understanding the limitations and accepting lifeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s realities is vital for guiding the teachers on how to take charge of the challenges they encounter in their work and what counts for their socioemotional well-being (Rutter, 2012).

Of course, we have also seen that some teachers in Uganda struggled to upgrade from one level to another as an avenue for purposeful career development, optimism and self-insightfulness. Being optimistic was a factor that kept the teachers going because they viewed additional qualifications as a form of creativity and innovation that gained them social status and exposure to job opportunities outside the teaching career (Wabule, 2016). In the same vein, as also pointed out by Mansfield et al. (2012), the teachers valued hard work, good communication, peer support, continued learning, persistence and perseverance as vital motivational factors. Thus, social support as also pointed out by Ungar (2012) was significant for building resilience. Beltman et al. (2011) remind that seeking and taking advice as well as healthy competition and risk taking are critical for creating a resilient teacher. This is why, for the teachers who persist longer in the profession, commitment to positive problem-solving approaches, affirmative emotional attitudes and love for the job override the strength of extrinsic rewards.

In conclusion, strategies for teacher resilience are contextual, and may even appear to be counterproductive in terms of meeting professional obligations. For the participants in this study, the attributes of resilience

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87 highlighted above deserve recognition given the range of elements in the environment under which they work, even if they appear to be small and ordinary. Rutter (2012) and Masten Ann (2001) note that the processes and attributes of resilience are ordinary processes and basic human adaption systems. In any case, having to collect used drinking straws for teaching aids as in the case of Lisa, having to wake up very early to catch a morning bus or engaging in extra income generating activities may not make much sense to teachers in other contexts, but for those in this school, it is an indication of critical consciousness and a skill of problem solving. What appears in both the literature and the narratives of the teachers is that the individuals who embraced positive personality dispositions feel empowered and confident to venture into diverse activities which enable them ‘make it’ even when their socioeconomic welfare is threatened.

The article also acknowledges the importance of positive rather than maladaptive means for dealing with adversity (Rutter, 2012). It emerged from the interviews that appreciation of small acts of resilience and care showed by the teachers boosted their morale and enthusiasm to strive harder in an effort to create school improvements. Therefore, the hardships encountered in their daily work practices can only be understood when teachers are presented with opportunities to share actual mechanisms that keep them going and the resilient strategies they employ for successful adaptation to the profession.

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88 Fried, R.L. (2001) The Passionate Teacher: A Practical Guide. New Hampshire: Beacon Press.

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Mansfield, C.F., Beltman, S., Price, A. & McConney, A. (2012) “Don’t Sweat the Small Stuff:” Understanding Teacher Resilience at the Chalkface. Teaching and Teacher Education 28(3) pp.357-367.

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89 Patterson, J.L., Patterson, J.H. & Collins, L. (2002) Bouncing Back: How School Leaders Triumph in the Face of Adversity. New York: Eye on Education.

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90 Wabule, A. (2017) Professional Integrity of Teachers in Uganda: Practical Action Strategies. Groningen: Globalization Studies Groningen, University of Groningen, The Netherlands.

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91 Micro commercialisation the new threat to teacher collegiality in Masvingo district1â&#x20AC;&#x2020; Kudzayi Savious Tarisayi, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Everjoy Munyaradzi, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe Munyaradzi Chidarikire, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

ABSTRACT This article interrogates the phenomenon of money-making among humanities teachers in secondary schools in Zimbabwe. Contemporary literature (Murisa, 2010; Mukeredzi, 2013) reveals that there has been a deterioration in the working conditions of teachers which has dented teacher morale to an all-time low. In order to make ends meet, teachers resort to the micro commercialisation of education.

A qualitative study was carried out in Masvingo district with the purpose of exploring the effects of education commercialisation on teacher collegiality among history and geography teachers. A convenient sample comprising eight Heads of Departments (History and Geography) and 20 teachers within these departments was selected for this study. Data were generated through semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. Findings from this study indicated that extra lessons have been commercialised, which has ripple effects on cluster-based seminars and school and teacher associations. The article concludes that micro commercialisation of education negatively affected teacher collegiality. The authors recommend that the responsible authorities should address the working conditions of teachers in order to curtail micro commercialisation activities.1 Keywords: teacher collegiality, money-making, extra lessons

INTRODUCTION This article interrogates the implications of the micro commercialisation of education among history and geography teachers in Masvingo district in Zimbabwe. Contemporary literature (Murisa, 2010; Mukeredzi, 2013) reviewed in this study revealed that there was a decline in teacher morale in Zimbabwe over the past two decades due to the effects of widespread national economic decline. The decline in the working conditions of the teachers was attributed to the commercialisation of education in Zimbabwe (Murisa, 2010). A qualitative study was carried out in one district with the purpose of exploring the influence of the commercialisation of education on teacher collegiality. The article starts by providing a literature review contextualising the key variables in this study. The researchers then present a research methodology section. The section that follows presents and discusses the findings from this study. Lastly, concluding remarks are provided.

1 Date of submission 2 May 2019 Date of review outcome 21 September 2019 Date of acceptance 20 February 2020

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LITERATURE REVIEW There has been wide reportage of the economic decline in Zimbabwe over the past two decades as well as on its implications on the education system. The economic decline in Zimbabwe led to the erosion of teachers’ salaries due to rising inflation (Murisa, 2010; Shoko, Manyumwa, Muguwe & Taruvinga, 2011; Tichigwa, 2012). An emerging thread of literature that addresses the implications of the economic situation in Zimbabwe on the teaching profession reports the exodus of teachers to neighbouring countries such as South Africa, Botswana and Namibia. Some teachers who have not migrated have begun commercialising education to cushion themselves from the effects of the economic crisis. Commercialisation of education can occur at various levels: macro, meso level and micro (Amadi & Ekechi, 2018). At the macro level, commercialisation takes place nationally whereby the government adds a financial element to the provision of education. At the meso level, commercialisation of education takes the form of mushrooming of independent colleges and private schools. At the micro level, commercialisation of education occurs among individuals. This article specifically focuses on the commercialisation of education at the micro level.

In this article, commercialisation of education is viewed as any paid activity engaged in by teachers for private gain other than their normal salary and allowances. Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000, which guides the conduct of teachers in Zimbabwe, prohibits teachers from engaging in any commercial activities.

Teachers have to apply for special permission to engage in any commercial activity from the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education according to the code of conduct for teachers in Zimbabwe.

Munikwa and Mutungwe (2011: 28) argue that ‘one of the survival strategies employed by teachers has been to engage students in extra lessons for a fee as a way of supplementing their incomes to sustain their [the teachers’] families’. It can be noted that the offering of extra lessons in Zimbabwe has been largely a visible form of commercialisation of education. Teachers give parents and other stakeholders the impression that the only way for their children to excel in their studies is through paid extra lessons (Ndlela, 2009; Masuku, 2009). Munakukama (2015) perceives that, similar to Zimbabwe, contemporary teaching practice in Uganda has fallen victim to an increasing struggle for private gain.

Teacher collegiality can also be termed ‘teacher collaboration’. Harris and Anthony (2001: 372) argue that despite the fact that the term ‘collegiality’ remains somewhat problematic, as it is ill-defined, overused, and open to multiple interpretations, it has come to be viewed as a critical feature of effective development efforts.

Jarzabkowski (2003: 2) describes collegiality as ‘teachers’ involvement with their peers on any level, be it intellectual, moral, political, social and/or emotional’. In addition, Shin in Tshuma and Bhebhe (2016: 1) state that ‘collegiality is sharing ideas and responsibility amongst colleagues for pursuit of common goals’. Teacher collegiality in this article is viewed as the collaboration of teachers in the same school or in different schools with the sole purpose of improving their teaching practice and the learning taking place in the relevant schools. Teacher collegiality can take different forms, for example, sharing textbooks, past examination materials, marking guides and expertise, among others.

Little (1990: 508) argues that collegiality relations amongst teachers reflect a continuum from independence to interdependence: storytelling and scanning for ideas, aid and assistance, sharing and joint work. Through storytelling and scanning for ideas teachers exchange experiences, gather information, nourish their friendships…

Conceptualising collegiality as a continuum is essential in this study because commercialism is viewed as influencing teachers to move away from interdependence to independence. Prior to the spread of

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93 commercialism, teachers can be regarded as being interdependent. However, commercialism can be seen as a threat to this teacher interdependence.

