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This publication is part of the Nutrition & You series of booklets which focuses on healthy eating across the life stages. The series is endorsed by the Irish Nutrition and Dietetic Institute and includes specific editions on nutrition for children, teenagers, adults and those over 50 years. These booklets are based on the Irish Department of Health Guidelines for Healthy Eating. This booklet also incorporates the Guiding Principles for Sustainable Healthy Diets, produced by the United Nations and the World Health Organisation in 2019, which we suggest as additional reading.
Contents Eating sustainably – what does it mean?
1
How does the food we eat impact climate change?
2
General principles of a healthy, sustainable diet
4
What about plant-based diets? 8 Nutritional considerations for plant-only (vegan) diets
9
Does dairy belong in a sustainable diet?
11
Making sustainable food choices 14 Reducing food loss and waste 16 Other ways we can reduce our carbon footprint
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Additional reading 19
EATING SUSTAINABLY – WHAT DOES IT MEAN? How we choose to eat is driven by several factors including our personal preferences; social, ethical and economic influences; and our growing knowledge about nutrition. Eating sustainably involves all of us adapting how we continue to eat in order to sustain our health, the health of future generations and the health of our planet. It is about balancing the most acceptable dietary choices against the optimal use of resources. This means that sustainable eating patterns can vary, depending on where we are in the world.
A sustainable diet Sustainable diets are commonly considered as eating patterns that simply focus on reducing climate change; however, they encompass much more than this and could not be ‘sustainable’ if they focused on this issue alone. As the name suggests, sustainable diets must be something we can maintain in the long term. Therefore, they should be1: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Nutritionally adequate, safe and healthy Culturally acceptable and accessible Economically fair and affordable Environmentally protective (respectful of biodiversity and ecosystems)
The emphasis on each of these pillars needs to be adjusted so that there is harmony between them e.g. an environmentally friendly diet will not be feasible if it lacks adequate nutrition and vice versa. As figure 1 suggests, balancing each one in relation to the other, supports sustainability. Figure 1: The components of a sustainable diet1 1
1
FAO and WHO. 2019. Sustainable healthy diets – Guiding principles. Rome.
HOW DOES THE FOOD WE EAT IMPACT CLIMATE CHANGE? Climate change is an urgent, global issue. As society expands and develops, a range of activities in our everyday lives are producing an excessive rise in greenhouse gas emissions. The accumulation of these gases in the atmosphere is causing global warming. Greenhouse gases arise from several activities, as outlined in figure 2. Energy
Transport
(e.g. electricity, oil, gas)
(e.g. aviation, road vehicles)
Industry
(e.g. electronics, air conditioning)
Agriculture
Waste
(e.g. ruminants, fertilisers)
(e.g. incineration)
Global Warming Climate Change
Figure 2: Human activities which contribute to greenhouse gas emissions
In addition to climate change, these activities can also damage the natural balance of our ecosystems and cause a loss of biodiversity. Increasing global temperatures can result in rising sea levels, floods and extreme weather, such as heatwaves. These factors can have various indirect effects on the health of plants, animals and humans. For example, a severe drought can cause crop failure, which in turn impacts food supply. As well as using up natural resources such as land and water, food production involves many of the activities outlined in figure 2. These stretch from the impacts of agriculture and fishing, to manufacturing, packaging, transport and finally, to food waste. It is estimated that food systems are responsible for 20-35% of global greenhouse gas emissions1. Therefore, food production is one area that needs to be addressed when tackling climate change.
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Despite the environmental cost of food production, food is essential for our survival and good nutrition is vital for health. In fact, the number of people the world must feed is growing. It is estimated that the world population will reach 9.7 billion by 2050 and food production would need to increase by 50% to meet these demands. This brings an urgent need for more efficient solutions to producing enough nutritious food, while minimising the impact on the planet as much as possible.
2 billion overweight or obese
Today
2050
Food production must increase by 50%
820 million undernourished
1/3 of food is lost or wasted
There are approximately 7.3 billion people on Earth today.
