Alfred (2021) Vol. 1. Ed. 10 by University of Winchester

ALFRED EDITION 10 | VOLUME 1 | SUMMER 2021

SU S ST P E SO A CI CI INA AL AL B IS JU ILIT SU ST Y E IC AN E D

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Page 57-70

Transformations: Changing Times, Environments, Cultures Susanne Berger MA Creative Writing

Page 71-76

Changes Susanne Berger MA Creative Writing

Page 77-92

A critical analysis of the portrayal of race and gender as depicted in Kathryn Stockett’s The Help Lucy Fitzsimmons BSc Geography

Prejudice as a Psychosocial Issue During the Coronavirus Pandemic Charlotte Cheatle BSc Psychology

Page 93-105

An Exploration into the Prevalence of Social Class Inequalities Within British Secondary Schools Liam McLoughlin BA Sociology

Critically addressing the reconciliation of the relationship between humans and nature using Næss and Krishnamurti Tanya Welton BA Education Studies

Page 106-118

Battling a crisis – primates of East Asia are calling for help! Dominika Cáriková BA Anthropology

Page 119-130

Our Island Story: Exploring the Political and Social Perspectives that Influence Cultural Inclusion in the History Curriculum Megan Willsher BEd Primary Education

Contents Page 4

Page 6-24

Page 25-33

Page 34-49

Page 50-56

Welcome from the Editors Cassie Shaw, Juliet Winter & Matt Elphick Child Poverty: The Damage to Attainment and Wellbeing Chiara Mauri BEd Primary Education

In what ways has National or Cultural Identity influenced the discipline of Archaeology in Europe? Elis Thomas BA Ancient Classical and Medieval Studies

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Page 131-145

Page 146-158

A Comparison of Representations of Mentally Ill Women in Popular Literature Written in the Seventeenth and Nineteenth Centuries Isabelle Hudson MA History

Page 199-211

Racial Discrimination in Education Angharad Williams BEd Primary Education

Page 212-219

The Representation of Female Characters in the Novel and OnScreen: Irene Adler in the BBC Adaptation of Sherlock Chloe Williams BA Creative Writing and English Literature

Sustainability in Sport: A Case Study of the United Nations’ ‘World’s Greenest Football Club’ Laura Churcher Page 220-227 BSc Sports Business and Management

Page 159-169

Vice and Virtue in London’s Gin Craze: Social Justice and Alcoholic Consumption in the Eighteenth Century Holly Marsden Postgraduate Research Student

Page 170-182

A Rationale for the Inclusion of Philosophy for Children (P4C) in the Primary Curriculum Katie Dix BEd Primary Education

Page 183-198

An Analysis of Nike Within the Context of Sustainable Development Phoebe Meades MSc Project Management

Page 228-238

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Page 239-249

‘Frankenchickens?’ The physical, ethical and environmental limit of genetic selection in intensively reared broiler chickens Sara Pettit MSc Animal Welfare Science, Ethics, and Law

Page 250-261

What can disasters reveal about social inequality and social injustice? Sean Burchett BA American Studies and History

Page 262-273

Why Write?: How Woolf and Beckett demonstrate literature’s power to challenge injustice within society and effect a revaluation of societal morals Zoe Coles BA Education Studies and English Literature

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Welcome from the editors Hello and welcome to the tenth edition, and a special issue, of Alfred, Winchester’s student journal. Alfred exists to showcase the exceptional work of students from all disciplines and levels of the university. We hope you find the contents as fascinating and engaging as we have. We were delighted to dedicate the journal this year to submissions exploring two of the institution’s key priorities, sustainability and social justice. We were open to submissions from all areas of critical debate that explore these two crucial areas of discourse and have been thrilled by the response of our students and the high number of submissions we have received. An impressive total of 54 submissions were individually reviewed by two of our editorial panel members to ensure the high standard of the journal is maintained. Reading all the submissions this year has been inspiring and thought-provoking and the editorial panel feel so privileged to have had the opportunity to read through the exciting diversity of research conducted by our students at Winchester. This special issue of the journal features papers which foreground the importance of education as a means through which change can be inspired and social structures can be reconsidered. The submissions explore animal welfare, climate change, race, gender, sexuality,

class and wellbeing, through a number of subjects which highlight social inequality. In addition, it features a powerful and moving creative piece with an accompanying research project concerning travelling communities and the environment. The intellectual and creative diversity of this year’s journal reflects our desire to continue to showcase the variety and scope of academic inquiry and excellence here at the University of Winchester. We hope that the featured works will offer insight and inspire discussion among our readership. This year is the sixth year in which the journal has been overseen by a staff-student editorial panel. We would like to thank Milan Vu, Alexandros Manolakakis, Amy Lorains, Andrea Camp, Bryony Warren, Chris Try, Hannah Money, Jennifer Osborne, Jess Zahra, Lydia Ferguson, Michael Alexander, Niamh Mahoney, Oliver Crenol, Reagon Alford, Lydia Ackrell, Tom Dowthwaite, Elliott Lelaure, Claire O’Brien, Jacqueline Barlow, Lewis Jones, Mark Baker, Laura Tanter, Ed Powell and Alexandra Sonu for all their hard work, reviewing submissions in order to help form this year’s journal. For those interested in publishing your work, or seeing your students’ work, published in the 2022 edition of Alfred, please get in touch at Alfred@winchester.ac.uk We hope you enjoy the journal. Cassie Lowe, Juliet Winter and Matt Elphick Co-editors of the Alfred Journal

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Child Poverty: The Damage to Attainment and Wellbeing Chiara Mauri BEd Primary Education Recent academic research shows that child poverty is increasing in the UK, resulting in a decline in education, health, and wellbeing (Wickham et al., 2016). The attainment gap between children classified as disadvantaged and their more affluent peers appears to be widening (Copeland, 2018). Engaging with current educational issues helps the teaching profession understand that these conditions have far-reaching implications for the wellbeing of children and their families in the wider community (The Children’s Society, 2017; Whitty and Anders, 2014), and that equalising children’s achievements and wellbeing is intrinsically linked to their life chances. This article will define and identify the current causes of poverty, discuss how poverty may effect pupil wellbeing and educational attainment, and critically analyse legislation, key policies and initiatives regarding child poverty with academic texts and news articles. The conclusion considers the implications child poverty will have on future teaching practice.