Conceptualising collegiality as a continuum A number of studies have established the importance of teacher collegiality in the education system (Barth, 2006; Goddard, Goddard & Tschannen-Maron, 2007; Shah, 2012). Teacher collegiality promotes staff development (Shah, 2012) and provides ‘a shift from teaching in isolation and one-on-one mentoring to school-wide collaboration and conversation’ (Middleton, 2000: 52). Hargreaves (1995) in Shah (2012: 1243) summarises the benefits of teacher collegiality as moral support; increased efficiency; improved effectiveness; reduced overload; synchronized time perspectives between teachers and administrators (i.e. shared and realistic expectations about timeframes for change and implementation); situated certainty of collective professional wisdom; political assertiveness; increased capacity for reflection; organizational responsiveness; opportunities to learn; and continuous learning.

Hence, it can be argued that there is apparent consensus among scholars on the numerous benefits of teacher collegiality. There is ostensible agreement in literature that teacher collegiality is a vital cog in the functioning of the school system. Teacher collegiality in Zimbabwe is evident in seminars and teacher associations (Mukeredzi, 2013). However, not much is known about the threat posed by commercialisation of education activities on teacher collegiality in Zimbabwe.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This study on the ramifications of money-making on teacher collegiality among humanities teachers in Masvingo district was interpretivist and qualitative. Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2018: 8) explain that the interpretive view, however, while sharing the rigour of the natural sciences and the concern of social science to describe and explain inanimate natural phenomena and, indeed from each other.

The qualitative approach was used because the researchers wanted to study teacher collegiality in its natural setting. Furthermore, qualitative research allows for the use of multiple methods and multiple perspectives on teacher collegiality and micro-commercialisation. A case study research design was adopted for this study. Creswell and Poth (2018: 101) opine that ‘case study researchers provide an indepth understanding of a case (or cases)’. A case study involving four secondary schools was utilised for this study.

Masvingo district has both rural and urban schools. The researchers conveniently sampled four secondary schools in urban areas in the district. Two heads of department (HODs) (Geography and History) were conveniently sampled from each of the four schools. Additionally, 20 teachers teaching geography and history examination classes were purposively sampled. Teacher collegiality has been reported to be most active for examination classes in Zimbabwe (Chirume, 2016). Five teachers were sampled from each of the four secondary schools that participated in this study. The researchers conducted eight semi-structured interviews with the HODs at their respective schools. Interviews allowed the researchers to probe answers provided by the participants. Participants in both interviews and focus group discussions were asked for their views on the relationship between teacher collegiality and micro commercialisation. In addition, the participants were asked about the implications of micro commercialisation on teacher collegiality.

A mini-focus group was conducted at each of the schools that were selected for this study. Focus group discussions were utilised in order to obtain group views on teacher collegiality. Teacher collegiality entails interaction amongst teachers, and, therefore, views could best be obtained in group settings. Johnson

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94 and Christensen (2007: 185) aver that ‘a focus group is a type of group interview in which a moderator leads a discussion with a small group of individuals to examine in detail, how the group members think and feel about a topic.’ The researchers made use of NVIVO to identify themes in the transcribed data.

Thematic data analysis was utilised to analyse the data. Braun and Clarke (2006: 10) further reveal that ‘a theme captures something important about data in relation to the research question, and represents some level of patterned response or meaning within the data set’. The study from which this article is derived was guided by the ethical considerations stipulated by the researchers’ respective affiliated universities.

Trustworthiness was enhanced by a pilot study, which eliminated any ambiguities in the data generation instruments. Additionally, the researchers utilised member checking of the transcripts after the interviews and focus group discussions.

FINDINGS The findings from this study are presented and analysed using the themes that emerged from the semistructured interviews and focus group discussions. The findings from this study on the threat of micro commercialisation on teacher collegiality are presented under the following themes: extra lessons, seminars, school and teacher associations, and unequal relations.

Extra Lessons The participants’ views on the implications of fee charging for extra lessons on teacher collegiality are presented as verbatim narrations below. The verbatim narrations are followed by interpretation and analysis of the findings.

HOD2 revealed that Teachers have been conducting extra lessons for a very long time in Zimbabwe. However, the approach has since changed with some teachers demanding extortionate fees from the parents. Now we have extra lessons after normal school hours and during weekends. Teachers are now competing for learners to join their extra lessons. The competition has affected team-work.

T11 stated that Extra lessons have lost direction. It’s now extortion to say the least. If you ask a colleague from a neighbouring school to assist your class on a particular topic, they will just advice you to tell your class to come for extra lessons. Instead of collaborating, the teachers view this as an opportunity to make more money through extra lessons.

T1 noted that Paid extra lessons are now being offered during weekends and holidays. Teachers who used to collaborate are now competing for learners. Teacher collaborations are no longer viable as teachers lure learners from neighbouring schools.

T15 explained that Prior to the era of paid extra lessons, teachers used to have more collaboration. However, now the focus is now on making more money through extra lessons.

T9 indicated that Extra lessons have affected our relations as teachers. Parents have contributed to the animosity amongst teachers. Parents can decide to send their children to a neighbouring school for their extra lessons instead of their regular school.

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95 The findings revealed that extra lessons that were historically free were now being offered at exorbitant fees. Evidently, teachers were using extra lessons as opportunities to make more money. The suggestion that extra lessons have become more of a business activity is in line with the conclusion by Munikwa and Mutungwe (2011: 34) that ‘extra lessons were a lucrative form of employment and [teachers] would not give it up until the government adequately remunerated them’. Additionally, the participants revealed that paid extra lessons created unhealthy competition amongst teachers, which has affected teacher collegiality. Teachers were competing for learners in the study area. Acrimonious relations have emerged amongst teachers as there is competition to recruit more learners for extra lessons. It was also evident from the participants that the most rampant form of micro commercialisation in education was extra lessons.

The participants noted with concern that extra lessons were initially meant for examination classes such as Advanced Level and Ordinary Level. Additionally, the extra lessons were coordinated as revision classes which did not introduce new concepts and topics. However, the participants revealed that new concepts and topics were now being introduced during extra lessons which disadvantaged learners who cannot afford to pay for the extra lessons. In addition, there is unhealthy competition among teachers as they compete for learners to join their extra lessons. Therefore, extra lessons have become more of a business activity than an honest endeavour aiming to improve the pass rate of learners. Extra lessons – initially put forward as a stop-gap measure to help learners cope with their studies – have been commercialised. A stop-gap measure has become a permanent feature of the Zimbabwean education system. Hence, this study established that extra lessons contributed to a decrease in teacher collegiality in the study area.

Seminars The participants in this study indicated that the commercialisation of education affected cluster-based seminars. Cluster-based seminars are inter-school seminars conducted in order to prepare learners for external examinations. The views of the participants in the semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions are presented as verbatim quotes and analysed in this section.

T6 stated that Advanced Level seminars are now a thing of the past in our cluster. The seminars were organised and funded by schools. The host school would provide refreshments for all the participants. The facilitators were teachers from the participating schools.

T4 added that Teachers did not demand any money from either the schools or learners to facilitate at the Advanced Level seminars. The seminars had the aim to improve the pass rates. Both learners and teachers actually looked forward to the engagements. However, everything disappeared with the demands for payment.

HOD3 narrated Seminars were platforms for the interaction of teachers from different schools. Seminars promoted networks amongst teachers in the same cluster. However, seminars are no longer being prioritised which is affecting teacher collaboration greatly.

HOD1 explained that Teachers now consider seminars are waste of valuable time and energy. They feel that the same time ‘wasted’ in seminars could be used for business activities. Teachers are now more focused on making money through paid extra lessons.

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96 T5 observed that I think the seminars have been affected by the booming extra lessons. Teachers would rather organise and conduct extra lessons which gives them financial rewards instead of facilitating at seminars.

T13 explained that

Teachers are no longer interested in sharing their expertise at cluster-based seminars due to commercialisation of education. Seminars are now shunned as a waste of time that can be used to pursue other paid activities by the teachers.

The study participants revealed that schools organised cluster-based seminars prior to the spread of the money-making mentality among humanities teachers. The cluster-based seminars were organised on a rotational basis amongst the schools to prepare the learners for their external and final examinations, such as those for Advanced Level and Ordinary Level. The humanities seminars were dealt a blow by the demands made by teachers for the payment of incentives to facilitate the seminars. The seminars were initiated in the spirit of teacher collegiality aiming to improve the pass rates in external examinations. Micro commercialisation of education adversely affected the organising of cluster-based seminars. Evidently, there was reduced interaction amongst teachers due to the negative effects of micro commercialisation on teacher collegiality. Cluster-based seminars were previously vehicles for the promotion of teacher collegiality. Hence, it can be argued that the ramifications on cluster-based seminars contributed to a reduction in teacher collegiality in the study area.

School and teacher associations The teachers and HODs who participated in this study were asked for their views on the implications of money-making on school and teacher associations. The views from the teachers and HODs are presented below.

T8 stated that Most activities in schools that used to be coordinated by teacher associations were affected by the money-making mentality. Voluntary teacher contributions in cash and kind are now a thing of the past.