By 2050, the world population will grow to an estimated 9.7 billion.
Figure 3: The challenge of feeding a growing population if no changes are made
Are some foods worse than others? In a broad sense, foods of animal origin tend to have a greater environmental impact compared to foods of plant origin. However, there are exceptions and it is over-simplistic to consider whole categories of food as either ‘good’ or ‘bad’. To fully evaluate the impact, comparisons between foods need to consider other important factors such as the quantity that is usually eaten, the nutritional value and the production method. To meet the nutrient needs of a growing global population without overwhelming the planet, animals and plants should not be thought of as competing entities, but rather as complementary food sources that provide different benefits.
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF A HEALTHY, SUSTAINABLE DIET Unhealthy diets are one of the main contributors to poor health and disease risk globally. Together, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO), have set out guiding principles for sustainable, healthy diets. These principles aim to provide clarity, due to confusion and diverging views in this area. They are focused on supporting population health, biodiversity and the health of the planet. The Healthy Ireland Food Pyramid is the guide used by the Department of Health to promote a healthy balanced diet, which is culturally acceptable and economically affordable for the Irish population. The following tips for eating sustainably are based on both the Irish dietary guidelines and the FAO/WHO guiding principles: 1. Include an abundance and variety of fruit and vegetables These should form the base of the diet and should be included in meals and snacks across the day. Vegetables, salad and fruit provide fibre and a wide range of vitamins and minerals for good health. Enjoy a rainbow of colours, as the natural variety of colours in these foods provide a range of protective nutrients. In season, locally sourced produce is the best choice. Frozen or preserved options are great too (see page 17). Serving examples: 1 medium apple; 16 raspberries; ½ cup of cooked vegetables; a bowl of salad or homemade vegetable soup.
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2. Include wholegrains and high fibre carbohydrates These unrefined foods are important for providing energy and fibre, which supports metabolism and a healthy digestive system. The number of servings needed (4-7) depends on body size, activity levels, age and gender. Serving examples: 2 thin slices of wholemeal soda bread; ½3 cup dried porridge oats; 1 cup cooked brown rice; 2 medium potatoes. 3. Include moderate amounts of dairy Best known for their calcium content, milk, yogurt and cheese also provide a wide range of other essential nutrients including protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamin A, B vitamins, potassium, phosphorus, iodine and zinc. In Ireland, most adults fall short of the recommended moderate intake of 3 servings per day. Only 13% of adults meet this guideline, with an average intake of 2 servings per day. Serving examples: A 200ml glass of milk; a 125g pot of yogurt; or a 25g piece of cheese. For more on the role of dairy as part of a healthy sustainable diet, see pages 11-13.
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4. Include legumes and nuts; moderate amounts of eggs, poultry and fish; and small amounts of red meat This is a diverse food group, recognised for its protein content. Protein is an essential nutrient across the life stages, with several important functions. These foods also provide a range of micronutrients, such as iron. The notable message for these protein-rich foods is to choose different foods on different days (2 servings per day) and be mindful of the appropriate portion size. Serving examples: ¾ cup cooked beans, peas or lentils; 2 eggs; 50-75g cooked meat (including poultry), 100g cooked fish or tofu; 40g unsalted nuts or seeds. The National Adult Nutrition Survey indicates that most Irish adults exceed the recommendations for meat, consuming an average daily intake of 134g. While lean red meat plays an important role in the diet by providing valuable nutrients, it is also associated with greater greenhouse gas emissions. On balance, it is recommended 2-3 times per week and processed meats should be limited. Oily fish (e.g. salmon or mackerel) should be eaten up to twice a week – look out for the ‘Responsibly Sourced Seafood’ logo for a more sustainable choice. 5. Include safe tap-water as the fluid of choice Fluid requirements vary but most adults need about 2-2.5L per day. This equates to about 8 glasses of fluid, with the rest coming from food. Drinking-water from the tap is the most sustainable choice, as it avoids packaging. Remember that alcoholic beverages and soft drinks should be limited. They contribute to greenhouse gas emissions like other foods and drinks, but they are not necessary for health.