Child poverty is a multifaceted issue that encompasses a series of cause and effects (McKinney, 2014; Spicker, 2007). In the UK, socioeconomic stratification is leading to a growing disadvantaged section of society that does not have access to the same opportunities – material, economic and social – as other groups (Goepel et al., 2015; The European Anti-Poverty Network, 2013). While absolute poverty is often associated with extreme destitution (regular hunger and minimum levels of income for basic physiological functioning), unemployment or state dependency (Joyce, 2014; Fraser et al., 2011), 72 percent of families are in working poverty with at least one parent in employment (Child Poverty Action Group (CPAG), 2020; Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2019). Families affected by relative poverty are those whose earnings fall below 60 percent of the average household income; statistics show 4.2 million children came from families living below this breadline in 2018-19 (Department for Work and Pensions, 2020; Butler, 2020; CPAG, 2020). Moreover, child poverty is forecast to increase to 5.2 million by 2022 in the UK, worsened by low paid work, austerity reforms to the welfare system and

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coronavirus measures which may further exacerbate this projection (Butler, 2020; Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS), 2017; CPAG, 2020). Despite successive British governments’ attempts to equalise the population’s life chances, inequality and poverty continues to affect children’s educational attainment and wellbeing (House of Commons, 2018; Goepel et al., 2015). The Child Poverty Act (2010:9) highlighted areas of poverty within lowincome families and produced an accountability framework and strategies to ensure progress to targets were met by 2020. Hitting the targets are now off the agenda (UK Parliament, 2020) and the cost of child poverty is forecast to surpass £35 billion, to the detriment of children’s achievement and aspirations (Goepel et al., 2015; Wickham et al., 2016). The Social Mobility Commission (2020) reports a rise of 600,000 more children living in relative poverty since 2012 – the impact of COVID-19 is expected to push more families into poverty, including recipients for free school meals (FSM) (Tickle, 2020; IFS, 2017). Prime Minister Boris Johnson’s rebuttal that 400,000 fewer families are living in poverty than in 2010 was found to not be substantiated

by any data, highlighting this as a political issue (Penington, 2020). Rather than income inequalities, the UK Government suggest that troubled behaviours and a lack of motivation directly influence children’s attainment; the role of family background and quality of parenting are recognised as determining factors of child poverty (Simpson, 2013). However, Hirsch (2007) views that children’s educational prospects reflect the societal disadvantages of their families. The growing number of families housed in temporary accommodation due to a loss of secure employment impacted by the coronavirus highlights that inequalities are reflective of legislative shortcomings (Children’s Commissioner, 2020). Although Bregman’s (2017) notion of a basic income guarantee overcomes a scarcity mentality in impoverished adults, his thoughts remain relevant as this venture capital would enable parents to invest in their children, providing a means in which attainment can be improved. Butler (2020) evidences a rise in child poverty, forecasting UK destitution rates to have doubled during Christmas alongside an unprecedented demand for food banks. The Trussell Trust (2020)

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reported an 89 percent increase in need for emergency food parcels in April 2020, including a 107 percent rise in parcels given to children, illustrating the devastating effects the coronavirus has had on low-income families. Paskins (2020) cites that more initiatives need to be implemented after Marcus Rashford’s successful campaign to extend FSM over the summer break. The prevalence of food banks suggests schools are regular food sources for disadvantaged children eligible for FSM during term-time and protect entire low-income families from hunger in local communities (Department for Education (DfE), 2011). Research shows that many more families are facing destitution as a result of the coronavirus pandemic, as shown in figure 1 (Trussell Trust, 2020).

Figure 1 Number of three-day emergency food parcels given by Trussell Trust Foodbanks in 2019-2020 (Trussell Trust, 2020). Jensen et al. (2017) describe the association between malnourishment and poor neurocognitive development in disadvantaged children living in highincome countries. Deficiencies can result in impaired immune systems, increasing the risk and duration of infections which, in turn, contributes to poor cognitive outcomes in motor development, school attendance and performance (Jensen et al., 2017). Research associating food insufficiency, inadequate housing conditions and poor water supplies in developed countries with poorer cognitive, psychosocial, and academic development further substantiates this (Golley et al., 2010). Teaching unions suggest this educational inequality is the consequence of factors preventing social mobility alongside inadequate school funding (National Education Union (NEU), 2019; Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2019). However, extended services such as breakfast clubs are a targeted strategy to tackle poverty associated with under-performing (Lambie-Mumford and Sims, 2018;

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Jenkins et al., 2015; Rea and Hill, 2011). Breakfast clubs reflect an improved readiness to learn and concentration in lessons. This initiative enables fulfilment of Teachers’ Standard 1 – part of the Government’s minimum requirements for teaching practice and conduct – as a means of stretching and challenging pupils of all backgrounds (DfE, 2012) by increasing academic attainment by 2 months’ progress driven by better behaviour and concentration (Crawford et al., 2017). Despite school initiatives, association impacts of poverty mean that not all parents will utilise schemes to avoid feelings of shame (McNamara and McNicholl, 2016; Ridge, 2011, 2013; Skeggs and Loveday, 2012; Ivinson et al., 2017). A lack of integrating explanations from parents illustrates the need to frame reflective dialogue about school culture and practices around poverty (Raffo et al., 2007), alongside the importance of strong parental partnerships. The Pupil Premium Grant (PPG) was introduced in 2011 as a sum of money given to schools on a yearly basis to tackle the attainment gap of disadvantaged children in receipt of FSM (DfE, 2019a; O’Connell, 2017; Education

and Skills Funding Agency, 2019). Ofsted (2014) identified that the grant is commonly used to increase staffing and support the participation of disadvantaged children in extracurricular activities. While the Ofsted report claimed that the grants were making a positive difference in schools, it also identified ineffective use of performance data and funding spread across school budget shortcomings as problems in schools (Copeland, 2018). Despite the provision of the grant, research reveals an intractable high achievement gap remains between disadvantaged pupils and their more affluent peers by the age of five (Ofsted, 2013; Strand, 2014; Joyce, 2014; Field, 2010). Weale (2019) reports that the attainment gap marginally widened by 9.2 months in 2017. Government statistics further support this, highlighting only 47 percent of children receiving FSM (Pupil Premium) reached age-related expectations in reading, writing and maths at key stage two compared to 68 percent for all other pupils: a difference of 21 percentage points (DfE, 2019b). Not only was the disadvantage gap from those FSM children most concentrated in North West of England in 2018 (6 months

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behind by age 5) highlighting a geographic disparity, children from poorer backgrounds continue to remain 18 months behind their peers at the end of GCSEs (Education Policy Institute, 2019). This suggests an attainment disparity between disadvantaged children who grow up in poverty and their counterparts continues into secondary education and beyond. Improving academic attainment for children from poorer families, their life chances and wellbeing therefore remains at risk (McKinney, 2014; Reay, 2017). Goepel et al. (2015) acknowledge that a cycle of poverty and perpetuation of disadvantage occurs if parents themselves do not have a positive educational experience, are without qualifications, or live in struggling neighbourhoods (Ofsted, 2013). Poverty is amplified by a rhetoric of blame in society placed upon those who do not conventionally succeed in education or work (Goepel et al., 2015), as seen in figure 2.

