The Psychologist September 2014

the

psychologist vol 27 no 9

september 2014

Hallucinogens: heaven and hell A special issue considers a potential brave new world for psychology

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How do hallucinogens work on the brain?

Robin Carhart-Harris, Mendel Kaelen and David Nutt consider a big question on several levels

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Cultures of chemically induced hallucinations Vaughan Bell considers what we can learn from how other societies approach hallucinogenic drugs

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When the trip doesn’t end Henry David Abraham describes his investigations into hallucinogen persisting perception disorder, along with firsthand accounts

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news the power of evidence-based psychological therapies; dementia and driving; standards of proficiency consultation; assisted dying debate; and more

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society 686 our President welcomes new students; introducing ‘altmetrics’; President’s Award; meet the Psychologist and Digest team; and more

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A brave new world for psychology?

David Nutt introduces a special issue considering the use of hallucinogens in popular culture, research and therapy

The Psychologist is the monthly publication of The British Psychological Society. It provides a forum for communication, discussion and controversy among all members of the Society, and aims to fulfil the main object of the Royal Charter, ‘to promote the advancement and diffusion of a knowledge of psychology pure and applied’.

Managing Editor Jon Sutton Assistant Editor Peter Dillon-Hooper Production Mike Thompson

Journalist Ella Rhodes Editorial Assistant Debbie Gordon Research Digest Christian Jarrett (editor), Alex Fradera

Associate Editors Articles Michael Burnett, Paul Curran, Harriet Gross, Marc Jones, Rebecca Knibb, Charlie Lewis, Wendy Morgan, Paul Redford, Mark Wetherell, Jill Wilkinson Conferences Alana James History of Psychology Nathalie Chernoff Interviews Gail Kinman, Mark Sergeant Reviews Emma Norris Viewpoints Catherine Loveday International panel Vaughan Bell, Uta Frith, Alex Haslam, Elizabeth Loftus

vol 27 no 9

september 2014

the

psychologist vol 27 no 9

september 2014

the issue ...debates letters unequal Britain; whistleblowing and psychological safety; beliefs about memory; EMDR; non-verbal tests; dyslexia; and more

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...digests couples develop interconnected memory systems; Zimbardo reassessed; self-talk; and more, from our free Research Digest (see www.researchdigest.org.uk/blog) 652

...meets viewpoints: Experiences of hallucinogen treatment we hear from a researcher, participant and clinician on the use of psilocybin to alleviate cancer anxiety

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careers 700 Sue Blackmore gives a personal account of how hallucinogens have influenced her career; and we pass on some advice for first-year undergraduates as they begin their journey in psychology one on one with Valerie Curran, Professor of Psychopharmacology at University College London

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...reviews Eye on fiction: Heavenly and hellish – writers on hallucinogens Dirk Hanson takes a trip from Lewis Carroll to the modern day, via Huxley, Burroughs and others also hallucinating in the deep waters of consciousness; inside Tanya Byron’s Skeleton Cupboard; The Valley of Astonishment; Boyhood; Utopia; and more

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In 1980 Albert Hoffman, the chemist responsible for the creation of LSD, wrote ‘Would LSD become a blessing to humanity or a curse?

This I often asked myself when I thought about my problem child.’

That double-edged nature of the hallucinogenic experience permeates this special issue.

In his introduction Professor David Nutt takes the scientific community to task over their failure to protest against the denial of research on hallucinogens. ‘The human brain can and does truly close itself up to many things, and psychedelics can open it again.’

Aldous Huxley coined the term ‘phanerothyme’ for LSD and similar drugs, from the Greek terms for ‘manifest’ and ‘spirit’, and this property has led some to advocate their use in therapy. We hear a modern (p.676) and historical (p.714) take on this.

The topic may not be to everyone’s taste, but I hope you will engage. In the much misunderstood words of Timothy Leary, ‘Turn on, tune in, drop out’. As Hoffman himself warned: ‘It's very, very dangerous to lose contact with living nature.’

Dr Jon Sutton Managing Editor @psychmag

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...looks back A brief history of psychedelic psychiatry Moheb Costandi considers attempts to use hallucinogenic drugs to treat alcoholism and mental disorder

The Psychologist and Digest Editorial Advisory Committee Catherine Loveday (Chair), Phil Banyard, Olivia Craig, Helen Galliard, Rowena Hill, Victoria Mason, Stephen McGlynn, Tony Wainwright, Peter Wright

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Six years ago Go to www.thepsychologist.org.uk for our archive, including psychology’s foundations of sand

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Big picture centre-page pull-out Dominic Shepherd provides a hallucinogenic window on the soul, with commentary from Keith Laws

LETTERS

Creative or unequal Britain? gave birth to the creator of the creative Olympics ceremony (Lancashire’s Danny Boyle) may seek to join forces with a resurgently proud (Tour de France) Yorkshire to demand independence.

Reading on, I searched hard for evidence of a ‘phenomenon’. True enough, Team GB did well in the Olympics, but let us not forget that over a third of the medals came from those who attended private schools – less than 5 per cent of the population. The value of creative people in moving an economy forward can be immense, but although we have had our share of inventions in the last 100 years, we have not always developed technological initiatives capable of turning that creative thinking into manageable and sustainable benefits for the population as a whole.

In seeking to understand if we are genuinely moving ‘towards a creative Britain’, I struggled to see what developments were to occur from the 2001 citation of creative industries.

A significant proportion of the research which contributed to TIM SANDERS

On the face of it ‘Creative Britain’ (August 2014) appeared to be the perfect antidote to Austerity Britain.

Could we really be a nation united through talent and creativity?

However, from the outset something seemed strangely amiss.

The front cover featured a map that included the capitals of the respective countries and Birmingham, but seemingly no creativity was to be had anywhere north of the Midlands to the central region of Scotland. Even if it was intended to be purely indicative, we have become accustomed to picture editors selecting a balanced representation out of a spirit of inclusiveness or even political correctness.

The population of the North has over the years become accustomed to, if not slightly amused by, the London-centric antics of the media. But things are changing. Weather forecasters no longer refer to the South East and the rest of Britain. Even Parliament has recently discovered the North, with the major political parties having swapped the value-for-money argument of HS2 for the idea of linking the population centres of Manchester and Leeds. Perhaps they are worried that against a backdrop of the Scottish independence debate, the county that

Emotional management and team sports

contribute

Is it now time for the psychology community to consider the wider negative implications of emotion management in sport? Reading Martin Turner’s article (‘Smarter thinking in sport’, August 2014), I was saddened to hear how rational emotive behaviour therapy is gathering momentum in team sports.

The broad-brush premise upon which

emotional management is built is clearly flawed in team sports. For individual sports, such as singles tennis, the main concern is the performance of one individual against another. Therefore, the athlete who controls their emotions is likely to be at an advantage: controlling irrational ‘do or die’ thoughts by replacing them with rational ‘it’s only a game’

THE PSYCHOLOGIST NEEDS YOU! Letters These pages are central to The Psychologist’s role as a forum for communication, discussion and controversy among all members of the Society, and we welcome your contributions.

Send e-mails marked ‘Letter for publication’ to psychologist@bps.org.uk; or write to the Leicester office.

Letters over 500 words are less likely to be published.

The editor reserves the right to edit or publish extracts from letters. Letters to the editor are not normally acknowledged, and space does not permit the publication of every letter received.

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thoughts will be helpful to keep perspective and maintain performance. For team sports, the main concern is the performance of the team as a unit. Teams, both in sports and business, rely on the

…and much more We rely on your submissions throughout the publication, and in return we help you to get your message across to a large and diverse audience.

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Whistleblowing and psychological safety ‘our understanding of the contemporary phenomenon of Creative Britain’ appeared to be drawn from the more traditional base of art colleges in London, described as ‘Britain’s hub city within the global creative economy’.

No doubt it is true that unless you are an artist famous enough to sell your bed to the Tate, you are likely to find life tough going and will seek out communities of like-minded people. The point is well made that many people are capable of defining themselves through their creative contribution under difficult employment conditions and that this may compensate for an otherwise comfortable existence. However, with the decimation of public services, the proliferation of zero-hours contracts and the ratcheting down of autonomy in many public sector jobs, this is a freedom that many people in Britain do not enjoy today.

We live in a society which is still divided along geographical and class lines. The political elite is largely privately educated and drawn from a select group of schools and careers. The attainments and life chances of a significant section of working-class boys are remarkably low. Whilst the group of countries of which Britain is composed has proved resourceful and resilient, social and occupational mobility is arguably less than what it was 40 years ago. Against such a backdrop are we really moving towards or away from a creative Britain?

David Wood Preston

motivational influence of key leaders. It is the display of passion and energy from leaders that inspires and motivates.

The England football team is a prime example of an underperforming team. How many times do we need to read about (and see) a lack of passion on the pitch and overly rational post-match interviews? This team, and many underperforming teams, lack leadership energy and passion. While the athletes may be performing well individually, the team as a whole clearly suffers from the misplaced emotional management. At 2-0 down, and with 20 minutes to go, how motivational must it be to sense one’s teammates thinking, ‘it’s only a game’?

We need more visible leaders. If only for the good of our footballing team, can we stop coaching emotional management in sport?

Matthew Atkinson Head of Research YSC business psychology

With the number of recently reported catastrophic failures in organisations due to cover-ups, employee silence and unquestioning group compliance, we need the insights from psychology more than ever to be applied to the workplace, both for individual well-being and for national prosperity.

At the moment it appears that there is a hope that openness and transparency will be supported by encouraging more whistleblowing, an issue that is the subject of the newly launched second Francis inquiry and for which we are preparing a Society response in anticipation of the call for professional contributions.

However, our research base indicates that public whistleblowing has serious negative impacts both for individuals and organisations, which suggests we need to see this tactic as a last resort rather than a focus for substantial investment.

Although we have not yet identified specific research into whistleblowing in the healthcare sector, from other sectors that are just as negatively impacted by the lack of voice, openness and transparency, the evidence of physical retaliation, dismissal actions and bullying against whistleblowers makes for very troubling reading: 22 per cent of whistleblowers report physical and violent retaliation; 75 per cent have a move to dismiss made against them; and nearly all report bullying after raising a concern.

Equally significant for the long-term viability of our large employment organisations, is the substantial research evidence that while such public disclosures may improve governance practices in the short term, over the longer term they have a serious detrimental impact on overall organisational and operational effectiveness, so further compromise well-being and national prosperity.

Given that the research also indicates that it is regularly the people who are fully on the inside and highly valued by an organisation that take this action, given our deep understanding of the social psychology of group processes, we can conceptualise whistleblowing as a form of psychological martyrdom or suicide. For those who do not speak, it is experienced as a form of treachery, which has always been the last crime to have the death penalty removed.

Psychological research and practice strongly indicates that the extent to which openness in an organisation can be built and sustained is directly linked to the degree of psychological safety in any system. Predictors of low psychological safety are deficiencies in work design, role ambiguity, compromised sense of social identity, high demands, deficiencies in leadership behaviour and evidence of tolerance for bullying. In addition, a legacy of bad practice and a history of ‘organisational trauma’, such as survivor syndrome after restructuring or redundancy, is predictive of low safety and working environments that are ‘silent’.

The newly formed BPS Working Party on Work and Health is ensuring that the psychology research and practice that informs debates like this, so critical for well-being and prosperity, are synthesis into simple briefing documents and circulated to relevant policy makers. If you are interested in finding out more about the work of this new group or contributing research and practice evidence then please e-mail me (bpswhchair@gmail.com).

Joanna Wilde Chair, BPS Working Party on Work and Health

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Memory – sifting the evidence The first duty of the expert is to the court: they must give objective and unbiased evidence, regardless of whether they are called by the prosecution or defence. We believe Conway, Justice and Morrison’s so called ‘modern view of memory’ (‘Beliefs about autobiographical memory’, July 2014) presents a one-sided account based on an incomplete and selective review of the literature, which would not fulfill the required remit of the expert at court.

For example, they repeatedly argue that vivid and detailed memories are more likely to contain errors and that nonexpert beliefs about their accuracy are therefore unfounded. In fact, the abundant research on reality monitoring, criteria-based content analysis and deception indicates that amount of detail and vividness are two criteria that distinguish truthful from untruthful accounts (see Vrij et al., 2010 for a review), and true from false memories (e.g. Loftus & Pickrell, 1995; Marche et al., 2010). Further, the article does not distinguish between experimental research, where people are prompted to remember a novel experience in the laboratory or a single childhood event, from experiences of child sexual abuse.

Cases that come to court are usually characterised by memories of repeated events involving familiar locations, people and objects. Frequently, such memories will have been extensively rehearsed through the process of reminiscence, sometimes in social settings, but often alone. We know that in the absence of known contaminants, rehearsal maintains memory. In these circumstances, the

retention of a detail concerning an object (such as a much-worn article of clothing) would not be that remarkable.

As for the ‘modern view of memory’ for emotional events and evidence that confidently held memories can be false, Conway et al.’s reference to the Roediger et al. (2012) chapter is in danger of being misleading. The article is a review of the different ways to address the confidence–accuracy relationship.

Roediger and colleagues make clear that ‘as in most issues concerning remembering the correct answer is “it depends”.’ In fact, these authors conclude that in the absence of known contamination it is reasonable to assume confidence is a useful indicator of the reliability of an eyewitness’s decision.

In the same chapter, the authors also illustrate that vividness is in part determined by the retrieval environment, partly by the memory trace and partly by the interaction between the two. Conway et al. make no mention of the retrieval method and how following best practice, questioning and investigation procedures to obtain evidence can increase its reliability. In this regard, presenting a single made-up ‘amalgam’ example of a police interview is unwarranted.

Finally, Conway et al. rely on Morgan and Southwick’s brief in-press review to support their argument that contrary to their non-expert participants’ memory beliefs, emotional and distinctive

Conway, Justice and Morrison’s article ‘Beliefs about autobiographical memory’ (July 2014) focused upon one particular viewpoint of one particular issue, on the assumption that ‘the view taken by the law is that, as all jurors have memories, by reflecting on their own memory, and perhaps that of others, they will be able to make informed “commonsense” judgements of memory evidence’.

I am not sure where this perception comes from, because experts advise the courts on memory and many other matters in a wide range of cases, civil as well as criminal. These include instances of brain injury, automatism, amnesia for offences, false confession, and fitness to plead, not just cases of child sexual abuse.

What is important to remember is that ‘the modern view of memory’ is, and any expert witness should be, neutral with regard to truth or accuracy in court. Defendants, as well as prosecution witnesses, make errors that sometimes may be memory errors and

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experiences (such as weddings, funerals) do not enhance memory accuracy. Morgan and Southwick’s review is specific to the ability of military personnel to identify interrogators’ features in high- and lowstress training situations (with more accuracy found in the low-stress situation). This is a far stretch from the kind of experiences that Conway et al.’s participants considered. We agree with Conway et al. that the relation between memory and emotion can be complex.

However, in our view, this issue is not properly captured by questions in memory belief surveys.

Conway and colleagues would do well to heed Roediger’s (2008) sage observation that no memory ‘law’ holds across all types of individuals, events and conditions.

Professor Amina Memon Professor Bernice Andrews Royal Holloway University of London Professor Graham Davies University of Leicester References Loftus, E.F. & Pickrell, J. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals, 25, 720–725.

Marche, T.A., Brainerd, C.J. & Reyna, V.F. (2010).

Distinguishing true from false memories in forensic contexts: Can phenomenology tell us what is real?

Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 1168–1182.

Roediger, H.L. (2008). Relativity of remembering: Why the laws of memory vanished. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 225–254.

Vrij, A., Granhag, P.A. & Porter, S. (2010). Pitfalls and opportunities in nonverbal and verbal lie detection.

Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 11, 89–121.

distortions. Experts advise the court, sometimes with conflicting advice, but they are only a part of the legal process. Juries decide where ‘truth’ lies, and they may use various criteria to do this besides what they are told by psychologists, including the persuasiveness and consistency of the witnesses, the availability of any forensic and/or corroborative evidence, the lucidity of the closing speeches and the judge’s directions, etc. (how juries make decisions is itself an underresearched topic).

While psychologists have an important role in advising and educating lawyers, courts and others, their role in court, like that of other expert witnesses, is to advise the court, and not to fall into the trap of becoming advocates or attempting to usurp the role of the jury. This did not seem to me to be entirely clear from Conway et al.’s account.

Professor Michael Kopelman Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London

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In the article ‘Beliefs about autobiographical memory’ (July 2014) there is a box labelled ‘The modern view of memory’, which seems to me one of the most narrow, biased and dogmatic accounts I have seen since the publication of the Roman Catholic Catechism. Its 10 paragraphs all suffer from the same fault – they deal with just one form or type of memory, which is conscious recall.

Research on conscious recall is quite simplistic. The authors give an example of such research: ‘We asked our respondents two simple questions: Bring to mind the first memory you have. What age are you in this first memory? and In your view, what is the earliest age someone can have a memory from?’ Talk about simple-minded! Some people, given the right setting, can remember their birth, and life in the womb at various earlier ages. The reason this does not show up in the data is simply that the wrong research method is being used. Other methods are excluded, and indeed not even considered.

The controversies about memory in therapy might be eased if we accepted that there were four memories, not one.

I Intellectual memory, cognitive memory, is located somehow in the brain, mostly in the cerebral cortex.

The details are not yet all worked out, but nearly all of the work in memory in psychology – including the article in the July issue – has to do with this type of memory.

I Emotional memory also has a great deal to do with the brain, but here it is mainly in the limbic system, and takes the form of images rather than words. It is difficult to reach other than by actually re-experiencing the events concerned. This also applies to memories held in the muscles, as Reich and other body therapists have discovered (see Rothschild, 2000).

I Bodily memory is held all over the body. Again it has to be reexperienced or relived, rather than called up verbally. Graham Farrant (1986) calls it cellular memory, and has written a good deal about it.

Much of the primal work in psychotherapy (Brown & Mowbray, 1994) depends upon this level of memory. David Chamberlain (1998) has given much of the evidence for birth memories being of this kind.

I Subtle memory or soul memory is not located in the body or brain, but in the subtle body. It holds memories of previous lives and of lives lived at other levels of the transpersonal realm. It is not difficult to tap into

once one makes the effort, as Roger Woolger (1990) has argued.

In my opinion, all four types should be opened up properly in academia. If these things exist, they should be studied in all their complexity, and not left to the few therapists who have taken the trouble to write up their findings.

Many psychologists, including some of the most prestigious, deny the possibility of memories going back before the age of about three years. The reason is that they are making use of research designs that are not designed in such a way as to enable early memories to emerge. What we find in psychotherapy is that new clients very often start off with the belief that their childhood cannot be remembered but was doubtless ‘happy’. As they begin, however, to build up a rapport with the therapist and a sense of trust, memories of their childhood begin to return. In other words, early memories need an atmosphere of trust and permission and acceptance before they will emerge.

One of the leading psychologists who has taken the trouble to investigate this is David Chamberlain, who died just recently. His 1996 paper is a good example of the kind of results that can

emerge from properly conducted research. Yet it seems hard for the ordinary academic researcher to admit that their empirical quantitative methods might not be suitable for all purposes.

Early life is a stage of heightened emotion and vivid images. It is not the field of rational man. It cannot be reached by people in white coats asking questions from their clipboards.

Dr John Rowan North Chingford, London References Brown, J. & Mowbray, R. (1994). Primal integration. In D. Jones (Ed.) Innovative therapy: A Handbook.

Buckingham: Open University Press.

Chamberlain, D. (1996). Reliability of birth memories: Evidence from mother and child pairs in hypnosis.

Journal of the American Academy of Medical Hypnoanalysis, 1(2), 89–98.

Chamberlain, D. (1998). The mind of your newborn baby.

Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.

Farrant, G. (1986). Cellular consciousness. Keynote Address, 14th IPA Convention, 30 August.

Rothschild, B. (2000). The body remembers: The psychophysiology of trauma and trauma treatment.

New York: Norton.

Woolger, R. (1990). Other lives, other selves: A Jungian psychotherapist discovers past lives. Wellingborough: Crucible.

The point of non-verbal tests In a recent letter to The Psychologist (July 2014), Sidney Irvine argued that nonverbal tests do not exist and that therefore psychologists should stop looking for them. Unfortunately, he is somewhat wide of the mark. Non-verbal tests were originally called ‘performance tests’, and they have now existed for more than 100 years. Arthur (1946) provided a good definition: ‘Performance tests might be any tests requiring overt response. In practice, they have come to mean tests which can be given without the use of language, either oral or written, or abstract symbols such as words or numbers by either the subject of the examiner’ (p.447). Typically, their administration involves gestures on the part of the examiner and imitation on the part of the subject. They were originally devised to provide a fairer assessment of intelligence in people with little or no command of English, most notably in potential immigrants arriving in the United States from Europe.

Irvine’s argument against non-verbal tests was based on the observation of children and adults engaging in subvocal

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verbalisation when carrying out tests involving figural representations. In fact, there are better kinds of evidence to suggest that the distinction between verbal and performance tests may not be straightforward (see Richardson, 2011).

First, examination of the factor structure of tests such as the Wechsler intelligence scales supports a multifactorial view of intelligence rather than a simple verbal/performance dichotomy. Second, requiring subjects to repeat irrelevant sounds aloud (‘articulatory suppression’) leads to poorer scores on a well-known performance test, the Cube Imitation Test, suggesting that it involves some kind of speech-based representation in memory.

Third, even among immigrants who are now fluent in English, a preference for speaking, thinking, reading and writing in their first language rather than in English is associated with lower scores on the performance subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

The flaw in Irvine’s argument is the assumption that a test that does not require the use of language for its administration is also a test that does not

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involve the use of language in its execution. Others have made this inference (e.g. Gaw, 1925), but it is clearly invalid. Even so, nowadays most psychologists recognise that any adequate measure of intelligence must include both verbal and performance tests. Irvine should get used to the fact that non-verbal tests have been around for more than 100 years and will be with us for a good deal longer.

John Richardson The Open University References Arthur, G. (1946). A point scale of performance tests.

New York: The Commonwealth Fund.

Gaw, F. (1925). Performance tests of intelligence (Report No. 31). London: Medical Research Council, Industrial Fatigue Research Board.

Richardson, J.T.E. (2011). Howard Andrew Knox: Pioneer of intelligence testing at Ellis Island. New York: Columbia University Press.

Professor Irvine’s letter, (‘Non-verbal tests don’t exist’, July 2014), is very puzzling.

He tells us that when completing the nonverbal Raven’s Progressive Matrices test, pupils moved their lips as they tried to find the answers. Did he lip-read what they were actually saying? Had he done so, he would probably have heard, ‘The first shape in the series is at the top-left, the second shape is at the top right, so the next shape must be at the bottom right’.

Clearly, the pupils were using words to help them solve non-verbal problems, just as non-mathematicians use words to interpret mathematical non-verbal symbols, and non-engineers use verbal instructions to tell them how to operate mechanically and electronically constructed and controlled domestic equipment.

Over 100 years ago Spearman identified g as a general potential for learning and mastering complex tasks.

Since then tests measuring g using non-

verbal test items have repeatedly provided a more valid measurement of an individual’s general learning potential than tests using verbal items. In particular, they have rescued a very large number of poor readers and non-native English speakers from being written off because they, according to tests using verbal test items, lack the potential to learn and to master complex tasks.

Later on in his letter Professor Irvine refers to a correlational analysis from which emerged only, ‘working-memory constructs in which verbal-items, in multilingual form, were equally prominent’. Does this mean that all tests only measure verbal reasoning and nothing else? If not, whatever does he mean?

Instead of Professor Irvine’s desired moratorium, may non-verbal tests flourish to everyone’s benefit.

Joshua Fox Hailsham, East Sussex

EMDR – origins and anomalies Bruce Grimley’s letter in the August issue of The Psychologist in response to my article (‘EMDR – more than a therapy for PTSD’, July 2014) includes a claim by Dr John Grinder that he suggested to Francine Shapiro a way to treat a rape victim and that he is therefore the originator of EMDR. According to Dr Shapiro

(personal communication), no such conversation ever took place. Further, even a cursory examination of the content demonstrates the lack of any association to EMDR therapy.

According to the post quoted by Dr Grimley, Dr Grinder allegedly told Dr Shapiro to ‘put her [the rape victim] in resourceful state (anchored) and have her

PTSD is the only psychological problem for which NICE recommends EMDR. Therefore to justify its extended application, which can’t be bad for business, EMDR practitioners such as Robin Logie (‘EMDR – more than a therapy for PTSD’, July 2014) must look for early trauma or negative life experiences as ‘causal factors in many psychological disorders’.

McNally (2009) warns against an everbroadening definition of trauma, which he calls a ‘conceptual bracket creep’, by which ordinary stressors are deemed to be traumatic. Consequently, he points out that according to some surveys nearly everyone in the USA would count as a trauma survivor today. Even if a distal trauma can be corroborated it may not necessarily be operative in the presenting problem and focusing on it may be unnecessary and inefficient. There is also the possibility that the historical event may not have been disturbing at the time it was experienced but

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systematically move her eyes through the various accessing positions typical of the major representational systems (with the exception of the kinesthetic access). I suggested that she see, hear (but not feel) the events in question obviously the kinesthetics were to remain resourceful (the anchored state) while she processed the event.’

because of external influence is considered to be so subsequently.

Robin Logie at least concedes that we still do not know how EMDR works. However, other anomalies deserve mention.

First, it will be recalled that the role of eye movements was discovered serendipitously whilst Francine Shapiro, its progenitor was walking in a park in May 1987. She noticed that disturbing thoughts were no longer troublesome and she related this to eye movements that had occurred concurrently (Shapiro, 1995). Curious therefore that no further reports have emerged of such unassisted recovery from disturbing thoughts whilst walking, even though the latter alone, without eye movements could constitute a form of bilateral stimulation presumed necessary for recovery.

Second, in its early days, a unique selling point of EMDR was its brevity. Spector and Huthwaite (1993) reported successful treatment

However, this description bears no resemblance to EMDR or to Dr Shapiro’s

of a road traffic accident survivor with PTSD in one session of EMDR. Likewise Hassard (1993) reported successful EMDR treatment of a client with body-image problems in one session. So the question remains as to why the literature has not been replete with further accounts of such rapid successful outcomes with EMDR, especially considering the current cash-strapped state of the NHS. Prem Gurnani Clinical Psychologist, St Ann’s Hospital, London References Hassard, A. (1993). Eye movement desensitization of body image. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 21, 157–160.

McNally, R.J. (2009). Can we fix PTSD in DSM-V? Depression and Anxiety, 26, 597–600.

Shapiro, F. (1995). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. New York: Guilford Press.

Spector, J. & Huthwaite, M. (1993). Eye movement desensitisation to overcome post-traumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 106–108.

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initially introduced treatment, ‘eye movement desensitization’ (EMD). Specifically, a ‘kinesthetic access’ in NLP is eyes in a ‘lower right’ position.

So, Dr Grinder’s instructions are to have the person’s eyes systematically move in all directions except lower right while keeping them maintained (i.e. ‘anchored’) in a positive state so they ‘remain resourceful’ and do ‘not feel the events in question’.

Compare this to Dr Shapiro’s initial description of EMD in her 1989 article in the Journal of Traumatic Stress that reported the results of the first randomised controlled trial. In EMDR. as can be seen in the excerpt below, since the clients are repeatedly asked to include a negative self-statement and report the level of disturbance, they are not maintained in a ‘resourceful state’ where they did ‘not feel the event in question’; the ‘kinesthetic access’ is clearly not avoided, as the therapist instructions include the option to guide clients in a diagonal movement from ‘extreme lower right’; and no systematic movement of the eyes through the ‘various accessing points’ is used. Rather rapid eye movements are guided back and forth from left to right.

Subjects in the Treatment Group were instructed to visualize the traumatic scene, rehearse the negative statement (e.g., ‘I am helpless’), and follow the investigator’s index finger with their eyes. The investigator then caused subjects to generate a series of 10–20 voluntary, bilateral, rhythmic saccadic eye movements by moving her index finger rapidly back and forth across their line of vision.

The finger was … moved from the extreme right to the extreme left of the visual field … The investigator’s finger moved either (I) in a diagonal across the midline of the face from the subjects’ extreme lower right to

extreme upper left (i.e., chin-level to contralateral brow-level) or (2) horizontally at mid-eye level from the extreme right to extreme left of the subjects’ visual field.

(Shapiro, 1989, p.204)

This description is clearly in line with Dr Shapiro’s discovery of the effects of saccadic eye movements in 1987, of which she provided a detailed account in her first published article (Shapiro, 1989).

The tenets of NLP clearly have not defined the EMD(R) procedures. In fact, Dr Grinder’s claim seems more in line with an NLP procedure called ‘eye movement integration’ (EMI) which has been described by those in the NLP community as quite different from EMDR therapy: For most people the therapeutic use of eye movements is associated not with NLP but with Francine Shapiro’s Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR).

That method, though, favors rapid lateral movements while EMI uses much slower movements designed to connect all the eye positions. The importance of connecting all eye positions is based on the NLP theory that the various movements of the eyes access different sensory systems and, therefore, different areas of neurology. (Dawes, see tinyurl.com/leskyrr)

Perhaps Dr Grinder was misremembering a conversation he had with the innovators of EMI. In any event, it is clear that no such conversation has any bearing on EMDR therapy.

Robin Logie President of the EMDR Association UK and Ireland References Shapiro, F. (1989). Efficacy of the eye movement desensitization procedure in the treatment of traumatic memories. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2, 199–223.

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

FORUM HEALTH MATTERS So for 18 years your parents have done their best to give you a good start in life. You know about your five a day, that smoking kills, to be drink-aware, that safe sex is best and you have practised ‘just saying no’ to drugs in many a PSE class. And then they deliver you into the hands of your university and you are free from their nagging, preaching and probably a good dose of hypocrisy. So what happens next? And what should universities do, to not undo all that has gone before?

Paradoxical effects are the stuff of many studies and have intrigued researchers for decades. Tell a child ‘Don’t fall’ and they are more likely to fall, ‘Don’t think about it’ and they will think about it, and ‘Don’t eat sweets’ and sweets become what they want. So when a child leaves home and starts their independent life, this offers the perfect opportunity to react and rebel against everything they have been taught. And some will. And many parents (those that find out) will be hurt and shocked and wonder where they have gone wrong.

Other newly liberated children will simply passively follow the behaviour of their new-found peers. Their parents may not have smoked, but standing outside a lecture theatre or sitting in a beer garden with their new found friends who do may well just be too much temptation as the desire to fit in and be liked ‘now’ far outweighs not getting cancer in 50 years’ time.

Some will just make choices based on what is there. So much for fruit and vegetables when the campus canteen offers curry and chips, and why drink safely when happy hour and buying rounds means that having any less than six pints would just make no sense – in fact it wouldn’t be fair.

Poor parents! Rebellion, peer pressure and ‘it was there’ are so much more powerful drivers than any vaguely remembered indoctrination of keeping safe or looking after yourself. And the immediate rewards of fitting in, being liked and instant gratification will always outweigh living longer (in the distant future) and being healthy (when you feel healthy now anyway). So parents need some help and universities could make their campuses smoke-free, sell cheap healthy food, provide free condoms and even give out free soft drinks to intersperse with the alcoholic ones.

But perhaps all is not lost. As the saying goes, ‘However hard you try, you always end up like your parents’. And in the main the best predictor of a person’s diet, whether or not they smoke and how much they drink is what their parents do. So university might be a time of risk-taking, rebellion and not quite managing your five a day.

And it always has been. And universities could do their best to minimise the harm of this time in a young adult’s life. But then when they leave and embark upon the next stage of adulthood, chances are what their parents did, rather than what they said or even what their friends did in those rebellious few years, will be what comes through in the end.

(Written as a naively optimistic parent of teenagers, not as a hasbeen student!)

Jane Ogden is Professor in Health Psychology at the University of Guildford. Share your views on this and other health-related matters by e-mailing psychologist@bps.org.uk.

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developmental dyslexia’ (p.74).

Similar evidence came from a second community study published in the same year, where in Scotland 1544 children were assessed individually at seven years of age (Clark, 1970). Those who failed were retested at eight years of age, and community incidence figures for a number of characteristics often claimed to be associated with dyslexia were assessed.

Those failing in reading and of average intelligence were followed for several years.

Only a few children continued to have severe difficulties, and ‘the striking finding was the diversity of disabilities and not an underlying pattern common to the group, which could have provided a basis for one single remedial method for all these children’ (p.128).

The end of dyslexia?

In their article Julian Elliott and Elena Grigorenko quote from William Yule (1976) that ‘The era of applying the label “dyslexia” is rapidly drawing to a close’. It should be remembered that Yule was one of the interdisciplinary team

involved in the Isle of Wight community study (Rutter et al., 1970) and co-author of several of the chapters where the importance of evidence from community studies rather than merely from selected clinic cases was

stressed. To quote from chapter 5 by Rutter and Yule, ‘Examination of the association between different items held to be characteristic of dyslexia did not support the hypothesis of a single syndrome of specific

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Do these studies remain relevant, or in the intervening years have any community studies provided contradictory evidence?

References Clark, M.M. (1970). Reading difficulties in schools. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Rutter, M., Tizard, J. & Whitmore, K. (Eds.) (1970). Education, health and behavior. London: Longman.

Margaret M. Clark OBE Birmingham

missed out on some of it (see www.valerieyule.com.au/v01ac over.htm).

There are many reasons, beside a neurological deficiency, behind an inability to read in children and adults.

The fact that there are more ‘dyslexics’ in English than in many other languages with consistent spellings is one clue that we have more ‘dyslexics’ than we would have if we took the traps out of spelling.

Julian G. Elliott and Elena L. Grigorenko (‘The end of dyslexia’, August 2014) argue that the dyslexia label is a cultural meme that remains unscientific and conceptually problematic.

I always tested children and adults sent to me as ‘dyslexic’ with www.valerieyule.com.au/dysle xiatest.htm, which tests the anxiety that often makes people unable to read, and took them through what I thought they needed to learn to read, and often they had

Dr Valerie Yule Mount Waverley Victoria, Australia

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Beverages are drunk by keen types (5,7) 9 Dare to return captured by short tyrant and outlaw (9) 10 Volunteers finally abandoned book that’s off limits (5) 11 Citrus cultivated by countryman (6) 12 Muse’s fair sound? (8) 13 Venture into bunker, perhaps (6) 15 Decline to drink quickly and go (8) 18 Ran back to bed with chopped ice – that has sedative properties (8) 20 Beware sailors in underground hollow (6) 22 & 25 down Redo a vehicle restoration in position which is earned (8,4) 23 Somewhat immune as experiment causes discomfort (6) 26 Triumph for old flame last month (5) 27 Stucco is a puzzle to sound science (9) 28 Rate of increase of faster than normal educational progress (12)

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Ponder varying hydrogen in body chemical (9) Catches breath to talk over additional remark (5) Reindeer upset, misses the north - it’s more grassy! (7) Dash point with PC connection (4) Instrument used on hill by one breaking the law (8) Resistance shown by Italian without a drug for ADD treatment (7) New tube also complete (8) 25 represented wisdom (4) No time for beginning of military operation (4,4) One’s ignored pennons or arrangement (9) Free Latvian leader I scold (8) Alternatively, shock treatment with intensive care starts relating to appetite (7) Is a name recollectable with forgetfulness? (7) Top copy given incorrect mark (4) Skipped bail with one defence (5) See 22 across

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

Publishing in journals – then and now Reaching 80 this month, I can look back at over more than 40 years of research and writing. I am struck by how much more is being demanded from would-be authors. In the 1960s and 70s, it was normally sufficient to type the paper neatly, do one’s best to create figures and tables, and then rely upon an expert editorial team to do the editing.