Teachers are no longer participating in teacher associations because they are now more about making money.

T1 argued that It no longer makes much sense (for teachers) to volunteer towards teacher association activities when you can use that time to make money. Honestly, spending the whole day trying to solve the problems faced by students in the entire district when you can solve the problems in your class for extra income.

HOD2 stated that It is now difficult if not impossible to ask teachers to volunteer their time during teacher association activities. Teachers no longer value the benefits of collaborating with their colleagues because their focus is now more on survival. The need to survive has propped up the money-making mentality. I think the mentality can actually be called being mercenary in a way.

There was consensus among the participants in the focus group discussions that the desire to make more money by teachers was limiting teacher associations. Teacher associations in Zimbabwe are a manifestation of teacher collegiality because of their ability to foster social networks among teachers.

Educational activities in schools in Zimbabwe are coordinated through the instrumental role played by

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97 school and teacher associations. Among the associations identified by the participants was the National Association of Secondary School Heads (NASH). NASH facilitates the coordination of staff development of secondary school teachers, as well as sporting disciplines and other extracurricular activities at district, provincial and national level. The updated curriculum introduced the concept of teacher associations.

Teacher associations were introduced to promote teacher collegiality in Zimbabwean schools. The teacher associations are subject specific: geography teachers should be members of the Geography Teachers Association, for example. However, the participants in this study revealed that the activities of the school and teacher associations were being curtailed by money-making among teachers. Among the money-making activities most detrimental to school and teacher associations were extra lessons. The study established that teachers preferred to engage in business activities instead of volunteering for teacher association activities, which was the norm in the past. Teacher associations are hinged on voluntary participation with the aim to improve pass rates in a particular subject. Hence, it can be argued that micro commercialisation has hindered one of the essential manifestations of teacher collegiality in the study area.

The rise of the ‘super-teacher’ Another theme that emerged from the participants was the rise of ‘super-teachers’ due to the micro commercialisation of education in Masvingo district. The rise of ‘super-teachers’ was one of the factors influencing teacher collegiality in this study. The contributions of the participants are presented below.

HOD2 elaborated It seems we now have super-teachers, teachers who have expertise in subjects (new topics) which are in great demand. In the past teachers who possessed unique skills would share with their colleagues.

The new money-making mentality however has contributed to the rise of these ‘super-teachers’ who are not comfortable with collaborating in the staff development of their colleagues for free.

HOD1 indicated that Teachers with expertise in new areas of the updated curriculum are demanding high fees to facilitate in staff development workshops. Examples of new areas include GIS [Geography Information Systems] and ICT [Information Computer Technology]. Now we have a situation whereby teachers with GIS competency profiting by charging their peers and schools. So essentially the teachers with GIS competency are viewed as superior than their peers which in turn affects teacher collaborations.

T3 concurred that The updated curriculum provided an opportunity for teachers with skills like GIS to make money. GIS teachers are organising workshops to staff develop teachers in the district for a fee.

T10 added that It is now difficult to ask teachers from neighbouring schools for subject-related advice. They will just tell you attend to workshops, since they would have paid to get the skills. The sharing of information for free is now a thing of the past. Teacher collaborations have been greatly affected by the behaviour of these ‘superior’ teachers because they no longer feel equal with their peers.

The participants noted that there was the rise of ‘super-teachers’ who had the skills that were in demand.

The ‘super-teacher’ phenomenon was a factor influencing teacher collegiality according to the participants in this study. Additionally, the ‘super-teacher’ phenomenon was contributory to the creation of unequal relations. Unequal relations, according to the participants in this study, emerged with the wide spread of money-making activities among the humanities teachers. An example cited by one participant was of geography teachers with expertise in GIS who started demanding exorbitant fees to facilitate at The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

98 staff development workshops. Resultantly, there was a creation of unequal relations whereby the district education officials and the association of geography teachers viewed those teachers with GIS expertise (super-teachers) as a class above other humanities teachers. Tarisayi (2018) noted that the successful implementation of GIS in the new curriculum in Zimbabwe required staff development of geography teachers. Thus, it can be argued from this study that commercialisation of education was a challenge to teacher collegiality. The authors agree with Hazlewood and Bosher (2008) who argue that teacher collegiality thrives when all staff are equal and have an equal voice. Hence, we argue that the rise of ‘super teachers’ is contributing to the decay of teacher collegiality according to the participants in this study.

CONCLUDING REMARKS The ramifications of the micro commercialisation of education are intertwined to a certain extent. From the foregoing study findings, it was noted that the demise of seminars and the booming of extra lessons was not coincidental but related. The decline in appeal of seminars was caused by the financial rewards that teachers accrued from the extra lessons. Additionally, micro commercialisation of education contributed to the demise of the core values of teacher collegiality. Teacher collegiality in Zimbabwe manifested as teacher associations and participation in cluster-based seminars. Micro commercialisation was established by this study to have influences on teacher associations and cluster-based seminars. The study concluded that micro commercialisation of education affected school and teacher association activities. School and teacher association activities were important in promoting teacher collegiality prior to the micro commercialisation of education. This article widens the discourse on the ramifications of the economic decline on education in Zimbabwe by revealing the effects of micro commercialisation of education on teacher collegiality. From the foregoing discussion of findings in this study, we recommend that the responsible authorities should address the working conditions of teachers in order to dissuade the rampant micro commercialisation of education. Additionally, there should be a resuscitation of seminars as well as school and teacher association activities through the inducement of financial incentives. Deriving from the continuum put forward by Little (1990), we argue that teacher collegiality in Zimbabwe was at the joint work level prior to the deterioration in working conditions of the teacher. However, due to the micro commercialisation of education, joint work among humanities teachers has been severely hampered according to the conclusions from this study in one district in Zimbabwe.

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99 Goddard, Y.L. Goddard, R.D. & Tschannen-Moran, M. (2007) A theoretical and empirical investigation of teacher collaboration for school improvement and student achievement in public elementary schools.

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100 Tichigwa, K. (2012) An evaluation of the mushrooming of new independent college in Zimbabwe with special emphasis on the education of the urban child, 2000-2009. Zimbabwe Journal of Educational Research 24(1) pp.36-46.

Tshuma, R. & Bhebhe, S. (2016) The extent to which collegial supervision is utilized in Zimbabweâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 2-5-2 teaching practice towards continuous improvement of student teaching skills and competencies. Journal of Humanities and Social Science 21(2) pp.1-9.

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Practitionersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Corner

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Exploring learner-centred approaches in Business Studies grades 10-121 Moffat Xolani Majola, University of South Africa, South Africa

ABSTRACT This is a literature review of different scholars on learner-centred approaches to teach Business Studies in grades 10-12. The researcher engaged and reviewed literature in order to identify and analyse learnercentred approaches of teaching Business Studies in grades 10-12. Documents such as CAPS, Business Studies books and articles have been explored and analysed for the purpose of identifying learner-centred approaches to teach Business Studies. The objective is to identify and analyse different approaches that teachers can use to teach learners which engage and acknowledge the learner as knowledge producer.

The main focus today on teaching is how the learner learns the content rather than focusing on what they learn as well as how they will apply the content in real life situations such as a business environment whether owning or working in the business. Methodologies of teaching and learning are the primary focus now of teaching. You can be a content guru but it is useless if one does not have clear and usable strategies, approaches and methods of presenting the content to the learners to the extent that ensures learners understand and that they are able to apply the content. Constructivism theory is used to engage articles and elaborate on the learner-centred approaches. The author identified the following; oral presentation, learner-teacher (learner as a teacher), learners as designer of teaching and learning aids, question and answer method, group-discussion, problem-solving, project-based learning, case studies and simulation. It is recommended that teachers also make use of field trip in order to familiarise learners with their future environment (businesses as workplace, and/ or inviting successful entrepreneurs to motivate learners about business environment.1 Keywords: learner-centred approach, oral presentation, case study, project-based learning, gaming

INTRODUCTION The teaching and learning of Business Studies in grades 10 to 12 has drastically changed from being a subject that the content can be memorised and reproduced during assessment. It requires a lot of understanding and application. Traditional instructional methods use too many facts and not enough conceptualization; too much memorizing and not enough thinkingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Snyder & Snyder, 2008: 92).