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6. Try not to consume more than you need Eating excess food is a form of food waste and contributes to weight gain. With over 60% of Irish adults overweight or obese, excess intake is something that we need to address for health, sustainability and economic impact. Be mindful of appropriate serving sizes. Avoid highly processed, pre-packaged foods and foods that are high in fat, sugar and salt.
Like all healthy diets, eating sustainably focuses on an eating pattern that is abundant in plants (fruit, vegetables and wholegrains), with moderate amounts of nutrient-dense protein foods, smaller amounts of healthy fats and limited intake of less nutritious, processed foods.
Healthy Food for Life
www.healthyireland.ie
Not needed for good health.
The Food Pyramid
For adults, teenagers and children aged five and over
Foods and drinks high in fat, sugar and salt
Maximum once or twice a week
In very small amounts
Fats, spreads and oils Needed for good health. Enjoy a variety every day.
!
NOT every day
Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, beans and nuts
2
Servings a day
3
Milk, yogurt and cheese
Servings a day
Wholemeal cereals and breads, potatoes, pasta and rice
5 for children age 9–12 and teenagers age 13–18
3-5*
Servings a day
Vegetables, salad and fruit
Up to 7* for teenage boys and men age 19–50
5-7
Servings a day
*Daily Servings Guide – wholemeal cereals and breads, potatoes, pasta and rice Active
Child (5–12)
Teenager (13–18)
Adult (19–50)
Adult (51+)
Teenager (13–18)
Adult (19–50)
Adult (51+)
3–4
4
4–5
3–4
3
3–4
3
3–5
5–7
5–7
4–5
4–5
4–6
4
Inactive
There is no guideline for inactive children as it is essential that all children are active.
Drink at least 8 cups of fluid a day – water is best
Get Active! To maintain a healthy weight adults need at least 30 minutes a day of moderate activity on 5 days a week (or 150 minutes a week); children need to be active at a moderate to vigorous level for at least 60 minutes every day.
Source: Department of Health/Health Service Executive 2016.
Figure 4: The Department of Health Guidelines for Healthy Eating
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WHAT ABOUT PLANT-BASED DIETS? A trend towards ‘plant-based’ eating has grown in recent years, alongside a popular rise in ‘flexitarian’ and vegan diets. Although often understood to be plant-only, plant-based diets actually include a broad category of dietary patterns. These range from those that are simply high in plant products (e.g. healthy eating guidelines), to those that exclude some animal products (vegetarian), or those that exclude all animal products (vegan). Diets that are rich in fruit, vegetables, wholegrains, pulses, nuts and seeds have long been promoted as part of dietary guidelines for human health. More recently, they are also recognised as being better for the environment. However, it is important to remember that not all plant foods have the same nutritional benefits (e.g. broccoli, berries, chips, bread). Therefore, choosing nutrient-rich foods is key. In addition, many animal-based foods can play an important role in a sustainable, healthy diet (e.g. dairy, see page 10). While vegetarian and vegan diets generally have a lower environmental impact, they are not the single solution in achieving a sustainable eating pattern; and they may not be a feasible option for all sectors of society.
For other lifestyle choices we can make to lower our environmental impact, see page 16.