Now, tight rules are imposed about font, font size, line spacing, size of margins, the need for separate files for title page, acknowledgements, abstract, keywords, tables, figures, etc. There are conditions about copyright, charges for offprints, and restrictions on making one’s work available freely to others.

In addition, some journals charge differential fees for basic and advanced editing, insist upon charges for making the paper accessible online before the paper is published. Where are the oldfashioned proofreaders and copyeditors? Why are authors having to do so much of the basic editing?

Of course, the journals then charge fees for

institutions and individual readers to buy the journal, and no doubt there are the large fees from advertisers. Would it be easier to publish oneself, making the paper available

free? Is our need/wish to make our research known so great that we must go along with these demands? For young researchers at the beginning of their careers, for whom publication is vital, the bar is far higher than it used to be.

Robert Maxwell’s entry into the academic/professional publishing world (with its substantial financial profits) has given us a legacy of onerous proportions.

Michael Tobin Worcester

NOTICEBOARD I have a large number of back issues of The Psychologist magazine from the last approximately nine years. If you are interested in the copies please contact me directly. I live in Cambridge.

Lucy Markson lm473@cam.ac.uk Are you a qualified psychologist willing to test your attitudes, knowledge and opinions about the ‘hidden/silent addiction’? This addiction has recently been renamed and reclassified in the DSM-5 and has been reported as a public health issue and yet is not the responsibility of the Department of Health. Interested? Then please participate in this research for a Doctorate in Counselling Psychology by following this link: www.surveymonkey.com/s/VDHPLF7 Rosa Chillari University of Wolverhampton

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read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

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NEWS

Call for access to psychological therapies to double

© LSE/MARIA MOORE

societies. We’ve been looking at evidence for Britain and many Two of the key figures behind government reform in mental health care have spoken of the success of the Improving Access other countries. The story is always the same, that the single factor which explains the largest number of people who are in to Psychological Therapies (IAPT) initiative. Professor Lord misery is mental illness.’

Richard Layard, Emeritus Professor of Economics at the Professor Layard said mental illness was also a major cause London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), of physical illness, adding that depression reduces life as much and clinical psychologist Professor David Clark (University as smoking and that mental illness accounts for half of all of Oxford), were talking at the LSE to mark the launch of their disability in the UK, half of people on benefits and half of days new book Thrive: The Power of Evidence-Based Psychological taken off sick. He said that all Therapies. of this adds up to around 8 per In the special event, chaired cent of the country’s GNP.

by BBC journalist Andrew Marr, Layard added: ‘David [Clark] both authors referred to the and others have been pervasiveness of mental health developing effective problems. They argued, as in psychological therapies which their book, that these problems are evidence-based and which have huge social impacts and are achieving 50 per cent huge economic costs yet they recovery rates and halving the can be effectively treated by risk of relapse… if you average evidence-based psychological from the mildest to the most therapies: if only such severe, the average cost [of treatments were more widely therapy] is £650. That’s a oneavailable. off cost. Against that, if At the event, Professor someone is on benefits they Layard described mental illness are costing us £650 a month. as a ‘great hidden problem’ in If we have more psychological our society, continuing: ‘Mental therapy available what would illness is a huge cause of misery we save? We would save as and physical illness… The much on benefits and lost taxes impact is huge, one of the things as it would cost to expand our research group has been psychological therapy.’ doing is trying to identify the Layard said that since the factors which cause the most Professor Layard (left) described mental illness as programme began in 2008, 6000 misery in modern Western a ‘great hidden problem’ in our society

DEMENTIA AND DRIVING A new clinical pathway, published in the International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, has been developed to provide clinicians and health professionals with guidelines on how to manage, and give support and advice to patients with a diagnosis of dementia who continue to drive.

Many patients who receive a diagnosis of dementia continue to drive, and although guidelines have been issued for dementia these have not addressed the issue of driving. The new pathway incorporates UK legislation and clinical practice and gives a structure for health professionals on how to deal with these patients. It was developed at Newcastle University by a team of clinicians from Northumberland Tyne and Wear NHS Foundation Trust, with input from the DVLA. Alongside the pathway, a web resource has been developed that offers a supporting pack to the pathway, along with links to information on where further help can be found for clinicians, patients and families (https://research.ncl.ac.uk/driving-anddementia). ER

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An inspirational woman Clinical psychologist Dr Melinda Rees has been named as one of the top 50 most inspirational women in healthcare by the Health Service Journal. As of September Dr Rees is Clinical Director for Beacon UK, which is working to change the way health services are purchased on a national scale in the UK. She was previously Consultant Clinical Psychologist and Clinical Lead and Manager for iCope, a large IAPT service in Camden & Islington NHS Foundation Trust.

Dr Rees said: ‘It is wonderful to have been recognised among these prestigious colleagues who are making such a real difference to the quality of people’s lives. I am privileged to lead a high-quality, dynamic team which continues to adapt in its endeavours to meet the needs of local communities within the borough of Islington.

Being the Clinical Lead of this service has been an honour.’

Dr Rees will feature in our ‘One on one’ in the coming months. ER

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new therapists have been trained in accordance with a national curriculum, services have been rolled out in every part of the country and this year IAPT was seeing three quarters of a million people, but he added that this was only a small fraction of the six million people in the UK with depression and anxiety problems. He asked all political parties to add into their manifestos a commitment to doubling the scale of the IAPT programme. He claimed there was no real, effective mental health lobby in the UK, and that this was understandable: ‘If you suffer from a mental health problem you’re not exactly going to go out demonstrating in favour of a better deal. It’s very much down to the general public who understand the importance of this issue to apply the pressure.’

Professor Clark spoke of the scope of evidence-based psychological therapies in their treatment of a range of disorders including depression, OCD and anxiety. He said it was a scandal that only 13 per cent of people with depression and anxiety have the chance to have such treatment. He pointed out that in the past, psychological therapy outcomes had not been well monitored and that therapists themselves had not always been kept abreast of new developments in therapies: ‘When keyhole surgery was developed surgeons were trained very systematically and quickly, but we don’t systematically train our staff.’

He continued: ‘We need to extend the benefits of IAPT to people with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder… The gap between availability and what you’d want is massive. One of the most effective interventions in schizophrenia is family therapy, which is very good for preventing people from having a relapse once they come out of hospital.’

Professor Clark added that untreated mental health problems in childhood predict mental illness in adulthood and problems with conduct. He said: ‘For most children in this country with anxiety and depression you have to grow up before you get treatment. The government has created a children and young person’s IAPT, but it’s very small. What we need is a clear and ambitious access target for children.’

The professors are now hoping that the scale of IAPT will be doubled by the next government throughout its time in power, including the training of another 6000 therapists. ER I Watch the event at www.youtube.com/watch?v=a9eHyZmcLCk

HCPC consult on standards of proficiency The Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) has launched a consultation asking stakeholders for their views on proposed changes to the standards of proficiency for practitioner psychologists.

The standards of proficiency are the threshold standards for safe and effective practice in the UK and play a key role in public protection.

They are divided into generic standards (which apply to all of the 16 professions the HCPC regulate) and standards specific to each profession.

They are used when an individual professional applies for or renews their registration, or when concerns are raised about their competence. They are also used to approve education and training programmes.

Director of Policy and Standards Michael Guthrie commented: ‘We are reviewing the standards of proficiency for practitioner psychologists to

ensure they continue to be set at an appropriate level for entry to the HCPC Register and are reflective of current practice. After incorporating initial feedback from the British Psychological Society we are now seeking the views of a wide range of stakeholders on the standards generally. In addition, we would welcome comments on the use of the terms ‘evidence-informed’ and ‘service user’ in the standards.

We will then analyse the responses to decide if any further changes are needed.

We will then publish the final standards as approved by our Council and will then work with education and training providers to implement the new standards.’

I The consultation will run to Friday 17 October 2014; to respond, visit www.research.net/s/standard sofproficiencyforpractitionerp sychologists to complete the 10- to 20-minute questionnaire

Self-managing diabetes A team from NHS Grampian was one of only a small number to be successful in a UK-wide competition to identify innovative approaches to improving the quality of health care. The Health Foundation Shine programme is supporting them with £75,000 to run and test their quality improvement ideas.

The initiative involves developing ACT Now!, a web-based guided self-help intervention. The intervention is based on the principles of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) and aims to improve the ability of adults with Type 2 diabetes to effectively self-manage their condition and improve their emotional well-being. The programme will include modules designed to help reduce levels of anxiety and promote the self-care

behaviours that anxiety inhibits, to alleviate fear of hypoglycaemia, as well as to increase activity and promote healthy eating.

Project Manager for ACT Now!, Dr Kirsty MacLennan, said: ‘Over 23,000 people have Type 2 Dr Kirsty MacLennan diabetes in NHS Grampian and approximately half of them understandably struggle to self-manage their condition. This project offers a person-centred approach to more effective self-management.’

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

Dr Andy Keen, Consultant Health Psychologist, welcomed the opportunity to try this novel approach.

He explained: ‘We need innovative and flexible options for people trying to manage complex chronic conditions like Type 2 diabetes. Whilst a strong theoretical component is crucial, it is also imperative that interventions are accessible and make sense to people from all walks of life.’

ACT Now! is currently in the design and recruitment phase and will go live from December 2014. ER

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Human Brain Project – putting the cart An ambitious venture to simulate the brain’s networks using supercomputers could be under threat after scientists involved with the large-scale Human Brain Project, which more than 80 European and international institutions signed up to take part in, wrote an open letter threatening to boycott the project if reforms were not made.

Many institutions refused to join the 10-year project at the outset because of its ‘fairly narrow approach’, the letter said.

The neuroscientists added that after a Framework Partnership Agreement – for the second round of funding – was submitted this resulted in a further narrowing of goals for the project, including the deletion of 18 additional laboratories and the removal of a neuroscience subproject.

A formal review of the project has been scheduled to evaluate the success of the project’s so-called ramp-up phase.

The letter, signed by more than 750 neuroscientists, said: ‘At stake is funding on the order of 50M€ per year European Commission for the “core project” and

Dr James Bednar, Director of the Doctoral Training Centre in Neuroinformatics and Computational Neuroscience

50M€ in “partnering projects” provided largely by the European member states’ funding bodies. In this context we wish to express the view that the HBP is not on course and that the European Commission must take a very careful look

at both the science and the management of the HBP before it is renewed.

‘We strongly question whether the goals and implementation of the HBP are adequate to form the nucleus of the collaborative effort in Europe that will further our understanding of the brain.’

In a statement released by the project’s board of directors and executive committee, following the publication of the open letter, it said the project aimed to eventually move towards a multilevel reconstruction and simulation of the brain and attempted to address each of the concerns expressed in the letter.

Dr James Bednar, Director of the Doctoral Training Centre in Neuroinformatics and Computational Neuroscience (University of Edinburgh) was one of the original signatories of the letter and gave us his personal opinion on the project. He said the problem with the HBP was not its ambition but its focus and management. ‘The HBP is concentrating a huge amount of resources on one specific approach that the European neuroscience community

‘Gamified’ neuroscience published Initial findings from one of the largest cognitive science experiments ever conducted, involving tens of thousands of participants, have shown that mobile games can be used to address psychological questions, helping to form a better understanding of how cognitive functions differ across populations.

The Great Brain Experiment, a free mobile app run by neuroscientists at the Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging at UCL, uses ‘gamified’ neuroscience experiments to address scientific questions on a scale that would not be possible using traditional approaches.

The app investigates memory, impulsivity, risk-taking and happiness. By playing the games, anyone can anonymously compare their abilities to the wider

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population and contribute to scientific research – More than 60,000 people have taken part so far.

The results, published in PLoS ONE, demonstrate that mobile games can be used to conduct research in psychology and neuroscience,

reproducing previous findings.

Writing in the journal, the researchers explained: ‘Smartphone users represent a participant pool far larger and more diverse than could ever be studied in the laboratory.

By 2015, there will be an estimated two billion

smartphone users worldwide. In time, data from simple apps could be combined with medical, genetic or lifestyle information to provide a novel tool for risk prediction and health monitoring.’

Rick Adams, a developer of the Great Brain Experiment based at the Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging at UCL, said: ‘The initial aim was simply to make the public more aware of cognitive neuroscience experiments, and how they are conducted.

However, with such large numbers of people downloading the app and submitting their results, it rapidly became clear that there was the potential for studying task performance at an unprecedented scale.’ ER

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before the horse? simply doesn’t agree should be the priority. Moreover, it is being managed in a way that does not allow for meaningful external input, instead brushing aside serious criticism and concerns from numerous well-established researchers.’

Bednar said a particular issue was that the bulk of funding for the project was going towards developing a computing platform for simulating the human brain, but that there was little consensus on

precisely how to go about simulating an entire brain and what type of simulations would be needed. He added: ‘It seems foolish to spend all our resources to develop specific hardware and software tools that the community does not agree are necessary or appropriate. Moreover, even if these were the right tools to build, we currently have only a tiny fraction of the biological data needed to constrain such a simulation so that it is modelling

something meaningful. Thus there is very little point in investing in huge computing systems now, before such data is available, which will only be obsolete by the time we are ready to run detailed simulations grounded by data. The HBP is thus putting the cart before the horse, on a massive scale, without knowing what kind of cart we might eventually need. It is an ambitious, forceful step in the wrong direction.’ ER

SCOTTISH INDEPENDENCE AND ACADEMIC RESEARCH Ahead of the Scottish independence referendum this month, the Presidents of the British Academy, the Royal Society and the Academy of Medical Sciences have written an open letter calling for a wider debate on the risks facing academic research if Scotland becomes an independent country.

The letter said that many people involved in research in Scotland were concerned about the issue but that some appeared to feel inhibited in expressing their views. They added: ‘We believe

that if separation were to occur, research not only in Scotland but also in the rest of the UK would suffer. However, research in Scotland would be more vulnerable and there could be significant reductions in range, capability and critical mass. We have all gained much from integration and interaction in academic and research life, in which Scotland plays such a strong role.’ ER I For a psychological discussion on the referendum see June’s issue of The Psychologist

Autism conferences 2014 Women and girls on the autism spectrum

Pathological Demand Avoidance

Keynote: Dr Wenn Lawson 9 October, London

4 November, Cardiff

We examine the unique challenges facing women and girls with autism, including first-hand accounts from women on the spectrum about the issues surrounding day-to-day living, whether diagnosed or undiagnosed.

Information on PDA is extremely limited; this conference provides a rare opportunity to learn about the disorder and hear experts in the field discussing the latest strategies.

Autism and communication

Understanding and supporting challenging behaviour in people with autism

Keynotes: Gina Davies and Carol Gray 25 November, Reading

14 October, Birmingham

We will look at communication difficulties and tools to help verbal and non-verbal communication, including Social StoriesTM, as well as how we can inspire attention in people with autism and how to make therapy irresistible.

Presenting the latest research and best practice in understanding and responding to challenging behaviour in children and adults with autism.

Book your place today at: www.autism.org.uk/conferences Email: conference@nas.org.uk | Tel: 0115 911 3367 |

@networkautism

The National Autistic Society, a charity registered in England and Wales (269425) and in Scotland (SC039427)

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‘We should bring death back to life, into the open’ The prospect of having a law in place that would allow people to get help to end their own lives has caused UK-wide debate in recent months after House of Lords peers backed Lord Falconer’s Assisted Dying Bill at its second reading following a nine-hour debate of its proposals. More than 130 peers spoke at the debate on the Private Members’ Bill, which would make it legal for terminally ill adults to be given assistance to end their own lives – it would apply to people with less than six months to live.

There are obvious ethical and religious concerns that this bill would bring to light, were it to become law, but what would it mean from a psychological perspective? We spoke to specialists in pain, disability and palliative care for their views.

Pain Pain specialist Professor Owen Hughes, Consultant Counselling Psychologist and Head of Pain and Fatigue Management, Powys Teaching Health Board, does not back the Assisted Dying Bill, despite living with a chronic pain condition himself and spending his life helping people to accept their own chronic pain.

He said that after being told that they are going to have to live with pain for the rest of their lives many believe that they are going to be miserable for the rest of their lives. He said it is important that people are shown that relying on themselves is a better way forward than relying on health professionals.

He added: ‘There is a metaphor which is often used in acceptance and commitment therapy of the tramp at the party: A man is about to hold a huge party to celebrate his birthday. He has decorated the house, completed the catering and ordered the entertainment; just as the party is about to start he discovers that a tramp has moved into the shed in the garden. He now has a choice; he can focus his attentions and energies on trying to get the tramp to leave or he can accept that the tramp is there and is doing no harm and enjoy the company of his friends. Chronic (non-malignant) pain is like the tramp, and people can be helped to accept it and focus their energies on enjoying the rest of their life.’

He told The Psychologist:

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More than 130 peers spoke at the debate on the Private Members’ Bill

‘Unfortunately, people can feel that they have lost control of their life and that ending their life (or at least thinking about it) can give them a sense that they do have one option open to them. As someone who has a chronic pain problem myself I have firsthand experience of how it can take over your conscious mind if you let it. I was lucky in that I had 15 years of practising the techniques beforehand. I certainly wouldn’t support assisted dying for people who have pain – I would support the greater availability of pain management. Once pain management is available to all in a timely and effective manner, if there is still a problem then I may reconsider my position, but I doubt it.’

Disability Dr Brett Smith (Loughborough University), who has worked with disabled athletes in his research, said the Assisted Dying Bill had sparked debate throughout the disabled community. Dr Smith carried out research last year with spinal cord injury charity Aspire, and found that young men aged 18 to 26 often go straight from rehab care into care homes. He said: ‘These young men are thrown into a care home with 80-year-old people with dementia, so we wanted to look at the effects of this on their mental health and well-being.

‘Psychologically, unsurprisingly many experienced depression, it was very, very common amongst them and many

reported low quality of life. Also, 25 per cent of them had attempted suicide, none of them had told the staff because they were worried their next port of call would be in a mental health institution. So they kept these attempts to themselves. This wasn’t their fault, the problem is that society doesn’t offer appropriate housing.

If that was available it could benefit the ageing population as well.’

Dr Smith has been lobbying Parliament to change housing law, and he said the Assisted Dying Bill could be glossing over the roots of some of the problems people with disabilities face: ‘If we take a leap straight into the Assisted Dying Bill people will feel under pressure and it may feel that it’s their only option.

It’s not about disability per se but it’s a societal issue.

‘My own personal view is that we could be rushing into this, we need a more informed dialogue. It raises a number of interesting questions, who is doing the campaigning? When it’s placed in the media often they ask celebrities with disabilities for their opinion or people in high positions in the Church, but where are the voices of the “ordinary” disabled people in this discourse?’

Dr Smith said it was important to remember that disability is not a homogeneous construct, and that people with varied disabilities and impairments need to join in the discussion, as well as people such as disability lawyers and psychologists. He added: ‘The other issue

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Palliative care Professor Scott Murray (University of Edinburgh) St Columba’s Hospice Chair of Primary Palliative Care, has studied the trajectory of psychological distress in terminally ill lung cancer patients, as well as the effects of dealing with a terminal illness on family carers. His work has involved interviewing inoperable lung cancer patients from the point of diagnosis until death, a process of around six months. He said: ‘We’ve shown that people are typically most psychologically distressed four times throughout their disease progression. The first time, as you’d imagine, is when they’re told they have cancer. Then they go into hospital and it’s very reassuring so they start to feel a bit better. Once they go home more questions come up and they dip again.

As the disease progresses they dip back into anxiety and then at the very end of life they may be anxious again.’

Professor Murray said that if a clinician is able to talk through these various stages of distress at the point of diagnosis it can be useful for patients, as they will then be aware of what to expect.

He told us: ‘Psychological help often occurs at the very end of life, but it would be better given at diagnosis. There are also existential issues which follow a similar trajectory, people often wonder about the meaning and purpose of life.’

Qualitative research by Professor Murray and his team has suggested that people should be given support at diagnosis. ‘That’s a huge issue. Just sitting and listening to someone can be helpful, you’re confirming their identity as a person. Also people with cancer get more psychological help than people who die in other ways; in people with a longer prognosis like in MS, frailty, heart failure or dementia, it’s hard to know when to give them this advice.’

Professor Murray said he is against the Assisted Dying Bill for a number of reasons: ‘I had an older lady whose husband had died and at that stage her house passed on to their children. The children threw her out of the house and I helped her to find a council house. It illustrates how nasty mankind can be. If we have this bill a lot of people would feel

useless. It would turn into a duty for some people to die.

‘The fluctuations in psychological distress show that at some points, patients might want to die, but then they’ll feel better later. One or two people have bad pain that’s hard to treat, but if we don’t just think about painkillers but think about a person holistically, it’s pain that you don’t understand that’s unbearable, if you understand why you’re suffering it can be very therapeutic.’

He said that many of the advocates for assisted dying had illnesses with greater prognostic uncertainty and where palliative care and end-of-life issues had not been raised. If such people had been given the chance to discuss what might happen, they would feel more in control and able to seek other support rather than taking their own life. He said: ‘If you’re told what the progression will be like, psychologically, physically and existentially, and what various people will be able to do for you at those times, it can be a great support. It is a more uncertain prognosis, and it’s harder to know when it would be useful to have that conversation with people, but most patients do value such a conversation to understand what the future might hold, and to anticipate what they might do to stay on top of the situation.

‘We should give people an assessment and cover psychological and existential issues and then people may not feel like they need to have this choice to die. The euthanasia debate is helpfully bringing up the fact that we should have better psychological support from the point of diagnosis with life-threatening illness, it would help everyone, the 90 per cent of the population who don’t die suddenly.

When people learn they might die, they have existential and psychological problems, and they should be allowed to speak to someone about how they feel.

We should bring death back to life, into the open, and promote a greater public understanding of what it will hold for us all… even before we need to know.’

Where are the supporters?

According to figures from Dignity in Dying, 80 per cent of the general public support assisted dying. So why were we unable to find psychologists to speak against the bill? Perhaps there is a desire in the community to address and resolve issues rather than using this quicker means to an end. To add your voice to the discussion, send your letters for consideration to psychologist@bps.org.uk.

The Assisted Dying Bill now goes forward to a Committee of the whole House for scrutiny. ER

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FUNDING NEWS The Royal Society and the National Natural Science Foundation of China invite applications for the cost-share programme of their international exchanges scheme.

This initiates collaborations between scientists in the UK and China. UK applicants should apply to the Royal Society and the Chinese applicant should apply to the NSFC. Applicants much have completed a PhD or have extensive experience at an equivalent level and will hold a permanent or fixed-term contract in an eligible organisation. Deadline for applications: 21 October 2014.

I tinyurl.com/oajdnvz The European University Institute invites applications for the Max Weber Fellowships.

These are open to candidates who were awarded their PhD between 1 September 2009 and 1 September 2014 in economics, law, history, social and political sciences or a related field, who wish to advance in their research and academic training. Candidates of all nationalities are eligible and the fellowships last for one to two years. Closing date for applications: 25 October 2014.

I tinyurl.com/q4bf5rx The Wellcome Trust invites applications for its Intermediate Clinical Fellowships. These enable graduates, including those of clinical psychology, to continue their research interests at a postdoctoral level in an appropriate unit or clinical research facility.

Applicants should have previously undergone a period of research training and will have completed, or be about to complete, a higher degree. Fellowships provide research expenses and a salary. Deadline for applications: 27 October 2014.

I tinyurl.com/3aevffb Research Councils UK invites applications for its Disabled Students Allowance funding.

This provides assistance with additional expenditure for postgraduate students as a result of a disability, mental health problem or specific learning difficulty and can cover the cost of non-medical personal assistance, items of specialist equipment, extra travel costs and general expenses. Applicants must be the holder of a research council studentship. Closing date for applications: 31 October 2014.

I www.rcuk.ac.uk/skills/training

info

to me is that the bill may give the impression that disability equates simply to a tragedy or that becoming disabled equates to having a poor quality of life.

As a consequence, rather than ignoring why this can be the case or tracing such ideas to individuals, we need to trace disability and how people are perceived to broader issues in society.’

For BPS awards and grant schemes, see www.bps.org.uk/awards&grants Funding bodies should e-mail news to Emma Smith on emma.smith@bps.org.uk for possible inclusion

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The academics of tomorrow Ella Rhodes reports from the Annual Conference of the Psychology Postgraduate Affairs Group (PsyPAG) An image and communication problem for psychologists and their research were top of the agenda at the 29th annual Psychology Postgraduate Affairs Group (PsyPAG) conference at Cardiff Metropolitan University. The opening keynote speech from Dr Paul Hutchings (University of Wales Trinity St David), exploring how better psychological expertise could be used to inform the general public, began by outlining the many stereotypes psychologists encounter when speaking about their jobs, with ‘boffin’ and ‘mind reader’ labels having been encountered by most.

Dr Hutchings argued that, although the media are sometimes to blame for dispersing this warped view of research psychologists, much of the blame lies within the psychological community itself. He told the assembled crowd: ‘It’s the fault of the people in this room. It’s the fault of psychologists living and dead

all over the world, anyone who calls themselves a psychologist has to shoulder some of that blame.’

Dr Hutchings spoke of the parts of psychology that often make it into popular news media, particularly the Blue Monday phenomenon in January, which has been termed the ‘worst day of the year’. He added: ‘If people don’t hear anything else about psychology for the entire year, they’ll hear about that. And they sit in judgement of us and all the pejorative words that people use will come up – crap, kidology, psychobabble, pseudoresearch. “Real scientists” sit in judgement of us. That’s a massive problem for us, how do we deal with that? Whose fault is it if that’s the stuff that gets out there and strong research on sound empirical bases doesn’t? Whose fault is it?’

He said that researchers and others in psychology should contribute to news stories about the field. He added: ‘If nature

abhors a vacuum then so too does the news media, never in the history of a newsroom has anyone said ‘Oh you can’t find me an expert on that well let’s not run that story then’, it doesn’t happen.

Psychology is impacting on so many different things. Psychology influences almost everything, you can find a psychological angle to feed into any study, and there are people out there looking for psychologists to talk about things, and if they’re not there they’ll find someone, they’ll drag someone in. Some people out there are experts in all areas of psychology, and that’s fine, but it’s about making sure that the information we get across is correct. It’s not necessarily about the expertise but making sure the right information gets out there.’

Dr Hutchings argued that many postgraduate students are experts in their respective fields and should use this knowledge to help spread good

Part-time, Evening Psychology courses starting in late September 2014 Birkbeck’s Department of Psychological Sciences combines world-leading research with outstanding teaching. We offer a range of part-time courses taught in the evenings, ranging from Certificate of Higher Education level through to Master’s, all starting in late September 2014.

Open Evening

Cert HE Applied Psychology/Psychoanalytic Psychology/Interpersonal Communication These all study the application of appropriate theories to themes, issues and settings.

Come along to find out more about our courses and meet our staff.

Cert HE Psychology We offer a range of modules, which will help you prepare for degree level study, support your work, and deepen a professional interest.

Thursday 4 September 2014 4-7.30pm

Foundation Degree in Psychology for Education Professionals Relevant to those working (or intending to work) with children and young people in educational contexts.

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BSc Psychology (part-time or full-time) This course is BPS accredited and is the first step towards a career in Psychology.

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For further details of our full range of undergraduate and postgraduate courses in Psychology visit: www.bbk.ac.uk/psychology

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020 7631 6207/020 7079 0878

London’s evening university

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information about psychology ‘You need to be using it think about how much knowledge you’ve got compared to the rest of the world. You’ve got this knowledge and it’s something that you need to do, that you owe the field of psychology.

‘People need knowledge of psychology and if we’re not the ones who go and fill up that void, someone else is going to provide it. You are the researchers, we’re the best ones to be able to go out and give that information,’ he said.

Mindfulness The PsyPAG conference also included, for the first time, a symposium on transpersonal psychology, a new field defined as: ‘The human quest to achieve states of being that are more profound, compassionate and ultimately more fulfilling than those typically based in the egocentric world of “I”.’

Presenting his research on mindfulness was Roy Owen who is studying for his Consciousness and Transpersonal Psychology MSc with Middlesex University while working as a teacher at The Sixth Form College, Birkenhead. His research is looking into the utility of mindfulness for teachers in a furthereducation setting. He had a group of 10 teachers at the college where he works take part in an eight-week mindfulness-based stress reduction course, measuring stress, depression and anxiety, emotional regulation, attention, and overall mindfulness before and after the course.

Although Roy is yet to carry out any statistical tests on his data, his results look promising, with reductions across the board in negative psychological symptoms. Roy also guided the symposium audience through a full body scan meditation session, and starting in September Roy will be running mindfulness sessions for staff and students at the college, which are already fully booked until next year. He said: ‘I strongly believe that there is a sufficient amount of research evidence to highlight the fact that mindfulness training should be used to support the psychological health and well-being of both teachers and students within the educational system. I am excited to be bringing mindfulness training to The Sixth Form

College, Birkenhead from September and am looking forward to seeing mindfulness grow within education.’

Risk-taking and competitiveness Presenting at an evolutionary psychology symposium were fellow University of Sunderland PhD students Lisa LumleyImerson and Rebecca Owens. Lisa is looking into whether females have a preference for risk-taking men, while Rebecca has been exploring the attractiveness of competitive behaviour in men.

Lisa’s research asked whether male risk-taking is an evolved adaptation, a costly signal of good genes, and suggested that harsh and unpredictable

environments would have selected for risk-takers. Lisa proposed that if males evolved to take risks then females must surely have co-evolved to find risk-takers attractive. She tested 146 heterosexual female participants on their desirability ratings of risk-taking men and riskavoiding men and measured their socioeconomic status. She found that riskavoiders are more desirable as long-term mates than risk-takers, but that women desire both types of men equally for short-term relationships. Lisa said: ‘ This suggests that more consideration is given to choosing a long-term mate, and females are indifferent when choosing short-term mates.’ She also found that women of a higher socio-economic status rate risk-takers as more desirable, than their less affluent counterparts. Lisa said: ‘This suggests that females of higher SES can afford to trade off resources for genetic quality, whereas less affluent females simply can’t.’

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Rebecca Owens has looked into competitive behaviour in males and whether this type of behaviour serves to attract mating opportunities, based on evidence that single males have higher levels of testosterone compared with married men and fathers, a sex difference which is suggested to have been selected for due to the different evolutionary pressures faced by males and females. She hypothesised that men would be more competitive than women and that single men would be the most competitive out of all males tested, and that men in relationships who are looking for extramarital affairs would also be competitive.

She had 150 participants play a competitive game and found that, as expected, males were more competitive than females. She found no significant difference due to relationship status in males on the competitive game score though there was a moderate effect size. She said: ‘It seems male competitiveness decreases to similar levels as females in relationships, so there are significant sex differences in single participants but not in those in relationships.

This is because competitive behaviour in males serves to attract mating opportunities.’

Keynote speeches were also given by Professor Patrick Leman (Royal Holloway University of London), Dr Almuth McDowall (University of Surrey) and Professor Paul Bennett (Swansea University). PsyPAG’s conference organiser Hamish Cox, said: ‘Fortunately the Welsh weather acted in our favour throughout the week. The conference is our annual flagship event, which is only made possible by the generosity of our sponsors and the enthusiasm from both delegates and the PsyPAG Committee.’

I PsyPAG will be celebrating their 30th Annual Conference in 2015. Both current psychology postgraduates and alumni are welcome from 22 to 24 July at the University of Glasgow. Look out for updates via www.psypag.co.uk, @PsyPAG on Twitter, Facebook and the PsyPAG Quarterly magazine.

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DIGEST

How long-term couples develop interconnected memory systems Although it might seem a good idea to work with other people to remember important information, the evidence suggests that this typically isn’t so. Individual recall is most efficient whereas social remembering comes with drawbacks, tripping up our flow and inhibiting memories. But this evidence mostly comes from asking people to collaborate with a stranger. What happens when you know each other really, really well?

Celia Harris and colleagues at Macquarie University recently reviewed their previously published and new research on social remembering by long-term intimate couples. Their data showed that on standard tasks, such as reproducing words from studied lists, couples working together often did as well as when they worked alone. This lack of a penalty from social remembering is itself notable, but it’s just a gateway into more intriguing findings.

During another study, the researchers noticed that although couples did more poorly at listing their shared holidays when recalling together, these social sessions were filled with anecdotes and tangents that weren’t In Memory Studies generated in the solo sessions.

This inspired them to depart from testing memory for lists of words and events, and to explore the amount of rich, in-depth information remembered by couples about experienced events. They found these social exchanges led to clear collaborative memory benefits, which could take three forms: 1. ‘New information’ such as finally snatching an elusive name of a musical thanks to a chain of prompts between the two parties.

2. Richer, more vivid descriptions of events including sensory information.

3. Information from one partner painting things in a new light for the other.

Differences between the couples were crucial. Those who structured their approach together and were more prepared to riff off the other’s contributions did better than those who were more passive or critical. Richer events were also better remembered by partners who rated their intimacy as higher.

The authors note that older adults tend to experience the greatest memory difficulties with firsthand autobiographical information, rather than abstracted facts.

This is exactly where the couples gained the biggest benefit from remembering together, as evidenced by performance on the in-depth event recall task and the spontaneously emerging anecdotes. It’s possible that as we grow older, we offset the unreliability of our own episodic systems by drawing on the memorial support offered by a trusted partner. This might explain why when one member of an older couple experiences a drop in cognitive function, the other soon follows. Our memory systems are more of a shared resource than we realise. AF

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One of psychology’s most famous experiments was seriously flawed In Teaching of Psychology Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) has acquired a mythical status and provided the inspiration for at least two feature-length films. You’ll recall that several university students allocated to the role of jailor turned brutal and the study had to be aborted prematurely. Philip Zimbardo, the experiment’s lead investigator, says the lesson from the research is that in certain situations, good people readily turn bad. ‘If you put good apples into a bad situation, you’ll get bad apples,’ he has written.

The SPE was criticised back in the 70s, but that criticism has noticeably escalated and widened in recent years. New details to emerge show that Zimbardo played a key role in encouraging his ‘guards’ to behave in tyrannical fashion. Critics have pointed out that only one third of guards behaved sadistically (this argues against the overwhelming power of the situation).

Question marks have also been raised about the self-selection of particular personality types into the study. Moreover, in 2002, the social psychologists Steve Reicher and Alex Haslam conducted the BBC Prison Study to test the conventional interpretation of the SPE. The researchers deliberately avoided directing their participants as Zimbardo had his, and this time it was the prisoners who initially formed a strong group identity and overthrew the guards.

Given that the SPE has been used to explain modern-day atrocities, such as at Abu Ghraib, and given that nearly two million students are enrolled in introductory psychology courses in the US, Richard Griggs, professor emeritus at the University of Florida, says ‘it is especially important that coverage of it in our texts be accurate’.

So, have the important criticisms and reinterpretations of the SPE been documented by key introductory psychology textbooks? Griggs analysed the content of 13 leading US introductory psychology

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textbooks, all of which have been revised in recent years, including: Discovering Psychology (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2012); Psychological Science (Gazzaniga et al., 2012); and Psychology (Schacter et al., 2011).