Teaching is no longer about what you learn but how you learn. Some topics such as creative thinking and problem-solving teachers struggle to engage learners (Snyder & Snyder, 2008). It was often said that 1 Date of submission 14 May 2019 Date of review outcome 15 August 2019 Date of acceptance 6 March 2020

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102 Business Studies is easy, you just need to memorise characteristics, advantages and disadvantages for assessment. Any teacher that has learnt it from high school used to be given the subject to teach. Other schools also made it a general subject where every learner took the subject because they wanted to improve pass rates. Now it is a big challenge because it is no longer about memorising the concepts but is more about application of the content through assessment activities. It requires a person to have taken business studies as a major at tertiary level given that there are a lot of challenges by the Department of Education involving changing curriculum, policies and assessment strategies. All these challenges require a teacher to be equipped with the new content, new teaching and assessment methods. Teachers need to be familiar with and use teacher-centred approaches but the nature and expectations of the content and learners require that the learner and the teacher work together in exploring material and content. Kirby (2004) propose changes in the content and the process of learning in order to develop entrepreneurs and achieve desired outcomes.

Classroom interactions are at the heart of pedagogy. Therefore, any effort to reflect on these interactions is important in improving education instruction. I have taught in different types of schools - public schools and independent schools. I have also used different teaching methods such as group discussion, oral presentations, charts, group work and role play to engage and interact with learners. Such teaching methods and design assists one to think about the learner at the end of the course (assessment, taking notes, and asking questions). Therefore, this article presents an analysis of learner-centred approaches in Business Studies that teachers should explore and apply in order to ensure that learners become equal participants into content discussion, exploration and application. The researcher wants to ensure that teachers involve the learners from the start of the lesson to the end. Many scholars have written a lot about a learner-centred approach on the literature but the methods and strategies are not clearly outlined for teachers to use in class.

OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are to:

1. Equip the teacher for Business Studies with clear teaching methods specifically designed for the learner to discover knowledge and learn

2. Identify teaching methods and strategies that improve teaching effectiveness, motivate learning among learners and improve pass rates

3. Analyse the teaching methods that are learner-centred for Business Studies for grades 10-12.

LITERATURE REVIEW Learner-centred teaching and the goal of education has shifted from memorising facts to building competences, taking on responsibility, working effectively in teams and promoting creativity. Learners employ these assets as they are relevant in business field of study and work. Learners want to learn, interact, grow personally and solve real, authentic problems, when offered a resourceful environment and guidance (Motshning et al., 2016). A teacher needs to adopt a holistic theoretical approach which respects learners and views them as constructive participants. It is important to understand constructive theory of learning if you are interested in using learner-centred approaches. Constructivist theory on learning emphasises the active role of the learner in helping them to understand and analyse given information (Gravett, de Beer & du Plessis, 2018). The importance of this theory for this study is that it gives us clear direction on what will be the role of the learner in teaching and learning and therefore, the new role of instructors as a facilitator of learning and training which they have to attract all learners, guide and emphasise on debate in the courses. The question is how about learners? As far as the learners The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

103 are concerned, they have to be cooperative contributors not only listeners (Battou, 2017). The teacher can ensure that by choosing the right approach for a particular topic. Not all topics can be taught with one approach or method, each topic requires specific approach. The roles of learners and teachers will be clearly identified from each topic on the book, document analysis (lesson plan) and the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) document.

What is a learner-centred approach?

A learner-centred approach is a teaching approach that focuses on the individual learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experience and needs, as well as a focus on learning the content (Reigeluth, Beathy & Myers, 2017). It is a way of teaching that allows the learner to construct knowledge and skills in an environment where both the teacher and the learner learn together (Cheng et al., 2016). The role of the teacher is to guide the process of learning and to provide material so that learners can explore and discover knowledge and gain skills.

This approach of teaching and learning nurtures active meaning makers: learners must process new material and experiences and make sense of how new knowledge and skills apply to their environments (Cheng et al., 2016). Learners develop learning programmes and devise learning objectives to drive their learning. The expectation is that the learner determines the learning goals as well as how and/or when to achieve them. Every topic has clear activities for learners. This does not take away the work of the teacher in the class as the teacher must initiate the whole process by providing learning material, guiding the process to discovery and learning. It is a process of having learners engage in some activity that makes them reflect on new ideas and how they can use them, (Cheng et al., 2016). From this definition one can deduce that a learner-centred approach emphasises the freedom of the learner to choose the knowledge they learn and to explore further. This will depend on the need and use for that information and knowledge.

Why learner-centred approach?

Experience is the basis for learning, we can only say learning took place if three levels of development have been consistently addressed - learner intellect, social skills and attitude - in a climate of realness, respect and encompassing, emphatic understanding (Motschning et al., 2016). How the learner interacts with other learners, and how he she responds to real issues discussed or elaborated on in class has an influence on learning. Corporate social investment as a topic in business studies encourages social responsibility and human values such as Ubuntu; in the long run it encourages learners to participate in community project design to uplift poor communities. Learners could be asked to identify a community problem, and design how they would assist, minimise negative impact and consider who could be involved. Learners must be exposed to practical experiences that respect their abilities, for instance a teacher can ask learners to role play a topic in business studies (Team Dynamics) in class. â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;The ability to learn and understand something, and to form ideas, judgments, and opinions about what you have learnedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Cambridge Dictionaries online, 2019).

Within the learner-centred approach learners become more proactive, independent and responsible for both what they learn and how they learn (Battou, 2017). The teacher should allow learners to work independently with assistance from the teacher. Therefore, the lesson must provide a flexible framework, supportive environment and collaborative learning culture, with the focus on developing learners' critical thinking, problem solving and research skills (Snyder & Snyder, 2008). This enables them to become effective life-long learners. Learners are empowered to construct meaning through combining what they know with new information in order to creating new meaning (Cheng et al., 2016). This approach works better with a learner that believes that he/she has personal control of own learning and with a positive attitude towards new material and information as well as change. Before deciding that you will apply learner-centred approach to teaching, you must consider and understand the following principles as these will guide practice. Through answering the following questions, How learners learn? What motivates The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

104 them to learn? Why do they learn? Metacognitive and cognitive factors, affective factors, developmental factors, personal and social factors, individual differences, need to be considered.

Theory and practice of learner-centred approach Learning by doing and by learning from working on real projects.

A teacher or an instructor gives learners case studies in order to experience practical cases and solve problems. A teacher or school can use project-based learning or collaborative learning which fit most with the criteria of the learner-centred approach. The learner voice is very important when planning and implementing a learner-centred approach. How the learners explore and engage these activities should be at their discretion with guidance and a resourceful environment; learner engagement with content, learner learning, and long-term retention of knowledge (Cheng et al., 2016). The content is given to learners by the teacher to explore and discover knowledge and skills as the researcher argues that the teacher must be on the side guiding the learning process.

Teachers need to recognise and use learners as sources of knowledge, especially in a subject such as Business Studies because it is mainly done by teenagers in grades 10-12. Kassem (2018) argued that learners have better performance when they are encouraged to think instead of the teacher doing the thinking for them. They are given the chance to take control of their learning and progress. ‘Learnercenteredness creates a learning environment that promotes the highest levels of motivation and achievement for all learners’ (Kassem, 2018: 850). A teacher can make of use of the collaborative and cooperative approaches to learning. Collaborative learning is when learners work in group projects, discussion and presentation, learn – it is learning by doing (Snyder & Snyder, 2008). It can also be used to develop skills such as critical thinking, problem solving and communication.

Theory behind learner-centred approach Constructivism ‘Constructivism is a notion based on the belief that during the teaching and learning process learners construct their own knowledge and meaning through active learning and mental processes of development’ (Maphalala, 2016: 44). From this definition one can highlight the following terms; construct meaning, active learning and mental process. They clearly outline the activities of the learner during the lesson. This is asserting that classroom instruction will be learner centred and actively involve learners in the learning process (Maphalala, 2016). It is about generating knowledge without the teacher telling the learner what to do or by explaining concepts. This theory asserts that learners can construct knowledge and learn through social interactions with their peers but they must engage in an authentic task and have meaningful conversation about the task or topic (Reigeluth et al., 2017). Group work and discussion can facilitate this process and put this theory into practice. For instance, if you give learner a topic from Business Studies that is about contemporary socio-economic issues. Learners can discuss, HIV/Aids, unemployment, poverty and crime, etc. A learner must find resources in order to show that he/she is willing to learn. How learners respond to the work given shall give an indication of their willingness to learn. The teacher is expected to encourage critical thinking and to enable learners to explore and exchange information. A teacher can ask learners to design a poster with pictures that depict a particular topic on small, medium and large businesses, for instance. The teacher’s role according to this theory is to provide guidance while learners are analysing, manipulating knowledge, as well as to assess learners learning in the context of teaching.

Learner-centred pedagogy Learner-centred pedagogy is a view about the world, about the kind of people and the type of society we want to create through education, where education is seen as a commodity for the market (Carney, 2008).