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NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PLANT-ONLY (VEGAN) DIETS Like all dietary patterns, balance is key when it comes to vegan diets, because they too can vary from being nutritionally complete to being unbalanced or lacking in some nutrients. Likewise, depending on the type and origin of foods in a vegan diet, the environmental impact can vary. As vegan diets restrict all animal foods, care should be taken to avoid any nutrient shortfalls. In these cases, a registered nutrition professional such as a dietitian can help to identify where dietary adjustments should be made to optimise nutrient intakes or whether supplements may be needed. Common considerations include: Protein composition Animal proteins are ‘complete’, which means they contain all of the essential components (amino acids) that the body needs. Plant proteins tend to be ‘incomplete’. However combining different sources throughout the day increases the variety of amino acids. For example, combining brown rice with lentils or sweetcorn with black beans makes the overall amino acid intake more complete. Soaking dried pulses, such as beans, for 8 hours helps to improve protein digestion. Vitamin B12 Animal foods are the key provider of vitamin B12 and it is not naturally present in plant foods. Therefore, to avoid deficiency, those excluding animal products should consume vitamin B12 fortified foods and drinks. A supplement is usually necessary. Omega-3 fats Oily fish is one of the best sources of omega-3 fats. Therefore, it is important to include alternative sources such as walnuts, hemp seeds, flax/linseeds, rapeseed oil or the oils of these seeds and nuts. A supplement may be necessary.
cle Mus th l a e H
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Immune Function
Brain Health
Vitamin D Known as the sunshine vitamin, this important nutrient is low in a variety of diets. In Ireland, we are particularly reliant on dietary sources due to the lack of appropriate sunshine. For those excluding oily fish and eggs, vitamin D fortified foods and drinks are a good source. A daily supplement of 5-10 μg per day is usually advised. Iron Plant sources of iron tend to be less bioavailable. Therefore, for those that don’t consume meat, try to enhance iron absorption from plants by combining food sources such as green leafy vegetables, wholegrains, seeds or pulses with foods that are rich in vitamin C (e.g. tomatoes, peppers, strawberries or oranges). Calcium Meeting calcium requirements can be more challenging without dairy in the diet. Therefore, it is important to include other sources such as green leafy vegetables, dried figs, almonds, kidney beans, tahini, tofu or foods and drinks which are fortified with calcium. Remember that some plant sources contain phytates (e.g. legumes) and oxalates (e.g. spinach) which inhibit calcium absorption, making these sources less available for use by the body. Iodine Dairy foods and white fish are the primary providers of dietary iodine. For those following a plant-only diet, iodine can be found in iodised salt and seaweed.
Remember: Plant alternatives to meat and dairy are not nutritionally equivalent. Check the label for added nutrients and food origin.
e Cognitiv n Functio
Oxygen Transpo rt
Calcium Absorption
Bone Health
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DOES DAIRY BELONG IN A SUSTAINABLE DIET? Dairy is often associated with greenhouse gases, such as methane. While 14.5% of global greenhouse gases arise from all livestock, less than 3% comes from milk production2. Therefore, while dairy certainly contributes to the issue of global warming, it is not a leading cause. When the environmental impacts are weighed against the unique nutritional value, dairy is well placed to play a role in meeting the global need for sustainable food production. As a result, moderate amounts continue to be included in dietary guidelines for sustainable diets across the globe.
Cognitive function Thyroid function Normal skin
Iodine
Bone development Healthy teeth Energy metabolism
Phosphorus Bone development Healthy teeth Muscle function
Calcium
Muscle growth Bone development Muscle maintenance
Protein
Nervous system function Muscle function Blood pressure
Potassium Vitamin B2
Nervous system function Normal skin Normal vision
Vitamin B12 Reduction of fatigue Red blood cell formation Immune system function
Vitamin B5
Energy metabolism Reduction of fatigue Mental performance
Source: EU Register of Nutrition and Health Claims made on foods
Figure 5: Milk and dairy foods provide a rich matrix of nutrients which contribute to many normal functions in the body 2
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FAO. 2013. Tackling climate change through livestock – A global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities. Rome.
Cows convert human-inedible materials such as grass into affordable sources of protein and other nutrients, which make a valuable contribution to health. Our mild, wet climate makes grassland one of the most successful crops in Ireland. This means that grass-based meat and dairy farming are very reliable methods of food production here; in the same way that warmer, more tropical climates are better suited to crops such as exotic fruit or coffee production.
Media reports often group all animal foods together, but it is important to remember that meat and dairy are unique food groups, with different nutritional benefits, environmental footprints and consumption patterns.