Figure 2 The cycle of deprivation that can occur through educational poverty (Goepel et al., 2015). Children who are statistically more likely to fail can quickly become demotivated and subsequently see little value in their place in society (Archer and Francis, 2007). According to Bourdieu’s theory of cultural reproduction (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1990), children from lowerclass families struggle to succeed in the education system due to their lack of possession of cultural capital – familiarity with the dominant culture in society, and the ability to understand and use educated language. Savage et al. (2013) go on to suggest that class social structure judgements exist in education

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which contributes to the cycle of deprivation. However, Sullivan (2001) proposes a large effect of social class on attainment remains when cultural capital has been controlled. According to Bourdieu, the education system presupposes the possession of cultural capital and there is a great deal of inefficiency in transmission to disadvantaged children (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1990; Sullivan, 2001). This is because low-income pupils with a restricted code do not understand what their teachers are conveying in lessons, meaning the education system has a key role in maintaining the status quo and stagnating social mobility (West, 2007). Although, some lower-class pupils will succeed in education, exceeding agerelated expectations despite their pupil premium label. Conversely, research reveals a weaker than expected association between parental education and the home learning environment (Sylva et al., 2004). The NEA (2007) states that increased access to books in the home has a greater impact on a child’s achievement than their parent’s educational level. Irrespectively, households without books, a laptop or

tablet during the COVID-19 lockdown – some 700,000 children, according to the Children’s Commissioner (2020a) – are falling further behind than more affluent families. Evidence from the Education Endowment Foundation (2020) estimates that school closures could widen the attainment gap between disadvantaged children and their peers by as much as 75 percent. Disadvantaged children living in areas of high deprivation therefore face challenges, including poor language and communication skills, and a lack of confidence (Dimitra, 2011; Goodman and Gregg, 2010). Formby (2014) suggests children from high-income families generally have a more developed vocabulary due to increased reading and in-depth discussions about books with their parents at home. The notions of cultural capital and an elaborated code are relevant here (Bourdeiu and Passeron, 1990; West, 2007; Savage et al., 2013). Encouraging children’s emergent literacy through access to books and reading schemes (National Literacy Trust, 2015; Clark, 2016) in school and at home is therefore essential to developing language and improving social mobility for disadvantaged

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children, as seen in figure 3 (Melhuish, 2010).

Figure 3 The effect of social class and pre-school on the reading age of sevenyear-olds (Melhuish, 2010). Research has also found a strong correlation between socioeconomic status and high rates of mental health issues in children (Education and Health and Social Care Committee, 2018; Srivastava, 2011). Disadvantaged children are four times more likely to develop a mental health problem by the age of 11, such as anxiety and depression (Adelman and Taylor, 2010; Smyth and Wrigley, 2013; Thompson et al., 2016; Reay, 2001). Stigmatisation of poorer children through signs of material deprivation may lead to low self-esteem and wellbeing (Lister,

2015; McKendrick et al., 2011; Veiga, 2017). Although research has revealed that pupils felt less anxious during lockdown (Widnall et al., 2020) such findings may not be generalisable to primary-aged pupils as the survey was conducted on young teenagers, who may attribute school stress to examinations. Cefai and Camilleri’s (2015) longitudinal study concluded the best predictor of change in disadvantaged pupil’s behavioural and emotional difficulties is their positive relationships with peers and teachers, low level bullying at school, high selfesteem, self-efficacy and engagement in classroom activities. Although this study was based on a relatively small sample in Malta, which cautions its generalisability across English primary contexts, Marryat et al. (2017) similarly observed that children from deprived areas of Glasgow started school with a three-fold increase of mental health difficulties compared to their more affluent peers. Despite this research being undertaken in Glasgow, it remains representative as the questionnaires found positive school relationships as measures replicable to studies in English schools. Philosophy for Children (P4C) is a conflict resolution scheme which harnesses the skills needed to manage emotions and

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enhance social relationships, promotes children’s mental health, and reduces feelings of inadequacy (Siddiqui et al., 2019). This enshrines Teachers’ Standard 7 which enables a safe learning environment by teachers taking responsibility for good behaviour (DfE, 2012). Building emotional resilience through interventions equips children with strategies to help overcome socioeconomic disadvantage (Public Health England, 2015). Dweck’s (2017) growth mindset approach shares selfefficacy values in British schools; teachers should seek to actively praise pupils when they engage with errors and recognise children’s abilities within a learning curve. Researchers suggest that resilience is trainable, however, evidence highlights that it is nurtured which is perhaps the most significant finding for educators to facilitate mindful environments in school and at home (Srivastava, 2011). Schemes such as Place2Be invite all children to be conscious of their wellbeing and encourage a growth mindset, as part of children’s mental health curricula. Pearce (2011) found that teacher-modelling of resilience stretched children’s

boundaries of knowledge, boosted selfesteem, and granted ownership of children’s discoveries in Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development which can foster a resilient climate for future growth (Hooper, 2012; Srivastava, 2011). The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he/she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner (Holzman, 2009). A whole-school approach to wellbeing in an integrated school ethos through PSHE curriculums, core pedagogical principles modelled by staff and pastoral care is therefore advocated (Banjeree, et al., 2016; DfE, 2016). Access to training which identifies mental health difficulties, alongside a recognition of teachers’ own wellbeing, signifies a move from the medical model of health as social interventions are increasingly favoured (Lloyd, 2008). Strategies offering support to develop parenting skills run by trained practitioners (DfE, 2016) have been criticised by teachers’ unions (NEU, 2019) stating that schools should not be addressing mental health as they lack the appropriate training and funding, and that parents’ associative feelings of

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shame due to poverty negate this intervention (Gowers et al., 2004; McNamara and McNicholl, 2016; Ivinson et al., 2017). Nonetheless, Teachers’ Standard 8 highlights the need to communicate effectively with parents regarding pupils’ achievements and wellbeing, knowing when to draw on specialist support (DfE, 2012). Providing children with equal opportunities to succeed in education, and thereby as citizens in later life, is a significant challenge to both policy makers and education professionals (Hirsch, 2007). Understanding families’ experiences and the root causes of child poverty requires teachers to better interrogate the normative school culture of poverty (Pemberton et al., 2016). Curricula interwoven with wellbeing, initiatives that reflect the physical and mental health effects of societal inequalities, and an open dialogue with parents may tackle the stigma surrounding child poverty (Mazzoli Smith and Todd, 2019). Challenges as a result of a lack of resources, staff training and a rhetoric of cultural reproduction, including language focused on the material aspects of poverty, remain issues to be confronted in future practice (Dimitra, 2011). Greater awareness and a

more effective conceptualisation of how poverty and education interact, will aid policy and educators’ better understanding of how to remove these barriers to learning. References Adelman, H. S. and Taylor, L. (2010) Mental Health in Schools: Engaging Learners, Preventing Problems and Improving Schools. Thousand Oaks: Corwin. Archer, L. and Francis, B. (2007) Understanding Minority Ethnic Achievement. London: Routledge. Banerjee, R., McLaughlin, C., Cotney, J., Roberts, L. and Peereboom, C. (2016) Promoting Emotional Health, Wellbeing and Resilience in Primary Schools. Available at: http://ppiw.org.uk/files/2016/02/PPIW -Report-Promoting-Emotional-HealthWell-being-and-Resilience-in-PrimarySchools-Final.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2020]. Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J-C. (1990) Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. 2nd edn. London: Sage. Bregman, R. (2017) Poverty isn’t a lack of character; it’s a lack of cash. TED Talk.

