Module3 note soc 291 jun15 by theory6

SOC291: CRIMINOLOGY

Module 3 Summary Social Structure and Social Process Theories Introduction As the 20th Century dawned, immense changes to our society were about to get underway. The rise of astonishing technology in communications, transportation, manufacturing, commerce, and the conduct of warfare brought about rapid and social change – vastly increased urban populations and the massing of people to carry out these new missions and inventions. Along with these changes the extent and nature of crime changed as well. It did not take long to realize that in addition to the explanations of the 19th Century concerning legal fairness, biological and psychological criminal explanations, there was also a social aspect to criminal behavior that emerged to the forefront, both in terms of conventional “street” crime and also “suite” crime – political and business corruption.

The Advent of Sociology The discipline of sociology is generally seen to have its roots anchored in the work of Auguste Comte (17981857), a French philosopher. However, the organized study of the field did not see its beginnings in earnest until the end of the 19th Century. Receiving scholarships to study in Paris, a sharp young Ashkenazy Jewish kid born in 1858, the son and grandson of rabbis, from the very rural, forested hills of AlsaceLorraine, arrived to be amazed at what he saw in this huge, industrialized metropolis. It was apparently this severe culture shock that led young Emile Durkheim to read extensively of Comte and to devote his life to sociology, of which he is considered to be, along with Karl Marx and Max Weber, a founder of the discipline. Although Durkheim’s primary area of writing and study concentrated upon the sociology of religion, a major area of his work was devoted to the social disorganization that occurs with urbanization, a condition he termed “anomie,” meaning a lack or norms (placing an “a” in front of a term refers to a lack of something – anoxia, a lack of oxygen, thus anorexia, amnesia, anemia, etc.). Durkheim’s most prolific period of research and writing occurred in the 1890’s and his main work having to do with anomie was a study of suicide, of which he identified four types: Egoistic, altruistic, fatalistic, and anomic.

Strain Theories Dean Champion, in his book titled The American Dictionary of Criminal Justice, defines strain theory as: "A criminological theory positing that a gap between culturally approved goals and legitimate means of achieving them causes frustration that leads to criminal behavior." At its core, strain theory claims all people should and/or do adhere to and/or aspire to experience Copyright © 2015 by Thomas Edison State College. All rights reserved.

something called a "middle class set of cultural values.” Vaguely put, “middle class values” generally means that most people want basically the same things, such as a comfortable home in a neighborhood with clean and safe streets, a pantry full of food, a dependable and decentlooking car to drive, a pantry full of food, a good school for their children, a good job paying a fair, living wage, and other things that make the average citizen feel and believe that s/he and her/his family are physically safe and financially secure. For the purposes of this section, we will call experiencing the “good life” (also known in many circles as “the American Dream”). Perhaps the best known of the strain theories is that theory of anomie proposed by Robert Merton in 1938. Merton claims we have a social structure that suggests all people can experience the "good life.” However, the social structure does not provide equal opportunities for all people to experience this "good life.” Thus, some people will violate the law in order to experience the "good life.” According to Merton, not all people will violate the law. Some people will simply "opt out" and decide they do not want and will not work toward experiencing the "good life.” In other words, people will adapt. Merton suggests the "modes of adaptation" are termed Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism, and Rebellion, and the description of these modes of adaptation may be seen in the Siegel text on page 151. Some major questions concerning strain theories call to inquiry the very nature of crime theories in general. These questions include: ● Does crime increase as poverty increases? Answer: Possibly yes, possibly no, possibly crime decreases. ● Does this theory explain why some rich people violate the law? Answer: Possibly yes, possibly no. ● Does this theory explain why most poor people do not commit crimes? Answer: Probably not. ● Does this theory explain why a ten year old would commit a violent crime? Answer: Possibly yes, possibly no. So, what to make of the above questions and answers? As we travel through this course, it is well to keep in mind that all theories (explanations) of crime and criminal behavior do not attempt to explain all crimes, criminal behavior, and crime conditions. The study of criminology, as is the case in all of the social sciences, depends upon many different explanations as to why some events occur (in this case, crime). Criminological theories attempt to explain why crime trends may expand due to a particular variable (such as psychological problems, physical abnormalities, social disorganization, culture conflict, and oppression of the poor). Even the socalled “general” crime theories, such as Walter Reckless's’ Containment theory, does not pretend to predict or explain all crimes. Take all of this with a grain of salt.

Cultural Deviance Theories Dean Champion defines cultural deviance theories as: "Explanations that posit that crime results from cultural values that permit, even demand, behavior in violation of law." Essentially, cultural deviance theories claim crime is consistent with something called a "lower class set of cultural values.” It seems reasonable to assume that “lower class values” generally mean poor people have different ideas than rich people about what is right and what is wrong. There are three major cultural deviance theories. They are: 1) social disorganization theory; 2) differential association theory; and 3) culture conflict theory. Copyright © 2015 by Thomas Edison State College. All rights reserved.