Sustainability of Irish dairy While improvements are certainly needed, Ireland is among the best places in the world for sustainable milk production. The grass-based system is extremely efficient resulting in one of the lowest carbon footprints internationally. Approximately 99% of the water used is supplied naturally by rainfall, which leads to almost zero impact on water stress3. In addition, grasslands have the ability to soak up carbon from the atmosphere and can therefore help to partly offset some of the carbon emissions (through a natural process known as the ‘methane cycle’).
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Working towards more sustainable production for a greener future Ireland’s agri-food industry and its farmers are proactively working together with a commitment to improving biodiversity and lowering the carbon footprint of Irish dairy. Several projects are in place to monitor, measure and focus efforts for improvement. For example, Bord Bia’s Origin Green programme tracks the carbon footprint on over 95% of dairy farms. Since its introduction, members have achieved a 9% reduction in the carbon footprint per unit of milk produced, with work continuing to improve3. Research and innovation in technology and ‘smart farming’ are also advancing, with the aim of supporting more efficient, greener production into the future.
Bord Bia. Origin Green Progress Update Report (Accessed 2020: origingreen.ie/news-and-reports/reports/). 3
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MAKING SUSTAINABLE FOOD CHOICES Consuming convenience foods from across the globe has become routine in many modern eating patterns. We are accustomed to pre-prepared food that arrives cushioned in plastic packaging. While there have been wonderful advances regarding food safety, palatability and convenience, many of today’s food choices have a negative impact on both the environment and health. Here are some tips for more sustainable choices. Where possible: Choose seasonal and local Produce such as soft fruit and salad vegetables that are air freighted from long distances or those that are grown in heated greenhouses for yearround production, are more environmentally intensive. Opt for locally produced, seasonal fruit and vegetables more often. Check out Bord Bia’s ‘Best in Season’ calendar for some suggestions (www.bordbia.ie/whats-in-season/ best-in-season-calendar). Look out for ‘country of origin’ and ‘quality guarantee’ logos as a guide to sourcing locally produced food.
Blackberries
Carrots January February March April
June
June
July
July
August
August
September
September October November December
Avoid unnecessary packaging Some food packaging is essential and therefore, unavoidable (compostable, biodegradable or recyclable versions are best in these cases). Choose loose fruit and vegetables, bring reusable bags when shopping and try to use refillable containers.
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Keep your plate in proportion Remember that plant foods from the bottom shelves of the food pyramid should form the base of most meals and that these should be combined with a moderate amount of protein-rich food and small amounts of fat. The proportion swaps on the plate below are an example of making a more sustainable, healthy choice.
Eat and shop mindfully By making an effort to consciously think about the food on our plate and to eat it slowly, we are less likely to over-eat or make poor dietary choices. Try to avoid distractions such as eating in front of the television, mobile phones at the table or eating on the go as these lower our awareness and appreciation of the food we are eating.
Try growing your own Gardening is an enjoyable hobby for those who have time and it can be a fun way to teach children about the origin of food. Homegrown fruit and vegetables taste great and have no air miles! For ideas see: www.giy.ie and www.incredibleedibles.ie.
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REDUCING FOOD LOSS AND WASTE One third of the world’s food is lost or wasted every year. It is estimated that just one quarter of this food would be enough to prevent world hunger! In Ireland, between €400 - €1,000 worth of food ends up in the average household bin annually. Considering the resources that are used to produce food and the impact of uneaten food going to landfill or incineration, food waste is a major contributor to climate change. Plan ahead Consider your potential menu for the week along with what foods are already in your fridge or store cupboard. This will help you to make a shopping list and buy only what you need. Buying foods that can be used together or used in more than one recipe will help reduce food waste. Prepare the right amount Measuring the portion sizes needed will help to avoid cooking too much or having unwanted leftovers. Use leftovers Leftovers don’t need to be eaten as a second helping and they don’t have to end up in the bin. They can make a great addition to another meal and can be transformed using clever recipes e.g. leftover mashed potato can be used in potato salad, fish cakes or potato pancakes. Use all parts Food choice is often selective regarding specific parts of a plant or animal e.g. people generally eat only the most popular cuts of meat; or choose to eat only the florets, but not the stem of broccoli. Choosing to use ‘nose to tail’, ‘root to shoot’ or ‘beak to claw’ are approaches that help to reduce food waste, while broadening your range of recipes. For example, chicken bones, prawn shells and vegetable scraps can make a delicious base for soup stock.