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Available at: https://www.ted.com/talks/rutger_bre gman_poverty_isn_t_a_lack_of_characte r_it_s_a_lack_of_cash?language=en#t882026 [Accessed 23 September 2020]. Butler, P. (2020) UK faces child poverty crisis, says charities. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/ 2020/mar/26/uk-faces-child-povertycrisis-charities-warn [Accessed 6 October 2020]. Cefai, C. and Camilleri, L. (2015) A healthy start: promoting mental health and wellbeing in the early primary school years. Emotional & Behavioural Difficulties, 20, (2) 133-53. Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/8302 2584.pdf [Accessed 18 October 2020]. Child Poverty Act 2010, Chapter 9. Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/ 2010/9/pdfs/ukpga_20100009_en.pdf [Accessed 21 September 2020]. Child Poverty Action Group (2020a) Child Poverty Facts and Figures. Available at: https://cpag.org.uk/child-

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Golley, R., Baines, E., Bassett, P. and Wood, L. (2010) School lunch and learning behaviour in primary schools: An intervention study. European journal of clinical nutrition, 64 (11) 1280-1288. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publicati on/46108085_School_lunch_and_learni ng_behaviour_in_primary_schools_An_in tervention_study [Accessed 22 September 2020]. Goodman, A. and Gregg, P. (2010) Poorer children’s educational attainment: how important are attitudes and behaviour? Available at: https://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/default/fil es/jrf/migrated/files/poorer-childreneducation-full.pdf [Accessed 22 September 2020]. Hirsch, D. (2007) Chicken and Egg: Child poverty and educational inequalities. London: Child Poverty Action Group. Available at: http://www.donaldhirsch.com/chicken egg.pdf [Accessed 22 September 2020]. Holzman, L. (2009) Vygotsky at work and play. London: Routledge.

Hooper, J. (2012) What children need to be happy, confident and successful. London: Jessica Kingsley. House of Commons (2018) Poverty in the UK: Statistics. Briefing Paper No. 7096 (London, HMSO). Institute for Fiscal Studies (2017) Living standards, poverty and inequality in the UK: 2017-18 to 2021-22. Available at: https://www.ifs.org.uk/uploads/publica tions/comms/R136.pdf [Accessed 17 October 2020]. Ivinson, G., Beckett, L., Thompson, I., Wrigley, T., Egan, D., Leitch, R. (2017) The Research Commission on Poverty and Policy Advocacy: A report from one of the BERA Research Commissions. Final Report. Jenkins, K. T. et al. (2015) A crosssectional observational study of the nutritional intake of UK primary school children from deprived and nondeprived backgrounds: implications for school breakfast schemes. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition & Physical Activity, 12, 1–10. Jensen, S. K. G., Berens, A. E., Nelson, C. A. (2017) Effects of poverty on interacting biological systems underlying child

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development. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 1 (3), 225-239. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc e/article/pii/S235246421730024X/pdfft ?md5=dfd09a4ad70e71a76472b2d8ff03f 1b2&pid=1-s2.0-S235246421730024Xmain.pdf [Accessed 23 September 2020]. Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2019) Government not tackling injustice of poverty in the UK. Available at: https://www.jrf.org.uk/press/governme nt-not-tackling-injustice-poverty-uk [Accessed 29 September 2020]. Joyce, R. (2014) Child poverty in Britain: Recent trends and future prospects. IFS Working Paper. London, Institute for Fiscal Studies, 15 (7). Lambie, M. H. and Sims, L. (2018) “Feeding Hungry Children”: The Growth of Charitable Breakfast Clubs and Holiday Hunger Projects in the UK. Children & Society, 32 (3), 244–254. Lister, R. (2015) ‘To count for nothing’: Poverty beyond the statistics. Journal of the British Academy, 3, 139-165. Available at: https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/s

ites/default/files/05%20Lister%201817.p df [Accessed 2 October 2020]. Lloyd, C. (2008) Removing barriers to achievement: a strategy for inclusion or exclusion? International Journal of Inclusive Education, 12, (2), 221–236. Marryat, L., Thompson, L., Minnis, H. (2017) Primary schools and the amplification of social differences in child mental health: a population-based cohort study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 72 (1), 27-33. Available at: https://jech.bmj.com/content/jech/72 /1/27.full.pdf [Accessed 27 September 2020]. Mazzoli Smith, L. and Todd, L. (2019) Conceptualising poverty as a barrier to learning through Poverty proofing the school day: The genesis and impacts of stigmatisation. British Educational Research Journal, 45 (2), 356–371. McKendrick, J., Mooney, G., Dickie, J. and Kelly, P. (2011) eds. Poverty in Scotland 2011: Towards a More Equal Scotland? Poverty in Scotland. London: Child Poverty Action Group.

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McKinney, S. (2014) The relationship of child poverty to school education. Improving Schools, 17, (3), 203-216.

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McNamara, O. & McNicholl, J. (2016) Poverty discourses in teacher education: Understanding policies, effects and attitudes, Journal of Education for Teaching, 42(4), 374–377

Ofsted (2014) The Pupil Premium: An Update. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk /government/uploads/system/upload s/attachment_data/file/379205/The_2 0pupil_20premium_20_20an_20update.pdf [Accessed 21 September 2020].

Melhuish, E. (2010) Early Years Research and Policy. OECD. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/education/schoo l/48336307.pdf [Accessed 28 September 2020]. National Education Union (2019) Educate Sep/Oct 19. Available at: https://neu.org.uk/media/6401/downl oad [Accessed 25 September 2020]. National Literacy Trust (2015) Ready to Read: Closing the gap in early language skills so that every child in England can read well. Available at: https://readingagency.org.uk/news/Re ady%20to%20Read%20report%20Read% 20On%20Get%20On.pdf [Accessed 26 September 2020]. O’Connell, S. (2017) Pupil Premium: A gap that’s proving hard to shift. Available at: http://www.headteacherupdate.com/best-practice-

Paskins, D. (2020) Building on Marcus Rashford’s Campaign to Offer a Lifeline for Children. Save the Children. Available at: https://www.savethechildren.org.uk/bl ogs/2020/marcus-rashford-freeschool-meals-campaign-lifeline [Accessed 21 September 2020]. Pearce, C. (2011) A short introduction to promoting resilience in children. London: Jessica Kingsley. Pemberton, S., Fahmy, E., Sutton, E. and Bell, K. (2016) Navigating the stigmatised identities of poverty in austere times: Resisting and responding to narratives of personal failure, Critical Social Policy, 36(1), 21–37.

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Penington, E. (2020) Fact checking claims about child poverty. Available at: https://www.childrenscommissioner.go v.uk/2020/06/22/fact-checkingclaims-about-child-poverty/ [Accessed 22 September 2020]. Public Health England (2015) Promoting children and young people’s emotional health and wellbeing: A whole school and college approach. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk /government/uploads/system/upload s/attachment_data/file/414908/Final_E HWB_draft_20_03_15.pdf [Accessed 29 September 2020]. Raffo, C., Dyson, A., Gunter, H., Hall, D., Jones, L. and Kalambouka, A. (2007) Education and poverty: A critical review of theory, policy and practice. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Rea, S. and Hill, R. (2011) Does School-toSchool Support close the gap? National College for School Leadership. Available at: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/ 5ce55a5ad4c5c500016855ee/t/5d1cdc d2dc395700012242ab/1562172632294/s ystem-leadership-does-school-to-

school-support-close-the-gap.pdf [Accessed 29 September 2020]. Reay, D. (2001) Finding or losing yourself: Working-class relationships to education. Journal of Educational Policy, 16(4), 333–346. Reay, D. (2017) Miseducation: inequality, education and the working classes. Bristol: Policy Press. Ridge, T. (2011) The everyday costs of poverty in childhood: A review of qualitative research exploring the lives and experiences of low-income children in the UK, Children and Society, 25 (1), 73– 84. Ridge, T. (2013) ‘We are all in this together?’ The hidden costs of poverty, recession and austerity policies on Britain’s poorest children. Children & Society, 27 (5), 406-417. Savage, M., Devine, F., Cunningham, N., Taylor, M., Li, Y., Hjelbrekke, J. (2013 ) A New Model of Social Class? Findings from the BBC’s Great British Class Survey Experiment. Sociology, 47 (2), 219– 250.