Social Disorganization Theory Robert Park and Ernest Burgess are among the best known social disorganization theorists. Park and Burgess applied concepts from the field of ecology to their study of crime. Their ideas are substantially different from other ideas about what causes crime. First, Park and Burgess encourage us to look beyond the offender to try to figure out what causes people to commit crime. They consider the physical area in which people live. Park and Burgess propose what is known as the "concentric zone theory.” Conducted mainly through the Department of Sociology of the University of Chicago, the study of the concentric zone theory was later operationalized by “Chicago School” researchers Clifford Shaw and Henry D. McKay. The concentric zone theory essentially says that a city has several different zones or areas. Each zone has a unique structure and/or social organization. For example, there is a commercial or business type zone at the center. Then there is a zone in transition, where run down housing is located near factories. Then there is a zone with nice homes. Then there is a zone with even better housing. And then there is a zone out in the suburbs with really nice housing. Obviously, the further from the center you move, the better the housing and the people enjoy more of the "good living.” According to this theory, the closer to the center, the more disorganized the zone. The more disorganized the zone, then the more crime. Social disorganization theory under Park and Burgess’s studies of the Chicago area seem to imply that crime is caused by poverty. But “disorganization” and “poverty” are two different things, and many communities experiencing long term poverty are and have been relatively crime free. So, as with the anomie in Paris studied by Durkheim in the late 1890s, it is the disorganization of a community that is associated with higher rates of crime. This ecological approach to crime, then, may be seen whenever surroundings of an area upset, changing, or “in transition,” as was seen by Park and Burgess in the transition zone as new sets of immigrants moved in and others moved out. The same results of disorganization may be seen not only in places where a rapid population change is taking place, but also in the wake of natural disasters, such as Hurricane Katrina that devastated the Gulf Coast in 2005.

Differential Association Theory Differential association theory was proposed by pioneering American criminologist Edwin Sutherland. Born in 1883 and receiving his Ph.D. degree from the University of Chicago, Sutherland was one of the most influential criminologists of the 20th Century, authoring his classic textbook titled “Criminology” in 1924. His text, which has gone through eleven editions and is still available today in a print on demand format, outlived Dr. Sutherland, who died in 1950, by seven editions, later revised by Donald Cressey and David Luckinbill. In addition to differential association theory, Sutherland was also known as the founder of efforts to research white collar crime. Sutherland essentially argues that crime is a learned behavior. He claims that crime is a type of behavior that is learned in social interaction with others, and his theory has nine propositions. These nine propositions may be seen on pages 175 and 176 in the Siegel text. Sutherland proposes people learn how to commit crimes and learn why they should commit crimes from people with whom they are close family and friends. For example, a man will Copyright © 2015 by Thomas Edison State College. All rights reserved.

learn from a friend how to steal a car and also learn from his friend that it’s ok to steal cars. Then, the man goes out and steals a car.

Culture Conflict Theory Thorsten Sellin is among those proposing a culture conflict theory. Sellin essentially says different groups of people have different conduct norms or different understandings or rules about what is acceptable behavior. When a minority group's conduct norms clash with or come into conflict with the norms of a dominant or majority society or dominant culture, then the minority group's conduct will be seen as unacceptable. For example, in the U.S., a person must be 21 years of age to legally drink beer. But, many countries have differing or no minimum age governing the consumption of alcoholic beverages. So, a family that comes to the USA from a country that has a far lower or no minimum age for the consumption of alcoholic beverages will be breaking the law in the USA if those in the family under the age of 21 are allowed to consume alcoholic beverages. Among modern societies, the citystate of Singapore probably has the most draconian and restrictive laws concerning public conduct, and many a tourist has found themselves the recipient of harsh penalties in Singapore for acts seen as innocuous in other societies. Given the recent legalization of marijuana in several U.S. states, a general relaxing of the enforcement of marijuana laws in the U.S.A. has been seen. However, a person traveling with marijuana in a country such as Thailand may face a long prison term or even a firing squad if arrested. However, the types of culture conflict seen in the above paragraph is very minor compared to, for example, the constant clashes between Sunni and Shiite Muslims, primarily in the Middle East that have been ongoing for at least 1,400 years, where the present bloodshed by the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) continues this long conflict of cultures. New Yorker magazine staff writer and author of five bestselling books, Malcolm Gladwell is regarded by many as one of the best sociologists who is not a sociologist. His chapter titled “Harlan, Kentucky” within his 2008 book “ Outliers: The Story of Success” (New York: Little, Brown and Company), describes the “cultures of honor” of the American areas south and west of Pennsylvania, and their penchant for feuds and aggressive behavior. Gladwell draws explicit distinctions of generationslong attitudes and behavior of cultures rooted in occupations that invited cooperation versus competition and hostility. In the most basic terms, these cultures emanated from hunting and gathering, farming, and herding societies. In farming societies, cooperation and trade was the mainstay of the community. Tied to specific land, crops were difficult to steal in any quantity and growing them was labor intensive and time consuming. Generally worse off economically and relegated to land areas unfit for agriculture, herders depended upon animals for their sustenance. Accordingly, herders were semi nomadic, having to move their animals continually to avoid overgrazing and starvation. Unlike crops, animals were easily stolen and required constant vigilance and protection, thus giving rise to a fiercely proud tradition of having to fight for one’s animals and honor. It is little wonder, then, that quite different societies emerged from the agricultural settlements of eastern Pennsylvania (see the web site for Roseto, Pennsylvania at www.boroughroseto.com ) versus mountain communities such as Harlan, Kentucky.