Of the 13 analysed texts, 11 dealt with the Stanford Prison Experiment, providing between one to seven paragraphs of coverage. Nine included photographic support for the coverage. Five provided no criticism of the SPE at all. The other six provided only cursory criticism, mostly focused on the questionable ethics of the study. Only two texts mentioned the BBC Prison Study. Only one text provided a formal scholarly reference to a critique of the SPE. Why do the principal psychology introductory textbooks, at least in the US, largely ignore the wide range of important criticisms of the SPE? Griggs didn’t approach the authors of the texts so he can’t know for sure. He thinks it unlikely that ignorance is the answer. Perhaps the authors are persuaded by Zimbardo’s answers to his critics, says Griggs, but even so, surely the criticisms should be mentioned and referenced. Another possibility is that textbook authors are under pressure to shorten their texts, but surely they are also under pressure to keep them up to date.

It would be interesting to compare coverage of the SPE in European introductory texts. Certainly there are contemporary books by British psychologists that do provide more in-depth critical coverage of the SPE. Griggs’ advice for textbook authors is to position coverage of the SPE in the research methods chapter (instead of under social psychology), and to use the experiment’s flaws as a way to introduce students to key issues such as ecological validity, ethics, demand characteristics and subsequent conflicting results. ‘In sum,’ he writes, ‘the SPE and its criticisms comprise a solid thread to weave numerous research concepts together into a good “story” that would not only enhance student learning but also lead students to engage in critical thinking about the research process and all of the possible pitfalls along the way.’ CJ

Happy together now?

In the Journal of Happiness Studies It’s become a mantra of the modern Western world that the ultimate aim of life is to achieve happiness. Self-help blog posts on how to be happy are almost guaranteed popularity (the Digest has its own!). Prohappiness organisations have appeared, such as Action for Happiness, which aims to ‘create a happier society for everyone’.

Topping it all, an increasing number of governments, including in the UK, have started measuring national well-being (seen as a proxy for ‘happiness’) – the argument being that this a potentially more important policy outcome than economic prosperity.

But hang on a minute, say Moshen Joshanloo and Dan Weijers writing in the Journal of Happiness Studies – not everyone wants to be happy. In fact, they point out that many people, including in Western cultures, deliberately dampen their positive moods.

Looking into the reasons for happiness aversion, Joshanloo and Weijers identify four: believing that being happy will provoke bad things to happen; that happiness will make you a worse person; that expressing happiness is bad for you and others; and that pursuing happiness is bad for you and others. Let’s touch on each of these.

Fear that happiness leads to bad outcomes is perhaps most strong in East Asian cultures influenced by Taoism, which posits that ‘things tend to revert to their opposite’. A 2001 study asked participants to choose from a range of life-course graphs and found that Chinese people were more likely than Americans to choose graphs that showed periods of sadness following periods of joy. Other cultures, such as Japan and Iran, believe that happiness can bring misfortune as it causes inattentiveness.

Similar fears are sometimes found in the West as reflected in adages such as ‘What goes up must come down’.

Belief that being happy makes you a worse person is rooted in some interpretations of Islam, the reasoning being that it distracts you from God. Joshanloo and Weijers quote the Prophet Muhammad: ‘Were you to know what I know, you would

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laugh little and weep much’ and ‘Avoid much laughter, for much laughter deadens the heart’. Another relevant belief here is the idea that being unhappy makes people more creative. Consider this quote from Edward Munch: ‘They [emotional sufferings] are part of me and my art. They are indistinguishable from me ... I want to keep those sufferings.’

In relation to the overt expression of happiness, a 2009 study found that Japanese participants frequently mentioned that doing so can harm others, for example by making them envious; Americans rarely held such concerns. In Ifaluk culture in Micronesia, meanwhile, Joshanloo and Weijers note that expressing happiness is ‘associated with showing off, overexcitement, and failure at doing one’s duties’.

Finally, the pursuit of happiness is believed by many cultures and philosophies to be harmful to the self and others. Take as an example this passage of Buddhist text: ‘And with every desire for happiness, out of delusion they destroy their own well-being as if it were their enemy.’ In Western thought, as far back as Epicurus, warnings are given that the direct pursuit of happiness can backfire on the self, and harm others through excessive self-interest. Also, it’s been argued that joy can make the oppressed weak and less likely to fight injustice.

There’s a contemporary fixation with happiness in the much of the Western world.

Joshanloo and Weijers’ counterpoint is that, for various reasons, not everyone wants to happy. From a practical perspective, they say this could seriously skew cross-cultural comparisons of subjective well-being. ‘It stands to reason’, they write, ‘that a person with an aversion to expressing happiness...may report lower subjective wellbeing than they would do otherwise.’

But their concerns go deeper: ‘There are risks for happiness studies in exporting Western psychology to non-Western cultures without undertaking indigenous analyses, including making invalid crosscultural comparisons and imposing Western cultural assumptions on other cultures.’ CJ

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How your mood changes your personality In BMC Psychology

How "You can do it!" beats "I can do it!"

In the European Journal of Social Psychology We know self-talk can help people’s self-control (e.g. ‘Don’t do it!’), and boost their morale (e.g. ‘Hang in there!’) in sporting situations. However, before now, no one has investigated whether self-talk is more effective depending on whether you refer to yourself in the grammatical first person (i.e. ‘I can do it!’) or the second person (i.e. ‘You can do it!’).

Sanda Dolcos and her team first asked 95 psychology undergraduates to imagine they were a character in a short story. The character is faced with a choice, and the participants are asked to write down the advice they would give themselves in this role, to help make the choice. Crucially, half the participants were instructed to use the first-person ‘I’ in their self-advice, the others to use the second-person ‘You’. Right after, the participants completed a series of anagrams. Those who’d given their fictional selves advice using ‘You’

completed more anagrams than those who’d used the first-person ‘I’ (17.53 average completion rate vs. 15.96).

A second study with 143 more psychology students was similar, but this time the students gave themselves selfadvice specifically in relation to completing anagrams, and this time the researchers finished up the study by tapping the students’ attitudes to anagrams, and their intentions to complete more in the future. Students who gave themselves self-advice in the second-person managed to complete more anagrams, and they said they would be happier to work on more in the future (as compared with students who used the first person, or a control group who did not give themselves advice). The greater success rate for the secondperson students was mediated by their more positive attitudes.

Finally, 135 more psychology students wrote down self-advice in relation to exercising more

The material in this section is taken from the Society’s Research Digest blog at www.researchdigest.org.uk/blog, and is written by its editor Dr Christian Jarrett and contributor Dr Alex Fradera. Visit the blog for full coverage including references and links, additional current reports, an archive, comment and more.

Subscribe by RSS or e-mail at www.researchdigest.org.uk/blog Become a fan at www.facebook.com/researchdigest Follow the Digest editor at www.twitter.com/researchdigest

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over the next two weeks. Those who referred to themselves as ‘You’ in that advice subsequently stated that they planned to do more exercise, and they also went on to report more positive attitudes towards exercising, than those students who referred to themselves as ‘I’.

Dolcos and her colleagues said theirs was the ‘first experimental demonstration’ that second-person self-talk is more effective than the firstperson variety, thus complementing ‘past intuitions and descriptive data" suggesting that people resort to second-person self-talk when in more demanding situations. The researchers speculate that second-person self-talk may have this beneficial effect because it cues memories of receiving support and encouragement from others, especially in childhood.

‘Future work should examine ways to actually training people to strategically use the secondperson in ways that improve their self-regulation,’ they said.

Many readers will likely be disappointed by the dependence on purely psychology student samples. You might wonder too whether writing down selfadvice is truly equivalent to internal self-talk; and maybe you’ll have doubts about the extent to which anagram performance and exercising intentions tells us about potential effects in the real world. Another issue is that the study didn’t investigate people’s preferences for self-talk – is it a rule that second-person selftalk is superior for everyone? CJ

Except in extreme cases of illness or trauma, we usually expect each other’s personalities to remain stable through life. Indeed, central to the definition of personality is that it describes pervasive tendencies in a person’s behaviour and ways of relating to the world. However, a new study highlights the reality – your personality is swayed by your current mood, especially when you’re feeling down.

Jan Querengässer and Sebastian Schindler twice measured the personality of 98 participants (average age 22; 67 per cent female), with a month between each assessment.

Before one of the assessments, the participants either watched a 10-minute video designed to make them feel sad, or to make them feel happy. The sad clip was from the film Philadelphia and Barber’s Adagio for Strings was also added into the mix.

The happy video showed families reunited after the fall of the Berlin Wall, together with Mozart’s Eine kleine Nachtmusik.

Before their other personality assessment, the participants watched a neutral video about people with extreme skills.

When participants answered questions about their personality in a sad state, they scored ‘considerably’ higher on trait neuroticism, and ‘moderately’ lower on extraversion and agreeableness, as compared with when they completed the questionnaire in a neutral mood state. There was also a trend for participants to score higher on extraversion when in a happy mood, but this didn’t reach statistical significance.

The weaker effect of happy mood on personality may be because people’s supposed baseline mood (after the neutral video) was already happy.

Alternatively, perhaps sad mood really does have a stronger

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effect on personality scores than happiness. This would make sense from a survival perspective, the researchers said, because sadness is usually seen as a state to be avoided, while happiness is a state to be maintained. ‘Change is more urgent than maintenance,’ they explained.

These results complement previous research suggesting that a person’s personality traits are associated with more frequent experience of particular emotions. For example, there’s evidence that high scorers on extraversion experience more happiness than lower scorers. However, the new data highlight how the relationship can work both ways – with current emotional state also influencing personality (or the

measurement of personality, at least). We are familiar with this in our everyday lives – even our most vivacious friends can seem less friendly and sociable when they’re down. With strangers though, it’s easy to forget these effects and assume that their behaviour derives from fixed personality rather than temporary mood.

Although this research appears to challenge the notion of personality as fixed, the results, if heeded, could actually help us drill down to a person’s underlying long-term traits. As Querengässer and Schindler explained, ‘becoming aware of participants’ emotional state and paying attention to the possible implications on testing could lead to a notable increase in the stability of assessed personality traits’. CJ

LINK FEAST Getting Over Procrastination Maria Konnikova with an overview of some fascinating genetic research. tinyurl.com/pgduks6 Is One of the Most Popular Psychology Experiments Worthless?

Olga Khazan at The Atlantic asks whether it’s time to retire the ‘trolley problem’ used in so many moral psychology experiments. tinyurl.com/lbyvhwp The Trouble with Brain Science The problem, argues Gary Marcus, is that we’ve yet to achieve a breakthrough that bridges psychology and neuroscience. tinyurl.com/klldf3d Psychological treatments: A call for mental-health science ‘Clinicians and neuroscientists must work together to understand and improve psychological treatments’ – argue clinical psychologist Emily Holmes et al. in a Nature comment piece. tinyurl.com/psg86f8 Why sports psychologists couldn’t save Brazil Angela Patmore argues that the Brazilian World Cup team was given flawed advice – they were encouraged to relax, rather than trained to increase their mental resilience. tinyurl.com/nuxjrrc ‘Wisdom of the crowd’: The myths and realities Philip Ball summarises research that tells us when crowds are smart and when they’re dumb. To boost group intelligence, he says, add new members who are as different as possible from the current set. tinyurl.com/lac5s6x

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

DIGEST DIGESTED Full reports are available at www.researchdigest.org.uk/blog 10,000 hours of practice is no guarantee for greatness according to an analysis of elite chess players and musicians. Amount of ‘deliberate practice’ was found to account for 34 per cent of variance in chess ability and 30 per cent of variance in musical ability.

(In the journal Intelligence) ‘Cool kids’ don’t fare so well when they reach early adulthood.

Researchers found that popular, precocious 13-year-olds who engaged in minor acts of rebellion were, in their early 20s, more likely than their peers to be involved in criminality and have relationship problems. (In Child Development) People tend not to like spending time alone with their own thoughts, according to a series of provocative studies. In one, 67 per cent of men who said they would pay to avoid a mild electric shock subsequently chose to shock themselves during a 15-minute period of quiet contemplation. (In Science) Neurosurgeons have identified a small area, buried deep near the front of the brain, that appears to act like an ‘on/off switch’ for consciousness.

The discovery was made while applying electrical stimulation to the brain of a woman with intractable epilepsy, in the search for the locus of her seizures.

(In Epilepsy and Behavior) Well-being at work tends to dip when people are in their 30s, now researchers think they know why. A survey of hundreds of employees in the Australian construction industry uncovered that this period of life is associated with less support from co-workers and increased time pressure. (In Journal of Occupational Health Psychology) When you’re depressed, you feel a disconnection from your body, your relationships and your past and future. That’s according to interviews with seven therapy clients – three women and four men – who’d been diagnosed with depression for the first time. Researchers hope the insights will help therapists talk to their clients about the condition.

(In Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice)

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ARTICLE

A brave new world for psychology?

David Nutt introduces a special issue considering the use of hallucinogens in research and therapy Psychedelics, used responsibly and with proper caution, would be for psychiatry what the microscope is for biology or the telescope is for astronomy. These tools make it possible to study important processes that under normal circumstances are not available for direct observation.

Stanislav Grof (1975)

The psychedelic state is unquestionably one of the most interesting psychological experiences humans can have.

Hallucinogenic drugs that have been used by humans for as long as we can determine to provide novel insights into the mind and enhance social bonding. For moral reasons, hidden behind spurious concerns about health harms, modern society has attempted to deny the value and importance of the use of these drugs and the study of this altered state of consciousness. This article explains why this scientific censorship has occurred and outlines the lost opportunities for neuroscience research and medicinal treatments that have resulted.

questions resources

Sessa, B. (2012). The psychedelic renaissance: Re-assessing the role of psychedelic drugs in 21st century psychiatry and society. London: Muswell Hill Press.

Beckley Foundation: www.beckleyfoundation.org

references

L

Are there any grounds on which a 50year ban on research on a brain-active drug could be countenanced?

Gasser, P., Holstein, D., Michel, Y. et al.

(2014). Safety and efficacy of lysergic acid diethylamide-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with life-threatening diseases.

Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000113 Griffiths, R., Richards, W., Johnson, M. et al. (2008). Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin mediate the

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ast year I had the pleasure of visiting Chile and spending a few days in the Atacama Desert, in the high Andes.

To deal with the altitude-induced headaches I used the local remedy of chewing coca-leaves and drinking mate (coca-leaf tea). Following the Spanish conquest these local remedies were banned by the Catholic Church as being heathen, though the ban was rapidly overturned by the Spanish overlords as it resulted in work productivity of the ‘natives’ declining! In 1961 the coca-leaf was again banned, despite there being no evidence of its being addictive or harmful, as part of the absurd 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. For most Andean coca-leaf chewers the ban has had little impact, although in some places the coca-farmers have had their crops and livelihoods destroyed as part of the USdriven ‘war on drugs’.

However, the original Andean inhabitants used drugs other than cocaine, as I discovered in a visit to the museum of the Atacama Desert. Of the many artefacts from the pre-Columbian period well over half were related to the use of hallucinogenic extracts of the peyote cactus. These comprised pestles

What insights might research into psychedelics and hallucinogens give to our understanding of the brain?

attribution of personal meaning and spiritual significance 14 months later.

Journal of Psychopharmacology, 22, 621–632.

Krebs, T. & Johansen, P.-Ø. (2012).

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for alcoholism: A meta-analysis of controlled trials. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 26, 994–1002.

Lee, M.A. & Shlain, B. (1985). Acid dreams: The complete social history of

and mortars for grinding the flowers, pots for storing the flower buds, belt pouches for carrying the powder and ceramic straws for snorting it. Many were beautifully decorated, showing that they had symbolic as well as practical uses.

Moreover, much of the art of the period seemed influenced by the visions produced under peyote.

There is extensive evidence that many, possibly all, earlier cultures used hallucinogens such as mescaline, ayahuasca and ibogaine – see Ben Sessa’s book The Psychedelic Renaissance. They appeared to be used to gain personal insights and promote social bonding, and may also have had mood-promoting and resilience-inducing actions. The latter I suspect is why they were so widely used in the Andes, which is a particularly inhospitable and difficult environment in which to survive. Use of hallucinogens has survived to the present day in indigenous cultures and some churches, such as the Santo Daime church in Brazil (and now beyond) that uses ayahuasca in its church ceremonies, even in children. The use of ibogaine for selfenlightenment in West Africa has now developed worldwide and has become popular as an aid to overcoming addiction. Psilocybin as ‘magic mushrooms’ have been used in many cultures across much of the world, and are still taken by many young people in the UK despite attempts to ban them by making their possession illegal. The reasons for – and benefits of – this widespread social use of hallucinogens throughout human society is an important question for social psychology.

In contrast, ‘Western’ society has promoted other drugs, particularly alcohol, for social engagement, worship and pleasure. When hallucinogens, particularly the new longer-acting synthetic one LSD, began to enter popular culture in the early 1960s (the ‘flowerpower’ movement) it was seen as a major threat to the current political order and so LSD plus all other hallucinogenic chemicals such as psilocybin and

LSD, the CIA, the Sixties and beyond.

New York: Grove.

Masters, R. & Houston, J. (1971). The varieties of psychedelic experience: The classic guide to the effects of LSD on the human psyche. Rochester, VT: Park Street.

Moreno, F.A., Wiegand, C.B., Taitano, E.K. & Delgado, P.L. (2006). Safety, tolerability and efficacy of psilocybin in 9 patients with obsessive-

compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67, 1735–1740.

Nutt, D.J., King, L.A. & Nichols, D.E. (2013). Effects of Schedule I drug laws on neuroscience research and treatment innovation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience,14(8), 577–585.

Sewell, R.A., Halpern, J.H. & Pope, H.G. Jr (2006). Response of cluster headache to psilocybin and LSD. Neurology, 66, 1920–1922.

vol 27 no 9

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hallucinogens

ELLIOTT ERWITT/WWW.MAGNUMPHOTOS.COM

When hallucinogens began to enter popular culture in the early 1960s it was seen as a major threat to the current political order

dimethyltryptamine (DMT) were rapidly banned in the USA and then under the UN drug conventions.

To me – and I speak here as a former Chair of the UK government’s Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs – the justification for the banning was a concoction of lies about their health impacts coupled with a denial of their potential as research tools and treatments.

Indeed their banning demonstrates the chilling power of drug regulators and enforcers to control the drug agenda, for the ban was enacted in the face of opposition from leading and openminded politicians such as Bobby Kennedy (whose wife Ethel had undergone or was undergoing LSD therapy at the time at Hollywood Hospital). The discussion between him and them shows the challenge of getting to the truth. .

Why if [clinical LSD projects] were worthwhile six months ago, why

Sessa, B. (2012). The psychedelic renaissance: Re-Assessing the role of psychedelic drugs in 21st century psychiatry and society.

London: Muswell Hill Press.

Wittchen, H.U., Jacobi, F., Rehm, J. et al.

(2011). The size and burden of mental disorders and other disorders of the brain in Europe 2010. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 21(9), 655–679.

aren’t they worthwhile now? … We keep going around and around… If I could get a flat answer about that I would be happy. Is there a misunderstanding about my question?

I think perhaps we have lost sight of the fact that LSD can be very, very helpful in our society if used properly.

(Kennedy, quoted in Lee & Shlain, 1985, p.93)

As is the case with almost all international drug-related legislation, the UK government slavishly followed the US lead and psychedelics were banned here in 1964. The reason for this strict control is to prevent the recreational use of these drugs, particularly by young people. The controls are supposedly designed to reduce their harms, although in the case of hallucinogens these harms are clearly less than those from most other drugs, including legal ones such as alcohol (Nutt et al., 2010). This decision has efficiently stopped research into these drugs to the detriment of researchers; worse still, many thousands of patients have been denied potential new medicines.

Almost all nations in the world are signatories to the UN conventions, so the ban on use is almost totally worldwide, with the only exceptions being made for plants growing wild which contain psychotropic substances from among those in Schedule I and which are traditionally used by certain small, clearly determined groups in magical or religious rites (1971 Convention Commentary Article 32:4).

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Before these UN regulations were brought in, LSD had been widely studied with about 1000 studies involving 40,000 subjects (Masters & Houston, 1971). The pharmaceutical company that invented LSD, Sandoz, saw its huge potential for understanding the brain and as a possible avenue to new treatments, so they made it widely available to the worldwide scientific community. In the 50 years since its ban, there has been almost no new research despite remarkable advances in neuroscience technologies such as PET and fMRI that could allow a much greater understanding of its actions than were possible in the 1950s.

The limited research now developing in this field has already revealed remarkable and unexpected insights into how these drugs produce hallucinations (see Carhart-Harris et al., in this issue). They also offer a possible new human model of psychosis against which to test new antipsychotic agents.

The clinical potential of hallucinogens was always seen as one of the most important advances. The founder of Alcoholics Anonymous reportedly became abstinent after an LSD experience in which he saw he could escape from the control alcohol had over him, and many others tried the same approach. A recent meta-analysis of the old clinical trials in which LSD was used to treat alcoholism (Krebs & Johansen, 2012) found that the effect size of LSD was as great as that of any other treatment for alcoholism developed since. This apparent clinical utility of LSD has been denied to millions of patients, and alcoholism is now the leading cause of disability for men in Europe (Wittchen et al., 2011).

Another of the original benefits of LSD, as a way to come to terms with dying, could offer a more humane and positive alternative to sedatives and opioids. The value of this approach has just resurfaced with the first LSD study in 50 years (Gasser et al., 2014) where it again was shown to reduce anxiety in those with terminal illness. This complements the approach of Charles Grob in this issue, using psilocybin for cancer anxiety.

Other Schedule 1 psychedelic drugs have similar potential for treatment uses.

Ibogaine is licensed for the treatment of addiction in New Zealand. Psilocybin, obtained from ‘magic mushrooms’, is a shorter-acting version of LSD that has been shown to be a possible treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder (Moreno et al., 2006) and cluster headaches (Sewell et al., 2006). Roland Griffiths’ group in Johns Hopkins has shown that psilocybin given in a psychotherapy setting can

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hallucinogens

An exploration of the mind One of the founding fathers of American psychology, William James, used hallucinogens as part of his exploration of the mind. From his experiences he concluded: Our normal waking consciousness is but one special type of consciousness.

Whilst all about it, parted from it by the filmiest of screens, there lie potential forms of consciousness entirely different. No account of the universe in its totality can be final that leaves these disregarded. How to regard them is the question – for they

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are so discontinuous with ordinary consciousness.

Despite the massive influence of William James on the development of the discipline of psychology his interest in studying consciousness using drugs (in his case nitrous oxide) to produce alterations in it has been largely ignored, probably because of social pressure and the complexity of doing such work.

I would argue that these drugs are central to key areas of psychology research such as consciousness and mood regulation. How can one explore consciousness without perturbing it? What mediates the positive mood effects of psychedelics and how can we use them to assist in treatments?

Psychedelics offer a remarkable and safe way of producing fast and profound changes in key psychological processes. I would support James’s desire to explore other forms of consciousness and assert that hallucinogenic drugs ‘For man has closed himself up, till he sees all things provide one way of mediating this thro’ narrow chinks of his cavern’ research. One could in fact argue that understanding the psychedelic neuroscientists must demand the right state is one of the great challenges for to study these drugs. Our professional human psychology research. organisations should demand the The other great insight into the value overturn of the UN Schedule 1 status for of these drugs comes from the hallucinogens and in the meantime push author/scientist Aldous Huxley. His selffor hospital and university research experimentation with various groups to be given exemption from the hallucinogens is well documented in his need to hold these licences. The need for books, such as the Doors of Perception, its this field to be opened up to title reflecting the writings of the psychologists is beautifully put by Aldous visionary artist William Blake: Huxley himself: If the doors of perception were cleansed everything would appear to man as it is, infinite. For man has closed himself up, till he sees all things thro’ narrow chinks of his cavern. (William Blake, 1993)

The article by Carhart-Harris, Mendel Kaelen and myself in this issue outlines just how hallucinogens open up the chinks in the cavern of the brain. We provide direct support for the idea that the brain dictates what is perceived not what is there; the human brain can and does truly close itself up to many things, and psychedelics can open it again.

A way forward The failure of the scientific community, particularly neuroscientists, to protest the denial of research on hallucinogens is one of the most disturbing failures of science leadership in the past century, and it must be rectified. Psychologists and other

Great is truth, but still greater, from a practical point of view, is silence about truth. Facts do not cease to exist because they are ignored. By simply not mentioning certain subjects… totalitarian propagandists have influenced opinion much more effectively than they could have by the most eloquent denunciations.

We should value his insights not only because they derive from a broad knowledge of science and a deep understanding of his personal experience with hallucinogens, but also because he followed his beliefs to the end using LSD to ease his own death.

David Nutt is Professor of Neuropsychopharmacology at Imperial College London d.nutt@imperial.ac.uk

vol 27 no 9

september 2014

WILLIAM BLAKE

produce very long-lived and profound improvements in mood and well-being (Griffiths et al., 2008).

That this small handful of studies represents all the clinical work in the last 50 years proves how destructive the banning of hallucinogens has been on treatment research. Regulators say that the UN conventions do not ban research – they just ensure that the drugs are subject to a level of control commensurate with their harmfulness and lack of clinical utility. Yet this Schedule 1 control is the highest level of security, meaning that hallucinogens are controlled to a level more extreme than that for heroin or cocaine, so belying the harm argument. The lack of clinical utility is self-fulfilling, since with virtually no research in this field clinical findings are not going to develop. Complying with the current regulations is very timeconsuming and expensive. A Schedule 1 licence in the UK costs about £6000 in fees and other costs and takes a year to obtain. Obtaining the drugs is also difficult and expensive. We have been quoted more than £3000 per 2mg dose of psilocybin for an MRC-funded clinical trial on depression. Comparable compounds that are not controlled can be obtained for 1/100th of that price. Much of the expense is because there are almost no production facilities in the world that have the necessary licences for holding and dispensing Schedule 1 drugs.

I suspect that this ongoing dearth of research is tacitly encouraged by governments as it might challenge the status quo. Lack of new evidence also perpetuates the justification for severe controls on the grounds of the precautionary principle. Politicians have tried to stop our work on psilocybin on the grounds that it uses ‘illegal drugs’.

They have also attempted to disrupt our psilocybin depression trial by using Freedom of Information requests to our universities and the MRC.

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hallucinogens for the serotonin 2A receptor correlates positively with their potency, or ‘strength’; for example, LSD has an extremely high affinity for the serotonin 2A receptor and is remarkably potent (Glennon et al., 1984). That hallucinogens ‘stimulate’ serotonin 2A receptors means that they mimic the Robin Carhart-Harris, Mendel Kaelen and David Nutt consider a big question action of serotonin at the receptor by on several levels binding to it, altering its conformation or ‘shape’, and ultimately altering the internal conditions and therefore behaviour of the neuron it sits on. For the What do we know about how he ‘classic’ hallucinogens – such as serotonin 2A receptor, the key functional hallucinogens work on the brain LSD (derived from ergotamine found effect of its stimulation is an increase in to produce their characteristic in ergot fungi), dimethyltryptamine the excitability of the hosting neuron. subjective effects? This question (DMT, the major hallucinogenic Serotonin 2A receptors are primarily can be approached from a number component of ayahuasca) and psilocybin expressed on an important type of neuron of different levels. At the lowest (from magic mushrooms) – possess a or brain cell in the brain, excitatory functionally relevant level, how unique and arguably unrivalled potential pyramidal neurons. do the hallucinogenic compounds as scientific tools to More specifically, themselves interact with a certain study the mind and the serotonin 2A neurotransmitter receptor to alter brain. For those of us receptors are neuronal activity? Then at the who are currently especially highly neuronal population level, how fortunate enough to be expressed on does a drug-induced change in researching them, there excitatory pyramidal neuronal firing interact with the is a real sense that we are neurons in ‘layer 5’ of integrated oscillatory activity of exploring something the cortex. The cortex large populations of neurons? destined to become the is organised into Finally, how does this all play out ‘next big thing’ in layers of different at the level of large-scale systems psychopharmacology. But cell types, like the or networks in the brain; and of how much do we really different layers of how do changes in the functional know about how they act a cake, and layer 5 behaviour of these systems map on the brain to produce is a deep layer, nearer on to specific psychological their many unusual the base than the icing experiences? effects? Here, we Hallucinogens ‘stimulate’ (Weber & Andrade, summarise the relevant serotonin 2A receptors 2010). Layer 5 research, beginning at the pyramidal neurons are especially level of single neurons and moving Does self-organised activity in the important functional units in the brain towards networks in the brain. default mode network underlie our as they are the principal source of output sense of self or ego? from a cortical region. They project to Do hallucinogenic drugs produce hierarchically subordinate, or ‘lower’, The level of single neurons a waking-dream state? cortical and subcortical regions (e.g. from All classic hallucinogens stimulate a visual association region to the primary a particular serotonin receptor subtype visual cortex). Layer 5 pyramidal neurons expressed on neurons in the brain, the project heavily onto inhibitory serotonin 2A receptor. This receptor Carhart-Harris, R.L., Leech, R., interneurons and so the net effect of their appears to be central to the action of Tagliazucchi, E. et al. (2014). The excitation seems to be inhibitory (Bastos hallucinogens because blocking it (with entropic brain. Frontiers in Human et al., 2012). This is important because another drug called ketanserin) abolishes Neuroscience, 8, 20.

Cohen, S. (1964). The beyond within: The hallucinogen-induced excitation of layer 5 the occurrence of the hallucinatory state LSD story. New York: Atheneum. pyramidal cells has been interpreted by (Vollenweider et al., 1998). Also, the some as evidence of a more general affinity (or ‘stickiness’) of different

How do hallucinogens work on the brain?

references

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Aserinsky, E. & Kleitman, N. (1953).

Regularly occurring periods of eye motility, and concomitant phenomena, during sleep. Science, 118(3062), 273–274.

Basar, E. & Guntekin, B. (2009). Darwin’s evolution theory, brain oscillations, and complex brain function in a new ‘Cartesian view’ [Review]. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71(1), 2–8.

Bastos, A.M., Usrey, W.M., Adams, R.A. et

al. (2012). Canonical microcircuits for predictive coding. Neuron, 76, 695–711.

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Boulougouris, V., Glennon, J.C. & Robbins, T.W. (2008). Dissociable effects of selective 5-HT2A and 5HT2C receptor antagonists on serial spatial reversal learning in rats.

Neuropsychopharmacology, 33(8), 2007–2019.

Carhart-Harris, R. L., Erritzoe, D., Williams, T. et al. (2012). Neural correlates of the psychedelic state as determined by fMRI studies with psilocybin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 2138–2143.

Carhart-Harris, R.L. & Friston, K.J. (2010). The default-mode, egofunctions and free-energy: A

neurobiological account of Freudian ideas. Brain, 133(4), 1265–1283.

Carhart-Harris, R.L., Leech, R., Tagliazucchi, E. et al. (2014). The entropic brain. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 20.

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Celada, P., Puig, M.V., Diaz-Mataix, L. & Artigas, F. (2008). The hallucinogen

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excitatory effect of these drugs, but as will be discussed in the forthcoming sections, recent animal electrophysiological and human neuroimaging recordings have cast further doubt on the assumption that hallucinogens have a general excitatory effect on cortical activity (Carhart-Harris et al., 2012; Wood et al., 2012). Captured by the idiom ‘failing to see the woods for the trees’, these results are a reminder that one should not be too hasty to extrapolate from the activity of certain single units in the brain, since the interconnected nature of cortical circuits means that local excitation can translate into net inhibition, or rather ‘disorder’, at a higher level of the system. If John Donne was a neuroscientist, he might have said: ‘no neuron is an island, entire of itself’.

Populations of neurons Much of brain activity is rhythmic or oscillatory in nature and electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG) and local field potential (LFP) recordings are techniques that measure the collective, synchronously oscillating activity of large populations of neurons. Studies in animals and humans have found decreases in oscillatory activity in the cortex after the administration of hallucinogens, and in one of our most recent and informative studies with psilocybin we observed a profound desynchronising influence on cortical activity (Muthukumaraswamy et al., 2013). This effect was evident in all of the frequencies recorded by MEG, from the slowest (i.e. ‘delta’, 1–4 oscillations per second) to the fastest (i.e. ‘high gamma’, 50–100 oscillations per second).

Moreover, when a modelling technique was employed to infer the cellular origin of these effects, the results highlighted excitation of layer 5 pyramidal neurons as the most likely cause (Muthukumaraswamy et al., 2013).

Cortical desynchrony has also been found in studies with LSD (Bente et al., 1958) and ayahuasca (Riba et al., 2002) using EEG.

DOI reduces low-frequency oscillations in rat prefrontal cortex.

Biological Psychiatry, 64(5), 392–400. de Araujo, D.B., Ribeiro, S., Cecchi, G.A. et al. (2012). Seeing with the eyes shut: Neural basis of enhanced imagery following ayahuasca ingestion. Human Brain Mapping, 33(11), 2550–2560.

Glennon, R.A., Titeler, M. & McKenney, J.D. (1984). Evidence for 5-HT2 involvement in the mechanism of

An important question that follows from these findings is: why does excitation of layer 5 pyramidal neurons cause desynchronisation at the population level? Recording simultaneously the activity of presumed layer 5 pyramidals and LFPs in rats has gone some way to answer this (Celada et al., 2008).

Specifically, researchers in Barcelona found that layer 5 pyramidal neurons usually fire at a particular phase of cortical oscillations, suggesting that the single units are either entrained by cortical rhythms, exert a pacemaker influence on them, or both. Importantly, when the LSD-analogue hallucinogen DOI was administered to rats, the normal concordance between pyramidal cell firing and the phase of LFP oscillations was abolished, and this decoupling was dependent on serotonin 2A receptor stimulation.

To help illustrate this principle by analogy, the strength of cortical rhythms can be thought of as analogous to the rhythmic sound generated by a population of individuals clapping their hands in synchrony. The presence of an individual clapper among a population of clappers means that his/her rate of clapping becomes quickly entrained by the collective sound generated by the population as a whole. Now imagine that a number of mischievous ‘ticklers’ are introduced to the scene, inducing sporadic clapping by tickling individual clappers. Although the individuals targeted may be excited into clapping more often, there will be a disruptive effect on the regularity and volume of the sound generated by the population as a whole. The basic principle is that although hallucinogens excite certain excitatory neurons in the cortex to fire more readily, this has a disorganising influence on cortical activity as a whole.

The system level Much of our own research on hallucinogens has focused on human brain imaging and particularly functional

action of hallucinogenic agents. Life Sciences, 35(25), 2505–2511.

Griffiths, R.R., Richards, W.A., McCann, U. & Jesse, R. (2006). Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 187(3), 268–283; discussion 284–292.

Harman, W.W., McKim, R.H., Mogar, R.E.

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magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a technique that measures changes in brain activity at a high spatial resolution. In a pair of related studies, we studied changes in brain blood flow (a reliable proxy of brain activity) and network activity in healthy individuals administered psilocybin intravenously whilst they lay in the fMRI scanner.

The results were remarkable because they showed for the first time that characteristic changes in consciousness brought about by a hallucinogen are related to ‘decreases’ in brain activity (Carhart-Harris et al., 2012). The decreases were localised to important hub structures in the brain, such as the thalamus, posterior cingulate cortex and medial prefrontal cortex. These structures are important as they are centres for information integration and routing in the brain. Thus, rather than being restricted to the performance of specific functions (e.g. the visual cortex is concerned with visual processing and the motor cortex with motor action) these structures possess a more general, managerial purpose, essentially holding the entire system together; analogous to a capital city in a country, or a chief executive officer of a cooperation. The observed decrease in activity in these regions was therefore interpreted as permitting a more unconstrained mode of brain function (Carhart-Harris et al., 2012).