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Siddiqui, N., Gorard, S. and See, B. H. (2019). Can programmes like Philosophy for Children help schools to look beyond academic attainment?. Educational Review 71 (2), 146-165. Simpson, D. (2013) Remediating child poverty via preschool: exploring practitioners’ perspectives in England. International Journal of Early Years Education, 21 (1), 85-96. Skeggs, B. and Loveday, V. (2012) Struggles for value: Value practices, injustice, judgment, affect and the idea of class, The British Journal of Sociology, 63 (3), 472–490. Smyth, J. and Wrigley, T. (2013) Living on the edge: Rethinking poverty, class and schooling. Adolescent cultures, school and society (61), New York: Peter Lang. Social Mobility Commission (2020) Monitoring social mobility 2013 to 2020. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk /government/uploads/system/upload s/attachment_data/file/891155/Monitor ing_report_2013-2020_-Web_version.pdf [Accessed 22 September 2020].

Spicker, P. (2007) The idea of poverty. Bristol: Policy Press. Srivastava, K. (2011) Positive mental health and its relationship with resilience. Industrial psychiatry journal, 20 (2), 75–76. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti cles/PMC3530291/ [Accessed 19 October 2020]. Strand, S. (2014) School effects and ethnic, gender and socio-economic gaps in educational achievement at age 11. Oxford Review of Education, 40(2), 223–245. Sullivan, A. (2001) Cultural Capital and Educational Attainment. Sociology, 35 (4), 893-912. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.11 77/0038038501035004006 [Accessed 1 October 2020]. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E. C., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., and Taggart, B. (2004) The effective provision of pre-school education project: Technical paper 12 – The final report: Effective preschool education. London, UK: Institute of Education, University of London. The Children’s Society (2017) Overwhelming problems: the impact of

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poverty. Available at: https://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/sit es/default/files/overwhelmingproblems-the-impact-of-debt-andfinancial-difficulties-on-children.pdf [Accessed 22 September 2020]. The European Anti-Poverty Network (2013) Poverty: What is it? Available at: https://www.eapn.eu/what-ispoverty/poverty-what-is-it/ [Accessed 26 September 2020]. Thompson, I., McNicholl, J. and Menter, I. (2016) Student teachers’ perceptions of poverty and educational achievement, Oxford Review of Education, 42(2), 214– 229. Tickle, L. (2020) Coronavirus puts vulnerable UK children at greater risk, campaigners warn. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/ 2020/mar/25/coronavirus-putsvulnerable-uk-children-greater-riskcampaigners-warn [Accessed 26 September 2020]. Trussell Trust (2020) End of Year Stats – the Trussell Trust. Available at: https://www.trusselltrust.org/news-

and-blog/latest-stats/end-year-stats/ [Accessed 6 October 2020]. UK Parliament (2020) Child poverty: 2020 vision? London: UK Parliament. Veiga, C. G. (2017) Poor Children as an Outsider Group and their Schooling. Educação e Realidade, 42 (4), 1239–1256. Weale, S. (2019) Attainment gap widens for disadvantaged GCSE pupils, study finds. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/educatio n/2019/jul/30/attainment-gap-widensdisadvantaged-gcse-pupils-study [Accessed 27 September 2020]. West, A. (2007) Poverty and educational achievement: why do children from lowincome families tend to do less well at school? Benefits: the Journal of Poverty and Social Justice, 15 (3), 283-297. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publicati on/228363029_Poverty_and_educationa l_achievement_why_do_children_from_l owincome_families_tend_to_do_less_well_ at_school [Accessed 17 October 2020].

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Whitty, G. and Anders, J. (2014) (How) did New Labour narrow the achievement and participation gap? Centre for Learning and Life Chances in Knowledge, Economies and Societies, 46, 1-52. Published by University of London. Available at: http://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/dps/case/spcc /RN08GWJA.pdf [Accessed 28 September 2020]. Wickham, S., Anwar, E., Barr, B., Law, C., Taylor-Robinson, D. (2016) Poverty and child health in the UK: using evidence for action. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 101 (8), 759-766. Available at: https://adc.bmj.com/content/archdisc hild/101/8/759.full.pdf [Accessed 27 September 2020]. Widnall, E., Winstone, L., Mars, B., Haworth, C. and Kidger, J. (2020) Young People’s Mental Health during the COVID19 Pandemic: Initial findings from a secondary school survey study in South West England. NIHR: School for Public Health Research. Available at: https://sphr.nihr.ac.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2020/08/YoungPeoples-Mental-Health-during-theCOVID-19-Pandemic-Report.pdf [Accessed 20 October 2020].

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A critical analysis of the portrayal of race and gender as depicted in Kathryn Stockett’s The Help Lucy Fitzsimmons BSc Geography Kathryn Stockett’s debut novel, titled The Help (2009), explores the living realities of African American maids working for southern white American households in the early 1960s. Through adopting a firstperson narrative, Stockett details the lives of three women- Aibileen Clark, Minny Jackson and Eugenia ‘Skeeter’ Phelan- living in Jackson, Mississippi, during the Jim Crow era, a period of profound de jure racial segregation in the American South. The novel’s focus on the fictional lives of African American maids is depicted against a broader civil rights movement background, punctuated with real-life events. This essay seeks to critically analyse Stockett’s portrayal of race and gender in the highly segregated setting of The Help. Through demonstrating the inherent connections between these themes, Stockett engages with the concept of intersectionality, denoting the intersecting and overlapping social identities of an individual which combine

to create different modes of discrimination or privilege. Despite reaching a global audience and spending two years on the New York Times bestseller list, The Help’s reception amongst readers was significantly divided (Jones, 2014). The novel received extensive criticism for its simplistic examination of complex topics, a critique which stems from the broader literary dissatisfaction with whiteauthored narratives of black lives. This essay will therefore discuss the novel’s primary critiques, centred around Stockett’s oversimplified representation of black lives, narrative authenticity and the persistence of the white saviour complex in contemporary literature. For many, The Help is a story of race, highlighting the profound racial divisions which segregated the American South prior to the civil rights reform. The novel is set during the Jim Crow era (1881-1964), a dominating but not exclusively southern dynamic in which a series of segregation laws actively worked to preserve white supremacy through forcing black and white citizens to occupy separate public facilities (Berrey, 2015). These legal divides were further embedded through social and