Labeling theory is expertly organized, treated and discussed in our Siegel text. There is always an aura of debate around labeling theory, especially in the areas of people who seem to be labeled forever due to just one social transgression. This is often seen as terribly unfair, and often it is. But who ever said that the world was fair? Beyond the realm of criminology, labeling has a far wider application. In fact, it is ubiquitous (it’s everywhere)! We all do it, and we all do it in just about every waking moment of our lives. We are constantly labeling our surroundings. Even nonhuman animals do it, as is represented in the legendary standoff between dogs and mail carriers. We tend to label others by where they live, what color their skin is, how they speak, how they dress, who they associate with, and what they drive (or ride). The 1987 tongueincheek book by Tom Crouch titled “ U R What You Drive” is a 93 page series of automobile photos on one page and a description of the vehicle owner(s) on the following page. I cut apart one of these books and showed them, one by one, to several dozens of my sociology courses, asking the students to describe the owner. It was surprising how close my student’s descriptions came to the illustrations of the people in the book. You may see two examples on the Hemmings Motor News blog page: http://blog.hemmings.com/index.php/tag/urwhatyoudrive/ Labeling frequently angers students of criminology, often resulting in an exclamation that it should not be allowed to exist. Unfortunately, that exclamation is futile – because labeling is going to occur whether we like it or not. The very best we can do as criminologists and/or as criminal justice practicing professionals is try to minimize it within our spheres of influence. If you would like a good example to read about in that area, look up the life and career of the highest ranking uniformed woman ever to serve on the New York City Police Department, Chief Joanne Jaffe.

African American Scholars Decades before and during the same time the strain and cultural deviance theories were being hailed as groundbreaking theoretical contributions to our understanding of crime and delinquency, African American scholars too were busy looking for the causes of crime and delinquency. Among the most prolific writers was Harvard trained sociologist W. E. B. (William Edward Burghardt) Du Bois (1868 – 1963). His book titled “ The Philadelphia Negro ,” published in 1899, in part, is a classic study of crime in an urban setting. In a chapter in this book, titled "The Negro Criminal," DuBois writes, decades before his above noted White counterparts: "Crime is a phenomenon of organized social life, and is the open rebellion of an individual against his social environment. Naturally then, if men are suddenly transported from one environment to another, the result is lack of harmony with the new conditions; . . . lack of harmony with social surroundings leading to crime." One important distinction between the white and African American scholars is that African American scholars early on began to question the racial discrimination present in the administration of justice. Among the questions they posed was: “Why are thousands of African Americans lynched by white mobs and no one is arrested for these crimes?” Not only did these scholars question, but they, including the prolific author Ida B. Wells, also offered theoretical explanations for this particular type of crime. Not an African American scholar, but a noted Swedish economist, philosopher, and sociologist, Gunnar Myrdal (1898 – 1987) was engaged by the Carnegie Corporation to come to the United States in 1938 to Copyright © 2015 by Thomas Edison State College. All rights reserved.

examine, as an eminent outsider, race relations in the United States. The result was his publication of “ An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy ,” a major work of nearly 1,500 pages, published in 1944. Within those pages, Myrdal wrote: “It is my conviction that one of the most potent strategic measures to improve the Southern interracial situation would be the opening of a pioneering modern police college in the south, which would give a thorough social and pedagogical training as well as a technical police training.” Those words were taken seriously, and in 1951 the Southern Police Institute was established on the campus of the University of Louisville in Kentucky, an institution which is still in operation today. This book was also cited by the U.S. Supreme Court in its 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which outlawed racial segregation in public schools.