To further interrogate this idea we subsequently conducted a number of network analyses, testing the principle that the brain operates in a freer, less constrained manner in the hallucinogenic state. The first analyses looked at the integrity of individual networks under psilocybin and found that these were essentially less integrated, or even ‘disintegrated’, under the drug. Next, we examined how brain networks communicate with each other and found that distinct networks became less distinct under the drug, implying that they communicate more openly but, in doing so, lose some of their own individual ‘identity’. Other analyses have

et al. (1966). Psychedelic agents in creative problem-solving.

Psychological Reports, 19, 211–227.

Harvey, J.A. (2003). Role of the serotonin 5-HT(2A) receptor in learning.

Learning and Memory, 10(5), 355–362.

Harvey, J.A., Quinn, J.L., Liu, R. et al.

(2004). Selective remodeling of rabbit frontal cortex. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 172(4), 435–442.

James, W. & Bradley, M. (2012). The

varieties of religious experience.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Megevand, P., Groppe, D.M., Goldfinger, M.S. et al. (2014). Seeing scenes: Topographic visual hallucinations evoked by direct electrical stimulation of the parahippocampal place area. Journal of Neuroscience, 34(16), 5399–5405.

Monroe, R.R. & Heath, R.G. (1961). Effects of lysergic acid and various derivatives

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also supported the principle that the brain operates with greater flexibility and interconnectedness under hallucinogens (Carhart-Harris et al., 2014).

The idea that an increase in systemlevel flexibility in the brain relates to greater cognitive flexibility is supported by several animal studies that have found enhanced cognitive flexibility and associative learning with serotonin 2A receptor stimulation and a retardation of these things with 2A receptor blockade (Boulougouris et al., 2008; Harvey, 2003; Harvey et al., 2004; Romano et al., 2010; Romano et al., 2006). Increased cognitive flexibility may be useful clinically in terms of enhancing cognitive-based psychotherapies for disorders such as depression, obsessive compulsive disorder and addiction, in which pathological patterns of thought and behaviour become entrenched (Carhart-Harris et al., 2014). Non-clinically, hallucinogens may be explored and exploited as novel nootropics; for example, as enhancers of creative thinking (Harman et al., 1966).

To summarise, we have learned that the first site of action of hallucinogens is the serotonin 2A receptor and that their stimulation causes important neurons to fire out of phase with the rhythmic oscillations of large populations of neurons in the cortex. This disruption of cortical rhythmicity extends to large-scale brain networks, where a generalised decrease in system organisation and constraint is observed. We discuss these ideas more fully in a recent review article that characterises the hallucinatory state as ‘entropic’ (i.e. disordered, in relation to normal waking consciousness) (CarhartHarris et al., 2014).

Drugs that act on the brain have been studied quite extensively with the aim of understanding the neurobiology of consciousness; however, the majority of this research has focused on anaesthetics and sedatives that cause a general reduction in the level of consciousness.

However, in our opinion, reducing wakefulness via anaesthetics is a relatively limited strategy for studying human

on depth and cortical electrograms.

Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 3, 75–82.

Muthukumaraswamy, S.D., CarhartHarris, R.L., Moran, R.J. et al. (2013).

Broadband cortical desynchronization underlies the human psychedelic state. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(38), 15171–15183.

Muzio, J.N., Roffwarg, H.P. & Kaufman, E. (1966). Alterations in the nocturnal sleep cycle resulting from LSD.

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consciousness. In contrast, hallucinogens are much more powerful tools, since they profoundly alter the quality of consciousness whilst leaving arousal or wakefulness intact. In our working model of different dimensions of consciousness and their sensitivity to modulation via different neurotransmitter systems, we suggest a consideration of: I Level: The GABA-A system regulates cortical arousal and when stimulated produces sedation.

I Focus: The dopamine system modulates attentional and goaldirected behaviours and enhances alertness.

I Flexibility: Serotonin 2A receptor stimulation increases cognitive flexibility.

Hitherto, we have characterised hallucinogens as agents of disorganisation; however, it must be acknowledged that the picture presented is somewhat incomplete. Specifically, it fails to address some of the most prominent and intriguing psychological properties of hallucinogens, such as their ability to produce complex visual hallucinations (de Araujo et al., 2012) or ‘ego-disintegration’ in the promotion of ‘peak-type’ experiences (Griffiths et al., 2006). Thus, in the final two sections of this article we will offer some empirically informed insights on what may be occurring in the brain to account for such phenomena.

Chaos above, anarchy below The discussion so far has focused almost exclusively on decremental changes in brain activity brought about by hallucinogens (e.g. decreased oscillatory activity, blood flow and network integrity); however, it is important to note that disinhibitory effects have also been observed in certain brain regions.

Before the advent of non-invasive neuroimaging, the only means of recording neuronal activity below the surface of the cortex was to surgically

Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 21(4), 313–324.

Raichle, M.E., MacLeod, A.M., Snyder, A.Z. et al. (2001). A default mode of brain function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98, 676–682.

Riba, J., Anderer, P., Morte, A. et al.

(2002). Topographic pharmaco-EEG mapping of the effects of the South American psychoactive beverage ayahuasca in healthy volunteers.

insert wire electrodes deep into target brain tissue. Remarkably, in the 1950s and 60s, under the pretence of research on psychosis, such procedures were carried out in human subjects who were administered hallucinogenic drugs such as mescaline and LSD. Despite the ethically questionable nature of these experiments, they did reveal some interesting clues about the neurobiology of the hallucinatory state. Specifically, phasic discharges in medial temporal lobe (MTL) circuitry (i.e. the hippocampus, amygdala and septal nuclei) appeared in recordings during periods of marked hallucinosis, while the more familiar cortical desynchrony associated with hallucinogens was also present (Monroe & Heath, 1961; Schwarz et al., 1956).

Intriguingly, a similar cortical/MTL dichotomy has been observed in rodents administered a DMT-like compound (Riga et al., 2014) and in our fMRI research with psilocybin. Specifically, in our psilocybin studies, in addition to decreased blood flow, oscillatory activity and network integrity in the cortex, we also observed an increase in the amplitude of low-frequency signal fluctuations in the hippocampus and parahippocampus (Carhart-Harris et al., 2014). Increased medial temporal lobe activity is a major characteristic of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, which is strongly correlated with dreaming (Aserinsky & Kleitman, 1953), and the increases in hippocampal activity detected in our own analyses correlated positively with volunteers’ ratings of the dreamlike quality of their experiences (CarhartHarris & Nutt, 2014). LSD given just before waking or during sleep has been found to promote REM sleep and dreaming (Carhart-Harris & Nutt, 2014; Muzio et al., 1966), and with eyes-closed, the hallucinogenic state has often been compared to dreaming (Carhart-Harris & Nutt, 2014).

Electrical stimulation of the medial temporal lobe circuitry has long been known to produce complex dreamlike

British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 53(6), 613–628.

Riga, M.S., Soria, G., Tudela, R. et al. (2014).

The natural hallucinogen 5-MeO-DMT, component of ayahuasca, disrupts cortical function in rats. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 17, 1269–1282.

Romano, A.G., Quinn, J.L., Li, L. et al.

(2010). Intrahippocampal LSD accelerates learning and

desensitizes the 5-HT(2A) receptor in the rabbit. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 212(3), 441–448.

Romano, A.G., Quinn, J.L., Liu, R. et al.

(2006). Effect of serotonin depletion on 5-HT2A-mediated learning in the rabbit: evidence for constitutive activity of the 5-HT2A receptor in vivo. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 184(2), 173–181.

Schwarz, B.E., Sem-Jacobsen, C.W. &

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Differential effect of a hallucinogen on the default mode network regions (blue) and the medial temporal lobes (orange). ‘Disorganised’ activity in the former permits the latter to operate more autonomously: 'chaos above, anarchy below’.

visions of a similar sort to those associated with dreaming and the hallucinogenic drug state, and direct stimulations of the parahippocampal face and place sensitive regions have recently been found to produce visual distortions/hallucinations such as ‘melting’ faces and visions of complex scenes (Megevand et al., 2014), similar in many respects to reports of hallucinogen-induced visual hallucinations. Thus, it makes sense to look more closely at changes in the activity and network behaviour of the MTL structures in the future, as well as the relationship between REM sleep dreaming and the hallucinogenic drug state, in order to develop our understanding of the neurobiology of the hallucinatory state.

Finding the self by losing the self One of the most common yet abstract experiences described in relation to the hallucinogenic drug state is a disintegration or dissolution of the self or ego. Such an experience is difficult to fathom from the vantage of normal waking consciousness, where an integrated sense of self is felt as pervasive and permanent. It is perhaps not surprising therefore that the experience of ego-disintegration is described as profoundly disconcerting and unusual (Griffiths et al., 2006). Classic accounts

Petersen, M.C. (1956). Effects of mescaline, LSD-25, and adrenochrome on depth electrograms in man. AMA Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 75(6), 579–587.

Vollenweider, F.X., VollenweiderScherpenhuyzen, M.F., Babler, A. et al.

(1998). Psilocybin induces schizophrenia-like psychosis in humans via a serotonin-2 agonist action. Neuroreport, 9(17), 3897–3902.

of so-called ‘mystical’ or ‘spiritual’ experiences have placed emphasis on the necessity for self or ego disintegration for their occurrence (James & Bradley, 2012).

Thus, in order to investigate the neurobiological basis of ego-disintegration and mystical-type experiences, it is useful to first examine the neural correlates of self-awareness.

Evidence has accumulated in recent years highlighting a relationship between a particular brain system and so-called ‘ego functions’ such as self-reflection (Carhart-Harris & Friston, 2010). This network is referred to as the ‘default mode network’ because it has a high level of ongoing activity that is only suspended or interrupted when one’s attention is taken up by something specific in the immediate environment, such as a cognitive task (Raichle et al., 2001).

It was a matter of great intrigue to us therefore that we observed a marked decrease in brain activity in the default mode network under psilocybin (CarhartHarris et al., 2012) whilst participants described experiences such as: ‘Real egodeath stuff! I only existed as an idea or concept… I felt as though I was kneeling before God!’ To scrutinise this phenomenon further, we looked at correlations between decreases in oscillatory activity in a certain frequency band (i.e. ‘alpha’), in a certain part of the default mode network (the posterior cingulate cortex, PCC – the major cortical hub) and ratings

Weber, E.T. & Andrade, R. (2010). Htr2a gene and 5-HT(2A) receptor expression in the cerebral cortex studied using genetically modified mice. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 4, 36.

Wood, J., Kim, Y. & Moghaddam, B. (2012).

Disruption of prefrontal cortex large scale neuronal activity by different classes of psychotomimetic drugs.

Journal of Neuroscience, 32(9), 3022–3031.

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of ‘ego-disintegration’ post-psilocybin.

In what is perhaps our most intriguing and potentially important finding on the neurobiology of the hallucinogenic drug state to date, we found a highly significant correlation between the magnitude of decreases in oscillatory activity in the PCC and reports of egodisintegration (Carhart-Harris et al., 2014; Muthukumaraswamy et al., 2013).

Thus, those participants that showed the most dramatic collapses in rhythmic activity in their PCCs reported the most extreme ego-disintegration. Adding to the intrigue, alpha oscillations develop to a maximal level in mature adult humans and have been hypothesised to be a marker or ‘signature’ of high-level human consciousness (Basar & Guntekin, 2009).

Could PCC alpha rhythms be critical for the development and maintenance of one’s sense of self, and if ‘yes’, what specific functions do they subserve?

These are important questions for future research.

Conclusions So, stimulation of the serotonin 2A receptor disrupts coupling between the firing of certain cells types and the rhythmic oscillations of larger populations of neurons in the cortex.

Hallucinogens have a disorganising influence on cortical activity which permits the brain to operate in a freer, less constrained manner than usual.

These are exciting times, with much still to learn. Unfortunately, this research is unusually difficult to conduct, being fraught with regulatory obstacles and other challenges. However, in the inspiring words of John F. Kennedy about another endeavour that was ultimately accomplished almost half a century ago: ‘We choose to do these things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard.’

Robin Carhart-Harris is a postdoctoral researcher at Imperial College London r.carhart-harris@ imperial.ac.uk

Mendel Kaelen is a PhD student at Imperial College London David Nutt is Professor of Neuropsychopharmacology at Imperial College London d.nutt@imperial.ac.uk

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Cultures of chemically induced hallucinations Vaughan Bell considers what we can learn from how other societies approach hallucinogenic drugs Drug-induced hallucinations are often discussed as if they can be entirely understood in terms of their chemical action in the brain.

But the social role of hallucinogens varies greatly between cultures, and, conversely, culture has a large effect on hallucinogenic experiences and their significance.

As a result, hallucination-producing psychoactive substances can only be fully understood by understanding their interaction with social context which has differed throughout history and across the world.

question resources

Schultes, R.E. & Raffauf, R.F. (2004). Vine of the soul: Medicine men, their plants and rituals in the Colombian Amazonia.

Santa Fe, NM: Synergetic Press.

Letcher, A. (2007). Shroom: A cultural history of the magic mushroom.

London: Faber & Faber.

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Why are some cultures so much more accepting of the use of hallucinogenic substances than others?

Becker, H.S. (1953). Becoming a marihuana user. American Journal of Sociology, 59(3), 235–242.

Borhegyi, S. (1961). Miniature mushroom stones from Guatemala. American Antiquity, 26, 498–504.

Bressloff, P.C., Cowan, J.D., Golubitsky, M. et al. (2001). Geometric visual hallucinations, Euclidean symmetry and the functional architecture of striate cortex. Philosophical

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raditionally, discussions of culture and mind-altering drugs focus on remote peoples and exotic locations, but it is worth starting by underlining how unusual our own culture is in terms of its acceptance and use of hallucinogenic substances.

In the history of Britain, hallucinogens have had a remarkably minor role in the social fabric of society.

This is despite the fact that hallucinogenic plants are common and widespread throughout the country.

Perhaps the most striking historical absence is the seeming unawareness of the effects of the ‘magic mushroom’ (Psilocybe semilanceata) until 1799. This first report was written by the physician Everard Brande in an article for The London Medical and Physical Journal after he was called to treat a family who had been acting strangely after inadvertently picking the mushrooms for their breakfast stew in London’s Green Park. Before then, it seemed these common fungi were considered as nothing more than uninteresting and inedible brown pests.

Even more surprising is the fact that first record of our native psilocybin mushrooms being intentionally used for their effects, rather than being detected as cases of accidental poisonings,was not until 1970 (Letcher, 2007). In contrast, pre-Columbian societies of Central America used psylocybin mushrooms as a central part of religious practice and based significant parts of their culture around them, probably for several thousand years (Borhegyi, 1961).

The other grouping of hallucinogenic

Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 356(1407), 299–330.

Brown, M.F. (1985). Tsewa's gift: Magic and meaning in an Amazonian society.

Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press. de Rios, M.D. & Stachalek, R. (1999). The Duboisia genus, Australian aborigines and suggestibility. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 31(2), 155–161.

plants native to the British Isles include species from the Solanaceae family (including deadly nightshade, mandrake and henbane) and the fly agaric mushroom (Amanita muscaria). These are probably better described as deliriants rather than psychedelics, as they cause a marked confusion and clouding of consciousness due to their effect on the acetylcholine neurotransmitter system.

Although the plants’ medicinal value as a sedative has been known for millennia, the hallucinatory effects have generally been seen in negative terms (Müller, 1998). In Britain the plants were largely associated with poison, enchantment and witchcraft and made up part of witches’ ‘flying ointment’. This consisted of a mix of nightshade plants, grease and sundry ingredients, which was applied to the genitals and upper thighs using an applicator, likely a chair or broomstick.

The effects included trance and hallucinations of flying and, according to their accusers, the experience of ‘cavorting with devils’ (Holzman, 1998).

This was possibly the basis for the ‘witch on flying broomstick’ legend.

It wasn’t until the Victorian era that drug-induced hallucinations were treated as a general source of curiosity in Britain.The advancement of anaesthesia led to experiments with substances like ether and laughing gas, while the Romantics discussed their opium-induced visions and the glimmerings of early psychedelic research began as investigators in the New World began to take interest in the local flora – psychologist William James’s experimentation with the hallucinogenic peyote cactus perhaps being the most famous example. Nevertheless, from the perspective of many other cultures, Britain, and many of the countries where mainstream culture stems from British colonisation, must seem like places with a rather stark history of cultural lack of interest, if not active hostility, to hallucinogenic substances.

In contrast, there are many societies that have hallucinogenic substances as an

Field, N. (1992). The therapeutic function of altered states. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 37, 211–234.

Groark, K. (2001). Taxonomic identity of ‘hallucinogenic’ harvester ant (Pogonomyrmex californicus) confirmed. Journal of Ethnobiology, 21(2), 133–144.

Hoffman, D.R. (2010). Ant venoms. Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 10, 342–346.

Holzman, R.S. (1998). The legacy of

Atropos, the fate who cut the thread of life. Anesthesiology, 89(1), 241–249.

Kensinger, M.K. (1973). Banisteriopsis usage among the Peruvian Cashinahua. In M.J. Harner (Ed.) Hallucinogens and shamanism (pp.9–14). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Langdon, E.J. (1979). Yagé among the Siona: Cultural patterns in visions. In D. Brownman & R. Schwartz (Eds.)

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integrated part of their culture and where they have a markedly different social significance. The Americas, and particularly the Amazon, are the global ground zero for hallucinogen-using cultures, not least due to the massive and diverse range of hallucinogenic substances that can be found within the flora and fauna of the region.

Grouped psychopharmacologically, three of most significant substances alter the serotinergic system and lead to broadly LSD-like effects: these include the ayahuasca brew (principal active ingredient: dimethyltryptamine or DMT), peyote and related hallucinogenic cacti (principal active ingredient: mescaline) and a range of hallucinogenic fungi (principal active ingredient: psilocybin).

Ayahuasca or yagé is one of the most well-known to anthropologists and is consumed by indigenous peoples throughout the Amazon and northern South America. It is made from a

Yagé preparation

combination of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine and a locally sourced plant (often one of the Psychotria genus) that has high levels of DMT. Psychotria is ineffective when eaten on its own because DMT is

Spirits, shamans and stars: Perspectives from South America (pp.63–80). The Hague: Mouton.

Langdon, E.J. (2007). The symbolic efficacy of rituals: From ritual to performance. Coleção Antropologia em Primeira Mão no.95.

Florianópolis: PPGAS. Lange, J.E., Daniel, J., Homer, K. et al.

(2010). Salvia divinorum: Effects and use among YouTube users. Drug and

naturally broken down by enzymes in the stomach, but when combined with Banisteriopsis caapi the active ingredient passes into the blood stream due to the high level of monoamine oxidase inhibitor in the vine. However, a significant quantity needs to be consumed orally as ayahuasca induces forceful vomiting, meaning several drinking/vomiting cycles are usually necessary to obtain the required dose.

The typical Western account of why ayahuasca is consumed usually focuses on ‘getting in contact with the spirit world’, but this fails to capture either the cultural worldviews in which ayahuasca consumption is situated or the motivations behind the ceremonies.

The first thing to note is that Amazonian people can differ greatly in how they understand reality in relation to themselves. For example, the Cashinahua, Siona, and Schuar peoples all use ayahuasca as a tool for revelation but differ markedly in how they understand the experiences it produces.

The Cashinahua understand ayahuasca as causing hallucinations that provide guidance (Kensinger, 1973), the Siona believe that it allows access to an alternative reality (Langdon, 1979), while the Schuar take all normal human experience to be a hallucination and take ayahuasca as a way of accessing true reality (Obiols-Llandrich, 2009).

These different views of reality clearly have an impact on how any hallucinogenic drug would be understood.

The perceived causal link between reality and consciousness also plays a part in how the experiences are integrated into everyday life. Although ayahuasca rituals are often considered to facilitate ‘healing’ in a way we would

Alcohol Dependence, 108, 138–140.

Letcher, A. (2007). Shroom: A cultural history of the magic mushroom.

London: Faber & Faber.

Luhrmann, T. (2011). Hallucinations and sensory overrides. Annual Review of Anthropology, 40, 71–85.

Müller, J.L. (1998). Love potions and the ointment of witches: Historical aspects of the nightshade alkaloids.

Journal of Toxicology – Clinical

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understand it (ameliorating a specific state of bodily distress or disability, albeit by tackling one or more ‘predatory spiritual beings’ thought to be responsible for the malady: Langdon, 2007), the therapeutic process can extend to addressing problems of many different sorts. Among the Aguaruna of Peru, people take ayahuasca not just to understand the future, but to shape it through conscious control over the ‘vision of future possibilities’ (Brown, 1985).

From this worldview, ayahuasca is a tool for practical problem solving rather just a way of gaining ‘philosophical’ insights that one applies in daily life, as spiritual revelation is often considered in our culture.

The implications of this are that any suggestion that the drug puts users ‘out of touch with reality’ would be widely rejected by indigenous users who see it as doing exactly the reverse. Similarly, discussing the effects of ayahuasca in terms of causing you to ‘see things that are not really there’ with the Schuar people is only likely to get you looks of bewilderment, while suggesting that the substance is purely ‘recreational’ or even ‘damaging to society’ is more likely to cause incredulous offence.

Hallucinogenic substances may also be valued for effects that extend beyond perceptual distortion. Indigenous Australians from Central Australia use the drug pituri of which a major ingredient consists of leaves of the corkwood tree.

These contain both nicotine and scopolamine – the latter also being a potent anticholinergic drug which is also common in the Solanaceae (nightshade) family of plants. As well as having the capacity to induce hallucinations, pituri also acts as an anaesthetic, which is likely why it is used during male initiation ceremonies where adolescent males are circumcised and subincised – a procedure were the penis is ‘split open’ from below (de Rios & Stachalek, 1999).

Interestingly, the drug is also thought to increase suggestibility, allowing the inception of key cultural norms

Toxicology, 36(6), 617–627.

Obiols-Llandrich J. (2009). A Western psychiatrist among the Shuar people of Ecuador: Exploring the role of healers in mental health. In M. Incayawar, R. Wintrob, L. Bouchard & G. Bartocci (Eds.) Psychiatrists and traditional healers: Unwitting partners in global mental health (pp.67–76).

London: Wiley.

Sandberg, S. (2013) Cannabis culture: A

stable subculture in a changing world. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 13(1), s63–79.

Shaara, L. & Strathern, A. (1992) A Preliminary analysis of the relationship between altered states of consciousness, healing, and social structure. American Anthropologist, 94, 145–160.

Zinberg, N. (1986). Drug, set, and setting.

Yale: Yale University Press.

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transmitted during the ceremony that presumably might otherwise get missed due to distraction.

In many cultures there is also a wider association with hallucinogenic substances as a whole, relating to a common connection between altered states of consciousness and healing (Field, 1999). Anthropological studies have found this association across a number of traditional cultures where methods including drugs, physiological stress (e.g. fasting), intense sensory experiences and group ritual (e.g. chanting and dance) can lead to marked alterations in conscious experience, which are generally associated with their curative function due to the pleasurable and social bonding aspects of the experience (Shaara & Strathern, Howard Becker (1953) describes how cannabis 1992). initiates have to take on both the practice of This is not always the case, smoking and the psychological framing of the however, and here the line between experience to learn how to ‘get high’ ‘hallucinogenic’ and ‘nonhallucinogenic’ substances can cultural shaping is not reserved to become blurred – such as with the use spiritual or religious contexts and it of red harvester ants (Pogonomyrmex) by applies as much to our own drug culture the Kitanemuk, the indigenous people of as to the practices of isolated indigenous California. Red harvester ants have the groups. most toxic venom by weight of any In Howard Becker’s classic study recorded insect and are known for their ‘Becoming a marihuana user’ (Becker, painful sting. The Kitanemuk initiation 1953) he describes how cannabis initiates ritual ceremony involves swallowing balls have to take on both the practice of of live harvester ants to the point where smoking and the psychological framing of the initiate loses signs of consciousness the experience to learn how to ‘get high’. and has intense visions for the purpose This involves learning how to smoke in a of acquiring a ‘dream helper’ (Groark, way that will lead to efficient intoxication 2001). As harvester ant venom is not (e.g. holding smoke for longer in the known to have any directly psychoactive lungs than you would with cigarettes), compounds within it (Hoffman, 2010), as well as learning to recognise the it is probable that a significant part of the effects, connecting them with drug use, visionary experience comes from its and learning to enjoy the perceived effects as a toxin and the ‘sensory sensations. For example, many aspects overload’ from pain. of hallucinogenic drug use are not in Although there are clearly similarities themselves enjoyable – like the between individuals’ experiences experience of visual trails after perceived with specific drugs due to the motion – but can become so when psychopharmacology of the substance incorporated into the concept of a ‘good (e.g. the experience of geometric patterns trip’. This is related to Zinberg’s (1986) likely generated by destabilisation of concept of the importance of getting the edge-detecting neurons in the primary ‘set and setting’ right for successful visual cortex: Bressloff et al., 2001), there psychedelic drug use with ‘set’ referring to is also a huge role for culture in terms of the drug-taker’s mental state and ‘setting’ the shaping the hallucinogenic experience referring to the environment in which the through expectation and interpretation. drug is consumed.

This may be through shared cultural However, since Becker’s study, beliefs or through the intervention of hallucinogenic drugs have become more specific designated people within the mainstream to the point where novice culture – such as a shaman or medicine users are likely to bring a range of man who is often involved in giving expectations and beliefs about what it personalised interpretations that go means to ‘get stoned’ to their first try – beyond lay understanding. However, this

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meaning an experience that was usually framed through social initiation is now much more determined by cultural transmission through mass media (Sandberg, 2013). It is worth noting that it is not just the ‘established media’ that has a tendency to present drugs in terms of the orthodox ‘harms and dangers’ narrative. A recent study looked at some of the many YouTube videos created to document trips on the traditional ceremonial plant of the indigenous Mazatec of Mexico, Salvia divinorum, which is now widely marketed as a ‘legal high’ (Lange et al., 2010). Viewing the effects on other people is likely to shape expectations and, therefore, the experience of the drug, although the fact that these videos are almost entirely by suburban youth wanting to get ‘messed up’ means that they are likely to be no more narrow in their representations than mainstream media.

Nevertheless, non-mainstream media websites such as Erowid and Bluelight are specifically designed for users to share both verified scientific and health information as well as folk knowledge about the taking and effects of drugs and do aim for a wider representation of effects.

It is worth noting that this same interaction between culturally derived expectations and experiences also happens with hallucinations associated with psychosis (Luhrmann, 2011). But while hallucinogenic drugs have long been considered for their use as pharmacological models of psychosis, their use as a model of how psychosis-like experiences are culturally moderated has never been explored, and this area may be ready for research.

Although there are clear differences with regard to the acceptance and significance of hallucinogenic drugs between societies, the effects of these substances for the individual can only be fully understood by placing them within the cultural context in which the individual lives. In this sense, all experiences with hallucinogenic drugs emerge from an interaction of psychopharmacology, individual psychology and culture.

Vaughan Bell is at King’s College London, Institute of Psychiatry vaughan.bell@kcl.ac.uk

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ARTICLE

When the trip doesn’t end Henry David Abraham describes his investigations into hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD), along with firsthand accounts The nature of hallucinations has puzzled and fascinated us since the dawn of human consciousness.

Where they come from, what they mean, and what they portend are questions that the psychological sciences have grappled with since Esquirol coined the term in 1817.

Hallucinations are the stuff of dreams, drugs and diverse influences on the mind. Today it is possible to investigate the problem of hallucinations by taking advantage of tools that Esquirol never dreamt of.

questions resources

Dubois, J. & Vanrullen, R. (2011). Visual trails: Do the doors of perception open periodically? PLoS Biology, 9(5), e1001056. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001056 El-Mallakh, R.S., Halpern, J.H. & Abraham, H.D. (2008). Substance abuse: Hallucinogen- and MDMArelated disorders. In A. Tasman, M. Maj & M.B. First et al. (Eds.) Psychiatry (3rd edn) (pp.1100–1126).

London: Wiley. www.drabraham.com

references

I

HPPD appears to be a continuous disorder of visual disinhibition. Are there other psychological disorders that have a similar mechanism?

Building on this theory, are there behavioural or pharmacological treatments for HPPD and other conditions that may rebuild the brain’s inhibitory circuitry?

Abraham H.D. (1982). A chronic impairment of colour vision in users of LSD. British Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 518–520.

Abraham H.D. (1983). Visual phenomenology of the LSD flashback. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 884–889.

Abraham H.D. (2012). Catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibition reduces symptoms of hallucinogen persisting

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began my psychiatric residency at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston in 1971. I was assigned to the Acute Psychiatric Service, at a time which coincided with the tail end of the international epidemic of use of LSD. Into my care came a steady stream of patients complaining of visual disturbances long after their last use of the drug. The idea that LSD could cause ‘flashbacks’ had appeared in the literature a few years before (Rosenthal, 1964; Shick & Smith, 1970). But these patients had the unique complaint of experiencing visual problems constantly. They described a number of pseudohallucinations devoid of emotional content. Auditory hallucinations were rare. The majority of these patients understood that what they were seeing was ‘not real’. All of them attributed the onset of the disorder to their use of LSD. Like any good bean counter I set about describing the phenomenology of this apparently new disorder (Abraham, 1983). Visual disturbances included prolonged afterimages, halos around objects, the false perception of movement in the peripheral visual fields, the illusion of trails behind objects as they moved, geometric shapes on surfaces and in the air, changes in the sizes and shapes of objects, and the perception of countless small dots in the air.

These symptoms persisted for approximately five years in half of my original sample. Over the next 40 years I observed that for some unlucky individuals these symptoms have persisted for a lifetime, and that other

perception disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 71, 1S-316S, 945 (Suppl.)

Abraham, H.D. & Duffy, F.H. (1996).

Stable qEEG differences in post-LSD visual disorder by split half analyses.

Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 67, 173–187.

Abraham, H.D. & Duffy, F.H. (2001). EEG coherence in post-LSD visual hallucinations. Psychiatric Research, 107, 151–163.

drugs with hallucinogenic activity, including psilocybin, MDMA and cannabis, could do the same thing.

These original observations formed the basis for including HPPD in the DSMIV in 1984 and the DSM-5 in 2013. The stability of diagnostic criteria over 20 years may reflect the comparatively stereotyped symptom profile as well as the low frequency of the disorder among drug users.

Objectifying the symptoms It seemed to me that it was one thing to write down what patients were telling me they saw, and quite another to somehow quantify the reports. In the clinic I set about testing the patients on a variety of visual tasks. One night I asked a patient to describe the colour of the setting sun on the cover of the 1972 South Boston telephone book. ‘Yellow,’ he said. To my eye it was white surrounded by a yellow aura. I brought the test object closer, and asked the patient to ignore the yellow aura and just describe the colour of the sun. ‘Yellow,’ he said again. Finally, I brought the object within inches of his face, and the patient said ‘white’. I had found my test. I compared the next 67 patients reporting LSD use to a control group, measuring how close each group needed to get before saying the colour white. The LSD patients describing HPPD symptoms had to stand 89cm closer than drug-naive controls (Abraham, 1982).

Realising the unsophisticated metric I had used, I showed my results to Dr Ernst Wolf, Chief of Psychophysics at the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary.

He proposed that we do a case-controlled series of patients who had used LSD in the past with a number of standardised psychophysical tests. The magnitude of the results startled both of us. For example, in order to see a test object in the dark, the LSD group required it to be much brighter than the controls did.

If you look at a fluorescent light it is likely to glow in a continuous, unbroken beam. But in reality, the light is flickering

Abraham, H.D. & Mamen, A. (1996). LSDlike panic from risperidone in postLSD visual disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16, 238–241.

Abraham H.D. & Wolf E. (1988). Visual function in past users of LSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 443–447.

Casa B. & Bosio A. (2005). 1589 Levetiracetam efficacy in hallucinogen persisting perception

disorders. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 238, S504.

Duffy, F.H. (1989). Clinical value of topographic mapping and quantified neurophysiology. Archives of Neurology, 46(10),1133–1134.

Lerner A.G., Gelkopf M. Skladman I. et al. (2003). Clonazepam treatment of lysergic acid diethylamide-induced hallucinogen persisting perception disorder with anxiety features.

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ANNA HEATH

‘…a ghost image of the time is always present…’

Neon green patterns shaped like webs cover the screen of my computer monitor. This visual is not a psychedelic screensaver because when I look away towards my room’s walls, which more than a decade ago I saw as a solid beige, I see these web pattern too.

The negative afterimage of my computer monitor follows my visual attention and bright yellow horizontal bars replace the edges of the blue ‘windows’ from my screen. Looking down, I see the keyboard’s letters bleed orange and pink halos just like they do on the screen.

My entire room is edging back and forth but never goes anywhere; this is true of any space I occupy. The dark corner of the open closet prominently displays the visual static, like a projection from an old and disconnected TV screen layered over all of my vision. The blurred image of an LED clock form bright red streaks as I turn my head back to the screen.

My vision was measured perfect 20/20 before I ingested an adulterated pill sold to me as Ecstasy. Today, a doctor has yet to feel they have an accurate measurement of my vision. Lenses are unable to correct the ghosting and doubling of vision, but taking a benzodiazepine helps reduce the symptoms and improve my vision.

Now, my LED clock is blurry and a ghost image of the time is always present. The same ghosting appears on every word I see on the printed page or on a computer screen.

I am only giving a fraction of the total changes in my perception that were altered that day in 1998, which have remained with me 24 hours a day without remission. I know my perception does not match the stimuli, but for me it is part of my perceptual experience and affects whether I can drive a car at night and if I am able to see the dancers on a stage in a lowly lit theater. I can close my eyes and enter a pitch-black room and watch the coloured patterns dance knowing no light creates their form. I am lucky that I have learned to cope with these images and have received proper treatment, but for those who have not I hope they find the educated clinician to be a partner in accepting this condition.

David Kozin

at a rate too great to see, courtesy of the miracle of a 50- or 60-cycle per second alternating current through the bulb. But if the rate of the flicker is slowly lowered, there will come a point when you say, ‘Now! I see the flicker’. This is the test that Ernst Wolf and I did, comparing LSD users to drug-naive controls. Again we

International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 18(2),101–105.

Rosenthal, S. (1964). Persistent hallucinosis following repeated administration of hallucinogenic drugs. American Journal of Psychiatry, 124, 238–244.

Shick, J. & Smith, D. (1970). Analysis of the LSD flashback. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 3, 13–19.

were taken aback. LSD users needed to have the flicker reduced by as much as 7 cycles per second more than the controls in order to see the flicker. This was especially marked in the peripheral visual fields (Abraham & Wolf, 1988).

These observations, along with what the patients described to me (see boxes), led to the hypothesis that HPPD was a disorder of the disinhibition of visual information processing. In the phone book study the LSD patients could not inhibit the yellow aura from contaminating the white sun until the size of the sun itself created a large enough signal. Similarly, subjects were preconditioned by a bright environmental light before dark adaptation testing. It was plausible that the light created uninhibited visual noise that prevented the LSD participants from seeing the small test object in a timely manner. During

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flicker testing the LSD group apparently could not see flickering as well, either, because the off-phase of light was being contaminated by the on-phase.

The neurophysiology of HPPD At this point the question of whether HPPD occurred in the eye or the brain was not answered. An occasional patient would exhibit the Ladd-Franklin manoeuvre, in which digital pressure on one eye would generate imagery in the other. This suggested that HPPD was not simply an ocular problem. I was able to interest Dr Frank Duffy at the Children’s Hospital of Boston in this problem. Duffy had developed technology that permitted mapping of the brain’s electrical activity in real time (Duffy, 1989). Together we began to map electrical activity in the cerebral cortex of HPPD patients and

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controls. Electrophysiological variables were able to successfully identify LSD participants 87 per cent of the time using discriminant analysis. Visual and evoked potentials were significantly different in the temporal and left parietal regions of the brain, posterior regions of the cortex known to be involved in a visual information processing. Finally, the latencies of visually evoked potentials in the cerebral cortex were shortened in the LSD group compared to controls, further evidence of visual disinhibition (Abraham & Duffy, 1996).