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behavioural codes, or de facto segregation, which reinforced and normalised the biracial society (Tischauser, 2012). Through her depiction of the character Mae Mobley, a young white child, Stockett exemplifies the way in which racist beliefs and prejudices develop over time as the individual becomes increasingly influenced by societal norms. Mae Mobley is the daughter of Miss Leefolt, a middle-class white woman who employs Aibileen Clark, an African American maid, as the household ‘help’. As Stockett accurately depicts, it was often the responsibility of African American maids to raise their white employer’s children, a task which enables Aibileen to form an intimate relationship with Mae Mobley. Through her experience of raising white children, Aibileen recognises that they are not inherently racist and that up to a point, children are ‘colour-blind’ to racial differences. Aibileen fears that as Mae Mobley grows up in a racist home and becomes increasingly exposed to society’s racial prejudices, she will inevitably come to perpetuate the same beliefs. Aibileen states: I want to yell so loud that Baby Girl can hear me that dirty ain't a color,

disease ain't the negro side of town. I want to stop that moment from coming – and it come in every white child's life – when they start to think that colored folks are not as good as whites. (Stockett, 2009, p.112) Through demonstrating Mae Mobley’s innocence to racial differences, Stockett emphasises society’s role in creating a racist mindset (Szulkowska, 2017). Aibileen’s concern that Mae Mobley will not only see people for their race but treat them differently, reflects the way in which African Americans were treated as second class citizens. The pervasive deep-rooted prejudices of Jackson during this period, created a viscous cycle whereby prevailing racist attitudes and behaviours were enforced onto the next generation. Throughout The Help overt racism manifests itself in assumptions of racial superiority by white characters, who through promoting their discriminatory beliefs, work to retain the subordinate societal position of African Americans (Szulkowska, 2017). The omnipresence of overt racism in Jackson’s prejudice community demonstrates the inherent legacy of slavery despite its abolishment

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in the 13th amendment to the constitution in 1865, almost a century before the novel was set (Maltz, 1990). Stockett illustrates the pervasive nature of overt racism through the character of Hilly Hollbrook and her repeated attempts to pass the ‘Home Help Sanitation Initiative’ bill. As a white, middle-class woman, Hilly is a well-respected member of white society, who throughout the novel, supports and seeks to maintain the mistreatment of African Americans in Jackson (Maurilla, 2015). Marketed as a disease-preventive measure, Hilly’s initiative proposes that every white household in Mississippi should, by law, have a separate toilet for their African American maids. After discovering a Jim Crow leaflet in the library, Skeeter Phelan, a highly educated white woman, and close friend of Hilly’s, has the sudden realisation that Jim Crow, and Hilly’s initiative, are mutually driven by the motive of maintaining racial segregation, despite working at different levels: ‘I realize, like a shell cracking open in my head, there’s no difference between these government laws and Hilly building Aibileen a bathroom in the garage, except

ten minutes’ worth of signatures in the state capital.’ (Stockett, 2009, p.92) Through this example, Stockett portrays Skeeter, and the wider white community, as naïve to the severity of racial segregation, whereby mistreatment of black citizens is so deeply embedded that daily discriminatory acts practically occurred subconsciously to their knowledge (Griffin, 2015). However, the depiction of white society’s racist attitudes as simply a result of ignorance is problematic as it misrepresents the active role white people knowingly assumed in subordinating African Americans. This is embedded further through the novels repeated mischaracterisation of racism as racial prejudice, concealing the deep-rooted institutional policies and practices which continue to oppress minority racial and ethnic societal groups today. Stockett’s portrayal of separate toilets as the most prominent racial issue during the 1960s, as opposed to voting or educational rights, arguably downplayed the everyday impact of Jim Crow segregation on African Americans (Jones, 2014). In this way, the novel presents

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white desire for segregation as a female fetish as opposed to a set of laws intended to concentrate power amongst elite white men. As such, The Help was critiqued for inaccurately perpetuating an idyllic image of the South, minimally impacted by segregation and racism. Whilst many African American readers praised the novel for exposing the hardships of black domestics, others, including Nzegwu (2011), argue Stockett’s characters present a stereotypical and simplistic representation of black life, insulting to the historical cultural plight of African American women (Reyes, 2015). The fundamental argument, as Szulkowska (2017) describes, is that The Help depicts racism as a personal issue, not a political one, that can be resolved through interracial communication as opposed to fundamental power redistribution. Many of these critiques stem from a broader literary dissatisfaction with white-authored narratives detailing black racial experiences of Americas race relations (Garcia et al., 2014). Amongst various issues associated with racial ventriloquism is the concern that these narratives perpetuate whiteness, with authors criticised for denying and usurping black people’s agency over

their own experiences (Jones, 2014). Nevertheless, as Maslin (2009) argues, The Help illustrates the importance of telling one’s own story; whilst Stockett’s perspective on life as an African American maid during the 1960s may differ from that of an insider with direct experience, it is not necessarily wrong. Focused on the lives of female characters, both white and black, The Help provides an astute understanding and respect for the gendered historical past. With several gender-focused imperatives originating from real-life events, the novel continues to invoke critical and emotional responses amongst readers (Reyes, 2015). Through depicting women’s lives, The Help illustrates how the home, a traditionally feminine space, was equally as much an arena for social change as the protests and courtrooms of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement (Arsenault, 2006). Throughout the novel, the gender of white characters often influences their treatment of African Americans and the ways in which they demonstrate racial superiority. The assassination of civil rights activist Medgar Evers, captured in the background of the novel, illustrates the tendency of white males to commonly resort to violence to silence black

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citizens who campaigned for racial justice. Stockett’s focus, however, is on white women and their use of social influence as a subtle means of retaining the subordinate position of African Americans, whilst still yielding similar destructive consequences. As Aibileen describes, crossing a white woman as an African American, had the potential to ruin your life: Womens, they ain’t like men. A woman ain’t gone beat you with a stick. Miss Hilly wouldn’t pull no pistol on me. Miss Leefolt wouldn’t come burn my house down. No, white womens like to keep they hands clean. They got a shiny little set a tools they use, sharp as witches’ fingernails, tidy and laid out neat, like the picks on a dentist tray. They gone take they time with em. (Stockett, 2009, p.187) According to Aibileen, through using social influence as opposed to direct violence, white women were able to keep their hands clean. Furthermore, as demonstrated by Miss Hilly sacking her maid Minny, white women rarely forgave

or forgot the misconduct of their maids. In this way, it prolonged the terror experienced by African American maids, emphasising the extent of control and power white women possessed (Andrews, 2004). Due to the focus on women and the home, critiques emerged over the absence and sanitation of the violent civil rights movement (Jones, 2014). However, in truth, as Stockett demonstrates, terror and violence were far from limited to assassinations and political protests, with both featuring heavily in white homes. Deeply embedded gender stereotypes and social norms significantly dictated women’s everyday lives in 1960’s society. Stockett highlights this through the characters of Skeeter, Hilly Holbrook, and Elaine Stein, who possess different perspectives on the female’s role in society and conforming to socially constructed gender norms. Skeeter’s character is repeatedly exposed to the double standards white women faced in the South during the 1960s. The embedded sexist culture dictated that women belonged in the home and were expected to marry and have children as soon as possible, while white men were free to discover their