‘Learner-centred pedagogy (LCP) has become a global pedagogy or “best practice”’ (Schweisfurth, 2011: The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

105 426). Every teacher is expected to apply this teaching style because learners become equal participants of the lesson. Countries like Namibia use LCP to improve access to equity, quality and democracy to education in schools (Nzabalirwa et al., 2019). In Rwanda after the genocide, work was done on reforming, evaluating and improving the education system including delivery. The new curriculum called ‘competency-based’ was introduced which explicitly promoted LCP as the preferred pedagogy.

This competency-based education focuses on the application of knowledge rather than on the definition of the content (Nzabalirwa et al. 2019). ‘Learner-centred is understood as an approach that addresses learners’ individual needs and background with active teaching methods that encourages learners to construct knowledge individually or in groups’ (Nzabalirwa et al., 2019: 68). It is based on the learning theory called ‘constructivism’. Constructivism within a learner-centred approach becomes a guiding philosophy that assumes that knowledge emerges through interactions, enabling learners to create new knowledge that interacts with their prior knowledge and experiences. A teacher is only tasked with steering the lesson in a particular direction but more especially creates the condition for learners to discover knowledge and interpret it (construct knowledge in the process). Classes become more participative through group discussion. This can also be said to for enquiry which can also be individual exercises.

Teaching and learning entrepreneurship in Business Studies ‘Entrepreneurship is the ability to create and build something’ (Kirby, 2004: 511). The primary aim is to satisfy needs in order to make profit. This chapter is taught from grades 10 to 12 in Business Studies, aiming to encourage learners to be entrepreneurs rather than workers. Somehow, teaching about the business environment, principles and management actually trains learners to be employees rather than employers. When you analyse the content structure for Business Studies from grades 10 to 12 the focus is on environments, principles management and challenges. The process of learning must enable the learner to develop their right brain rather than be taught about business and its environment (Kirby, 2004).

Teaching should focus on developing learners’ skills, attributes and behaviour of successful entrepreneurs.

Teaching the content is important but there is no guarantee that it will per se equip the learner to meet the challenges of entrepreneurship. Therefore, teaching must develop a way of thinking and behaving that enhances entrepreneurial capabilities and equips learners to meet the challenges of business (Kirby, 2004). This suggests a move from the narrow paradigm whereby the content and teaching process must equip the learner to thrive in the business world. Teachers must adopt an approach to learning that gives learners ownership of their learning which includes negotiating objectives, involves learners in problemsolving real business world situations and encourages learners to formulate decision on given information (Kirby, 2004). Creative thinking and problem solving are a prominent feature of every topic; encouraging teachers to develop the skills to teach and use these tools. Learners must ask questions that can help to critically analyse information given, could be the project or a case study.

Teaching creative thinking and problem solving in Business Studies Grades 10 to 12.

The following are topics that grades 10, 11 and 12 Business Studies learners should learn as part of the syllabus for the subject. ‘Creative thinking – process of putting facts, concepts, and principles together in new and original ways’ (Bounds et al., 2012: 94). Creative thinking is essential for any business person as it makes a good contribution towards business success. Preparing skilled employees through Business Studies involves teaching creative thinking and problem-solving skills but the main challenge is to engage learners in the teaching process. Instructional methods and activities are the solution for the problem of engaging learners in the process of learning creative thinking and problem-solving strategies. Snyder and Snyder (2008) argue that these topics encourage and train learners to be problems solvers whereby during the lesson they are actively involved in the process. Therefore, the learner must be actively involved in the process and develop the capacity to conceptualise, analyse and apply the information at hand.

Teaching these skills involves teaching the learner how to think while acknowledging that the content is important and that the process of learning is equally important.

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106 Teachers’ roles and responsibilities in the teaching and learning process of creative thinking include: design questions for discussion, identify case studies, design instructional material such as scenarios presenting problems, debate, guide learners towards a particular source of information rather than teaching the concepts (Snyder & Snyder, 2008). The next quote outlines how learners are included in the lesson with a clear intention of ensuring that they become users of information through questions. ‘Modelling can be demonstrated in a discussion setting by asking a question and “walking students through” the process of critically thinking’ (Snyder & Snyder, 2008: 90).

The main aim is to ensure that learners learn heuristically, where teachers let learners learn and discover information on their own. There are challenges with letting learners experiment, explore and analyse on their own; for instance, focusing on test scores because it detracts from the learning process and places the emphasis on the content which is rote learning (Snyder & Snyder, 2008). Another challenge is time constraints with a great deal of content to cover within a short time. This makes it difficult for teachers to focus on teaching methods and approaches that involves learners.

Concepts Kirby (2004) proposes changes to the content which must include the following concepts in the subject Business Studies; oral presentation, application of knowledge learnt through oral presentation, group discussion, project-based learning methods, case studies, business games and simulations.

Oral presentation Communication skills and interpersonal skills are being nurtured and tested through this teaching and assessment method. ‘Oral presentation skills are essential for employability and true academic study as they lead learners to enter into debate and sustained reasoning’ (Morley, 2006: 412). Business studies learners will be expected to use their communication skills when they interact with different people in the real business world. Communication skills are very important in each and every level of the business, e.g. an employee interacting with a customer, communication skills will be required to convince the customer to buy. Teaching learners to design effective oral presentations presupposes two goals, namely, enabling learners to function successfully in the future professional surrounding, and, preparing them for their possible further academic career (Zivkovic, 2014). This skill is embedded within the school and university curriculum (more especially for training teachers), which also improves language usage.

Learners must learn the skills of presenting business reports which are the key to decision making in a business (Chanderdeo et al., 2016). Through this topic in Business Studies, grade 10 learners develop support materials (charts, graphs, handouts) for the presentation, learn how to prepare for the verbal presentation and use audio-visual aids.

Learners must be trained on how to present and analyse content, but oral presentation learning will help them understand how to prepare, organise, and deliver information successfully (Zivkovic, 2014).

Therefore, learning how to present will help the teacher to know how to teach oral presentation and nurture the communication skill of learners which is important for their future academic and work life.

Hedge (2000) argues that teachers must offer learners many opportunities in order to improve their communication skill that will help them communicate their needs, ideas and opinions. This is achieved through presentation.

Application of knowledge learnt through oral presentation.

Why is oral presentation regarded as the learner-centred approach? It is because learners are involved in their own learning process as active participants; they are engaged in real-world experience, and they build creative and critical thinking and problem-solving skills as important characteristics for success in the 21st century (Zivkovic, 2014). The learners create an oral presentation with visual aids, following The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

107 the guidelines of the presentation. They can also use handouts, pictures, charts. The main aspect of presentation is how they will handle questions and negative feedback. Živković (2014) outlined the following benefits of oral presentation: • Learn communication skills especial in marketing

• Improve language usage

• Improve interaction between learners

• Help learners to collect, inquire, organise and construct information

• Enhance team work

• Help learners become active and autonomous learners.

Group discussion Teachers give learners a topic to discuss and present in class and that is why Zivkovic (2014) stated that the mastery of the subject topic and the good will to interact with others would allow them to actually, enjoy sharing their knowledge in a constructive way both for their audience and for themselves with structured planning and organisation. In Business Studies, learners can be given different topics for discussion in groups, which they can debate in teams or prepare for the presentation as a group. They are also advised to use visual aids as we know that there are two types of presentation (verbal and non-verbal). They can combine the chart, handouts with their oral presentation.

Project based learning methods This method is a unit which involves various types of selected activities. The project is completed in a social environment and through co-operation, and by performing objective based activities. ‘Individual or cooperative work that combines investigating the topic and present information in written form using photos, pictures, diagrams, etc.’ (Isman et al., 2011: 8). One of the formal assessment activities prescribed

by CAPS for Business Studies grades 10, 11 and 12 is a project, where learners are expected to go out to the local business and investigate how they conduct their businesses. Normally learners are given this task during the winter holidays to complete and submit it when schools are opening in mid-July. The project for Business Studies is learner centred because the learner is expected to reproduce knowledge.

During this process they develop research skills, discover new knowledge, have exposure to the ‘real world’ environment and develop confidence as well as independence (Isman et al, 2011). They further argue that it is authentic because learning takes place when the learner plans, implements and evaluates projects that have real world application beyond the classroom. Snyder and Snyder (2008) call it ‘workbased learning’ where learners learn through hands-on activities that require critical thinking and apply knowledge on a specific task. The learners themselves select the real business to study and on which to collect information. This method is based on two principles, self-study and learning by doing, the learner realises the dignity of labour since they themselves work. Jagtap (2015) capture this method correctly by acknowledging that the attitude for cooperative work is developed. Learners learn through doing. It develops the habit of accurate observation. Scientific thinking for problem-solving is developed. It also develops constructive and creative thinking. The teacher can facilitate learning content for the learner through the project based learning method in order to help learners understand the content on their own.