A second brain-mapping study revealed that HPPD patients had an increase in electrical coherence, a measure of cortical coupling, located in the occipital scalp region (Abraham & Duffy, 2001) This, too, suggested an increased excitability in a part of the brain involved in vision. What excited Frank Duffy and me was the fact that the patients being studied were also experiencing the visual symptoms of HPPD at the same time as brain-wave data were being acquired – quantitative EEG data had shown us pictures of the brain experiencing visual pseudohallucinations in real time.

Treatment

‘I was going to be all alone on an acid trip forever’ In 1974, two weeks after an anxiety-filled LSD trip, I fell into a black hole of panic, crushing depression, terror, horror, and hell. Everything sparkled and glinted with dots like a noisy TV screen. My hand looked like it didn’t belong to me. When I moved it, long streaks trailed behind. After looking at the window, when I looked away the lingering afterimage remained for seconds. I was tripping all over again. Now we categorise these as classic symptoms of HPPD, but at that time, I just knew I was alone in one of those ‘mythical’ never-ending acid trips we always thought were bullshit scare stories. I came to the terrifying realisation that it was not stopping, and I was going to be all alone on an acid trip for ever.

I called my doctor, who with derision brusquely told me to ‘go see a psychiatrist’. The psychiatrist only parroted the conventional wisdom: hallucinogens created psychosis, so the treatment was an antipsychotic drug. These did not help any of the symptoms I was experiencing, but suppressed my personality, slurred my speech, and created more depersonalisation.

Soon after that I went on a trip, hitchhiking several hundred miles, refusing to cave in to the terror. I walked around with a stone where my heart used to be, everything looked and felt like I was on an acid trip, yet I was still somehow able to function. But as I hiked I could not stop my mind chanting nonsense words endlessly. I stumbled and tripped along a riverbed, then lay down amongst the rocks sobbing over the devastation I had brought down on myself.

Later, when the psychiatrist told me ‘you are sicker than you think you are’, I’d had enough. I stopped the antipsychotics and created my own treatment protocols alone by trial and error: nutrition, rest, exercise, no drugs, keep engaged, and never give up. But there was no formal diagnosis and I was all alone.

I was indelibly stamped with HPPD and am not who I might have been, but over decades I have overcome it. Medications, plus electroshock for a severe depression, may have helped.

I still see artefacts, feel some depersonalisation, but I have had a very successful career, raised a family, and am not alone any more.

Greg W

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The neurotransmitter gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA) is a major inhibitory agent in the human brain.

Medications such as the benzodiazepines are agonists at this site, and so would be expected to reduce the symptoms of HPPD if the disinhibition hypothesis were correct. Indeed, this seems to be the case, but unfortunately only partially so. One possible explanation for an incomplete treatment response may be pharmacokinetic, that is, too little drug reaching its destination in the brain.

Indeed, when treating six patients with a short-acting benzodiazepine, the volunteer (a psychologist) excitedly said, ‘I can see normally for the first time in years.’ Similar strong responses were observed in the other volunteers. But the excitement was misplaced, since midazolam must be administered intravenously, and has a half-life of two hours. Clinical studies by my colleague Dr Lerner and his group in Israel have shown that clonazepam appears to be the benzodiazepine drug of choice for HPPD (Lerner et al., 2003) There is an axiom in clinical medicine that the more mysterious the ailment, the more multitudinous the treatments.

That is certainly the case with HPPD. In addition to the benzodiazepines, a long list of other agents have been tried, including antipsychotics, antidepressants,

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antiepileptics, alpha-two adrenergic agonists, and antiparkinsonian drugs.

Levetiracetam was reported helpful in one study (Casa & Bosio, 2005). Some patients report that the use of psychostimulants improved the symptoms, leading me to try a study of tolcapone supplemented with carbidopa and l-DOPA in HPPD. The combination of medications reduced symptoms significantly in about a third of the sample (Abraham, 2012). While this may be a biological effect, it is equally consistent with a placebo response, since the study was an open-label one.

Certain agents make HPPD worse.

These include cannabis, infectious disease, emotional stress, alcohol and opiate withdrawal, fatigue, over-exercise in certain drugs that block the serotonin2A receptor, such as risperidone (Abraham & Mamen, 1996). Given the effectiveness of benzodiazepines to reduce symptoms, it was not surprising to observe on a number of occasions patients who used alcohol for the same purpose only to become dependent on that drug.

One psychological treatment has been observed to be helpful in multiple cases,

L A I EC ER SP FF O

namely, the use of inattention. Patients frequently report that by attending to the visual requirements of the moment, they are temporarily and even chronically able to push the visual intrusions of HPPD to the periphery of consciousness. Thus, talking about the symptoms tends to increase them. Focusing on the work of everyday life tends to decrease them.

Thus, patients who do best with HPPD over the years are the ones who can commit themselves to the productive lifetime activities of love and career.

Among my successful cases are physicians, attorneys, psychologists and writers.

Patients new to HPPD are usually burdened by guilt, confusion and misdiagnosis. Mental health clinicians often suspect that the patient is psychotic.

The use of antipsychotic drugs is more often a liability than benefit in such cases.

The presence of other mental health conditions is common: in the tolcapone study it was striking that 55 per cent of the subjects suffered current panic disorder, and 35 per cent major depression. On an optimistic note the tools that the psychological sciences have in the treatment of such conditions are

quite good, even as the specific treatment of HPPD symptoms is not yet at hand.

Nearly all HPPD patients can benefit from supportive psychotherapy, and cognitive behavioural therapy for depression and anxiety disorders.

In summary, HPPD is an uncommon but vexatious disorder arising from the use of hallucinogens. Sufferers describe a consistent and constant pattern of visual disturbances that persist from months to a lifetime (see boxes). Studies of the brain in these patients suggest that the disorder is caused by an inability of the visual system to filter out useless information.

Medications for anxiety such as the benzodiazepines can reduce, but not cure, this problem. Psychological approaches that reduce the patient’s attention to such visual noise, and address the issues of guilt, anxiety and depression, appear to be more effective than drugs at this time.

Henry David Abraham is in the Department of Psychiatry at Tufts University School of Medicine HenryAbrahamMD@ gmail.com

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VIEWPOINTS

Experiences of hallucinogen treatment

contribute

We want to hear the stories of those who have taken part in published research. Contact the Associate Editor, Dr Catherine Loveday, on C.Loveday@wmin.ac.uk.

references

We hear from a researcher, participant and clinician on the use of psilocybin to alleviate cancer anxiety

Chochinov, H.M. (2007). Dignity and the essence of medicine: The A, B, C, and D of dignity conserving care. British Medical Journal, 335(7612), 184–187.

Cohen, S. (1965, September). LSD and the anguish of dying. Harper’s, pp.69–78.

Fisher, G. (1970). Psychotherapy for the dying.

Omega, 1, 3–15.

Griffiths, R.R. & Grob, C.S. (2010). Hallucinogens as medicine. Scientific American, 303(6), 76–79.

Griffiths, R.R., Richards, W.A., McCann, U. & Jesse, R. (2006). Psilocybin can occasion mystical experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance.

Psychopharmacology (Berl), 187, 268–283.

Grob, C.S., Bossis, A.P. & Griffiths, R.R. (2013). Use of the classic hallucinogen psilocybin for treatment of existential distress associated cancer. In B.I. Carr & J. Steel (Eds).

Psychological aspects of cancer (pp.291–308).

New York: Springer.

Grob, C.S, Danforth, A.L., Chopra, G.S. et al. (2011).

Pilot study of psilocybin treatment for anxiety in patients with advanced-stage cancer. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(1), 71–78.

Grof, S., Goodman, L.E., Richards, W.A. & Kurland, A.A. (1973). LSD-assisted psychotherapy in patients with terminal cancer. International Pharmacopsychiatry, 8, 129–144.

Kast, E.C. (1962). The measurement of pain: A new approach to an old problem. Journal of New Drugs, 2, 344–351.

Kissane, D.W. (2012). The relief of existential suffering. Archives of Internal Medicine, 172(19), 1501–1505.

Kissane, D.W., Clarke, D.M. & Street, A.F. (2001).

Demoralization syndrome – a relevant psychiatric diagnosis for palliative care. Journal of Palliative Care, 17(1), 12–21.

Pahnke, W.N. (1969). The psychedelic mystical experience in the human encounter with death.

Harvard Theological Review, 62, 1–21.

Steinhauser, K.E., Alexander, S.C., Byock, I.R. et al.

(2009). Seriously ill patients’ discussions of preparation and life completion. Palliative & Supportive Care, 7(4), 393–404.

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rom the late 1950s to the early 1970s a novel experimental paradigm was employed to use hallucinogenic drugs to address the existential anxiety, depression and demoralisation often experienced by individuals suffering from terminal cancer. In spite of highly promising results reported by pioneer researchers (Cohen, 1965; Fisher, 1970; Grof et al., 1973; Kast, 1962; Pahnke, 1969), by the early 1970s all investigations were compelled to close due to the cultural

F

Charles Grob, Professor of Psychiatry and Pediatrics at the UCLA School of Medicine

and political pressures of that time.

No further exploration of the utility of a hallucinogen treatment model was permitted until the early 21st century.

Investigations from years ago demonstrated that when the administration of a hallucinogen to patients suffering from advanced cancer was conducted under optimal, controlled conditions, marked improvements occurred to anxiety and mood regulation, as well as to overall capacity to find meaning in their lives and connection to others in their limited remaining time.

A particularly remarkable finding was that the strongest predictor for positive clinical outcomes was in those patients who, during the course of what was often their

only hallucinogen treatment session, experienced a powerful psycho-spiritual epiphany. In the days, weeks and months following their experience, these patients reported increased acceptance and less fear of impending death, improved relationships with significant others, less psychological distress and even reduced pain and lessened need for narcotic pain medication.

Following the renewal of hallucinogen research, one of the more active investigation sites has been at Johns Hopkins, where a series of important studies have been conducted. These have established that when optimal conditions are utilised for hallucinogen administration in normal volunteer subjects, mystical states of consciousness may be reliably induced (Griffiths et al, 2006). This is of particular significance to the case of treating advanced-cancer patients undergoing reactive existential angst and demoralisation. The evidence from the prior generation of hallucinogen research would then suggest that reliably inducing mysticomimetic states of consciousness may be a powerful positive predictor of therapeutic outcomes in this psychologically vulnerable and demoralised patient population.

Over the past decade three contemporary studies designed to investigate this long-neglected treatment paradigm have been conducted, at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center/Los Angeles BioMedical Research Institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and NYU School of Medicine (Griffiths & Grob, 2010; Grob et al., 2011; Grob et al., 2013).

While the Johns Hopkins and NYU projects are still ongoing, the HarborUCLA/Los Angeles BioMedical Research Institute study has been completed, with results published in the Archives of General Psychiatry in January, 2011.

In this first investigation of the hallucinogen treatment model in cancer anxiety in almost half a century, 12 patients with advanced, metastatic cancer and co-morbid anxiety were recruited and treated with a moderate dose of 0.2 mg/kg of psilocybin and using a double-blind, placebo-controlled model, with the patient acting as his or her own control. Besides establishing the safety and feasibility of administering moderate doses of psilocybin under controlled conditions to patients suffering from advanced-cancer anxiety, with safe physiological and psychological responses documented during treatment sessions and no clinically significant adverse events, measures of psychological function revealed clinically

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significant reductions of anxiety and trends toward improved mood, even many months after one hallucinogen treatment session.

While the field of oncology has progressed in recent decades, providing more effective cancer treatments and extending life spans, the existential condition of patients approaching the end

of life often remains unaddressed. The hallucinogen treatment model, first explored half a century ago by an earlier generation of investigators, provides a potentially valuable therapeutic model.

Whereas the cultural and political conditions of the past denied the opportunity for hallucinogen research to evolve at that time, we now live in a world

where safe and rigorous research investigations are once again permitted.

Learning from the lessons of the past will hopefully allow us to keep this nascent field extant, and in the process provide a novel and effective treatment intervention for the existential anxiety and demoralisation often observed in patients suffering from advanced cancer.

Evidence-based therapies for persistent suffering Of course, not all suffering associated with serious illness is physical. People living with progressive, incurable illness and disease-related disabilities may experience anxiety, depression, and demoralisation (Kissane et al., 2001).

Spiritual or existential suffering may be rooted in a sense of meaningless or purposelessness, feeling a burden to family and society, a crushing sense of dread, or impending disintegration.

Drug treatments for such syndromes are imperfect at best. Medications for depression may take weeks to become effective and are often ineffective, anxiolytics carry side-effects of mental slowing and confusion, particularly in patients with advanced physical illness who are at high for falls and polypharmacy.

Standard cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) relies on counselling approaches of listening, normalising, acknowledging, affirming, problem solving, and reframing. Newer, semistructured, evidence-based approaches developed specifically for people living with incurable conditions, such as dignity therapy and the Outlook intervention, can improve subjective quality of life and show promise in preventing and treating emotional, social and existential distress (e.g.

Chochinov, 2007; Kissane, 2012; Steinhauser et al., 2009).

When non-physical suffering persists despite these approaches, evidencebased guidelines are limited.

The need for expanded therapeutic options is great â&#x20AC;&#x201C; from both clinical and ethical perspectives. Palliative sedation for non-physical The evolution of palliative medicine and expansion of suffering remains highly hospice and palliative care services have made controversial. Non-physical effective, evidence-based treatments available to sources of suffering, including increasing numbers of people with advanced diseases llness and dying are inherently hard, but suffering is not inevitable. The evolution of palliative medicine and expansion of hospice and palliative care services have made effective, evidencebased treatments available to increasing numbers of people with advanced diseases. When pain, shortness of breath and other bodily discomforts cannot be relieved, therapeutic goals often require balancing the alleviation of distress with preservation of the personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to think clearly, function and interact with others. When physical suffering persists, palliative medicine practitioners can employ carefully developed, well-studied guidelines that extend to palliative sedation, which reliably enables people to be comfortable as they die of their underlying condition.

I

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Ira Byock MD, Palliative care physician, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, New Hampshire

persistent existential suffering, are cited as the reasons that sick people in Oregon choose to end their lives (tinyurl.com/nlzsfm3). From 1998 through 2013 a total of 673 people died by ingesting lethal medications under Oregonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s physician-assisted suicide law.

Information reported to the state by physicians who wrote those lethal prescriptions document that pain or fear of future uncontrolled pain contributed in only 23.5 per cent of cases, while nonphysical sources of suffering were common, including loss of autonomy (91.2 per cent), less ability to enjoy life (88.8 per cent), and loss of dignity (82.0 per cent).

Recent studies (e.g. Griffiths & Grob, 2010; Grob et al., 2011). build upon research from the 1950s and 1960s into pharmaco-assisted psychotherapy with patients with advanced illness. Although the use of LSD and other hallucinogenic agents as adjuncts to counselling had shown great promise in alleviating distress among dying people, the research was abruptly halted after the medications were reclassified as drugs of abuse with no therapeutic use. Inexplicably, few references to these published studies can

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be found in the palliative medicine literature.

The recent studies affirm that therapy with psilocybin is well tolerated and for some patients remarkably effective.

It entails just one or two sessions and correspondingly low cost. Psilocybin has no known tissue toxicity. The reported incidences of adverse reactions, such as severe disorientation, anxiety and panic, are very low; and such side-effects can be

managed using familiar doses of anxiolytics and neuroleptics. The experiences patients describe are not intoxication, but rather a sense of clarity, expanded context and a reframing of their worldview and sense of the future that persists long after any pharmacologic effect of the drugs.

Importantly, multiple participants report not mere alleviated anxiety or depression, but also an enduring sense of well-being. Some expressed feeling at

peace, grateful for their lives, forgiving toward others and toward themselves, being less fearful and more confident about the future, while knowing that it includes their physical death.

Palliative medicine and psychiatry must not allow politics or puritanism to prevent us from exploring these potentially important treatments for common and difficult-to-treat non-physical suffering among dying people.

‘Both sessions had a lot of visual and emotional content’ In 2009 I was diagnosed with mucinous colloid adenocarcinoma of the breast. I was living in New York. I underwent a lumpectomy followed by eight weeks of radiation. My health insurance ran out at the end of August and I would not be able to obtain another.

So, in September of 2009, I moved to the UK with an Englishman I had only been seeing a few months, and about whom I was very ambivalent.

I started on Tamoxifen through the local GP in the northwest, where I lived at first with my new partner. I stopped Tamoxifen after four months and went on Arimidex. It was a nightmare.

Although I like to exercise and used to run, the condition of my joints deteriorated to such a degree, within a month of starting Arimidex, I could barely walk down the stairs. My mood plummeted. Aromatase inhibitors and I were not meant for each other. Nor were I and the English partner. While I was not coping with aromatase inhibitors, he was not coping with my illness. By mid-2010 I was trying to figure out why I thought I should survive in the first place.

I left my partner in early 2011 and moved to London. I was writing an article about Robin Carhart-Harris’s fMRI studies with psilocybin, when I learned of a controlled clinical trial for cancer patients with illness-related depression and anxiety at Johns Hopkins University Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit in Baltimore, Maryland.

I travelled to Baltimore twice, once in May and once in June of 2012.

When the session day arrived, I was brought into the session room, which is decorated as comfortable sitting room. Participants are encouraged to bring photos or memorabilia. I brought photos of my younger sister, who died of metastatic colon cancer in 2005, as well as pictures from my former life in the mountains of California, when I was married to my first husband – photos of my horse, my dogs, the landscape, things that meant a lot to me.

The actual administration of the psilocybin capsule is done quite ritually. Roland came in to the session room to give the dose, and watched to make sure I drank the entire cup of water. Then I sat on the sofa, talking to Fred and Porche, my guides, and going through some of my photos. Fred suggested I look at a few pictures in one of the books. When I began to feel something was happening, I lay down, put on headphones and a light-blocking eye shade.

The two sessions were quite different. Both had lot of visual and

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Erica Rex emotional content. The second experience was much more intense, and I had much more of a sense of being someplace else other than on quotidian Earth.

Since my sessions, much has changed. Before the psilocybin experience, I simply could not concentrate. Prior to my cancer diagnosis, I read two or three books a month. But since then, my mind would wander and I’d become easily distracted. I've been plagued by obsessive thoughts throughout my life, and have mostly learned to master them. After my cancer diagnosis, I could not shake them. I’d wake up at night worrying about the future. Since the psilocybin sessions, the obsessive thoughts have ceased.

I can actually think about the future constructively now. For a long time after my cancer diagnosis, ‘the future’ was confined to the next 10 minutes or so. I could not plan or imagine life beyond the next day. I’m planning to take an intensive French course in France early next year. Since last December, I’ve had fairly steady ongoing work. I made it through my four-year mammogram, and am at this point cancer free. I’m hopeful my life will continue to improve.

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EYE ON FICTION

Heavenly and hellish – writers on hallucinogens Dirk Hanson takes a trip from Lewis Carroll to the modern day, via Huxley, Burroughs and others

ovelists and poets are forever exploring alternatives to normal perceptions and everyday consciousness. From the heavenly mescaline voyages of British intellectuals like Aldous Huxley to the nightmarish psychedelic visions of William S. Burroughs, writers influenced by hallucinogens have wrestled with both angels and demons. Alcoholism has traditionally been the writers’ black lung disease, but the advent of interest in

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hallucinogenic drugs among mid-19thcentury writers highlighted a growing visionary impulse in fiction, calling into question previous forms of literary expression.

For the early Romantic poets like Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth, the lifestyle of the intoxicated bard required laudanum and alcohol as pilot lights of the imagination.

In 1822 Thomas De Quincey, the Timothy Leary of his day, published his own ode to

PAUL BAXENDALE

references

Confessions of an English Opium-Eater was roundly blamed for a rise in recreational drug use

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Boon, M. (2002). The road of excess: A history of writers on drugs.

Cambridge, London: Harvard University Press.

Cooke, M. (2012). The seven sisters of sleep. Charleston, SC: Nabu Press.

(Original work published 1860) Dunlap, J. (1961). Exploring inner space: Personal experiences under LSD-25.

New York: Scientific Book Club.

Ellis, H. (January, 1898). Mescal: A new

artificial paradise. The Contemporary Review.

Fernyhough, C. (2006). Metaphors of mind. The Psychologist, 19, 356–358.

Graves, R. (August, 1957). Mushrooms: Food of the gods. Atlantic Monthly.

Horowitz, M. & Palmer, C. (1999). Moksha: Aldous Huxley’s classic writings on psychedelics and the visionary experience. Rochester, VT: Park Street Press.

opium, Confessions of an English OpiumEater, and was roundly blamed for a rise in recreational drug use in England. One critic objected less to laudanum use than to what he called the author’s ‘habit of diseased introspection’ (Shaffer, 2013).

Hallucinogenic plants first came under the modern spotlight in the mid1800s as botanists and ethnologists expanded their knowledge. Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland (1865), was written by an author who was familiar with English botanist Mordecai Cooke’s early text (1860/2012) on psychoactive mushrooms and their effects. Psychiatrist and romance writer S. Weir Mitchell, who penned an account of peyote in 1896, gave some peyote buttons to the godfather of psychology, William James.

British psychologist Havelock Ellis wrote articles about his own experiences with peyote, noting in particular ‘the more delicate phenomena of light and shade and color’ (Ellis, 1898). Ellis, in turn, passed some buttons to William Butler Yeats, but Yeats later reported that he preferred hashish.

The visionary landscape In 1932 Aldous Huxley published Brave New World, with its all-purpose control drug, Soma, and by book’s end, it is abundantly clear that Huxley’s Shakespearean title is an ironic counterpoint to his satirical dystopia.

But by the 1950s, with his essays Doors of Perception (1954) and Heaven and Hell (1956), something had changed. That something was mescaline, the synthesised version of peyote, followed shortly by LSD, which both became available to adventurous writers, intellectuals and therapists. Huxley described Heaven and Hell as ‘a long essay… about visionary experience and its relation to art and the traditional conceptions of the Other World. It springs of course from the mescalin experience, which has thrown, I find, a great deal of light on all kinds of things’ (Horowitz & Palmer, 1999).

The essential nature of the mescaline

Huxley, A. (1954). The doors of perception London: Chatto & Windus.

Huxley, A. (1956). Heaven and hell.

London: Chatto & Windus.

Kluver, H. (1969). Mescal and mechanisms of hallucinations. Chicago: Chicago University Press. (Original work published 1928) Mitchell, S.W. (1896). The effects of Anhalonium lewinii (the mescal button). British Medical Journal, 2,

1625–1628.

Nin. A. (1975). The diary of Anais Nin, Vol. 5: 1947– 1955. New York: Mariner Books.

Shaffer, A. (2013). Literary rogues: A scandalous history of wayward authors.

New York, London: Harper Perennial.

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WILLIAM BLAKE

experience, for Huxley, was an experience ‘just of light, of everything flooded with light… a kind of luminous living geometry’ (Horowitz & Palmer, 1999). As Charles Fernyhough noted in his June 2006 essay for The Psychologist, there is ‘the idea of mind as an optic, through which experience is projected, more or less accurately, into the internal theatre’.

But the optical theatre, for writers who had experienced hallucinogens, bore little resemblance to the everyday sensorium.

With mescaline and LSD, light, colour, and the significance of ordinary physical objects were all dramatically altered and intensified. In his seminal work, Mescal and Mechanisms of Hallucinations German psychologist Heinrich Kluver (1928/1969) showed that the visions produced by peyote, though unique to the individual, were also part of a characteristic family of Huxley characterised these visual effects and common visual patterns that geometric themes as glimpses into the ‘other world’ remained relatively constant.

Huxley characterised these medicine, you will know what it’s like to visual effects and common geometric be what in fact you are, what in fact you themes as glimpses into the ‘other world’. always have been’.

Milton’s Paradise Lost was Huxley’s Huxley’s mescaline books were also touchstone: ‘The mind is its own place, a profound influence on a coterie of and in itself/Can make a Heaven of Hell, California-based writers and psychiatrists, a Hell of Heaven.’ (For Allen Ginsberg, including famed nutritionist Adelle Davis, on LSD, the Heaven and Hell came from who chronicled her LSD voyages in her William Blake).

1961 book, Exploring Inner Space, under The poet and novelist Robert Graves the pen name Jane Dunlap. Novelist and saw in hallucinogens not just diarist Anais Nin captured the essence of otherworldly colours and patterns, both her own experiments with LSD in this fiendish and divine, but also the key to memorable description: world mythologies. On mushrooms, Graves reported experiencing the world The music vibrated through my body of Gilgamesh and ancient Babylon as if I were one of the instruments (Graves, 1957). And in Huxley’s final and I felt myself becoming a full novel, Island (1962), the drug of choice percussion orchestra, becoming is moksha, Sanskrit for liberation, and green, blue, orange. The waves of bearing a strong resemblance to LSD. the sounds ran through my hair like While Soma had represented the a caress. The music ran down my repressive chains of the body, the ceding back and came out of my fingertips. over of personal agency – ’downward I was a cascade of red-blue rainfall, transcendence’, in the author’s memorable a rainbow. I was small, light, mobile. phrase – moksha represents the visionary (Nin, 1975) experience of education and enlightenment. The Islanders take Huxley once complained that ‘the only moksha, a psychedelic mushroom, and people who don’t get anything from LSD ‘for a little while, thanks to the mokshaor mescalin are psycho-analysts’. He

wrote to a relative: ‘Some of the compassion and some of the gratitude remain, even after the experience is over. One can never be quite the same again…’

(Horowitz & Palmer, 1999).

The imaginal realm Nonetheless, even Huxley admitted that ‘there is a minority that finds in the drug only hell or purgatory’ (Huxley, 1954). Jean-Paul Sartre tried mescaline, and according to his companion Simone de Beauvoir, had a very bad trip: ‘The objects he looked at changed their appearance in the most horrifying manner: umbrellas had become vultures, shoes turned into skeletons, and faces acquired monstrous characteristics…’ (Boon, 2002).

(American Indians said that peyote took them to heaven, but white missionaries said with equal assurance that it offered them only a glimpse of hell.)

William Burroughs and the Beat writers of the 1950s and 60s reconfigured the psychedelic landscape by moving hallucinogens out of the drawing room and into the streets, pursuing their organic roots in the third world. Burroughs and poet Allen Ginsberg took peyote in Mexico and yage in South America. Junky describes Burroughs’s peyote experiences, and portions of Ginsberg’s epic poem Howl were written under the influence of peyote. Ginsberg also wrote a poem while on LSD given to him by anthropologist Gregory Bateson, but noted that the act of writing a poem distracted him from the essential hallucinogenic experience (Boon, 2002).

Burroughs wrote portions of Naked Lunch (1959) under the influence of yage, or ayahuasca, the DMT-containing hallucinogenic brew concocted in South America: ‘New races as yet unconceived and unborn, combinations not yet realized pass through your body.

Migrations, incredible journeys through deserts and jungles and mountains….

The Composite City where all human potentials are spread out in a vast silent market’. But in the end, Burroughs came to dislike hallucinogens and distrust beatific visions, warning in his 1964 novel Nova Express: ‘Their Garden of Delights is a terminal sewer…’ and ‘…learn to make it without any chemical corn’.

As Huxley had done, Ginsberg

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advised Harvard’s Timothy Leary to give LSD to artists and poets, who would then articulate the experience for others. Leary made good on the idea, managing to give LSD to Jack Kerouac (who came up with the classic psychedelic observation, ‘walking on water wasn’t built in a day’), the poets Robert Lowell and Charles Olson, as well as writers Paul Bowles and Arthur Koestler.

With the shift from mescaline to widely available LSD, the spotlight also shifted from a focus on vision to a focus on metaphysics and pure mentality. Along with this came a shift from the literary (contemplative) mode to the non-literary (experiential) mode. The experience of hallucinogens was now depicted through other forms of expression, primarily music, and writers faced a dilemma. LSD became a mass cultural experience in the 1960s; it was no longer necessary to read imaginative literary descriptions to know what LSD was like. The alterations of light, the synaesthesia, the geometric forms pregnant with meaning, could all be approximated with strobes, black lights, body paint, and electronic forms of music. The psychedelic rock-and-roll posters of 1960s San Francisco and R. Crumb’s comic books demonstrated where some of the depictions of psychedelia had surfaced, and how these depictions were often shading toward a darker experience.

We began this survey with the garden of visual delights described by Havelock Ellis, Aldous Huxley, and others: A heavenly mental experience, something ineffable and extremely valuable. With the work of William S. Burroughs and Hunter S. Thompson, fictional depictions of the hallucinogenic landscape morphed into terrifying forms, horrific visions, experiences of death, bouts of madness.

The warped tour of America offered up by Hunter S. Thompson in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1971), the Dantesque grotesques he encounters at Circus Circus while on acid, represent the hell that results when the American Dream becomes permanently inverted in the funhouse mirror.

Here novelist Ken Kesey enters the picture, as the last of the classic psychedelic writers; a balancing act between the illusion-shattering insights of acid, and the bleak paranoia it could produce. For One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1962), Kesey has admitted that the first several pages of the book – Chief Bromden’s opening monologue – were written under the influence of peyote.

LSD and mescaline ‘gave me a different perspective on the people in the mental hospital’, he told Paris Review. Like other

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writers, including Huxley, he claimed it was ‘impossible for me to write on LSD – there are more important things to think about’. For his novel Sometimes a Great Notion (1964), excerpted below, ‘there were also some sections written when I was taking mushrooms. Again, the effect is more on mood and voice than on vision.’ …the actual river falls five hundred feet… and look: opens out upon the fields. Metallic at first, seen from the highway down through the trees, like an aluminum rainbow, like a slice of alloy moon. Closer, becoming organic, a vast smile of water with broken and rotting pilings jagged along both gums, foam clinging to the lips… A river smooth and seeming calm, hiding the cruel file-edge of its current beneath a smooth and calm-seeming surface.

The psychedelic rock-and-roll posters of 1960s San Francisco demonstrated how these depictions were often shading toward a darker experience

Another memorable modern effort that flew under the radar was Rudolph Wurlitzer’s experimental novel Nog (1968), described by Atlantic Monthly as effectively replicating ‘the slight and continuous dissociation of reality... normally achieved by using soft drugs to tinker with the nervous system’.

Intoxicated bards We have not even had time to deal with science fiction’s psychedelic corner, where Frank Herbert’s drug-laden Dune (1965) looms large, and the prolific Philip K. Dick prowls through multiple realities.

What did literary novelists want to bring back from these non-normal reality states? In addition to conveying the experience of visions unseen in the ‘natural’ world, they were also attempting to articulate an essentially non-verbal expression of spirit, or transcendence.

Boon refers to this impulse as ‘a restatement of shamanic doctrine: the shaman is taught a secret language by the spirits… Language, in this sense, gives imaginal realms their shape: it is a poetic shaping of the world that occurs at every moment’ (Boon, 2002).

Still, there is no doubting that the literary depiction of hallucinogenic experience has been largely replaced by

ethnographic and scientific models based on neurochemistry and cognitive psychology. In the end, there is no unanimity in the fictional depictions: Heaven battles inexorably with Hell.

Huxley’s uplifting visionary experiences, which Ken Kesey later tried to resurrect, were overtaken by Naked Lunch and Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. And today, after an explosion of new tryptamines and phenethylamines produced like so many Athenas bursting from the head of Alexander Shulgin, there are the newer, untested worlds of spice and bath salt drugs, cannabis and amphetamine creations. We have more new things under the sun than ever before. Fiction has only begun to explore these novel avenues. David David Katzman, in A Greater Monster (2011), moves the enterprise forward: no inside only surface no surface only nothing no nothing only a black snowflake stripped apart gossamer plumes blowing in an undersea breeze breathing water dissolving oxygen as the cool liquid strokes capillaries porous membrane osmotic foreplay a molecule tumbling through pellucid space a phantom frequency a beat clicks past the boundless and …

I Dirk Hanson is a freelance science writer dirkh@frontiernet.net

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CHAIR OF THE STANDING COMMITTEE ON EXTERNAL ENGAGEMENT (BRANCHES) The Education and Public Engagement Board (EPEB) is looking to appoint a Chair for this new committee, to take office at the AGM 2015 for three years.

Working closely with the Society’s Policy Advisor (Education) and reporting to EPEB, the Standing Committee has responsibility for co-ordinating, supporting and developing the activities of the Society’s Branches and other Member Networks in relation to public and student engagement.

The Board is looking to recruit someone with G An understanding of the Society’s Branches and the work

they undertake G Good communication skills; ensuring two-way interaction

between the Committee and EPEB G An understanding of the UK Higher Education environment

For further information and a statement of interest form, please contact the Policy Advisor (Education) kelly.auty@bps.org.uk Closing date for receipt of statements of interest is 3 October 2014

Apply for January DCPsych in Counselling Psychology and Psychotherapy by Professional Studies Joint programmes with Middlesex University

VACANCIES ON THE STANDING CONFERENCE COMMITTEE The Standing Conference Committee (SCC), working closely with the Society’s Conference and Events team, is responsible for organising the Society’s Annual Conference and Psychology4Students events. It has been reconstituted and there are 6 vacancies for Society members to join the SCC in organising these core Society events.

G Do you have a strong academic or practice background?

G Do you have experience of conference organisation and

peer reviewing?

G Do you have enthusiasm to work as part of a team to plan

and deliver key Society conferences and events?

If you would like to know more, please contact liz.beech@bps.org.uk for a Statement of Interest form and further details.

The closing date for applications is 30 September 2014.

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SOCIETY

President’s column Dorothy Miell

President Professor Dorothy Miell

Contact Dorothy Miell via the Society’s Leicester office, or e-mail: presidentmiell@bps.org.uk

President Elect Professor Jamie Hacker Hughes Vice President Dr Richard Mallows Honorary General Secretary Professor Pam Maras Honorary Treasurer Professor Ray Miller Chair, Membership Standards Board Dr Mark Forshaw Chair, Education and Public Engagement Board Professor Catriona Morrison Chair, Research Board Professor Judi Ellis Chair, Professional Practice Board David Murphy The Society has offices in Belfast, Cardiff, Glasgow and London, as well as the main office in Leicester. All enquiries should be addressed to the Leicester office (see inside front cover for address).

The British Psychological Society was founded in 1901, and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1965. Its object is ‘to promote the advancement and diffusion of a knowledge of psychology pure and applied and especially to promote the efficiency and usefulness of Members of the Society by setting up a high standard of professional education and knowledge’.

Extract from The Charter

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or me as an academic, September has always meant the start of a new year – new timetables and classes, new faces to get to know, the annual round of conferences and academic meetings starting up (and the bizarre urge to buy new stationery!). It’s the time of year that the Society welcomes new psychology students onto their courses by providing departments with copies of The Psychologist to distribute to them. [We are also, incidentally, making this September issue open access online via www.issuu.com/thepsychologist]. So I thought it would be helpful to cover some of the issues that particularly affect students and departments of psychology.

F

Student events The BPS Annual Student Conference will take place on the first day of the Society’s Annual Conference (5 May 2015 in Liverpool), and it will feature a ‘Spotlight on careers’ section and some fascinating keynotes. The student conference also has a poster session, accepting submissions for projects that have not yet been concluded, to allow you to submit work you’re currently doing (e.g. final-year projects). You can submit online via www.bps.org.uk/ac2015.