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interests in the workforce. The pressure to conform to society’s sexist conventions is illustrated through Skeeter’s conversation with Stuart Whitworth, where she reveals her plan to voice the stories of African American maids, exposing the racial prejudices of the southern home: ‘’…Things are fine around here. Why would you want to go stirring up trouble?” I can tell, in his voice, he sincerely wants an answer from me. But how to explain it? He is a good man, Stuart. As much as I know that what I’ve done is right, I can still understand his confusion and doubt. “I’m not making trouble, Stuart. The trouble is already here.” (Stockett, 2009, p.382) In this conversation, Stuarts presents a sense of naivety to the destructive nature of Jackson’s persistent racist and sexist conventions. From his perspective, Skeeter pursuing a writing career and exposing the racial prejudices of Jackson creates unnecessary problems by intentionally rebelling against the approved social

norms for a woman. Despite the overwhelming pressure enforced on Skeeter by not only Stuart Whitworth, but also her socialite friends and mother, Skeeter accepts the offer to work for a New York publisher. Elaine Stein, an established editor, willingly helps Skeeter obtain this job offer, as she recognises the importance of having a female connection in a heavily maledominated industry. Stockett portrays a degree of feminism in Skeeter as her discontentment with the myth of femininity she is expected to live fuels her rejection of the Jackson community and the sexist conventions dictating her place in society (Azizmohammadi, 2017). Elaine Stein’s high-powered career provides Skeeter with an idyllic model of an alternative lifestyle beyond the proscribed route of becoming a Southern wife and mother. Revealing the way in which sexism interlocks with racism to oppress African American women, The Help engages with intersectionality, a concept underpinned by the notion that various forms of inequality often operate simultaneously and exacerbate each other (McCall, 2005). Rather than existing independently, Stockett acknowledges that race and gender are intimately

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linked, converging to create complex overlapping systems of oppression. However, the novel was critiqued for perpetuating the white saviour complex, depicting a white character as the heroic saviour of helpless black people in an attempt to redeem the tarnished reputation of white racists. Whilst critical readers may view The Help as a story of a white women advancing herself through exploiting the stories of African American maids, Rountree (2013) argues the story emphasises women’s solidarity, often crossing racial boundaries, in a male-dominated society. For Skeeter, telling the stories of African American maids, whilst simultaneously promoting a sense of unity amongst women irrespective of race, was key: ‘Wasn’t that the point of the book? For women to realize, we are just two people. Not that much separates us. Not nearly as much as I’d thought.’ (Stockett, 2009, p.418) At the end of the novel, Skeeter realises that she has underestimated the many women who shared their stories. Stockett uses this quote to depict her central

message of The Help, emphasising the importance and ability of gender solidarity, particularly amongst women, to form beyond racial boundaries, a theme which remains prevalent in contemporary society. In conclusion, this essay has critically analysed Stockett’s portrayal of the inseparable themes of race and gender in The Help. Set in the Jim Crow era, the novel illustrates how matters of racial segregation, gender, social class and the complex legacies of plantation slavery in the late 1960’s interacted with daily lives of Mississippians. Demonstrating an appreciation of the multiple sources of oppression and the complexity of prejudices experienced by African American maids, Stockett details the everyday hardships of attempting to live with respect and dignity during an era of profound racial prejudice in southern US history. These women, marginalised through both the sexist and racist conventions, were treated as an inferior part of the human race. In this way, The Help illustrates a key pillar of feminism, the idea of women speaking their truth as a path to social change. However, as a white-authored narrative, The Help’s depiction of race in particular,

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received extensive criticism for perpetuating a simplistic and stereotypical representation of black lives during an age which in reality, was far from simple. Critics argue that the novel is not about the struggles of African Americans, but rather white women displacing responsibility and redeeming their damaged reputation for the various forms of structural inequality and exploitation that originally made black women inferior. Despite its divided reception, The Help achieved overwhelming global success, posing numerous questions as to why stories of black women serving white women continue to captivate post-Obama America. Could the novel’s success and resonance in the 21st century be a sign of our own contemporary racial crisis? References Arsenault, R. (2006). Freedom riders: 1961 and the struggle for racial justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Azizmohammadi, F. (2017). A study of Kathryn Stockett’s the help from Patricia hill Collins’ view: A black feminist study. International Journal of Humanities and Social Development Research, 1(1), pp.1929.

Berrey, S.A. (2015). The Jim Crow routine: Everyday performances of race, civil rights, and segregation in Mississippi. UNC Press Books. Garcia, C., Young, V. and Pimentel, C. (2014). From Uncle Tom’s Cabin to The Help: Critical perspectives on WhiteAuthored Narratives of Black Life. 1st ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp.1-15. Griffin, R. (2015). Problematic Representations of Strategic Whiteness and “Post-racial” Pedagogy: A Critical Intercultural Reading of The Help. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 8(2), pp.147-166. Jones, S.W., (2014). The divided reception of The Help. Southern Cultures, 20(1), pp.7-25. Andrews, K. (2004). Freedom Is a Constant Struggle. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Maltz, E.M. (1990). Civil rights, the Constitution, and Congress. University Press of Kansas, pp.1863-1869

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Maslin, J. (2009). Racial Insults and Quiet Bravery in 1960s Mississippi. The New York Times. [online] Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/19 /books/19masl.html [Accessed 2 Dec. 2019]. Maurilla, A.P. (2015) Racial Discrimination in Kathryn Stockett’s ‘The Help’. Lexicon, 4(1). McCall, L. (2005). The complexity of intersectionality. Signs: Journal of women in culture and society, 30(3), pp.17711800. Nzegwu, N. (2011). Editorial: Issues of our time on The Help. JENdA: A Journal of Culture and African Women Studies. Reyes, A. (2015). An Epic Migration: African American Women, Representation, Mid/Guided Identities and Kathryn Stockett’s The Help. In: M. Romero-Ruiz and S. Castro-Borrego, ed., Identities on the Move: Contemporary Representations of New Sexualities and Gender Identities. Lexington Books, pp.207-226.

Rountree, S. (2013). Poop, Pie, & Politics in The Help: Rescuing the (Literary) Body from Political Obsolescence. A Journal of Literary Studies and Linguistics, (2), pp.59-71. Stockett, K. (2009). The Help. Penguin. Szulkowska, A. (2017). The problem of racism in Kathryn Stockett’s novel 'The Help'. Crossroads. A Journal of English Studies, 1(16), pp.41-53 Tischauser, L. (2012). Jim Crow Laws. California: ABC-CLIO, pp.6-15.