Case studies Case studies in business studies Case studies are stories that present realistic, complex, and contextually rich situations and often involve a dilemma, conflict, or problem that one or more of the characters in the case must negotiate (Beckisheva et al., 2015). The peculiarity of this active method of teaching is that it develops practical and critical thinking The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

108 as well as assists the learners not only to memorise and render the material which was given by the teacher but also involves them in the process of active thinking and practice. Snyder and Snyder (2008) argue that case studies teach critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Learners practice identifying the parameters of a problem, recognising and articulating positions, evaluating courses of action, and arguing different points of view with the case study (Beckisheva et al., 2015). In business studies, a case study could be, for example, about the success of a particular business in a community.

The main characteristic of a case study is that the scenarios apply the concepts learned in the classroom in the ‘real life’ situation which are presented in narrative form, and often include problem solving, links to some course readings or raw materials, and discussions by groups of learners or the whole class. Case studies serves as a vehicle for real information brought into the classroom to be explored by the teacher and the learner (Herriet, 2014 cited by Beckisheva et al., 2015). This information can be more helpful if it is presented sequentially so that the learners are able to analyse or criticise the situation or the problem.

Six steps to be followed when using the case study in class

1. Give the group enough time to read and think about the case.

2. Introduce the case and give some instruction for how to approach it, how you want learners to consider this problem.

3. Form groups and monitor them to be convinced that all the learners are involved in discussion.

4. Make groups present their solutions.

5. Ask questions for clarification and to move discussion to another level.

6. Synthesise issues raised.

Business games and simulations Active learning is a process through which the educator and learners engage in a frank and open learning environment (Farashahi & Tajeddin, 2018). Through simulations learners get to experiment learned knowledge, as well as to communicate and reinforce understanding of the concepts (Jameson, 1993). Simulation is the learning process through which the learner is the main player while the teacher is the provider of content. Learners are provided with an opportunity to experience the outcome of their decisions. The teacher is expected to spend time helping learners understand how to apply acquired knowledge (Jameson, 1993). The success of the game depends on the preliminary planning by the teacher. Learners integrate what they have learned, address complex problems, and get actively involved in the process of making decisions and experiencing consequences of their decisions. A good example for this narrative is a market day at school, where learners will design posters to advertise, place orders and sell different products for a day. Games can be used, such as ‘Ba Fa Ba Fa’ where learners from different cultural groups are grouped together and given a task to present ideas through a cocktail party. This game offers good opportunities for communication and creativity (Jameson, 1993). Diversity will offer different cultural backgrounds and set a stage for discussion and sharing of different ways of doing things. Learners will be able to learn with their feelings and their intellect as they use their cultures (Jameson, 1993). By putting this game into practice, a teacher can have each sector of the business represented and have class discussion about the way forward in a cocktail party simulation.

Document analysis According to the CAPS document (2013), the national curriculum statement grade R-12 is based on a number of principles but for the purpose of this article one principle has been identified to provide the basis for a learner-centred approach. ‘Active and critical learning: encouraging an active and critical approach to learning, rather than rote and uncritical learning give truths’ (CAPS, 2013: 4). Learners The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

109 should be taught and learn to question and analyse given facts (content) and be active during the lesson.

The CAPS document outlines the aims of the national curriculum statement grade R-12; which are to produce learners that are able to identify and solve problems an make decision using critical and creative thinking; work effectively as individuals and with others as members of a team; organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively; collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information (CAPS 2013: 4-5).

Problem solving and creative thinking is a prominent feature in Business Studies. Learners are expected to use creative thinking to solve problems, work in groups and take responsibility of their learning. Learners must take the initiative to discover knowledge and to analyse it; teaching them to be independent and become effective.

After analysing lesson plans for Business Studies designed by subject-advisors, one can clearly differentiate the roles of the teacher and learners for every lesson. Each step of the lesson has clear activities for the teacher and learners. These activities are determined and linked with learning goals, as well as designed to help learners achieve desired outcomes. The table below adapted from the Department of Education, Eastern Cape Lesson Plan Business Studies 2009 outlines the activities of the teacher and learners that will be done during the lesson. This clearly shows how the teachers plan to incorporate learners in the lesson and make sure that they have work to do from the beginning to the end.

Teacher’s Role

Learners’ Role

• T ogether research wants of interview

• T hey should identify the business environment where the business is going to operate.

(Questionnaires)

with the learners we will design a instrument to assess the needs and the environment (e.g. questionnaires, structure)

• I nform identified local businesses through a letter or visit • M onitor, evaluate and interact with the group presentation • Design activities (assessment)

• M ust work in groups to visits the local identified business • Report back by groups • Responds to questions asked while presenting.

• Engage activities as a form of assessment.

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Themes The following themes are derived from a thorough literature review, document analysis and the experience of the author.

A teacher as a facilitator Teachers are no longer expected to stand in front and talk while learners listen and take notes, after which they give learners assessment activities. With the term ‘facilitator’ famously used to describe a teacher, we can intertwine with a learner-centred approach of teaching because the teacher is only expected to provide opportunities for learners to explore, discover, engage and interpret information with given resources and favourable environment. The role of teacher is changing in smart and active learning methodologies; the teacher is a facilitator in learning (Jagtap, 2015). With the growth of technology in South Africa and communities are developing so the teachers’ roles need to be developed in order to meet the expectations of the economy, community, politics and education.

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110 A learner as knowledge constructor Constructivism theory allows the learner to discover, to interpret but more especially construct knowledge.

The learner-centred approach of teaching democratises learning (education), and facilitates the creation of knowledge through group discussion and enquiry. This process of learning is called â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;discovery learningâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.

A learner can do this individually and/or in group.

Group discussions A teacher can give learners a topic to discuss in groups, where a teacher uses cooperative learning.

Learner Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD), jigsaw and group investigation are techniques used to divide learners into groups. Jagtap (2015) argues that this is an active learning classroom method whereby teachers provide active learning opportunities such as exciting experiments in groups. Learners doing Business Studies can be given a task to visit a business and to conduct research and write a report on this business. This task is part of the requirements by the CAPS document as a formal assessment task.

A teacher can also ask learners to debate a particular topic in class. There are contesting topics in the curriculum of Business Studies such as management and leadership styles and theories, professionalism and ethics and citizenship roles and responsibilities.

Learner as a teacher A teacher will give one or two learners a topic a day before the lesson to explain to other learners and facilitate learning by providing and illustrating examples. They can ask other learners a question or vice versa. The learner answers the question but the teacher can also come in and further explain the points (content). Learners enjoy this opportunity of becoming knowledge producers and analysts. Learners get easily bored when the teacher applies the lecture method every lesson.

Learner as a designer of teaching and learning aids A teacher can ask learners to choose a topic from the book and design a chart with a mind-map with the use of pictures. Pictures must be relevant to or explain the chosen topic. The chart must summarise the whole topic without being explained. Most of the teachers will ask learners to design a poster for the market day at school.

ICT as an aid to teaching and learning Historically, school was a place to teach and learn; whereby the teacher facilitates learning through books. The availability of books allowed the learner to take responsibility for his or her learning at a school and/or home but information and communication technology (ICT) makes it more convenient for the learner to learn anywhere at his or her convenience (Moursund, 2015). It has become a pedagogy and tool for discovering, translating and exploring knowledge for both teachers and learners. ICT as curriculum content has an impact on other disciplines such as languages, arts, maths and social sciences.

It is therefore important because learners gain so many skills when doing or using presentation media (Moursund, 2015). Computers with internet connections are becoming household items, therefore as teachers we need to embrace that and use it to our advantage in ensuring that learners learn. More and more learners are being exposed to gadgets and the internet. Learner-centred approaches encourage the exploitation of the opportunities that are provided by ICT and the Internet. A teacher can use technology and create instructional videos and interactive lessons. According to JagodiÄ? and Dermol (2015), learners can use some of the following tools in order to learn a subject such as Business Studies which are used in private and religious independent schools, such as computers, internet connections, interactive whiteboard and software. These tools offer learners an opportunity to search information on their own.

The internet as a software is used to search information. The interactive whiteboard can be used to present information, supporting oral presentation. Van Wyk (2015) argues that the effectiveness of ICT in teaching The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

111 and learning depends on the access to the above-mentioned tools, and/or the advantage of the internet is that it is accessible anywhere ay anytime. Business people use ICT to run the business; therefore, learners must learn how to use these tools in school in the way of preparing them for future jobs. ‘Computer use during lessons motivates learners to continue using this means of learning outside school hours’ (Van Wyk, 2015: 82). It encourages learners to learn independently and become responsible for the school work.

Examples of this are discovery and research learning, whereby they use the internet and learn more about a topic.