We also run talks and exhibitions for students in their first-year at university and those at school or college who are thinking about taking a psychology degree. These ‘Psychology4Students’ events include presentations by established UK psychologists and various demonstrations, book sales and careers advice. This year they will take place in Sheffield on the 20 November and in London on the 2 December. Do take a look at www.bps.org.uk/p4s and book by 20 November!

Further down the line, you may well be interested in our ‘Psychology4Graduates’ event, taking place this year in London on 3 December: see www.bps.org.uk/p4g2014.

Career progression survey If you’re just starting out on studying psychology you will probably be interested in knowing more about what you can do with a psychology degree. The Society is engaged in a major piece of work to follow the 2011 cohort of psychology graduates for seven years, evaluating their career progression at four key points – one, three, five and seven years after

graduation; and to evaluate the current careers of earlier cohorts of graduates as a comparator.

If departments would like to join as a partner institution (getting detailed feedback on your own graduates’ career progress as well as summaries of the overall survey analysis) please e-mail Lisa.MorrisonCoulthard@bps.org.uk.

Our analysis of the first phase of the survey suggests that overall, over 65 per cent of respondents were in full-time employment or postgraduate study. Within two years of graduation, this had risen to over 83 per cent, peaking at over 99 per cent by four years.

There was a slight decline at seven years, with a noticeable increase in those in part-time employment.

Overall, 66.3 per cent of respondents indicated that their current employment was related to their long-term career plan. The expected pattern of early careers destinations is supported to a greater extent, with more established careers being increasingly evident in the 2007 and 2005 cohorts. The type, pattern and duration of employment confirms that for psychology graduates, the early career destinations are often not linked to their intended careers destination and it can take around five years post-graduation for graduates to settle into a traditional career pathway. For example, in relation to the 2011 cohort, only 48.6% of respondents indicated that their current employment was related to their long term career plan. This percentage then increases for the 2009, 2007, and 2005 cohorts (70.9%, 74.7% and 81.8% respectively).

Overall, 54.6 per cent of respondents indicated that the possession of a degree in psychology had been a requirement for obtaining their current job. This was more likely for 2005 and 2007 graduates (76.4% and 72.2%) than for 2009 and 2011 graduates (49.4% and 31.8%).

Overall, 53.8 per cent of respondents were employed in the public sector; 34.7 per cent in the private sector and 11.5 per cent in the notfor-profit sector. Interestingly, looking across the different cohorts, more 2005 graduates were employed in the public sector than the private sector (69% and 23.6%). However, this delineation becomes less acute across the 2007, 2009 and 2011 graduates. So that for the 2011 graduates, the percentages in each sector were very similar (42.3% and 44.5%).

Overall, 41.6 per cent of respondents

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indicated that their current job is in the field of psychology, but this was represented by a decline across the specific cohorts (54.5% for 2005; 50.6% for 2007; 38.8% for 2009; and 31.8% for 2011).

We will be continuing this tracking of graduates to find out more about the longterm career destinations of psychology graduates and will be asking more about the particular ways in which their study of psychology has supported their later career options and decisions.

What the Society can do for you Whilst you are still a student, being a member of the Society can help with your studies in a number of ways: I The Psychologist, published monthly containing inspiring articles, useful information, news and reviews I the award-winning Research Digest (www.researchdigest.org.uk/blog), which has been sharing the latest published research for the past 11 years. It is available in blog, e-mail, Twitter and Facebook forms, and nonmembers of the BPS can register for this service too.

I an active network for undergraduates (details at www.bps.org.uk/smg) I the student magazine Psych-Talk, not only a source of information but also a place to hone your writing skills – we’ll accept articles, book reviews, events reviews, interviews, so if you’ve done some excellent research, started a study group or a psychsoc, been to a good conference, presented a poster, write it up for Psych-Talk (guidelines for contributors can be found via www.bps.org.uk/smg).

I our Sections, Divisions and Special Groups, which you can join and receive useful publications and conference discounts (see

of particularly innovative and creative design and/or delivery and/or assessment of accredited psychology programmes for the benefit of the student experience.

You might also be lucky enough to benefit from our Undergraduate Research Assistantship Scheme (see p.691), giving students the chance to get direct experience of conducting research during the summer vacation.

The Society is researching the career destinations of Looking further ahead psychology graduates in your journey, we have the Postgraduate Study www.bps.org.uk/member-networks) Visits Scheme and the Joint Postgraduate I local Branches – as Society members Award with the Parliamentary Office for you will also be members of your local Science and Technology. And further on Branch, so keep an eye out for local still, there is the Outstanding Doctoral events or opportunities to get involved Research Contributions to Psychology or to ask them to help with your Award and Postdoctoral Study Visits university’s psychology society (e.g.

Scheme. by providing speakers) All the above are just a part of a much I the Society website, including the wider programme of awards and grants, members only area, which contains which I’d strongly encourage you to look lots of helpful information through (see www.bps.org.uk/what-weI (and looking ahead for some of you) do/awards-grants/awards-grants). You can PsyPAG, an active network for think of them as something to aspire to, postgraduate students (details at but also there is much inspiration to be got www.psypag.co.uk) from looking at the achievements of past award winners.

Awards and grants We offer an Undergraduate Award, given to those students who achieve the highest overall score in an accredited degree programme at each of the institutions accredited by the Society. Your department might also be in the running for an award – the Innovation in Psychology Programmes Award is given in recognition

Society vacancies

Join us Students are the lifeblood of the Society – you are the next generation of academics and practitioners – and I strongly urge you to join us. This year the student membership fee is £25. Begin the lifelong relationship.

I See also ‘Careers’, p.702

JOIN THE BRITISH PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Standing Committee on External Engagement (Branches)

Chair See advert p.685 Standing Conference Committee

Members See advert p.685 Dementia Advisory Group

Members

Apply online at www.bps.org.uk/student

See advert p.699

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

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society

Presidents’ Award 2014 Professor Richard Crisp positive contact with a member of an outgroup can contribute Social psychologist Professor Richard Crisp (Aston Business to reducing prejudice against that group.

School) who developed ‘imagined contact’ – a mental simulation Professor Hewstone said that Professor Crisp was also technique that models interactions between people from different committed to doctoral training. He said: ‘Richard’s research is cultures and groups – has been honoured with the Society’s highly team-focused, and the outstanding success of his Presidents’ Award for Distinguished Contributions to graduates provides evidence that he can enable and inspire Psychological Knowledge 2014. excellence in doctoral supervision. Almost all of his past students He was, until recently, Chair in Psychology at the University have completed their PhD with first-authored publications, often of Sheffield and was nominated for the award by Professor Miles Hewstone (University of Oxford), who praised not only Professor in the very best journals.’

Professor Crisp said he had been Crisp’s research but also his commitment ‘surprised, honoured and delighted’ to to training the psychologists of the future. receive the award. He said his eventual Professor Hewstone said: ‘He has career in psychology was born out of established an international reputation for a love for English literature and research on the psychology of prejudice, economics, he explained: ‘What I social cognition and intergroup relations. loved about English was delving deep His work is characterised by integrative in to characters’ lives, their history and theorising and rigorous methodology, working out the drives and exploring both basic level processes and motivations that explained their story. a concern with pressing social issues.’

What I loved about economics was the Professor Crisp’s contribution to social idea that certain human behaviours psychology includes 130 articles and could be modelled, predicted and chapters in books, which Professor analysed in a systematic way; that Hewstone said ‘have made important things like consumption, investment, contributions to how psychologists supply and demand could all be understand the impact of social studied scientifically. When it came categorization on prejudice, to my degree choice I was stumped – discrimination and social conflict’. He has how to combine my fascination with also received many awards through his the human condition with my appetite career so far, including the Society for for science? Of course, I discovered Psychological Study of Social Issues psychology as the perfect combination of Gordon Allport Intergroup Relations Prize Professor Richard Crisp these interests, and I’ve been enthralled (for the best paper of the year on ever since.’ intergroup relations) as well as the He said his most meaningful contribution to psychological Society’s Spearman Medal in 2006. knowledge came to him on a late-night flight from Amsterdam to After gaining his BA in Experimental Psychology from the Birmingham in 2002, imagined contact – a mental simulation University of Oxford (St Catherine’s College) Professor Crisp technique that models interactions between people from different went on to study for his PhD at Cardiff University. He became cultures and groups. He told The Psychologist: ‘The technique a Chartered Psychologist in 2003. Prior to his time at Sheffield has been hugely successful at promoting more positive groupand Aston he had worked as a lecturer and senior lecturer at the based interactions, reducing prejudice and empowering University of Birmingham and as Professor and Head of individuals with confidence and self-efficacy.

Psychology at the University of Kent.

‘It’s such a simple idea, but one with so much power and He made his name with influential research on imagined potential. To see it grow from a flash of inspiration to a intergroup contact, arguing that the simple act of imagining collaboration to a research programme to a multi-lab global endeavour is immensely rewarding. Most importantly though, I passionately believe imagined contact has the power to change people’s lives for the better.’

He added that one of his proudest achievements was having helped the next generation of psychological scientists; helping Annual Conference 2015, Birmingham See p.i them to forge their own careers and contributions to the field.

‘Stories of Psychology: War and Its Legacy’ History of Psychology He said he plans to continue his mentoring work. He spoke of Centre symposium See p.iv the future: ‘I’ve spent my whole career pushing forward with Division of Neuroopsychology conference See p.683 scientific discovery – and I’ll always want to do that. But what BPS confernces and events See p.693 I’m really getting excited about now is impact. I strongly believe CPD workshops See p.694 there is a need for us to better connect basic science with Award for Outstanding Doctoral Research Contributions to application; to build stronger pathways to impact, and harness Psychology – call for nominations See p.695 advances in psychological science to effect positive change in Spearman Medal – call for nominations See p.696 people’s everyday lives.’

Award for Promoting Equality of Opportunity – call for nominations His new role at the Aston Business School will involve See p.703 applying psychological insights to the problems and challenges that face the business world, from SMEs to global corporations.

SOCIETY NOTICES

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MEET THE TEAM The Psychologist and Research Digest team met in London on an ‘away day’ recently to discuss the future of the publications. It was a rare chance for a group photo. Here team members describe their background before joining the staff.

Debbie Gordon Editorial Assistant: ‘Before joining the Society I worked for a large international food manufacturer and had also worked as an account manager. I have worked part time for the Society for the last six years, and when I’m not working I’m being mum to my two children Raia (8) and Alex (3). I have a degree in media and music technology.’

Ella Rhodes Staff Journalist: ‘After completing my psychology degree at the University of Birmingham and having always been an avid writer I hoped to combine my two biggest passions. I worked for two years at the Derby Telegraph with the aim of becoming a science writer. Happily, in June, I started my new role writing news and features for The Psychologist.

Peter Dillon-Hooper Assistant Editor: ‘I was working as a freelance editor and legal researcher and doing some part-time university lecturing when I was offered a two-week contract with The Psychologist in May 1998. Somehow or other I’m still here. Today I combine my job on The Psychologist with being the Society’s Academic Resources Manager.’

Mike Thompson Sub-Editor/DTP Designer: ‘I have worked on The Psychologist for more than 20 years – and before that I was a typesetter working on a range of weekly and monthly publications in the East End of London.’

Dr Catherine Loveday Chair of the Psychologist and Research Digest Editorial Advisory Committee: ‘I am an academic at the University of Westminster with particular research interests in the neuropsychology of memory as well as neurodevelopment and neuroendocrinology. Over the last few years I have developed a strong passion for dissemination of good psychological research and practice, both within and outside of the profession and this was why I have been so keen to be involved with The Psychologist. I joined the committee a few years ago and was appointed Chair in May 2014.’

Dr Jon Sutton Managing Editor: ‘I took up my role in March 2000, at the tender age of 25, after a PhD in psychology from the University of London and a brief lectureship at Glasgow Caledonian University. I am particularly proud of proposing the Research Digest and overseeing its increasing success, and of developing a team that looks to come up with the goods month after month, year after year. These are exciting times for The Psychologist and Research Digest, and we are continually looking to expand and improve our offerings for the Society membership and beyond.’

Left to right: Debbie Gordon, Ella Rhodes, Peter Dillon-Hooper, Mike Thompson, Catherine Loveday, Jon Sutton, Christian Jarrett, Alex Fradera and Ian Florance

Dr Christian Jarrett Research Digest Editor: ‘Mid-way through my cognitive neuroscience PhD at Manchester University I realised that becoming a specialist in a narrow field wasn’t for me. I seized any outside writing opportunities I could, then I saw the ad to become part-time editor of the Society’s new Research Digest. Not long after, I left academia completely, taking up a dual role at the BPS, as Digest editor and also as journalist on The Psychologist. Now I am full-time on the Research Digest.’

Dr Alex Fradera Research Digest Writer: ‘Towards the end of school I’d decided to study journalism, but a careers fair rep advised me to simply study any essay subject that fascinated. Enter psychology. It led to one PhD, several research jobs and a career applying psychology in the workplace, but the allure of regular writing never went away, making my freelance role at the BPS a perfect fit.’

Ian Florance Freelance writer: ‘I studied English and history of art at Reading and Leeds; worked in publishing for over 30 years and am now a freelance consultant and a poet, novelist and journalist. Tim Cornford (then BPS Chief Executive) and Jon Sutton invited me to contribute to the ‘Careers’ section around 10 years ago and it’s a favourite part of my portfolio work.’

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society

Use of titles Members of the Society are entitled to use a range of designations and titles that indicate their level of membership and recognise their experience and contribution to the discipline. The Society’s titles are conferred under Royal Charter authority and are available exclusively to current members.

Psychologists who are registered with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) are able to use one or more of several titles that indicate their entitlement to practise. HCPC titles are protected in law and can only be used by individuals who are registered.

The Society has an established policy on the use of titles and requires members to differentiate between titles and designations awarded by the Society and those associated with HCPC registration.

Society membership designations MBPsS – the designation that all Graduate Members are entitled to use.

CPsychol – the designation for those members who have completed Societyrecognised postgraduate professional training or a psychology PhD and have been admitted to Chartered Membership.

HonMBPsS and HonFBPsS – Honorary Life Member and Honorary Fellow respectively; designations the Society may confer on individuals of distinction on the recommendation of the Board of Trustees.

Society titles AFBPsS – Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society. Members who can

demonstrate several years’ experience applying a specialised knowledge of psychology may apply for the award of this title.

FBPsS – Fellow of the British Psychological Society. Members who can demonstrate an advanced knowledge of psychology and an outstanding contribution to the discipline may apply for this award.

The above designations and titles are the only ones conferred by the Society.

Members are strongly encouraged to use their designations wherever possible.

They are a key benefit of membership and convey a powerful message concerning members’ experience and professionalism.

The website contains guidance on the use of Society titles and descriptions – see www.bps.org.uk/bpstitles Further information on Society membership categories and awards is available at www.bps.org.uk/membership

HCPC titles Psychologists who are registered with the HCPC have the right to use one or more of seven adjectival titles – Clinical Psychologist, Counselling Psychologist, Educational Psychology, Forensic Psychologist, Health Psychologist, Occupational Psychologist and Sport and Exercise Psychologist. They may also use two generic titles, Practitioner Psychologist and Registered Psychologist.

The HCPC adjectival titles map onto the areas represented by the Society’s practitioner Divisions, and until the HCPC took over the regulation of psychologists Full membership of

a Division automatically carried the right to use an adjectival title. This no longer the case.

The HCPC ‘owns’ all of the domainspecific titles and it is registration with the HCPC, not Full Division membership, that determines eligibility to use an adjectival title.

Guidance on correct usage of titles and designations A key principle is that our membership designations should not be used in combination with the adjectival titles of the HCPC. Although the Society is supportive of members using both Society and HCPC titles where they have established their right to do so, we are different organisations and our titles stand for different things. Our Royal Charter gives us the authority to award specific designations associated with membership but no longer allows us to confer domain-specific titles.

Society policy therefore says that it is no longer acceptable to use the descriptions Chartered Clinical Psychologist, Chartered Counselling Psychologist, Chartered Educational Psychologist, and so on.

Correct usage ensures a clear separation between Society membership designations and HCPC adjectival titles, as in: Chartered Psychologist and Health Psychologist; or CPsychol, Registered Forensic Psychologist.

The website contains detailed guidance and further examples of both correct and incorrect use of Society and HCPC titles and members: see www.bps.org.uk/statutoryregulation.

I Further queries may be directed to the Membership Team at membershipenquiries@bps.org.uk

Introducing ‘altmetrics’ Authors in BPS journals now have a new way of measuring the impact of their articles with the Altmetric service launched in July by our publishing partner Wiley. Alternative metrics or ‘altmetrics’ track and measure online activity and discussions about individual articles across social media (Twitter, Facebook, blogs, etc.), the mainstream media (newspapers and magazines) and various other online sources.

Articles published in BPS journals will display a score indicating the amount of attention that the article has received. Users clicking on the Altmetric ‘badge’ on Wiley Online Library will see a page displaying the score and the detail behind it, for that article.

Remember, Society members have free access to all BPS journals and their entire backfiles (as well as 32 other Wiley journals) via PsychSource (http://psychsource.bps.org.uk).

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Traditional metrics, such as impact factor typically report at the journal level. Altmetric exploits the recent development of new tools for article discoverability to give an understanding of the more immediate impact of a specific research article, or even authors’ impact. It also gives direct access to the online conversations about an article, by medium, source and region.

Authors and readers can opt to be alerted each time there is an online mention of a particular article.

Graham Woodward, Associate Marketing Director at Wiley, hopes that this new service will give authors another good reason to choose to publish in BPS journals, adding: ‘Altmetrics are unlikely to replace traditional metrics anytime soon, but our aim is to provide our authors, readers and editors with a more complete picture of the impact of published research.’

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Assisting undergraduate research Eleven students have had summer placements supported by the BPS Undergraduate Research Assistantship Scheme, which helps those coming into their third year receive training at their universities whilst carrying out a supervised research project.

The award allows universities to provide an undergraduate with hands-on experience of research during the summer break to gain an insight into scientific research and to

Anna Kolesnik

encourage them to consider an academic career. To win the award, the project must provide real benefits to the student and give them tangible training and career development support.

Among the recipients of the 2014 award were Anna Kolesnik, supervised by Professor Glenn Waller (University of Sheffield), studying the relationship between risk-taking behaviours and anxiety during adolescence and adulthood.

Anna’s research involved measuring participants’ risktaking behaviours, anxiety levels and impulsivity. She said: ‘We aimed to determine whether heightened anxiety during adolescence was associated with risk-taking behaviours in all teenagers, and whether this association decreases with age.

Alternatively, two separate groups of teenagers may emerge – some becoming more anxious and risk-averse, and others becoming more prone to take risks without a simultaneous increase in anxiety.’

Throughout her project Anna was given training in how to conduct a literature review, how to carry out a developmental behavioural study with individuals aged nine to 30 years old and how to undertake statistical analysis of behavioural data. She said: ‘My future goals are to complete a PhD in developmental neuroscience.

Ultimately, I would like pursue a career in psychological research.’

Also benefiting from the scheme was Axel Vittersø, supervised by Dr Rachel Arnold (University of Bath), in a longitudinal assessment of organisational stress in elite athletes. Axel has received training from Dr Arnold as well as a PhD student at the university and has learned how to recruit participants and design data-collection packs.

The project has also given him the chance to attend seminars, tutorials and complete online training usually offered for postgraduate researchers by the university. Axel said: ‘I really enjoyed my assistantship, and it inspired me to continue with further studies. Going into the role, I wanted to approach it as if it were in fact a PhD to see if this was something that I would be capable of doing. I feel like my goal of doing a PhD is becoming more realistic and attainable. Rachel has given me insight into how this could be done with regard to funding, the application process and what skills and abilities I need to be able to demonstrate.’ The project examined athletes’ preparation for a major sporting event and the organisational stressors

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Axel Vittersø

they may encounter. This involved collecting data from a large sample of athletes.

Axel said: ‘It is important to examine organisational stressors, since research has revealed the prevalence of organisational stressors in elite sport, identifying over 600 organisational demands and the impacts they can have on performance, health and wellbeing.’

Hannah Howman, an undergraduate student at the University of Nottingham, has also received funding to carry out research using eye-tracking to unravel how humans understand sarcasm. Her supervisor, Dr Ruth Filik, said that despite the fact that sarcasm is very common in everyday language, little is known about the real-time psychological processes involved in understanding it. She told The Psychologist: ‘Some very recent research suggests that some negative utterances, for example, “She is not the best teacher”, instead of receiving a literal interpretation, for example, “She is a good teacher but others are better”, seem to receive a sarcastic interpretation by default, for example, “She is far from being the best teacher”.

This finding is particularly interesting in the respect that it cannot be explained by any of the contemporary theories

of sarcasm comprehension.

‘The main aim of our research is to monitor participants’ eye movements while they are reading negative utterances such as “She is not the best teacher” in contexts which bias either a literal or sarcastic interpretation of the phrase.

We will further compare these to how affirmative utterances – e.g. “She is the best teacher” – are processed, which will again be presented in contexts which bias either a literal or sarcastic interpretation. Differences in the processing of negative versus affirmative utterances will be very informative regarding whether there is something special about negation which leads people to interpret things sarcastically.’

Dr Lois Grayson and her student Rachel Norris (Durham University) have also benefitted from this summer’s scheme. Rachel has been conducting a pilot study into the trait characteristics and sensory mechanisms associated with severe eatingrelated symptoms in patients with eating disorders,working with around 24 patients from the NHS outpatient clinic in Stockton. Specifically, autism spectrum disorder is associated with sensory issues, and a correlation has been reported between autistic trait expression and sensory atypicalities in the general population. Dr Grayson said: ‘We hypothesise that individuals with high autistic trait expression (high AQ scores) and eating disorders will show more sensory atypicalities than controls with high AQ scores, who in turn will show more than those with low AQ scores and eating disorders.’

Participants were also tested to see if experiencing eating difficulties makes people more reliant on what they see than what they taste.

The task involved sipping

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fruit-flavoured liquids,some of which were coloured in accordance with taste (congruent condition) and some which were not (incongruent condition).

Dr Grayson said: ‘We also

hypothesise then that the same pattern [as the AQ and sensory scores] will be seen in terms of error scores in the incongruent trial condition of the colour versus taste experimental data..’ Finding that taste and

smell are compromised in eating disorder patients with high autistic trait expression (to the extent that their food preferences are more guided by colour than flavour) would be a step, the researchers believe,

towards developing recovery eating programmes tailored to sensory profiles.

I The award for 2015 opens in November. For more information, see www.bps.org.uk/uras

Inspiration, innovation and impact Reporting from the Division of Counselling Psychology’s Annual Conference The pre-event hype for the Division of Counselling Psychology conference promised much – a quartet of renowned keynote speakers, an attractive selection of topical research symposia and presentations, and a host of enticing workshops.

Professor Paul Gilbert’s opening keynote address, ‘Compassion focused therapy and the fear of compassion’, was inspirational, striking a chord with the ethos of counselling psychology. Through his smooth eloquence and humour his compassion for clients shone out with his message of self-kindness and empowerment, encouraging responsibility in clients to ‘be the version of themself they want to be’. The applause that filled the packed auditorium confirmed the inspiration imparted by Paul’s insightful and amusing talk.

With six parallel streams running throughout the conference there were some difficult choices to be made.

Excellent feedback was to be heard about the ‘Pluralistic therapy for the treatment of depression’ symposium chaired by Tony Ward, Christina Michael’s ‘Posttraumatic growth following bereavement’ paper, and Julia Hutchinson’s workshop ‘Mindfulness and parenting’. ‘Giving psychology away’, presented by Fiona Bailey, Ronald Harper and Elizabeth Kilman, focused on their work within the prison service and forensic settings, not only with offenders, but in enabling and empowering service personnel to better manage their working life. Jason Robinson’s paper ‘Negotiating adult family estrangement through time’ was indicative of the increasingly innovative work being undertaken by Division members and counselling psychologists in training. His grounded theory of the process of estrangement enabled delegates to begin to step into the shoes of those who become estranged. Similarly innovative work disseminated at the conference included Jill Mytton’s ‘Clinical perspectives on how cults can harm people’; Claire Stubbs’ work on ‘Psychological therapies supporting young

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Building kids for the 21st century

men to overcome adversity and develop resilience to reoffending’; and poster prize winner Anna Kaufman’s ‘Exploring the experience of treatment for female problem gamblers’.

It is in areas such as these where the counselling psychology commitment to social justice, an explicit feature in this year’s conference, can have a great impact.

Laura Cutts’ lively discussion on ‘Counselling psychology and social justice’ raised issues of politics, integrity, and what ‘social justice’ actually means.

Professor Sheila the Baroness Hollins also spoke of social justice, inclusion and empowerment in the field of learning disabilities. She raised the question of the potential impact of focusing our expertise not on the most complex clients, but by working in the community, with those with learning disabilities or populations that may not be eligible for, or come to the attention of, traditional or statutory services.

In her honest and witty account of ‘Building kids for the 21st century – a biopsychosocial perspective’, Professor

Tanya Byron shared the many ironies she faced having written numerous ‘how to cope with...’ manuals only to find herself struggling, as a mother, with temper tantrums and sleepless nights. Her public lecture urged us to turn the clock back to the 1970s and give our children the childhood we remembered, reinforcing the importance of allowing children to be children, taking risks in our increasingly risk-averse world.

This year’s conference, did indeed live up to its tagline – inspiring, innovating and demonstrating the impact that counselling psychology can have in tackling social injustice and shaping policy. The conference buzz lasted throughout the two days as new relationships were sown, good practice shared and creative ideas fostered.

The challenge now is to maintain the enthusiasm and ensure impact on our practice wherever we ply our trade.

Dr Sue Whitcombe, Counselling Psychologist Sarah Cannon-Gibbs, Counselling Psychologist in Training at City University

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Organised by BPS Conferences

2015

2014

BPS conferences are committed to ensuring value for money, careful budgeting and sustainability

CONFERENCE

DATE

VENUE

WEBSITE

Developmental Section

3–5 September

Hotel Casa 400, Amsterdam

www.bps.org.uk/dev2014

Social Psychology Section

9–11 September

Canterbury Christ Church University

www.bps.org.uk/social2014

Division of Health Psychology

10–12 September

Park Inn,York

www.bps.org.uk/dhp2014

CYPF

30 Sept–1 Oct

Peterborough Marriott Hotel

www.bps.org.uk/cyp2014

Psychology4Students – Sheffield

20 November

Mercure Sheffield

www.bps.org.uk/p4s

Psychology4Students – London

2 December

Kensington Town Hall, London

www.bps.org.uk/p4s

Psychology4Graduates

3 December

Kensington Town Hall, London

www.bps.org.uk/p4g

Division of Clinical Psychology

3–5 December

Radisson Blu Hotel, Glasgow

www.bps.org.uk/dcp2014

Division of Occupational Psychology

7–9 January

Hilton Glasgow

www.bps.org.uk/dop2015

Annual Conference

5–7 May

ACC, Liverpool

www.bps.org.uk/ac2015

Division of Forensic Psychology

1–3 July

Manchester Metropolitan University

www.bps.org.uk/dfp2015

Division of Counselling Psychology

10–11 July

Majestic Hotel, Harrogate

www.bps.org.uk/dcop2015

Developmental Section & Social Section

9–11 September

The Palace Hotel, Manchester

www.bps.org.uk/devsoc2015

Division of Health Psychology

16–18 September

Radisson Blu Portman, London

www.bps.org.uk/dhp2015

International Academy for Professional Development Centre for Stress Management

Centre for Coaching

promoting the cognitive behavioural approach for over 25 years

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Diplomas† Advanced Certificates*

Two-day & Three-day Courses Stress Management

23-24 Sept; 8-9 Dec

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy & Training

7-8 Oct; 1-2 Dec

Problem Focused Counselling, Coaching & Training Advanced Cognitive Behavioural Skills

19-20 Nov 3-5 Nov

Other Courses (modular)

Certificate Courses* Coaching (15 Credits, Level 5)† Psychological Coaching (15 Credits, Level 6)†

15-19 Sept; 27-31 Oct; 24-28 Nov 13-17 Oct

Coaching Psychology (20 Credits, Level 7)† Stress Management and Performance Coaching (Level 5, 30 Credits) (6-days)†

Foundation Certificate in CBT and REBT (4 days) Foundation Certificate in Cognitive Behavioural Therapies (4 days) Certificate in REBT (5-days)|Certificate in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (5-days)

13-17 Oct modular

Two-day Courses

Certificate in Stress Management (6 days) Advanced Certificate in CBT & Stress Management (11-days)

Coaching (40 Credits, Level 6) Psychological Coaching/Coaching Psychology (50 Credits, Level 7)

modular

Stress Management Health Coaching and Wellbeing

23-24 Sept; 8-9 Dec TBA

Performance Coaching Problem Focused Counselling, Coaching & Training

1-2 Oct 19-20 Nov

Life Coaching: A cognitive behavioural approach

Coaching/ Coaching Psychology Supervision

9-10 Sept

Stress Management

† Courses accredited by Middlesex University * Courses recognised by the Association for Coaching

Email: admin@managingstress.com Website: www.managingstress.com

Email: admin@iafpd.com Website: www.centreforcoaching.com

Distance Learning Courses

Our courses are British Psychological Society Learning Centre Approved and are held at the BPS London, Borehamwood and Edinburgh or in-house. We have trained 1000s of practitioners on our recognised modular courses since the 1980s. The Founder Director of the Centres and Academy is Prof Stephen Palmer PhD. Our experienced trainers have authored books and/or articles in their particular fields. They include Chartered Psychologists: Prof Stephen Palmer, Dr Siobhain O’Riordan, Nick Edgerton & Kasia Szymanska.

156 Westcombe Hill, London SE3 7DH. Tel: +44 (0) 208 853 4171. Reservations: 0845 680 2075. Part of the International Academy for Professional Development Ltd. Website: www.iafpd.com

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2014 CPD Workshops

Professional development opportunities from your learned Society Expert witness: Essential knowledge of being an expert witness (Level 1)

4 September

Expert witness: Report writing (Level 2)

5 September

Working with suicidal patients: A reflective workshop (DCP)

10 September

Understanding violence and agression: Theory and therapuetic techniques (DFP)

18 September

Supervison skills training Workshop 4 – Ongoing development – Supervision of supervision

19 September

High performance team development (DOP)

25 September

Developing mindfulness in schools (DECP)

29 September

Mindfulness: Compassion, choice and gratitude (DCoP)

30 September

Assessment, formulation and therapy with women who commit offences within the family (DFP)

1 October

Working sucessfully in private practice

2 October

A psychological perspective on hoarding: What is it? What can we do about it? (DCP)

6 October

From ‘ice-breakers’ to creating connections to farewells: An experiential workshop to increase your skills and confidence in group facilitation (DCP / DECP / DHP / Community Section)

7 October

Mild traumatic brain injury and stress: The influence of trauma and prolonged stress on cognitive functioning (DoN)

9 October

Implementation science: Leading evidence-based practice in psychology (DECP)

13 October

Mental health at work: Improving well-being in the workplace (DOP)

15 October

Facilitating preferred changes using narrative approaches for those with physical health problems (DCP / DHP)

17 October

Expert witness: Presenting evidence in court (Level 3)

24 October

Adaption-based Process Therapy (APT) for personality disorders (DCoP)

31 October

Expert witness: The use of psychometric assessments for court (Level 4)

7 November

A reflective-relational-systematic approach to forensic psychology: Bringing your family to work (DCP / DFP)

11 November

Supervision skills training: Workshop 2 – Enhancing supervision skills

14 November

Adolescents displaying high risk behaviour from a developmental trauma and attachment perspective (DCP / CYPF)

17 November

Working with distressing psychosis: The challenge of developing meaningful therapeutic outcomes (DCoP)

18 November

Working sucessfully in private practice

20 November

Meta-synthesis (DHP / QMiP)

21 November

Applied psychology practice to support vulnerable families (DECP)

26 November

Engagement surveys and business performance (DOP)

28 November

For more information on these CPD events and many more visit www.bps.org.uk/findcpd.

Follow us on Twitter: @BPSLearning #BPScpd

www.bps.org.uk/learningcentre

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OXFORD INSTITUTE OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY TRAINING

Clinical Neuropsychology of Ageing and Dementia for Practitioner Psychologists 15th-16th December 2014

For more information visit www.oxicpt.co.uk/pg-cert (follow link to PDP Menu) or contact Ms Marianne Peedell, course administrator for an application form marianne.peedell@hmc.ox.ac.uk +44 (0) 1865 226431

AWARD FOR OUTSTANDING DOCTORAL RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS TO PSYCHOLOGY 2014 The Research Board invites nominations This annual award recognises outstanding contributions to psychological knowledge by postgraduate research students whilst carrying out research for their doctoral degrees in psychology.*

Criteria: The Award Committee will base its decision on published psychology articles, reporting the research carried out for a doctoral degree.* A maximum of two articles can be submitted, and the following requirements must be met: G The articles must have been published in refereed journals, or be in press.

G The candidate must be either the sole or senior (first) author of the article(s) concerned.

G The candidateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s doctoral degree supervisor or head of department must sign a statement confirming that the research reported in the article(s), was carried out by the candidate as research for a doctoral degree in psychology that was passed by a university in the UK normally not more than two years before the date of acceptance of the article(s) for publication.

Nominations: Proposers must send a 500-word nomination statement outlining why the candidateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work is outstanding and why they should be considered for the award.

G Proposers must send 10 copies of what they judge to be the candidateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s two most outstanding and significant publications reporting the research carried out for the candidateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s doctoral degree.

G Proposers must also send 10 copies of the candidateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s current full CV. G Nominations should be sent to Liz Beech at the Leicester office by 1 November 2014.

Award: A ÂŁ500 prize and a commemorative certificate. The recipient is also invited to deliver a lecture based on the research at the Societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Annual Conference.

The Award Committee may decide not to make an award in any given year.

G

For more information and the full nomination criteria, please contact Liz Beech on 0116 252 9928 or e-mail liz.beech@bps.org.uk. *A candidate may only be nominated for the award if the doctoral degree was awarded no longer than three years ago (i.e. in 2011).

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Open Day 2014

SPEARMAN MEDAL 2015 The Research Board invites nominations Criteria: G

The award is made for outstanding published work in psychology.

G

The work must have been carried out by the candidate within 8 years following the completion of a PhD (although research undertaken during the PhD can be taken into account) and should represent a significant body of research output.

G

The Selection Committee will look for evidence of the theoretical contributions made, the originality of research (including innovation in the experimental methods or techniques used) and the impact of the research findings.

G

Join us for our Open Day taking place on Wednesday 22 October at the University of Bath.

Introduction by Prof Paul Salkovskis, Programme Director, followed by talks from our clinical and academic tutors. A chance to meet the team, placement supervisors and current trainees.

To book a place please go to: http://go.bath.ac.uk/clinical-psychology-open-day For further information please go to: http://www.bath.ac.uk/psychology/clinical/open-days/

www.bath.ac.uk/psychology/postgraduate/clinical

Candidates need not be members of the Society, but they must be resident in the UK.

Nomination: G

Proposers must send a detailed nomination statement outlining the candidate’s contribution to psychology, together with a copy of the candidate’s current full CV.

G

Proposers must also send 10 copies of what they judge to be the candidate’s two most outstanding and significant publications to date.

G

Nominations should be sent to Liz Beech at the Leicester office by 1 November 2014.

Connect…

Award: Recipients are invited to deliver the Spearman Medal Lecture at the Society’s Annual Conference, at which they will be presented with the Medal and a commemorative certificate.