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Preservation Keep fruit in a well-ventilated area rather than piling it into one fruit basket – this helps to slow down ripening. Wrapping salad leaves in a wet kitchentowel in the fridge helps to retain freshness. Try pickling surplus vegetables or making jams and chutneys to prolong the shelf life of excess fruit. Using your freezer to preserve foods such as seasonal herbs and berries can also help to reduce waste from perishing. These can be labelled and dated to help keep track of your freezer contents. Avoid disposable utensils Billions of single-use cups, bottles and plastic utensils are thrown away each year. Many of these end up in the environment and can have a devastating impact, particularly on marine life. Make a difference by carrying your own reusable coffee-cup, water bottle and cutlery. Recycle, reuse and compost All of these habits reduce the amount of waste going to landfill and can also save money on bin charges. Most homes in Ireland have access to recycling and specialised waste services, which provide easy guidelines to follow. For useful tips, visit www.mywaste.ie.
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OTHER WAYS WE CAN REDUCE OUR CARBON FOOTPRINT Although it is a very important factor, sustainable eating is just one of the components we can address in the effort to preserve our planet. Daily activities such as motorised travel or using electrical devices contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. The total amount produced by each individual is known as their carbon footprint. In Ireland, we have an average annual carbon footprint of 12.8 tonnes per person, exceeding the EU average of 8.8 tonnes. Efforts are underway to decrease these figures with the EU aiming to be the first carbon neutral continent by 2050. While meaningful solutions require action on a global scale, there are also choices we can all make in our day-to-day lives to help reduce our personal impact on the environment. The Irish Environmental Protection Agency provides information on personal and household carbon calculators to help individuals determine how they can make a difference through lifestyle choices (www.epa.ie). It is estimated that eating an average plant-based diet could reduce a person’s annual carbon footprint by approximately 0.8 tonnes, but avoiding long distance air travel could save double that (1.6 tonnes) and living car free could save triple that (2.4 tonnes)4. Other tips to reduce environmental impact include: • • • • • • • • • • • 4
Cycle, walk, use public transport or car-share instead of driving Turn down thermostats and heaters Turn off lights and appliances that are not in use Opt for energy efficient electrical goods Improve home insulation Avoid using the clothes dryer - dry them outdoors or on a clothes horse Use a full load for dishwashers or washing machines and use the economy setting Avoid single use disposable items such as straws, razors and wipes Recycle glass, paper, cardboard, metal cans, plastics, batteries and broken electronics Donate, upcycle or recycle old clothes Opt for a quick shower instead of a bath to save water
Wynes and Nicholas. 2017. The climate mitigation gap: education and government recommendations miss the most effective individual actions.
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ADDITIONAL READING Agri Aware www.agriaware.ie Bord Bia www.bordbia.ie Department of Health – Healthy Ireland Food Pyramid www.healthyireland.ie Environmental Protection Agency – Stop Food Waste www.stopfoodwaste.ie EU Farm to Fork Strategy www.ec.europa.eu/food/farm2fork_en Food Safety Authority of Ireland www.fsai.ie/science_and_health/healthy_eating.html Grow it Yourself www.giy.ie Green Home Sustainable Living www.greenhome.ie Irish Nutrition and Dietetic Institute www.indi.ie My Waste Ireland www.mywaste.ie Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland www.seai.ie United Nations and the World Health Organisation - Guiding Principles for Sustainable Healthy Diets www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241516648
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The National Dairy Council t: +353 1 290 2451 e: publications@ndc.ie w: ndc.ie
2020
This booklet is fully recyclable