CONCLUSION This paper has identified project-based learning, discussion, simulations, learner as a teacher, oral presentation, the use of ICT in a learner-centred approach that teachers can use to involve learners actively in Business Studies. Analysis of why and how to use the above-mentioned instructional methods has been done in terms of how to teach certain topics in Business Studies. Document analysis provided a clear outline of teacher and learner activities done during every lesson. Gray (2010) argues that communication skills must be transferred from the classroom to the workplace. One could ask how the teacher can do this?

A field trip or excursion is a good example where the teacher organises with different companies to allow learners to do a research project. Learners can visit the companies and shadow the managers for a day.

Learning through a project can be very helpful if teachers can design it correctly and ensure that learners understand what is expected of them when they go out and collect information about a particular topic.

Teacher must perceive learners as users of information rather than receivers of information. The success of this proposal of perceiving learners as users of information depends on teachers adopting instructional methods that involve the learners evaluating and applying information.

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112 Farashahi, M. & Tajeddin, M. (2018) Effectiveness of teaching methods in business education: A comparison study on the learning outcomes of lectures, case studies and simulations. The International Journal of Management Education 16(1) pp.131-142.

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113 Schweisfurth, M. (2011) Learner-centred education in developing country context: from solution to problem? International Journal of De Educational Development 31(2011) pp.425-432.

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Doctoral Corner

114

RESEARCH TITLE

Professional development: Mathematics teachers’ implementation of formative assessment strategies Name: Dr Adriana (A.) van der Nest Supervisors: Professor Caroline (C.) Long

Professor Johannes Cornelis (J.C.) Engelbrecht Institution: University of Pretoria, South Africa Year of Award: 2018 Qualification: PhD

ABSTRACT Although buoyed by the induction of a democratic government, and the high ideals of our constitution, the South African education system has in many ways not met the expectations of its people, in this case, the mathematics education community. With the birth of an expansive intended curriculum came the monitoring of the outcomes through systemic type testing, the so-called attained curriculum. In time, it became clear that the inevitable ‘teaching to the test’ would constitute a narrowing of the implemented curriculum. Too much emphasis on systemic test results also resulted in summative assessment (assessment of learning) dominating instructional practices, neglecting other important curricular goals and content, and reliance on only one source of external monitoring to determine learner success in mathematics.

Literature on formative assessment (assessment for learning) reveals great potential for significant improvements in student achievement. However, little is known about mathematics teachers understanding and experiences of formative assessment strategies as an approach to teacher professional development.

To counteract these, a project titled Assessment Enhanced Teaching and Learning (AETL) has been initiated to provide Grade 9 mathematics teachers and learners with curriculum aligned formative assessment tasks at strategic points throughout the year.

Against the background of the poor mathematics performance levels in South Africa, interventions for effective teacher development programmes to support practising mathematics teachers are much needed in the country. The review of literature, however, revealed a need for a deepening of understanding regarding the learning processes involved in implementing effective Professional Development (PD) programmes. The literature on Formative Assessment (FA) reveals great potential for significant improvements in student achievement. However, little is known about mathematics teachers’ understanding and experiences of formative assessment strategies as an approach to teacher professional development. To counteract these, a project titled Assessment Enhanced Teaching and Learning (AETL) has been initiated to provide Grade 9

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115 mathematics teachers and learners with curriculum-aligned formative assessment tasks at strategic points throughout the year.

In this study, I explored the understanding and experiences of professional growth of nine Grade 9 mathematics teachers from five different schools in the Pretoria (Tshwane) region as they participated in the AETL project. Through a qualitative case study design I was able to explore, analyse and describe the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; understanding and implementation of formative assessment strategies and their perceptions regarding its influence on their professional growth.

The findings indicate a strong sense of motivation to participate in professional development interventions through the need to excel in systemic type testing. The overall results suggest that systemic testing, in particular the ANAs (Annual National Assessments), seems to be the most influential factor on the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; instructional and assessment practices. However, in the course of gathering the data, other issues emerged, for example, that teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; conceptualisation of formative assessment is often misunderstood and not optimally utilised in the learning process. The most challenging factor experienced by the participants seems to be a lack of time and/or skills to accommodate the wide range of learner abilities in one class. It is therefore recommended that further research, beyond the scope of this study, be carried out to investigate these issues.

It was further revealed that the teachers experienced professional growth as a direct result of their involvement in the refinement and implementation of formative assessment strategies.

Keywords: formative assessment, assessment for learning, mathematics teachers; professional development; teacher learning The full thesis can be found at http://hdl.handle.net/2263/70029

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116 RESEARCH TITLE

Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; negotiation of practice education in occupational therapy: a case study Name: Dr Matumo Catherine (M.C.) Ramafikeng Supervisors: Associate Professor Rochelle (R.) Kapp

Professor Elelwani (E.L.) Ramugondo Institution: University of Cape Town, South Africa Year of Award: 2018 Qualification: PhD

ABSTRACT There are persistent problems with the graduation rates of black Occupational Therapy students. The transition from classroom to the practice-based component of occupational therapy education is particularly challenging, and yet, very little research has been conducted on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning in this area. This study explores learning processes in practice education as experienced by African language speakers studying occupational therapy in a relatively elite English medium university in South Africa. The thesis draws on poststructuralist theory to describe and analyse the complex ways in which three students experience, interpret and act within the multiple teaching and learning spaces that characterise the transition to practice education. A single instrumental qualitative case study design was adopted and semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and document reviews were conducted. Methods of analysis included discourse analysis, thematic analysis and genre analysis. The findings show the complexity of the process of negotiating access to the occupational therapy practice education discourse. This process was marked by navigation of issues that stem from language, curriculum, pedagogy and identity. Three themes emerged that signal creative ways in which participants navigated these issues. These are; enacting primary and previous secondary discourses, negotiating and re-negotiating identities and discovering curriculum expectations through trial-and-error. The findings question commonplace assumptions that language is the reason why African language speakers struggle with the transition from theory to practice. While language is central to learning, the study illustrates the multiple ways in which aspects of practice and the relationship between theory and practice are implicit. The study also shows ways in which varying expectations, past experiences of learning and mismatches between curriculum aims, pedagogy and assessment impact on how students learn. The study also highlights the ways in which the resources that students bring into the academy such as their multilingualism and life experiences, are often undervalued within the practice education context. These findings will be useful in guiding the development of curriculum and pedagogic practices that embrace and value diversity. This thesis recommends a shift of

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117 perspective in understanding learning in the practice context that conceives of students as social beings engaged in social practices.

Keywords: occupational therapy, student learning; primary and secondary discourse, African language speakers, practice education, theory in practice, curriculum, South Africa The full thesis can be found at https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/28382

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118 RESEARCH TITLE

Jigsaw co-operative learning strategy integrated with GeoGebra: a tool for content knowledge development of intermediate Calculus for first year undergraduate learners of two public universities in Ethiopia Name: Dr Sirak Tsegaye (S.T.) Yimer Supervisor: Professor Nosisi Nellie (N.N.) Feza Institution: University of South Africa, South Africa Year of Award: 2020 Qualification: PhD

ABSTRACT Intermediate calculus bridges secondary school and advanced university mathematics courses. Most mathematics education research literatures indicated that the conceptual knowledge in intermediate calculus has challenged first year undergraduate mathematics and science learners to a great extent through the lecture method. The content knowledge attained by them has been tremendously decreasing.

Negative attitude exhibited by students toward calculus was highly influenced by the lecture method used. Generally, students have not looked at the learning of all mathematics courses offered in universities as normal as other courses. Due to this lack of background conceptual knowledge in learners, they have been highly frustrated by the learning of advanced mathematics courses. Taking the understanding of teaching and learning challenge of conceptual knowledge of calculus into consideration, Ethiopian public universities have been encouraging instructors to devise and implement active learning methods through any professional development training opportunity. The training was aimed to enhance learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; content knowledge and attitude towards calculus. This is one of the main reasons for the motivation of this study that experimental group learners were allowed to be nurtured by the lecture method in their mainstream class, and then also the active learning intervention method integrated with GeoGebra in the mathematics laboratory class. Only conventional lecture method was used to teach the comparison group in both the mainstream and mathematics laboratory class. The purpose of the study was to explore the Gambari and Yusuf (2016) stimulus of the jigsaw co-operative learning method combined with GeoGebra (JCLGS) on statistics and chemistry learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; content knowledge improvement and change of their attitude towards calculus. The post-positivism mixed methods tactic was used in a non-equivalent pre- and posttest comparison group quasi-experimental design. The population of the study was the whole freshman mathematics and science degree program learners of two public universities in Ethiopia in 2017. Samples of the size 150 in both the experimental and comparison groups were drawn utilizing two-stage random sampling technique. A questionnaire using a Likert-scale on attitudes and an achievement test were sources used for data collection. Data analysis employed descriptive statistics conducting an independent samples t-test and a Two Way ANOVA for repeated measures using SPSS23. Each of the findings on content The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

119 knowledge, conceptual knowledge, and procedural knowledge development produced through the TWO-Way ANOVA, respectively as F(1,148)=80.917; đ?&#x153;&#x201A;2=.353; p<.01, F(1,148)=106.913; đ?&#x153;&#x201A;2=.419; p<.01, and F(1,148)=7.328; đ?&#x153;&#x201A;2=.047; p<.01, revealed a statistically significant difference between the treatment and comparison groups from pre-test to post-test. These findings show that the experimental group participants were highly beneficial in developing their content knowledge and conceptual knowledge through the active learning approach and technology-based learning strategy using Vygotskyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sociocultural learning theory. The JCLGS learning environment representing Vygotskyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s socio-cultural learning theory modestly influenced the procedural knowledge learning of the experimental group learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.