Previous Spearman Medal winners: 2014 Associate Professor Roi Cohen Kadosh 2013 Dr Jonathan Roiser 2012 Dr Helen Fisher

For more information and the full nomination criteria, please contact Liz Beech on 0116 252 9928 or e-mail liz.beech@bps.org.uk.

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…with The Psychologist and the Society’s free Research Digest service for more psychological news and analysis

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vol 27 no 9

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september 2014

CPD Workshops Teaching Clients to use Mindfulness Skills With Dr Maggie Stanton & Christine Dunkley 20th Sept 2014 University of East Anglia 3rd Oct 2014 Sheffield University 18th Oct 2014 London University

Understanding Acceptance & Commitment Therapy With Prof Sue Clarke 31st Oct 2014 Uffculme Centre Birmingham

Introduction to Compassion Focused Therapy With Prof Paul Gilbert 21st Nov 2014 London South Bank University For details and for our full range of workshops :stantonltd.co.uk or grayrock.co.uk

Psychology in the Pub DEMENTIA ADVISORY GROUP The British Psychological Society’s Research and Professional Practice Boards are looking for members with expertise in the area of dementia to take up a role on the Society’s newly formed Dementia Advisory Group.

Chaired by Professor Linda Claire, the advisory group will initially run for 12 months, with a further 12 months possible pending approval, and will involve up to four meetings a year. The group will act in an advisory capacity, providing expert advice to the Society to inform its dementia work.

If you would like further information on the role and the group or would like to request a statement of interest form please contact liz.beech@bps.org.uk.

Statement of interest forms should be received no later than 30 September 2014.

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Bath/Bristol Outcome research Wednesday 3 September 2014 Dr Naomi Moller & Dr Andreas Vossler

Exeter

The conditions under which Whistle blowing takes place Wednesday 24 September 2014 Dr Katie Porkess

Plymouth Social and moral development Thursday 18 September 2014 Dr Michaela Gummerum

For more information or to notify us that you will be attending visit www.bps.org.uk/southwest-events

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CAREERS

A public and private trip to understand the mind Susan Blackmore gives a personal account of how hallucinogens have influenced her career

I

am so glad I took LSD – and mescaline, and psilocybin, and even DMT which must surely have given me the most terrifying 15 minutes of my entire life.

But why? The reasons are both intellectual and personal – because of everything these drugs have taught me about mind, self, consciousness and how to live life as an imperfect human being.

I am sure that if I’d never taken them, my life would have followed quite a different course. I might have accepted that

JOLYON TROSCIANKO

sensible PhD place I was offered and had a proper academic career. I might have got a job. I might have… Of course I cannot imagine what completely different life might have unfolded, but there is no doubt that my lifelong obsession with the mystery of consciousness has been aided and abetted by hallucinogens.

This all began in my first term of a degree in psychology and physiology at Oxford University, towards the end of the hippy era, when cannabis (sometimes called a ‘minor hallucinogen’) was widely available – this was the low-THC, high-CBD, oldfashioned make-you-high hash, not modern skunk weed. Sitting listening to music late one night I found myself going down an intensely realistic tunnel of trees towards an alluring bright light. When a friend asked me where I was, I struggled to come back, remembered I must be in a college bedroom, and was suddenly looking down from above. There followed over two hours of the most intense and extraordinary experiences, starting with a classic out-of-body experience, dramatic changes of body- and self-image, travelling in strange worlds, and culminating in mystical states of unity and selflessness.

How could I make sense of this? I had read about astral projection and was faintly

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intrigued by tales of the paranormal but nothing had prepared me for such an inner adventure. This was years before the term ‘near-death experience’ was coined, and I had no idea that tunnels are common in cultures that use hallucinogens for spiritual or ritual purposes. Nothing in my undergraduate studies was remotely relevant and I knew nothing of mystical or spiritual experiences.

I guess my ‘career’, if it can be called that, began from that day. I knew that I had visited other worlds. I knew that my spirit or soul or astral body could live independently. I knew that my physical body was just a shell inhabited by something far greater with powers of telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition.

I was so sure I was right, and that all my ‘close-minded, materialistic’ lecturers were wrong, that I was determined to become a parapsychologist and prove it.

I was wrong on all counts. I did become a parapsychologist. For my PhD (part-time and self-funded as no one was going to pay for it) I carried out dozens of experiments to test my memory theory of ESP but I could find no ESP, either then or in many years of getting by as a freelancer with occasional tiny research grants. It was a long and instructive route to learning that all those assumptions I’d so hastily jumped to back in 1970 were false; that there is probably no ESP and that nothing leaves the body in an out-ofbody experience. Yet the intense memory of those precious few hours endured – and remained inexplicable.

There is a genuine mystery here – the ‘mind–body problem’ or the ‘hard problem of consciousness’, the relationship between subjective experience and the objective world.

I did experiments and surveys, I studied psychology and neuroscience, but if I was to understand subjective experience I needed to investigate directly as well.

So I had my head zapped with magnetic fields and tried weird machines and gadgets. I explored deep relaxation, lucid dreaming and sleep paralysis. I learned to meditate. And I took drugs.

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careers

My first psychedelic experience was with LSD, which must be the ultimate psychedelic, although far from being my favourite. Effective in minuscule doses, LSD takes you on a ‘trip’ that lasts eight to 10 hours but can seem like forever.

Every sense is enhanced or distorted, objects change shape and form, terrors flood up from your own mind, and joy appears in the simplest thing. The trouble is, there’s no escape – no antidote, no way to stop the journey into the depths of your own mind – and to be of any use, the visions and insights need integrating into your normal life afterwards. In my twenties, I used to take LSD, mescaline or psilocybin a few times a year. This was quite enough, for a major hallucinogen is not an adventure to be undertaken lightly.

I’ve met horror with several hallucinogens, including visions of torture and cruelty, of death and disintegration, of self-loathing and of the terrible void. I can understand how such visions can become a ‘bad trip’, though that has never happened to me. One of the lessons these drugs can teach you is how to stay aware and calm in the face of anything your mind can throw up.

I appreciate these hard lessons.

People often say I must be very brave, but I don’t agree. I took hallucinogens and other drugs because I wanted to explore the further reaches of human consciousness. I gave up my only fulltime academic job (Reader at the University of the West of England, Bristol) after a few years because it took me away from research I was desperate to continue. I was once paid several times the normal rate for writing an article called ‘I take illegal drugs for inspiration’ by the Telegraph because, they said, it was so brave to speak up. But it wasn’t brave.

I wanted to share what I’d learned.

I wanted people to know what value these drugs can have if taken carefully and treated with respect – if used for real exploration or spiritual purposes, rather than for fun or escape. Hallucinogens provide no escape, in fact the reverse.

There’s no hiding from your own mind in the midst of a five-hour adventure with mescaline, a 15-minute onslaught from DMT or even the brief moments of revelation induced by nitrous oxide. This is one reason they have been so valuable to me.

For much of my life these inner explorations stayed separate from my academic work. Both were inspired by my longing to understand the mind, but one was public; the other private. Yet gradually they came together. And a shift has happened in the world of consciousness studies too. Back in the

1970s ‘consciousness’ was a dirty word in any scientific context, but from the 1990s that changed. There are now plenty of psychologists, philosophers and neuroscientists struggling with the ‘hard problem’, and an increasing number who combine an academic study of consciousness with a personal life of meditation, inner exploration or spiritual practice.

For me this coming-together of the inner and outer worlds has been crucial.

I have trained in Zen for 30 years and this, and my drug experiences, have informed all my writings on self, free will and consciousness. I refer to them all as illusions because I believe they are not what they seem to be in our normal state of consciousness. We feel as if we are a persisting self that has consciousness and magical free will. But in other states of consciousness we know we are fleeting and ephemeral constructions without power or continuity; just part of a universe that is not divided into mind and body.

It’s a well-worn but apt metaphor that a hallucinogen trip can be like taking a plane to the highest peak. You see how things really are; you know the truth; you laugh at the cosmic joke; but then you have to come back down again. Relying on plane rides is no way to live your life,

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but nor is it worthless. For some the experience is inspiring; for others it is best forgotten; but for some, like myself, it just deepens our longing to understand – whether that is through personal experience or through science.

There are so many questions. What is happening in the brain? Who or what is the self that changes so radically? Are the visions comparable with mystical insights? Is the sudden understanding of the power of love the same as that reached through prayer or meditation?

Is the involuntary reliving of what we’ve done and whom we’ve loved or hurt, the same as the life review in near-death experiences? Is the terror of letting go of self, or the joyful realisation that ‘I’ am not other than the universe, the oneness or nonduality found in so many traditions? Or is it all just drug-based delusion?

And one last question – how can I get there without the plane? The slow climb must surely be hard work and may take a lifetime but the occasional trip to remind me of the view keeps me going.

I Dr Susan Blackmore is a freelance writer, lecturer and broadcaster, and a Visiting Professor at the University of Plymouth www.susanblackmore.co.uk

Clinical Educator London Competitive salary

Head of Psychological Research London Competitive salary

Consultant Clinical Psychologist & Clinical Psychologist Midlands - West from £45,000 - £90,000

To o che check ck k tthe he llatest atest t t jjobs ob bs pl please leas se g go to

www.psychapp.co.uk

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careers

Your journey into psychology To mark the fresh intake of psychology undergraduates, our journalist, Ella Rhodes, talks to some already on the path.

A

‘However, it’s also the year in which it’s s thousands of nervous psychology OK to make mistakes – you shouldn’t set undergraduates pour into scores of universities across the land their first out to make them, but it’s about finding your feet, working out how higher thoughts may not be on their education works and how to learn in employability, but simply making new a new context and environment and way. friends and settling into the new strange So if you drop the ball this year, it’s not world of higher education. However, the a disaster – sometimes students can get first year at university is a good time to very downhearted because they’re used to start gaining experience, making contacts high grades and don’t get for future jobs and them when they first discovering what part arrive.’ of the subject makes Professor Catriona you tick.

Morrison, head of As Julie Hulme, Psychology at Heriot-Watt a psychologist who University and Chair of works at the Higher the Society’s Education Education Academy, and Public Engagement points out, first-year Board, feels it is important students can that first-year students sometimes fall into maintain an open mind a trap of complacency with regard to their future because their first career, but keep an eye out year marks often don’t for any good opportunities count towards the that might arise. She said: final degree grade – ‘It’s never too early to start they just have to pass.

Professor Catriona Morrison: thinking about careers, but She offers the ‘It’s never too early to start you should come into first following advice: thinking year with an open mind. A ‘Putting in the work about careers’ lot of psychology students now, and getting into come to university with good habits, will the idea of becoming the stereotypical prepare you for second and third year, when the marks do count! This is the year image of what they think a psychologist is, listening to people’s problems while to acquire good academic skills, which they lie on a couch. But then they will serve you well later in terms of discover that psychology is a much getting good grades – and all these skills broader field than they had anticipated need practice.

Some key resources BPS careers page www.bps.org.uk/careers HEA Employability guide for psychology departments tinyurl.com/kck86yd The British Psychological Society’s Research Digest: a free service which can keep you up to date with the latest findings www.researchdigest.org.uk/blog www.twitter.com/researchdigest Careers in Psychology website, includes information on many careers in the area as well as CV advice tinyurl.com/pqlpn5d

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and they find a niche that they might not have expected to find.

‘You should always try to have in mind what your career could be as you move through university and reflect on what you’re good at and what catches your eye.

Try to be open-minded and along the way think about ways you can get exposure to different careers, working with people and shadowing people.’

Professor Morrison said one of the key areas of good advice comes from a university’s careers department, which can be overlooked by students. She added: ‘A lot of students don’t take full advantage of their university’s careers service. It’s part of the package, it’s what you’re paying for. There’s nothing wrong with going in there during your first year to give you a feel for the resources they have, they may be able to offer your opportunities for work experience.’

Annabel Gooseman, who has just finished her first year of a psychology degree at Northumbria University, in Newcastle, says that due to an interest in eventually becoming an educational psychologist, she has begun volunteering with a local primary school. She said: ‘I would have loved to have gained more directly psychology-related experience, such as working with an educational psychologist. I have searched the internet but am still unclear how I would go about this.

‘I have realised that volunteering in places is a lot more difficult than I imagined. I thought many places, such as mental health hospitals, would be crying out for volunteers, but I found that this is not the case. One hospital I looked at had a year-long waiting list for volunteers!

Also there is the issue of things like CRB checks, and in a volunteer position you

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are expected to pay for your own, which is obviously difficult for most students, including myself.’

Annabel added: ‘I would definitely promote the idea of thinking about which area interests you early on. You have to choose specific modules about halfway through your first year, and if you don’t

have any idea of which area you want to go into, it can cause a lot of stress!

Equally, you could end up wasting a year doing a module that isn’t going to help you in the long run.’

Luke Vasey, a second-year psychology student at Northumbria University, is hoping to become a clinical psychologist.

He says his tutors had suggested studying relevant modules during his time at university: ‘I originally got persuaded to do a placement or student tutoring.

However, once I asked other psychologists and lecturers, they said it would be better to study modules of interest and relevance and then pursue work experience outside of university to go alongside the course. For me, I’m helping international students get familiar with moving in at university in hope it can train me for the future. I’ve also been encouraged to e-mail or write to other psychologists for tips.’

Roberta Clanton is a PhD student at the University of Birmingham. She originally studied in Florida, and her research is currently focusing on environmental and neurobiological factors implicated in children and adolescents with disruptive behavioural problems,

specifically conduct disorder. Before moving to the UK she was an intern working with children being removed from abusive homes, undertook independent research and after graduating from the University of South Florida was offered an Intramural Research Training Award at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Washington DC, where she was a Post-Baccalaureate Fellow. She said: ‘My advice to new psychology students would be to identify a sub-field or population of interest and try getting a summer placement somewhere relevant. This will give you experience and help you decide whether you want to do research or clinical work based on the things you do day-to-day. I would recommend reading extra journal articles or books in addition to those assigned in modules to increase your knowledge on a particular topic [at this point can we recommend the Society’s own Research Digest blog: see www.researchdigest.org.uk/blog and follow us on Twitter @researchdigest].

Also, volunteer positions in research labs or other organisations can be quite beneficial. Professors, lecturers and even graduate students can be excellent resources for guidance.’

Award for Promoting Equality of Opportunity 2014 The Ethics Committee is delighted to invite members of the Society to submit nominations for the Society’s Award for Equality of Opportunity. This award recognises a person whose work as a psychologist - teacher, researcher or practitioner - has made a significant contribution to challenging social inequalities in the UK in relation to gender, race, ethnic origin, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, disability or age. The recipient is invited to deliver the Award lecture at the Annual Conference and to accept a commemorative certificate, which is presented at the Award Ceremony during the Society’s Annual Conference.

Nominations should include a completed nomination form providing evidence of some or all of the following: G Personal commitment to equality issues G Impact of the candidate’s contributions to psychological teaching, research or practice (inclusive of published works and influence on professional practice) G Impact of the candidate’s work on other professionals/service providers G Impact of the candidate’s work directly for people from marginalised and oppressed social groups.

A copy of the candidate’s up to date curriculum vitae should also be included.

Guidance for assessors and the nomination form can be obtained from emma.smith@bps.org.uk The deadline for nominations is 1 October 2014.

No award will be made in the absence of a candidate of sufficient merit.

seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk

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Psychological Assistant Well qualified graduate wanted to work with Chartered Psychologists in carrying out a range of Psycho-Legal assessments.

To check the latest jobs please go to www.psychapp.co.uk

This post will also provide opportuni es to become involved in:

administering di erent psychometric tests

delivering training to groups of professional and non-professionals

research and developing informa on guides

co-facilita ng support groups

project work (O enders with Learning Disabili es, Young O enders, Paren ng, Domes c Violence).

Training and support will be provided by Chartered Psychologist.

Ongoing training and con nuing professional development will be encouraged.

to advertise please contact: Giorgio Romano, 020 7880 7556, giorgio.romano@redactive.co.uk

The post will ideally appeal to Psychology graduates in need of prac cal experience.

This post is 0.8 of a full me equivalent post and a racts a salary of £16000 (pro-rata). It is ini ally for 8 months, although this may very likely be extended up to 1 year.

If interested in this posi on please email/ post your C.V. with a covering le er to: frankfurlong@blueyonder.co.uk. (put Psychological Assistant in subject field) Adult & Child Psychological Assessment Service, 1 Farlands Grove, Great Barr, Birmingham, B43 5PY.

Acorn Park is a 52 & 38 week residential and day special school offering care and education for students aged 4-18 years with severe to higher functioning Autism and either moderate/severe learning difficulties who can present challenging behaviours. A post 19 adult service is situated on the site for adults with Autism.

Clinical Psychologist, with Governance Agenda for Change £band 7 [pay scale is used as guidance only] We are recruiting for a Clinical Psychologist, with Governance to join and lead our on-site Support for Learning Team (SFL). You will be working with our Speech & Language Therapist and assistants, Occupational Therapist and assistant. Our ideal candidate will be able to provide students, parents and employees with a comprehensive range of support, advice and guidance in relation to promoting positive behaviour from our students On-site accommodation in a shared house may be available To apply visit our website www.acorncare.co.uk Acorn Park is committed to the safeguarding and welfare of children and young people and expects all its employees to share this commitment. This post is exempt under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974 and the successful applicants will be subject to an enhanced Disclosure and Barring check.

Closing Date: 12th September 2014

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Job Title: Senior Consultant Employer: Edgecumbe Health ‘The successful candidate will be an experienced occupational psychologist with an inherent fascination for our particular group of customers: senior clinicians and healthcare leaders. He or she must have a real desire to improve healthcare and professional performance,’ says Dr Jenny King, Health Practice Leader and co-founder of the Edgecumbe Group.

The group was formed in Bristol in 1995. It’s a psychology-based consultancy with two core areas of operation, one of which is Edgecumbe Health. ‘We are experts in the assessment and development of doctors’ performance and that of healthcare teams.’ Are there any issues specific to the sector? ‘Major challenges in the NHS have been highlighted by the Mid Staffordshire Inquiry – including leadership, clinical engagement and developing the right behaviours to produce a more compassionate culture.

There are many highly motivated and competent healthcare teams who need support to deal with what is being thrown at them day after day. When morale is poor, it creates dysfunctional behaviour and poor performance. Edgecumbe Health’s reputation reflects our ability to support individual clinicians and multi-professional healthcare teams, as well as senior leaders and managers. There is a great deal of work to be done and our support is increasingly being sought by Trust HR Directors, Medical Directors and Chief Executives. Therefore the role we are offering with Edgecumbe is challenging, with the potential to make a real contribution to changing the culture in the NHS.’ Health sector experience will be an advantage, as would specific skills. ‘Individual assessment and work with medical leaders are the job’s core, as is the ability to work with teams, and some understanding of organisation development. As well as specific expertise in psychometric assessment, personal qualities are critical. This person must be credible, resilient and able to win the trust of senior clinicians and healthcare leaders who may well be cynical about psychological assessment and external consultants. He or she must develop rapport through real understanding of particular health sector pressures. The ability to produce well-written reports is a key skill. ‘ According to Jenny, the Edgecumbe team has a strong team ethos, a focus on quality and client service and a diverse range of skills.

‘We are looking for someone who will work as part of a team and contribute to service and product development and to support our people as we move into our next phase of growth. This is a particularly exciting time to get involved.’

Jenny mentions that the role will also involve some opportunity to conduct assessments of corporate senior leaders ‘where the issue of creating trust and credibility is equally important’.

She concludes: ‘Healthcare is a fascinating area to work in. We have a strong brand, a reputation for outstanding quality and for taking on tough challenges. The work is stimulating, with opportunities for professional development.’

A unique oppor tunity ffor or a S enior Consultant Consultant to opportunity Senior w ork in our niche he alth s ector c onsulting busine work health sector consulting business. ss.

Salary Salary in the region region of of £70–£80k £70–£80k according according to to experience experience

Founded in 1995, Edgecumbe Consulting Group is a highly successful, psychology-based consulting business located in Bristol. The group comprises two market-facing practices: Edgecumbe Health, one of the country’s leading healthcare consultancies with a focus on doctors’ performance, and Primary Colours Consulting which focuses on assessing and developing leaders and leadership in the corporate sectorr.

The Group also develops and delivers a range of assessment, 360° feedback and employee engagement tools.

Due to the imminent retirement of the Edgecumbe Health Practice Lead together with unprecedented demand for our consultancy support, we are now seeking an outstanding Psychologist with relevant experience and an interest in working with doctors and healthcare teams. We work with some of the most respected hospitals in the country and have established a strong national reputation for our work in the health sectorr. The successful candidate would take a lead role in supporting and continuing to develop our health consulting business.

The The role role The core role is to provide occupational psychology-based assessment and team facilitation to our clients in the NHS. The majority of this work involves assessing individuals and teams where there are significant concerns about their behaviour or clinical performance. The work is challenging, requiring experience and understanding of the NHS context

seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk

and skills in handling high-stakes situations which require the utmost sensitivity. You will be working closely alongside at least one other senior consultant in Edgecumbe who has specific expertise in this area.

R Required equired qualifications qualifications and e experience xperience

You o will take responsibility for developing and managing client relationships and projects, conducting assessments, feedback and behavioural coaching and playing an active role in the continuous improvement and quality assurance of our assessment methods and services within the healthcare sectorr.

Registered as competent in the use of ability and personality measures, ideally with experience of using NEO PI-R and Hogan assessment instruments

This is a full-time role. Our office and team are Bristol based so we are seeking applicants who ideally live within 2 hours of Bristol and who want to be part of our growing team.

The role involves frequent travel and some requirement for overnight stays.

Skills and experience in team facilitation

A Chartered Occupational Psychologist who is qualified to at least Masters level

Substantial experience of senior level assessment, ideally with NHS professionals

Experience of working closely with clinicians and other healthcare professionals and senior leaders/managers in the NHS

The The Individual

Consideration will be given to those who are experienced at senior level assessment but who may have slightly less NHS experience.

Most importantly you will need substantial experience of assessing and developing senior clinicians and working with healthcare teams. The role requires excellent verbal and written communication skills together with the ability to generate and deliver projects, and to manage and facilitate challenging meetings with senior healthcare professionals and leaders.

Please send your CV and a covering email explaining your interest in and suitability for the position to penny..kidwell@edgecumbe.co.uk. All applications will ou can find out more about be treated in confidence. Yo Edgecumbe at www w.edgecumbe.co.uk.

Our company is proud of its strong team ethos, so effective team working skills are essential, along with the ability to build and sustain client relationships at senior level.

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Intern position, Burwash Common, East Sussex

Clinical Psychologist (neurorehabilitation) (Equivalent Band 7/8a) 30 hours p/week, Birmingham You will be a key member of the multi-disciplinary Therapy team based at Hunters Moor where we have a long-standing history of providing neurorehabilitation for clients with an acquired brain injury, specialise in cognitive-behavioural impairments and community reintegration, severe and complex physical disability, and challenging behaviour.

We are looking for dynamic and enthusiastic registered Clinical Psychologist with an interest in neurorehabilitation. Experience of working in a neurobehavioural environment would be an advantage as would experience of working with clients with challenging behaviour. You will be familiar with inter-disciplinary goal planning and key-working and will be supported by the Lead Psychologist with the opportunity to develop your skills and expertise in this exciting role.

Occasional travel to our other services may be required so a car driver/owner would be desirable. Applicants must be eligible to work in the UK. Visit www. christchurchgroup.co.uk to learn more about the exciting work we do.

For further information, or to arrange an informal visit, please contact Dr Louise Birkett-Swan, Group Psychology Lead on 07939539870 or lbirkett-swan@christchurchgroup.co.uk To apply please email your CV to: Debbie Kirton, HR Assistant, at dkirton@christchurchgroup.co.uk Closing date: 6th October 2014 Christchurch Group is an equal opportunities employer

Great opportunity in small consultancy of business psychologists for post-MSc applicant with a positive approach who shares our values of Professionalism, Responsiveness, Flexibility and Respect. Friendly team, lovely rural surroundings (own transport needed), opportunity to experience wide range of projects with supervision towards chartership.

Required: Motivation, good interpersonal and analytical skills, literacy, numeracy and strong grasp of statistics/psychometrics.

Preferred: Social media and webpage interests.

This is a paid position. Part time considered.

CV and letter setting out current situation and reasons for applying to admin@opsltd.com by 8th September. Enquiries to Tom or Suzanne on 0845 5040181. Occupational Psychology Services Ltd. www.opsltd.com.

Sessional Assessment and Staff Positions Dyslexia Action is seeking: A) Experienced, HCPC Registered psychologists who can conduct psychometric assessments to Dyslexia Action s specifications in some of its centres in Great Britain B) Additional members of the psychology team to strengthen our capacity to develop, deliver and manage its assessment and research services Successful candidates will be subject to checking by the Disclosure and Barring Service.

Please send a recent C.V. and completed application form, available at http://www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk/jobs/consulting-psychologists to: Dr Barry Johnson, Principal Educational Psychologist & Head of Assessment Services, Dyslexia Action, Knowle House, 4 Norfolk Park Road, Sheffield, S2 3QE. E-mail: bjohnson@dyslexiaaction.org.uk For further information telephone Barry on 0114 2815909.

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS Salary negotiable depending on experience

We are seeking Registered Clinical Psychologists to join our teams at a number of the BIRT services and for our Community Services division. The successful candidates will have an interest in neuropsychology and rehabilitation. Experience of working in a neurobehavioural environment would be an advantage.

You will have close supervision from an experienced Consultant Clinical Neuropsychologist and be involved in the supervision of Psychology Assistants and training of staff. Research interests are encouraged and facilitated.

Benefits include a pension scheme and health insurance plus organisational support for further career development i.e pursuing the DoN PFM qualification.

For further details of these positions and closing dates please see the websites at: http://www.thedtgroup.org/brain-injury/work-for-us.aspx and http://www.thedtgroup.org/community-services/work-for-us.aspx

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CLINICAL / COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGIST (Part-time) We are seeking an experienced BPS chartered part-time clinical or counselling psychologist. This is a new role providing a clinical service to our 500 girls, both individually and in groups.

With experience of working with teenage girls, the successful applicant must demonstrate strong interpersonal, organisational and time management skills.

For more details and an application pack please contact Rachel Nicholls on 01962 835701 or email nichollsr@stswithuns.com Closing date : Monday 15 September 2014 St Swithun’s is a registered charity providing education for boys and girls and is committed to safeguarding and promoting the welfare of children. All staff are expected to share and support this commitment and applicants must be willing to undergo child protection screening appropriate to the post, including checks with past employers and the Disclosure and Barring Service.

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East London NHS Foundation Trust

CAMHS Psychological Therapies and Clinical Team Lead (Family Therapist, Psychologist, Psychotherapist, Nurse) Full time & permanent (37.5 hours per week), Band 8d, Ref: 363-ss563 This is an exciting opportunity for an experienced CAMHS clinician to take a lead role in City and Hackney. We are looking for a senior clinician from a core CAMHS discipline (Family Therapy, Psychotherapy, Clinical Psychology, Nursing) to provide leadership for psychological therapies across the service, and clinical leadership and operational management for one of our Emotional and Behavioural multidisciplinary teams.

You will be someone who can contribute fully to the clinical, professional, strategic and partnership agenda of the service, and take a lead in the wider development of children’s services across Hackney and the City. As a member of the management team the successful applicant will ensure that there is a clear leadership and management structure for multidisciplinary CAMHS in the context of a dynamic and complex borough with welldeveloped relationships and partnerships.

We are looking for an enthusiastic and experienced CAMHS clinician who will be responsible for the delivery of the highest standards of care and services for children and young people with mental health problems and their families. Working in partnership with the Lead Clinician and General Manager, you will provide inspirational leadership of multidisciplinary clinicians to ensure effective, evidence based assessment and treatment, accessible care pathways and a culture of continuous quality improvement.

You will need to be an imaginative and strategic thinker, creative and determined in your approach and exceptional in your ability to lead and influence others, in order to provide leadership to all non-medical CAMHS

staff in the borough. You will hold an overview within the service of the balance and range of psychological therapies available, acting as a specialist resource and source of advice for other multidisciplinary team leads.

If you have highly developed communication and leadership skills and would enjoy this opportunity to ensure robust patient safety, improved patient experience, clinical outcomes, quality and performance standards, we encourage you to apply.

If you would like further information about this post please contact Sarah Gibbs, General Manager on 02032225600 or sarah.gibbs@eastlondon.nhs.uk or Dr Glenda Ericksen, Lead Clinician on 02088095577 or glenda.ericksen@eastlondon.nhs.uk.

Please apply on NHS Jobs (www.jobs.nhs.uk) searching for job reference number 363-ss563.

Closing date: 14th September 2014.

East London NHS Foundation Trust is an equal opportunity employer.

Dumfries and Galloway – a great place to live and work, so come and join us!

HM Prison Dumfries is an innovative workplace within a forward looking prison system committed to citizen recovery and we are currently recruiting for two posts:

Psychologist and Psychology Manager Full time. HMP Dumfries - Scottish Prison Service An exciting opportunity exists to join the Psychology department at HMP Dumfries. The post holders will contribute to a range of functions performed by the local Psychology Department with an emphasis on the implementation of offending behaviour programmes and risk assessment and management, all of which contributes to the SPS aims of reducing re-offending and creating a safer Scotland. SPS encourages and promotes psychologists on-going development via supervision and assistance with funding, for example for professional fees and training. To view full details about these vacancies, and for more information on the SPS, please visit our website at www.sps.gov.uk

The Scottish Prison Service – Unlocking Potential, Transforming Lives

Closing Date Friday19th September 2014.

Psychologist - up to £28,320. Psychology Manager - up to £40,455.

Salaries for both posts dependant on experience, plus generous benefits.

SPS will not tolerate any form of discrimination. If you cannot promote and demonstrate dignity, respect and equality, please don’t apply.

seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk

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REVIEWS

The truth in fiction In this fascinating book Tanya Byron describes her training as a clinical psychologist some 25 years ago through the stories of the people she met on clinical placements, both patients and staff. Ostensibly that is. But as she tells us in the introduction and again in the epilogue, the people she so vividly describes are entirely fictional, inspired by the real people she came into contact with.

She is a good writer, and the stories she tells are exciting, challenging and thoughtprovoking. This is a very enjoyable book to read. If Tanya Byron felt like a change of career, then writing fiction is well within her compass.

How much does it matter that the material is made up? As I have argued many times, good fiction can convey truths better than facts. This is true here too. A reader can learn much about anorexia and family dynamics in the case of Molly, for example, or the care and challenge of those dying young from AIDS in the case of Tom. I too have written a memoir in which I fictionalised real cases, but there was a difference. I always stuck to the facts of the referral, the assessment, the therapy, the nature of the therapeutic relationship and the outcome. Byron does not tell us if she did this. We do not know if there was a real Molly or Tom or whether they are entirely a work of her imagination. The people feel real, but that is what good fiction writing can do.

Despite this uncertainty, I thought the book illuminated what a young and inexperienced psychologist might find when in some tricky clinical encounters. To her credit, Byron does not shirk from showing her foibles and failings as well as her successes. In her account of her younger self, she comes across as a naive, The Skeleton Cupboard: stubborn, engaging, personable, empathic, The Making of a Clinical friendly, fashion-loving, arrogant, self-doubting, Psychologist self-believing 23-year-old woman with a flair for Tanya Byron personal relationships and the courage to tackle big issues and to make mistakes. It is a vivid selfportrait.

There are some striking omissions. Given this is about her three years of clinical psychology training, we hear nothing of the training course itself, her fellow trainees, the academic programme, the different tutors she met, and only passing asides to the relentless demands of the course, such as the final-year dissertation, course essays, case presentations and exams. From this book you would think that the only important training took place on clinical placements. Perhaps that is the message. But I cannot believe that the bright young Tanya was not also caught up in the many other aspects of training.

There is a curious elision. Chris, the one tutor she does describe at length, with whom she has a warring and engaging relationship for three years, is both the clinical tutor who organises her placements and her clinical supervisor on every placement!

But trainees have a different supervisor on each placement and the roles of the clinical tutor and clinical supervisor are not the same. Where are Byron’s clinical supervisors and why are they not in the book? In my experience, supervisors play a huge part in shaping the experiences of trainees. Did they not do so for the young Tanya, I wonder?

This is a work of fiction that is drawn from the young Tanya Byron’s experiences during training. It shows how personal clinical psychology is and how tricky it can be for a young person. Its often dramatic and heartfelt stories will resonate for a long time after reading. I strongly recommend it.

I Macmillan; 2014; Hb £18.99 Reviewed by John Marzillier who is a writer and clinical psychologist based in Oxford

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A handbook at its best Handbook of Emotional Regulation James J. Gross What is meant by emotional regulation?

How do we learn (or not learn) to manage our emotions? Why are some people so much better at delayed gratification than others? Why can we ‘lose it’ with our intimate partners but remain composed in our professional lives? These questions, and many more, are discussed in this book.

This is a handbook at its best, offering 35 chapters covering almost every conceivable angle on the topic, each written by leading figures in their fields worldwide (although admittedly contributors are predominantly from North America).

There should be something for almost everyone including sections on biological, developmental and social perspectives on emotional regulation as well as consideration of the influence of personality and psychopathology. New entries in this edition include a greater coverage of clinical issues and the impact of emotional regulation on health. The chapters link together well and there is a sense of progression from developmental perspectives on neural pathways right through to the impact on health, even society, of emotional dysregulation.

While I found many of the topics engaging; at times, I would have liked some of the material brought a little more to life: for example, by including more accounts from ‘experts by experience’ (particularly in the section on psychopathology) and offering more real-life scenarios. The book is almost encyclopedic in its scope, which means it can be on the technical and detailed side. This would suit those in academia and research looking for a thorough grounding in the topic. For clinicians, the book makes excellent background reading and has certainly enhanced my practice. It is not, however, a ‘how-to’ therapy guide and would probably be hard-going for those with a more passing interest or seeking to gain further insight into emotional regulation from a more lay perspective.

I Guilford Press; 2014; Hb £63.00 Reviewed by Dr Laura Pipon-Young who is a clinical psychologist, Forensic Services, Sussex Partnership NHS Foundation Trust

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reviews

Hallucinating in the deep waters of consciousness Narcose Julie Gautier (Director) Narcose is a French short film about a dive by world champion free diver Guillaume Néry. It documents a five-minute dive from a single breath and the hallucinations he experiences due to carbon dioxide narcosis.

The film is visually stunning. A masterpiece of composition, light and framing. It’s also technically brilliant. The director presumably thought ‘what can we do when we have access to a community of free divers, who can hold their breath under water for minutes at a time?’

It turns out, you can create stunning underwater scenes with a cast of apparently water-dwelling humans.

But most importantly it is a sublime depiction of Néry’s enchanted world where the boundaries between inner and outer perception become entirely porous. It is perhaps the greatest depiction of hallucinations I’ve seen on film.

Darken the room, watch it on as big a screen as possible and immerse yourself.

I To watch, see http://vimeo.com/95182734 Reviewed by Vaughan Bell, who is a clinical psychologist and visiting researcher at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London. Vaughan blogs at www.mindhacks.com, where this review originally appeared.

Paving the way The Behaviour Change Wheel: A Guide to Designing Interventions Susan Michie, Lou Atkins & Robert West This new book release comes as the result of years of developing behaviour change research from health psychology experts at University College London. What has been produced is a concise, accessible introduction to behaviour change, suitable for a wide range of interested parties. The book begins with a quote from psychologist Kurt Lewin: ‘There’s nothing as practical as a good theory.’ Indeed, the practical application of this body of work is emphasised throughout. It is very much written as a book for both

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

fieldwork and study: providing handy tables of concepts as well as exercises to test your understanding.

Core to the book is description of the processes and applications behind the Behaviour Change Wheel. This is a synthesis of 19 frameworks divided into three operational layers that encourage the user to consider the source of target behaviour, the function of their intervention and related policy. The complementary Behaviour Change Taxonomy is also presented: providing readers with a range of ideas on how to apply concepts in their work. Helpful abstracts of international research examples are provided throughout to illustrate concepts.

An accompanying online training programme (www.bcttaxonomy.com) and BCT Taxonomy app (Available in Apple and

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reviews

Google Play app stores) provide great supplementary support. This book really paves the way as the ‘go-to’ book in behaviour change techniques and development. It is not simply a presentation of work in the field, but a guide to develop skills in identifying and using behaviour change techniques. It is recommendable to students, academics and practitioners alike across a range of fields. With

these helpful resources, we are undoubtedly progressing further towards working on the same page in intervention design.

I Silverback Publishing; 2014; Pb £18.99 Reviewed by Emma Norris who is a PhD Student, University College London, and Associate Editor for ‘Reviews’

Deferred gratification Boyhood Richard Linklater (Director) Boyhood is very long, nothing out of the ordinary happens, and the lead (Ellar Coltrane) is completely unknown. It is also a unique work of art that uses the medium of film in a genuinely novel way, with astonishing results.

The director Richard Linklater has been best known to date for his ‘Before…’ trilogy, starring Ethan Hawke and Julie Delpy. First in 1995 and then at nine-year intervals, Linklater crafted the story of a couple who meet on the train to Vienna. It was compelling to watch Hawke and Delpy age with us over the 18 years between the first and last film, as we too gained wrinkles and became weighed down by our responsibilities.

Boyhood takes the idea of actors ageing in real time much further. Linklater cast sixyear-old Coltrane as Mason at the turn of the century, and then filmed for a short period once each year over 12 years. The film seamlessly cuts from each year’s shooting to the next. There is no text on screen to tell us it’s now 2004, or 2008. We can only intuit this from close examination of Mason and his older sister Samantha (Lorelei Linklater), or occasionally from the intrusion of public events (such as Obama’s first election). The ageing is less obvious as Mason goes from 8 to 9 to 10, but suddenly the teenage years are upon us and he’s stooping down to his mother, with a huge fringe hiding his increasingly hairy face.

As a method of film-making, there are no real comparisons. Michael Apted’s 7-Up has been mentioned, but Boyhood is no documentary. Nor is it great makeup or CGI: we are in a time machine, watching the actors actually age, in front of our eyes.

As we watch the film, we get to know Mason, but as each year passes, he changes and matures, just like children do.

Although we might notice and sympathise with the sags and wrinkles of the adult actors, watching the children develop is breathtaking. It’s a cinematic experience, but at times it feels uncannily like real life.

The film is brilliant at showing us childhood from the child’s point of view.

Mason and his sister go to a midnight launch party for Harry Potter and the Half

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Lorelei Linklater, Ethan Hawke and Ellar Coltrane

Blood Prince. We see the magic and excitement of the event through their eyes, without cynicism. But a wedding which obviously occurred at about the same time, and has a huge impact on Mason’s life, is not shown. This emphasis seems truer to the 11-year old boy. In another scene, Mason is threatened by two boys in the toilets at school. No adult conveniently intervenes, and as far as we can tell, Mason tells no one. He suffers the event and we suffer with him, impotent. This storyline goes nowhere – has Mason forgotten other incidents, or were there none? This uncertainty makes it seem as if we’re watching Mason’s actual memory of his childhood.

As Mason matures, so does his understanding, and the adult characters imperceptibly become more rounded.

Patricia Arquette as his mother evolves from taxi driver-cook-disciplinarian (wry parental smiles) to someone who has a life of her own outside the family. Mason starts to gain a perspective on his fun-loving but absent

father (Ethan Hawke again), and some of the other father figures in his life.

Pavlov, Skinner and Bowlby get namechecked in the film as sly signposts to particular characters. Mention of Bowlby perhaps offers the strongest hint at Linklater’s view: without attachment to others and a safe base from which to explore, the boy will never become the man.

Each viewer is likely to have a different experience when watching Boyhood, as they are touched by different aspects. As a stepparent, I found the scenes with the stepsiblings especially affecting. Those whose are about to become empty-nesters may get through several hankies as (spoiler alert) Mason heads off to college, ready to take those exploratory steps into manhood. There is so much to enjoy and marvel at in this complex yet simple-looking film, and it’s hard to imagine that any other this year will match it.

I Reviewed by Kate Johnstone who is a postgraduate student at UCL

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Compelling honesty

What is to be done?

What’s Normal Anyway?

Celebrities’ Own Stories of Mental Illness Anna Gekoski & Steve Broome To highlight the uniqueness of each individual’s experience of living with a mental health disorder, 10 celebrities with disorders from bipolar (Bill Oddie) and body dysmorphia (Alicia Douvall) through to depression (Alistair Campbell and Tasha Danvers) were interviewed.

There is a compelling honesty throughout the book, with each participant telling their own story in their own words. This does mean each chapter suffers from disjointed changes in tone and style, but cleverly highlights that even those

Inside the Ethics Committee: Treating Patients with Dementia BBC Radio 4 Thursday 31 July

suffering from the same disorders can experience them very differently. When their celebrity status is stripped away it is clear they are simply individuals suffering from an individual illness and dealing with it in their own unique way. What unites them however is the message that finding your own perspective and the right support and coping strategies at the right time will make all the difference.

What’ s Normal Anyway? may offer support to those recently diagnosed with a

mental health disorder by showing that anyone in society can be afflicted. There is much here also for those who wish to learn more about mental health disorders and to understand a diversity of current and relevant issues, such as the rising influence of medication and talking therapies, and the pervasiveness of discrimination and stigma.

I Constable; 2014; Pb £9.99 Reviewed by Josephine Perry who is an MSc psychology student, Kingston University

Inadvertent research Reverse Engineering Chinese Censorship Professor Gary King (podcast) I was introduced to the fascinating government research work of Harvard Professor Gary King at the ESRC Research Methods Festival at Cambridge in July; this podcast is a concise introduction to his work.

The current state of Chinese social media censorship is first outlined. 200,000 human censors across the 50,000 towns and cities of China read the posts of over 1000 Chinese social media sites within hours of their publication. If posts violate censoring rules, they are taken offline for investigation or removal. Although this procedure is public knowledge in China, what remained unclear was how the investigation or removal of posts was determined.

It was previously assumed that posts criticising government figures were censored. However, the detailed work of Professor King and colleagues has surprisingly found that this is not the case.

Posts identified as being censored were in fact those with ‘collective action potential’ (i.e. seeking to form a crowd). Censoring occurred whether these crowds aimed to protest against negative events, such as political corruption, or positive events, such as environmental funding.

So, what is the purpose of this censoring? Is there a set policy for censor enforcers or is it an emergent process they have developed? The true reason is not yet known. However, Professor King describes

how this format of censorship makes sense. If they were to censor all negative comments pertaining to the Chinese government, this would be very obvious and uncomfortable for the public. However, censoring collective action posts can help identify potential riots and crowds and reduce associated costs.

Especially interesting in this podcast is Professor King’s openness about his changing aims during this research. The initial goal was not to understand censorship processes. Instead his team planned to stress-test their automated text analysis systems on Chinese language social media. However, they instead found that by extracting millions of posts as they were written, they had inadvertently archived un-censored posts. When they tried to re-access posts via URLs, they found many had since been censored. This reflection of changing research aims and contexts is reassuring for researchers across the social sciences and beyond.

I heartily recommend this as well as the other National Centre for Research Methods podcasts (tinyurl.com/mvqmv5y) for providing concise introductions to novel social science methods and projects.

I Reviewed by Emma Norris who is a PhD student at University College London and Associate Editor (Reviews)

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Using the framing device of real-life cases, medical ethical dilemmas are discussed with an expert panel. This episode in series 10 comprised a cardiologist, a psychiatrist and an expert in medical law and ethics, led by presenter Joan Bakewell.

Discussion centred around the case of Jean, aged 92, and whether the battery should be changed in her pacemaker. Since it was fitted in her 80s, Jean developed dementia, making it impossible to ask Jean her wishes and making the routine procedure distressing for Jean and more complex.

One of the two key questions raised was regarding quality of life. James Beattie, cardiologist, stated that heart-failure patients often rate their quality of life higher than their relatives would. This was echoed by panel member and psychiatrist Liz Sampson with regard to patients in the early stages of dementia. Psychological interventions were mentioned as being able to connect even with late-stage dementia patients.

The other key question, and the main focus of the programme, was capacity. Lifeprolonging treatments are provided based on government guidelines, and care homes often provide flu jabs, but the issue was raised that flu may lead to pneumonia and a natural death. So who should make treatment decisions? Beattie commented that medical advances have made us less familiar with death, preventing necessary discussions and making healthcare decisions more problematic as patients’ wishes are often not known.

With life expectancies and degenerative diseases increasing, this programme highlighted areas that need to change.

Beattie felt that medical specialties were working in ‘silos’, and the panel suggested that more cross-department communication would help with treating patients, especially when hospital treatment is required. But patients themselves, in conjunction with healthcare providers, and potentially relatives, need to consider more forward planning as to when treatment should be provided and, crucially, when they would prefer it wasn’t.

This is clearly not an area of easy answers, but programmes like this are at least getting us to think about the questions.

I Reviewed by Louise Beaton who is an Open University psychology graduate

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Is Utopia out of reach?

Utopia Channel 4 It is easy to distract ourselves from the increasing pressure each individual places upon the earth – we are all far too busy preparing manuscripts or working with clients to save the world too! Utopia brings this into sharp focus, throwing a group of ‘everyday’ individuals in between an almost mythical comic-book that predicts negative future events, and a dangerous group trying to ‘save’ the earth by massively reducing the population. Intense in both storyline and visual presentation, Utopia is a masterclass in manipulation and motivation, exploring the consequences of our growing and consuming society.

A quirky and piercing soundtrack and over-saturated visual style help the transition between seemingly mundane events, cheeky humour and bold violence. Utopia is intensely atmospheric and will continually surprise with twists in plots, characters and tone.

As psychologists, we often like to statistically predict future events, but we have to question, are we doing enough to tackle some of the biggest questions threatening the continued existence of the human race? Start watching the first series, with its labyrinth of entwining plots, and you will feel uncomfortable, repulsed, but also amused and addicted, and end up asking: what lengths do we really need to (and can we) go to, to save the human race from ourselves?

just in

I Reviewed by Thomas Rhys Evans who is a PhD student and lecturer, Coventry University

Sample titles just in: The Experience of Thinking: How the Fluency of Mental Processes Influences Cognition and Behavior Christian Unkelbach & Rainer Greifeneder (Eds.) Depression, Emotion and the Self: Philosophical and Interdisciplinary Perspectives Matthew Ratcliffe & Achim Stephan Bayes’ Rule: A Tutorial Introduction to Bayesian Analysis James V. Stone DSM-5 Made Easy James Morrison The Trauma Therapies John Marzillier What About Me? The Struggle for Identity in a Market-based Society Paul Verhaeghe Perverse Psychology: The Pathologization of Sexual Violence and Transgenderism Jemma Tosh Parenting ASD Teens: A Guide to Making It Up As You Go Andrew Schlegelmilch For a full list of books available for review and information on reviewing for The Psychologist, see www.bps.org.uk/books Send books for potential review to The Psychologist, 48 Princess Road East, Leicester LE1 7DR

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A book you do The Writer’s Key: Introducing Creative Solutions for Life Gillie Bolton The first thing to say about this book is that it is not a book you read but a book you do.

Gillie Bolton has written an inspiring book to get people out of their heads by writing things down. Key writing is something that takes practice and there is not a one-sizefits-all method for everybody. However The Writer’s Key gives almost unlimited suggestions for how to get writing from the six-minute write to journaling, poetry, letters and even dreams.

There are many and varied real-life examples of how writing has helped people to tackle many of life’s problems as well to use it to develop their own wisdom. The books premise fits nicely with my own preferred approaches of working with clients using both narrative therapy and mindfulness approaches. The Writer’s Key combines the ideas that the stories we choose to focus on and tell about ourselves and the process of developing our awareness of the everyday can have significant therapeutic benefit.

This book asks you to take a leap of faith that writing, something we do every day without much thought, can actually change

your life. The first time I tried a six-minute write I was amazed at what came out and what didn’t! This is a book you could use for your own personal benefit but also for some inspiring exercises to do with clients of any age. The Writer’s Key is the latest in Gillie’s Writing for Therapy or Personal Development series.

I Jessica Kingsley; 2014; Pb £14.99 Reviewed by Jo Medway who is a clinical psychologist working with looked after children for Reading Borough Council and Berkshire Healthcare Foundation Trust

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Mixed perceptions The Valley of Astonishment Young Vic, London A play that cites the work of Oliver Sacks as its inspiration, and thanks Simon Baron-Cohen in the programme, promises to be of interest to psychologists.

Performed in English by the Théâtre des Bouffes du Nord from Paris, The Valley of Astonishment is written and directed by the theatre’s founder, Peter Brooks, and Marie-Helene Estienne. Brooks has long been fascinated by neurology: he first put Sacks’s work on stage in the early 90s in The Man Who (…mistook his wife for a hat). This puts him ahead of a recent trend of plays with psychological themes, such as Incognito (reviewed in July’s issue) and The Effect.

The play opens with Sammy, a journalist with a phenomenal memory, who is regarded with suspicion by her new boss. He sends her off for testing. She

explains to the doctors how she perceives spoken language as text, making what seems to be feats of memory no more challenging to her than reading aloud. They diagnose synaesthesia. In the blink of an eye Sammy loses her job and becomes a stage act, spouting phone numbers and feeling like a freak.

Her story is interwoven with another’s, a musician whose perception mixes colours and sounds. Two actual musicians accompany the actors, as if they were another character.

The intention is no doubt to give the audience the experience of synaesthesia, by using music in place of words, or colours and music together. But this is disappointing in its realisation.

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In addition, the tone of the play is uneven and the plot slightly incoherent. One scene involves audience members on stage participating in a card trick for reasons that remained a mystery, and why a photographic memory should be a handicap for a journalist is baffling.

Kathryn Hunter as Sammy is a commanding presence (despite her diminutive size), but

she is better than the material given to her. Yet the play has had rave reviews elsewhere, and many gave it a standing ovation this night. So perhaps it is all down to perception, after all.

I Reviewed by Kate Johnstone who is a postgraduate student at UCL. The Valley of Astonishment is on tour internationally until December 2014.

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LOOKING BACK

A brief history of psychedelic psychiatry Moheb Costandi considers attempts to use hallucinogenic drugs to treat alcoholism and mental disorder

n 5 May 1953 the novelist Aldous Huxley dissolved four-tenths of a gram of mescaline in a glass of water, drank it, then sat back and waited for the drug to take effect. Huxley consumed the drug in his California home under the direct supervision of psychiatrist Humphry Osmond, to whom Huxley had volunteered himself as ‘a willing and eager guinea pig’. Osmond was one of a small group of psychiatrists who pioneered the use of LSD as a treatment for alcoholism and various mental disorders in the early 1950s.

He coined the term psychedelic, meaning ‘mind manifesting’ and although his research into the therapeutic potential of LSD produced promising initial results, it was abruptly halted in the following decade as part of the backlash against the hippy counterculture.

Osmond was born in Surrey in 1917, and studied medicine at Guy’s Hospital, London. He served in the Royal Navy as a ship’s psychiatrist during World War II, and afterwards worked in the psychiatric unit at St George’s Hospital, London, where he became a senior registrar. While at St George’s, Osmond and his colleague John Smythies learned about Albert Hoffman’s synthesis of LSD at the Sandoz Pharmaceutical Company in Basle, Switzerland. Osmond and Smythies started their own investigation into the properties of hallucinogens and observed that mescaline produced effects similar to the symptoms of schizophrenia, and that its chemical structure was very similar to

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Dyck, E. (2006). ‘Hitting highs at rock bottom’: LSD treatment for alcoholism, 1950–1970. Social History of Medicine, 19, 313–329.

Dyer, C. (2002). NHS settles claim of patients treated with LSD. British Medical Journal, 324, 501.

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that of the hormone and neurotransmitter adrenaline. This led them to postulate that schizophrenia was caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain. These ideas were

Albert Hoffman synthesised LSD at the Sandoz Pharmaceutical Company in Basle, Switzerland

not favourably received by their colleagues.

In 1951 Osmond took a post as deputy director of psychiatry at the

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Weyburn Mental Hospital in Saskatchewan, Canada and moved there with his family. Within a year, he began collaborating on experiments using LSD with Albert Hoffer. Osmond conducted experiments on himself with LSD and concluded that the drug could produce profound changes in consciousness.

Osmond and Hoffer also recruited volunteers to take LSD and theorised that the drug was capable of inducing a new level of self-awareness that may have enormous therapeutic potential.

In 1953 they began giving LSD to their patients, starting with some of those diagnosed with alcoholism. Their first study involved two alcoholic patients, each of whom was given a single 200milligram dose of the drug. One of them stopped drinking immediately after the experiment, whereas the other stopped six months later. Several years later, a colleague named Colin Smith treated another 24 patients with LSD, and subsequently reported that 12 of them had either ‘improved’ or ‘well improved’ as a result of the treatment. ‘The impression was gained that the drugs are a useful adjunct to psychotherapy,’ Smith wrote in a 1958 paper describing the study. ‘The results appear sufficiently encouraging to merit more extensive, and preferably controlled, trials.’

Osmond and Hoffer were encouraged, and continued to administer the drug to alcoholics. By the end of the 1960s, they had treated approximately 2000 patients.

Osmond and Hoffer claimed that the Saskatchewan trials consistently produced the same results – their studies seemed to show that a single large dose of LSD could be an effective treatment for alcoholism, and reported that between 40 and 45 per cent of their patients given the drug had not experienced a relapse after a year.

At around the same time another psychiatrist was carrying out similar experiments in the UK. Ronald Sandison was born in Shetland and won a scholarship to study medicine at King’s College Hospital. In 1951 he accepted

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Sandison, R.A., Spencer, A.M. & Whitelaw J.D.A. (1954). The therapeutic value of lysergic acid diethylamide in mental illness. Journal of Mental. Science, 100, 491–507.

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Further studies of the therapeutic value of lysergic acid diethylamide in mental illness. Journal of Mental Science, 103, 332–343.

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Simmons, J.Q., Leiken, S.J., Lovaas, O.I. et al. (1966). Modification of autistic behavior with LSD-25. American

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late 1950s and early 1960s, and was a consultant’s post at Powick Hospital widely considered to be ‘the next big near Worcester, but upon taking the thing’ in psychiatry, which could position found the establishment to be supersede electroconvulsive therapy and overcrowded and decrepit, with patients psychosurgery. At one point, it was being subjected to electroshock treatment popular among Hollywood superstars, and lobotomies. Sandison introduced the such as Cary Grant. use of psychotherapy, and other forms of Two forms of LSD therapy became therapy involving art and music. In 1952 popular. One, called psychedelic therapy, he visited Switzerland where he also met was based on Osmond and Hoffer’s work, Albert Hoffman, and was introduced to and involved a single the idea of using LSD large dose of LSD in the clinic. He alongside psychotherapy. returned to the UK “The research soon came Osmond and Hoffer with 100 vials of the to an abrupt halt … mostly believed that drug – which Sandoz for political reasons” hallucinogens are had by then named beneficial therapeutically ‘Delysid’ – and, after because of their ability to discussing the matter make patients view their condition from with his colleagues, began treating a fresh perspective. The other, called patients with it (in addition to psycholytic therapy, was based on psychotherapy) towards the end of 1952.

Sandison’s regime of several smaller Sandison and his colleagues obtained doses, increasing in size, as an adjunct results similar to those of the to psychoanalysis. Sandison’s clinical Saskatchewan trials. In 1954 they observations led him to believe that LSD reported that ‘as a result of LSD therapy, can aid psychotherapy by inducing 14 patients recovered (av. of 10.4 dream-like hallucinations that reflected treatments)…1 was greatly improved the patient’s unconscious mind and (3 treatments), 6 were moderately enabling them to relive long-lost improved (av. of 2 treatments) and 2 not memories. improved (av. of 5 treatments).’

Between the years of 1950 and 1965, These results drew great interest from some 40,000 patients had been prescribed the international mass media, and as a one form of LSD therapy or another as result, Sandison opened the world’s first treatment for neurosis, schizophrenia and purpose-built LSD therapy clinic the psychopathy. It was even prescribed to following year. The unit, located on the children with autism. Research into the grounds of Powick Hospital, potential therapeutic effects of LSD and accommodated up to five patients who other hallucinogens had produced over could receive LSD therapy simultaneously.

1000 scientific papers and six Each was given their own room, equipped international conferences. But many of with a chair, sofa, and record player. these early studies weren’t particularly Patients also came together to discuss robust, lacking control groups, for their experiences in daily group sessions. example, and likely suffered from what (This all backfired later, however. In researchers call publication bias, whereby 2002 the National Health Service agreed negative data are excluded from the final to pay a total of £195,000 in an out-ofanalyses. court settlement to 43 former psychiatric Even so, the preliminary findings patients whom Sandison had treated.) seemed to warrant further research into Meanwhile in Canada Osmond’s form the therapeutic benefits of hallucinogenic of LSD therapy was endorsed by the codrugs. The research soon came to an founder of Alcoholics Anonymous and abrupt halt, however, mostly for political the director of Saskatchewan’s Bureau on reasons. In 1962 the US Congress passed Alcoholism. LSD therapy peaked in the

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Smart, R.G. & Storm, T. (1964). The efficacy of LSD in the treatment of alcoholism. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 25, 333–338.

Smith, C.M. (1958). A new adjunct to the treatment of alcoholism: The hallucinogenic drugs. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 19, 406–417.

Tanne, J.H. (2004). Humphrey Osmond.

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The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: Implications for the treatment of mood disorders. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11, 642–651.

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

new drug safety regulations, and the Food and Drug Administration designated LSD as an experimental drug and began to clamp down on research into its effects.

The following year, LSD hit the streets in the form of liquid soaked onto sugar cubes; its popularity grew quickly and the hippy counterculture was in full swing by the summer of 1967. During this period, LSD increasingly came to be viewed as a drug of abuse. It also became closely associated with student riots and anti-war demonstrations, and thus was outlawed by the US federal government in 1968.

Osmond and Hoffer responded to this new legislation by commenting that ‘it seems apt that there is now an outburst of resentment against some chemicals which can rapidly throw a man either into heaven or hell’. However, they also criticised the legislation, comparing it to the Victorian reaction to anaesthetics.

The 1990s saw a renewed interest in the neurobiological effects and therapeutic potential and hallucinogenic drugs. We now understand how many of them work at the molecular level, and several research groups have been performing brain-scanning experiments to try to learn more about how they exert their effects. A number of clinical trials are also being performed to test the potential benefits of psilocybin, ketamine and MDMA to patients with depression and various other mood disorders. Their use is still severely restricted, however, leading some to criticise drug laws, which they argue are preventing vital research.

Huxley believed that hallucinogenic drugs produce their characteristic effects by opening a ‘reducing valve’ in the brain that normally limits our perception, and some of the new research seems to confirm this. In 1963, when he was dying of cancer, Huxley famously asked his wife to inject him with LSD on his deathbed.

In this, too, it seems that he was prescient. Several small trials suggest that ketamine can effectively alleviate depression and anxiety in terminally ill cancer patients and, more recently, the first American study to use LSD in more than 40 years concluded that it, too, reduces anxiety in patients with lifethreatening diseases.

Eventually, allowing researchers to investigate these drugs could not only reveal their true therapeutic potential, but could also help them to gain a better understanding of how they produce their effects, and of how the brain works.

I Mo Costandi trained as a neuroscientist and now works as a freelance science writer mohebcostandi@gmail.com

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ONE ON ONE

… with Valerie Curran

‘Occasionally follow a hunch…’

One article or book all psychologists should read An essay written in 1946 by George Orwell called ‘Politics and the English language’.

Like politics, psychology can sometimes fall victim to its own jargon and conceptual confusions. This essay helps you to write well.

One inspiration Endel Tulving for putting semantics back into memory in the 1970s and for putting memory back into the future in the 2000s. His bow ties, linen suits and reflections on cat consciousness were awesome.

One moment that changed the course of your career My PhD and postdoc fellowship focused on the development of memory in 5- to 11-year-old children who spoke a tonal language (Yoruba). When my family and I returned from travelling in the Far East, my lovely friend Susan Golombok

coming soon

Valerie Curran is Professor of Psychopharmacology at University College London v.curran@ucl.ac.uk

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persuaded me to apply for a job at the Institute of Psychiatry researching an antidepressant drug. I had no interest whatsoever in drugs, but the two-day a week job fitted well with bringing up young children. My fascination with the neuropsychopharmacology of memory began then.

One proud moment Lots with each of my three daughters. Workwise, I gave evidence based on neuroscience and psychological research in a New York court on behalf of the American Civil Liberties Union versus the US Government. This resulted in a 60 per cent reduction in prison sentences for possessing Ecstasy.

One challenge you think psychology faces Because some of the drugs we work with are illegal, there are some complex restrictions on the research we can actually do. There are also challenges when trying to ensure that research evidence on different types of psychotropic drugs influences policy. Scheduling a drug as having no medical use without researching possible uses is a particular problem.

A special issue on autism, and much more...

I Contribute: reach 50,000 colleagues, with something to suit all. See www.thepsychologist.org.uk/contribute or talk to the editor, Dr Jon Sutton, on jon.sutton@bps.org.uk, +44 116 252 9573 I Comment: email the editor, the Leicester office, or tweet @psychmag.

I To advertise: Reach a large and professional audience at bargain rates: see details on inside front cover.

One nugget of advice for aspiring psychologists Occasionally follow a hunch and piggy-back a new idea (task, measure, context) on a well-planned experiment.

One cultural recommendation I loved both 1Q84 (Haruki Murakama) and Half a Yellow Sun (Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie).

whenever possible – too often drugs are given first and end up being given chronically.

One interesting anaesthetic Ketamine has been used medically for 50 years.

Psychologically it is not only a useful pharmacological model of psychotic symptoms but also a keyhole into treatmentresistant depression and

One alternative career path Something in the arts – hand-built ceramics has been my hobby for many years (see right for my work). I doubt that it would have earned me a living!

One heroine from psychology present Uta Frith – for her wisdom, humour and promotion of gender equality in science.

One plant that intrigues me Cannabis sativa has over 100 unique ingredients called cannabinoids, which are a potential treasure chest of future medicines.

One thing that organised psychology could do better It could stimulate more interaction with the arts, including theatre, sculpture and architecture.

One problem that psychology should deal with It is still the case that the vast majority of psychology undergraduates are women, but the majority of high-flying psychologists are men.

One hope for the future As both a clinical psychologist and a psychopharmacologist, I am interested in how psychological and pharmacological therapies might interact to be more or less than the sum of their individual parts. I would also like to see the first treatment offered to a newly presenting patient being psychological

chronic pain. Used recreationally in large doses, however, it is toxic.

One informative stimulant drug MDMA (Ecstasy) impacts upon social cognition at least in part by stimulating oxytocin release. It has a fascinating, potential synergy with psychological therapies.

One hero from psychology past Jean Piaget hugely influenced my early research.

One work satisfaction Working collaboratively in research teams and helping promote bright young scientists.

One influential student Of the many inspiring students I have been lucky enough to work with, Celia Morgan shines brilliantly!

More answers online at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

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september 2014

Professional Training in Clinical Paediatric Neuropsychology The UCL and Great Ormond Street Hospital paediatric neuropsychology training programme is now in its 8th year and is continuing to go from strength to strength. 2014 saw the programme deliver the 4th UK Paediatric Neuropsychology Symposium with over 500 delegates from 32 countries. Over the next year we will be developing a doctoral programme for psychology graduates and a practice-based CPD course for experienced practitioner psychologists.

To register an interest in either of these developments, view our free on-line lectures or to enrol on one of our seven short CPD/Taster courses listed below please visit our website.

Introduction to Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Professional Issues for Paediatric Neuropsychologists Development of Sensory, Motor and Cognitive Neural Systems

Developmental Disorders and Neuropsychological ProďŹ les Infant and Neurodevelopmental Assessment Assessment of Neuropsychological Disorders and their Functional Implications Advanced Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience

Programme Director: Dr. Peter Rankin

For Further Information: visit www.ucl.ac.uk/neuropsych or contact Amanda Kosinski, Telephone +44 (0)20 7905 2119 email: a.kosinski@ucl.ac.uk

Back by popular demand!

Dr Russ Harris returns to the UK in 2015 to deliver two highly acclaimed workshops - his best-selling ACT Made Simple workshop and, new to the UK, an intensive ACT Boot Camp.

Russ Harris presents ACT in a truly accessible style, seamlessly weaving together theoretical knowledge and practical application. His workshops are entertaining and inspiring, brimming with thoughtful experiential exercises presented with clarity and authenticity.

Two-day INTERMEDIATE level ACT Made Simple workshop Central London on 8th & 9th July

Boost your current practice with this extremely accessible popular 2-day workshop.

This INTERMEDIATE level workshop will cover case conceptualisation in both clinical and non-clinical al populations: how to conceptualise any client problem in terms of the ACT model, from clinical disorders ders such as depression, anxiety, addiction to non-clinical issues such as work stress, performance anxiety, y, fear of failure and low self-confidence. It also covers working with mandated or coerced clients; getting unstuck (for both clients and therapists); ‘selling ACT’ to your clients; getting to values when your client says ‘I don’t know’; overcoming resistance and motivating the unmotivated; anger and resentment; compassion and forgiveness.

This workshop is full of experiential exercises and shares fantastic tools for trans-diagnostic case conceptualisation, interrupting disruptive in-session behaviour, staying on track and using the model flexibly.

Registrants are required to have attended introductory level training.

Two-day ADVANCED level ACT BOOT CAMP Central London on 10th & 11th July

Take your ACT skills to the next level with this 2-day hands-on, skills-building “boot camp”.

In this 2-day intensive ‘hands-on’ workshop, you will get to play around with all sorts of useful tools, techniques and strategies, experiment with new ways of working, and discover for yourself just how creative, spontaneous, and adaptable ACT can be.

You’ll see plenty of live demonstrations, and participate in numerous innovative exercises. You will get to do numerous role-play activities in dyads and triads, and experiment with creating, modifying and adapting ACT techniques to suit your own personal style. This will be challenging, engaging, and lots of fun! In particular, you’ll be exposed

to brand new never-seen-before material from Russ’s forthcoming textbook, Sessions with IMPACT: Interpersonal Mindulness Skills in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. For example, you’ll learn how to use the four key IMPACT questions, and the ‘S.L.O.W’ technique to instigate, model and reinforce psychological flexibility throughout every session, and how to rapidly spot and target ‘The Four Horsemen of Fusion & Avoidance’ - Gating, Baiting, Skating and Stating.

So if you come prepared to apply yourself fully and leap in at the deep end, you will finish these two days with a big increase in your confidence about doing ACT. Registrants are required to have attended intermediate level training.

For more workshop information, rates and special discounts for booking both workshops, venue locations and how to register please see www.contextualconsulting.co.uk

Annual Conference 2015 5-7 May / ACC, Liverpool Note the change of dates Call for submissions now open

Themes Behaviour change; Culture and identity; Disaster, trauma and crisis; The social brain; General Here’s what previous delegates have said about attending our flagship event…

To participate in the British Psychological Society Annual Conference 2014 was the best thing I've done for my profession. I have gained considerable knowledge about psychology as an international student.

So, I would recommend it to all psychology students who wish to build a career on any divisions of psychology The BPS conference was excellent and exceeded my expectations.

The keynote talks were fascinating and the presentations provided lots of inspiration for my research. Thank you!

www.bps.org.uk/ac2015 ‘big picture’ pull-out www.thepsychologist.org.uk

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BIG PICTURE

www.thepsychologist.org.uk

A window to the soul Painting – ‘Judgement’ by Dominic Shepherd.

Words by Keith Laws (University of Hertfordshire).

Send your ideas for ‘Big picture’ to jon.sutton@bps.org.uk.

‘Take me, I am the drug; take me, I am hallucinogenic’, Salvador Dali famously said. Great artists transform our perceptions, sometimes with such immediacy and so deeply that the experience permanently alters us.

Hallucinogens, of course, are also powerful perceptual transformers, and myths about their possible role in artistic and even scientific creativity abound. Whether it is Nobel Prize winners like Kary Mullis claiming that he wouldn’t have discovered polymerase chain reaction without taking LSD (or talking to glowing raccoons in the Californian woods) or apocryphal stories of Francis Crick discovering DNA structure on LSD (or advocating directed panspermia), the notion that pharmacy aids creativity is a pervasive cultural meme.

Some argue that drugs provide a necessary biological kick.

Friedrich Nietzsche said: ‘For Art to exist, for any sort of aesthetic activity to exist, a certain physiological precondition is indispensable: intoxication.’ Others recognise the clear limitations: ‘I don’t think one can sit down and say, “I want to write a magnificent poem, and so I’m going to take [LSD]” (Aldous Huxley).

From the view of science, the role of hallucinogens in creativity is currently populated largely by apocryphal anecdote, uncontrolled experimentation, nonsignificant findings and curious case studies – and we are thus left to draw our own conclusions. Whether creativity may spring magically from chemical infusions, the creative process does depend upon an altered state of mind.

Perhaps alluded to by Dali, some art may act as a kind of hallucinogen-lite, drawing the drug-free, with partial insight, into unique world of artists.

This painting is titled ‘Judgement’, by Dominic Shepherd.

‘Here is a giant hallucinatory eye, a window to the soul manifest,’ Shepherd explains. ‘Within a circular frame there is no beginning or end, it is all present. Are the figures floating up or falling down?

Is it night or day? Where does this painting reality exist, in your mind or on the painted surface? The trip is something that takes you to meet your God, good or bad… your soul is left bare.

‘The hallucinatory, through counterculture, mystical and occult thought, is a tool of liberation from the compromises of the mass perceived. The vision, both utopian and dystopian, becomes, through figures such as Blake, Crowley or Lennon, a form of both personal and political change. Much contemporary radicalism was formed out of beliefs created during a psychedelic epiphany.’

One-day symposium

Stories of Psychology War and Its Legacy Wednesday 8 October 2014, 10.30am–4pm Chancellor’s Hall, Senate House, University of London Malet Street, London WC1E 7HU Professor Jamie Hacker Hughes (Anglia Ruskin University) From Myers to the MOD: 99 Years of British Military Psychology Professor Edgar Jones (Institute of Psychiatry) Shell Shock: The First World War and the Origins of Psychological Medicine Professor Michael Roper (University of Essex) Growing Up in the Aftermath: Childhood and Family Relationships Between the Wars Professor Sonu Shamdasani (University College London) C.G. Jung, 1914-1918: From the Great War to the War Within CONVENOR: Dr Alan Collins (Lancaster University) plus Andrea von Hohenthal (University of Freiburg, Germany) will make a short presentation of initial findings from her doctoral research on the development of psychology in Britain and Germany during the Great War

Cost: £15 including welcome refreshments and buffet lunch Registration is essential For more information and to register, go to www.bps.org.uk/stories History of Psychology Centre (t) 0116 252 9528 (e) hopc@bps.org.uk This event is supported by Senate House Library, home of the British Psychological Society’s library collection.

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vol 27 no 9

september 2014