Although the lecture method affected the comparison group studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; knowledge development in calculus during the academic semester, the impact was not comparable to that of the active learning approach and technology-based learning strategy. The major reason for this was the attention and care given to the active learning intervention integrated with GeoGebra by the researcher, data collectors, and research participants. Overall findings showed that the active learning intervention allowed the experimental group students to considerably enhance their conceptual knowledge and content knowledge in calculus. Learners also positively changed their opinion towards calculus and GeoGebra. The intervention was a group interactive environment that allowed studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; to be reflective, share prior experience and knowledge, and independent learners. As a matter of fact, educators are advised to model such a combination of active learning approach and technology-based learning strategy in their classroom instructional setting and practices. Consequently, their learners will adequately benefit to understand the subject matter and positively change their opinion towards university mathematics.

Keywords: active learning strategy; attitude, computer-assisted learning, conceptual knowledge, content knowledge, first-year undergraduate university learners, GeoGebra, intermediate calculus achievement, jigsaw co-operative method, knowledge development, procedural knowledge The full thesis can be found at http://hdl.handle.net/10500/26355

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

120 RESEARCH TITLE

Utilising linkography to understand the cognitive mechanisms of technology learners during the design process Name: Dr Nicolaas (N.) Blom Supervisors: Professor Ronél (R.) Ferreira

Dr Alfred Edward Jules (A.E.J.) Bogaers

Dr Maria Margaretha Catharina (M.M.C.) (Grietjie) Haupt Institution: University of Pretoria, South Africa Year of Award: 2019 Qualification: PhD

ABSTRACT The 21st century is marked by an increase in information sources available to designers when solving design problems. Current design thinking procedures and theoretical frameworks do not, however, elucidate how designers rely on a variety of social, conceptual and physical information sources when designing. As such, ongoing research is required to not only understand how designers interact with information sources, but also to find suitable methodologies for investigating such interactions. The purpose of this study was threefold. Theoretically, I aimed to explore and describe how Grade 8 learners’ thoughts can develop during the design process as a result of their interactions with social, conceptual and physical structures during a STEM task. Methodologically, I attempted to demonstrate the implementation of linkography as an emerging methodological strategy when studying learners’ thought processes. Finally, I developed a model of learners’ extended design cognition during the early phases of the design process that may hold practical application value for pre-service and in-service teachers. My study is embedded in Extended Design Cognition and Activity Systems Theory. I implemented a mixed methods design, following a critical realist approach. I conveniently sampled three medium-resourced schools and purposefully selected nine Grade 8 participants. Verbal (spoken and written) and visual (sketches, 3D models and gestures) data were generated and documented by means of Think Aloud Protocol methodology, and analysed quantitatively and qualitatively, utilising linkography. This study makes an ontological contribution in terms of the basic structures, mechanisms and events underpinning learners’ design processes. Findings indicate that learners will synthesise their understanding of a design problem and possible solutions by way of incremental forward and backward design moves, while building on their own and one another’s thoughts during collaborative designing. Although the participants engaged actively with technological knowledge, they rarely used scientific knowledge. The physical environment however played a vital role in scaffolding and supporting their design processes by means of perception-action cycles.

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

121 Keywords: Activity Systems Theory, critical realism, design cognition, Ecological Psychology, extended cognition, linkography, novice designers, STEM education, Technology Education, Think aloud protocol study (TAPS) The full thesis can be found at http://hdl.handle.net/2263/71703

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

122 List of reviewers

The editors wish to express their gratitude to the following experts who offered their knowledge and insights in the double-blind peer review process, thus ensuring all authors received valuable feedback: • Dr W. Engelbrecht, The Independent Institute of Education, South Africa • Professor A. Gouws, Stellenbosch University, South Africa • Dr C. Govender, University of Johannesburg, South Africa • Dr M. Harran, Nelson Mandela University, South Africa and STADIO Multiversity, South Africa • Dr I. Kok, North-West University, South Africa • Dr Z. Made, Nelson Mandela University, South Africa • Dr T. Makhalemele, North-West University, South Africa • Dr R. Makoni, Africa University, Zimbabwe • Professor R. Mampane, University of Pretoria, South Africa • Professor N. Mdzanga, Nelson Mandela University, South Africa • Dr A.J. Meintjes, North-West University, South Africa • Dr J. Miller, The University of Virginia, Curry School of Education, USA • Dr M. Moen, University of Pretoria, South Africa • Dr K. Nabb, University of Wisconsin, Wisconsin (WI), USA • Professor R. Naidoo, University of South Africa, South Africa • Dr L. Nel, University of the Free State, South Africa • Professor R. Newton, Robert Gordon University, United Kingdom • Dr M. Ooko, University of Pretoria, South Africa • N. Robinson, Oxford University, United Kingdom • Dr R.D. Sekao, University of Pretoria, South Africa • Dr N. Shaikhnag, North-West University, South Africa • Dr C. Simuja, Rhodes University, South Africa

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

Notes for contributors

Manuscripts should be submitted online at htttps://ijtl.iie.ac.za They should be typed in one-and-a-half spacing, Times New Roman, font size 12, in A4 format, in MS Word. Manuscripts should generally not exceed 6000 words in length, excluding tables, figures and references. The overall style for abstract, title, headings, figures and references should be in accordance with the Harvard reference style. Tables and figures should be numbered using Arabic numerals. Each manuscript should be accompanied by all the requirements on the checklist that appear on the journal website. Click on the Publish in IJTL Tab on https://ijtl.iie.ac.za/Publish-In-IJTL Manuscripts that do not meet these requirements will not be considered for publication.

Proofs will be sent to authors if there is sufficient time to do so. They should be corrected and returned within 48 hours of receipt. The Editor reserves the right to publish without proofs having been signed off by the author.

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 15 (1) / 2020 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd

The Independent Institute of Education is a private higher education institution operating across 21 sites offering more than 90 registered and accredited higher education programmes from Higher Certificate to Masters level on its Varsity College, Vega, and Rosebank College sites. The IIE also offers a range of Short Learning Programmes. The IIE is accredited by the British Accreditation Council as an Independent Higher Education Institution.

The IIE has multiple associations and endorsements with leading organisations and professional bodies and works with several other public and private higher education institutions.

The IIE brands have sites across South Africa; qualifications which are offered on the sites are directly linked to their mission and target student market. This means that students on each site will be able to study with other students with similar interests and ambitions. The IIE also offers qualifications in the distance mode of delivery. The flagship programme is a Postgraduate Diploma in Higher Education.

The IIE has a strong central national academic and quality assurance team based in Sandton that provides academic leadership for the sites and qualifications across the country. The team is also responsible for the registration, curriculum, quality of delivery, and assessment and certification (graduation) of all the qualifications, meaning that students on a site in one city receive an educational experience that is guaranteed to match that which is offered in any other city. This experience includes the same access to key academic resources and facilities. Each site adds to this academic base with its own specific group of well-qualified lecturers who are subject-matter and discipline experts, and collectively have a wealth of knowledge and industry-based experience in the areas in which they teach, as well as the individualised student support that the sites give. An IIE student is, therefore, rounded both academically and socially, thus maximising student success.

The IIE is a founding member of SA Private Higher Education (SAPHE). This is an association of South Africa's leading private providers of higher education which has two objectives. Firstly, to promote the understanding of the general public about the role that private higher education plays in offering choices to students; secondly, to promote the quality of provision and thirdly to play an advocacy role with the regulators. The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning, as a peer-reviewed journal that appears on the DHETâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approved list of South African accredited journals, is one of the many ways in which The IIE is ensuring academic leadership within the higher education landscape of South Africa and, in particular, in private higher education.

For more information about The IIE, its academic opportunities, qualifications offered and sites of delivery, or SAPHE, please go to www.iie.ac.za or email info@iie.ac.za

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