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An Exploration into the Prevalence of Social Class Inequalities Within British Secondary Schools Liam McLoughlin BA Sociology Introduction Social class inequality refers to the disparity between those from superior socioeconomic (middle class) backgrounds and inferior socioeconomic (working-class) backgrounds. This paper will explore social class inequalities in the United Kingdom (UK) to determine their prevalence within the secondary education system. Secondary education in the UK is defined as the schooling that one receives from 11 to 16-years-old. The data and research used within this report primarily concerns the UK. However, some research regarding the UK was unavailable for this report, hence, some data only focuses on England or England and Wales; this also exhibits a limitation of using secondary data in social research. Furthermore, neoliberalism favours free-market capitalism1 and deregulation, moreover, neoliberal discourse promotes and reproduces

neoliberal ideology (Holborow, 2012: 14). This report commences in 1979 with the emergence of neoliberal discourse which underpinned much of the education policies of the Conservative administration under Margaret Thatcher. It will investigate legislation such as the Education Reform Act 1988 to determine whether this contributed towards social class inequalities in British secondary schools. Following this, education reform: under New Labour (the Labour government in office from 1997-2010), and the Conservative government (2015 onwards) will be examined to decipher its effectiveness on reducing social class inequalities in the UK. Figures on GCSE results since its implementation in 1988 will be scrutinised up to 2018 to determine the success of GCSE qualifications in raising educational standards. Regional educational inequalities in England will be explored in relation to the North-South divide in England; this will allow these social inequalities to be contrasted to social class inequalities. Subsequently, statistics concerning gender and race will be analysed alongside social class

Capitalism is a political system that is privately controlled by a country, and a central component within neoliberal ideology. 1

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inequalities. An intersectional approach will be employed to determine the ways in which an amalgam of social identities impact upon the treatment of marginalised social groups in society, and thus their experience in the British secondary education system. The previously mentioned social inequalities will help to discern the presence of social class inequalities in the secondary education system in the United Kingdom. 1. Education Policies in the United Kingdom (1979-Present) 1.1 The Emergence of Neoliberal Discourse Within the British Education System Neoliberal discourse rose to prominence within the secondary education system in the United Kingdom, following the 1979 General Election victory of the Conservative Party wherein the Prime Minister – Margaret Thatcher – vehemently advocated neoliberal social policies. For example, the Education Act 1980 introduced the Assisted Places Scheme; this scheme aimed to enable those from poorer backgrounds to frequent private schools (Beauvallet, 2015: 99). This would suggest that this

initiative reduced social class inequalities in that ever more pupils from workingclass backgrounds were given the opportunity to attend private schools, which had hitherto only been accessible to the middle classes. However, the Assisted Places Scheme was abolished by the Labour Party in 1997. Furthermore, research published by the Institute of Education (IoE) and the Sutton Trust in 2009 reveals that most individuals from poorer backgrounds found their experience of private school ‘alienating’ (Lipsett, 2009). Consequently, this illustrates that – rather than alleviating social class inequalities in secondary schools in the UK – the Education Act 1980 maintained the social distance between social classes. Consequently, individuals from inferior socioeconomic backgrounds were excluded from fully participating in society. What is more, Beauvallet (2015: 99) highlights that the Education Act 1980 allowed parents to become ‘consumers in an education market’, in that they were given greater choice over which school their child attended. This indicates the salience of marketisation, and thus the emerging role of neoliberal ideology in

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the education system in the United Kingdom. 1.2 The Education Reform Act 1988 Another significant social policy of the Conservative administration under Thatcher is the Education Reform Act 1988; this act saw the implementation of the national curriculum in every maintained (state-funded) school in England (Education Reform Act 1988: 2). The national curriculum ensures that all maintained English secondary schools follow the same standards, and teach the same set of subjects (GOV.UK, n.d.a). The Education Act 1988 also introduced the General Certificate of Education (GCSE) qualification in all state-funded schools in England, Northern Ireland and Wales. As a result, this led to so-called ‘leaguetables’ wherein schools were categorised from best to worst; furthermore, this gave parents more information about the quality of schools, and thus more choice. However, Leckie and Goldstein (2009: 835) criticise school ‘league tables’ in that they are based on antiquated information, therefore, they ‘have very little to offer as guides to school choice’.

1.3 Education Reform Under New Labour: Education Action Zones The Labour Party – during the premiership of Tony Blair (1997-2007) – introduced a range of schemes to reduce social class inequalities. For example, Education Action Zones (EAZs), which sought to attract increased investment from the private sector to raise funding for areas with high levels of deprivation. EAZs were introduced in the UK in 1998 ‘to modernise education in areas of social deprivation and hailed as a third way in education’ (Reid and Brain, 2003: 195). This reflects the notion of third way politics; furthermore, this concept was developed by sociologist Anthony Giddens as an alternative approach to neoliberalism, and the traditional conception of social democracy, which had hitherto dominated the British political discourse. What is more, Giddens (1998: 65) emphasises the salience of social justice to the third way: ‘third way politics should preserve a core concern with social justice, while accepting that the range of questions which escapes the left/right divide is greater than before’. This illustrates that social justice was central to education reform policies under New Labour, and

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therefore, reducing social class inequalities. However, the effectiveness of Education Action Zones is criticised by Reid and Brain (2003: 211) who posit that the initiative was ‘conceptually faulty’, which impeded its implementation in all apposite areas, therefore, this contradicts the effectiveness of EAZs. Nevertheless, the two social policies explored thus far suggest that New Labour were somewhat successful in alleviating social class inequalities in the secondary education system in the United Kingdom. New Labour also introduced academy schools under the Learning and Skills Act 2000; this initiative was expanded under the subsequent Conservative-led coalition government (2010-2015). 1.4 GCSE Reform Under the Conservative Government (2015– Present) David Cameron – Prime Minister of the UK from 2010 to 2016 – criticised the then education system – including GCSE qualifications – for example, he opined that it gave out ‘increasingly generous grades’ (Cameron, 2019: xv). In order to raise educational standards, the Conservative administration, namely

Cameron, and Michael Gove – Education Secretary from 2010 to 2015 – reformed the GCSE qualification ‘with the intention of enriching the curriculum and better preparing students for further education or employment’ (Howard and Khan, 2019: 4). Such reform was achieved by changing to a numerical grading system (to increase differentiation), and more examinations, and ipso facto less coursework. However, reform of GCSE qualifications has perpetuated the educational attainment gap – and therefore maintained the social distance – between students from advantaged and disadvantaged backgrounds. This is epitomised by Burgess and Thomson (2019: 24), who reveal that those from advantaged backgrounds remain far more likely to attain the top grades of 97 (A*-A). This suggests that future education reform must be more socially inclusive in order to give each individual the same opportunity to achieve the top grades. If this were to happen then this would allow more pupils from workingclass backgrounds to enter further education and university, hence, this would somewhat alleviate social class

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inequalities within the education system in the UK.

secondary

2. Social Class Inequalities in the Secondary Education System in the United Kingdom 2.1 GCSE Results since the Education Reform Act 1988 (1988-2018)

Graph 2.1 GCSE Grades in the United Kingdom (1988-2018) Source: Centre for Education and Employment Research (2019). As previously mentioned, GCSE qualifications were introduced in 1988 following the Education Reform Act 1988, furthermore, GCSE results have significantly increased over the past 30

years in the United Kingdom (as illustrated in Graph 2.1). For instance, the proportion of Year 11 pupils attaining A*C rose from some 42 per cent to 66 per cent, indicating an increase of 24 percentage points. On one hand, this would suggest that the education system has become fairer in that the total number of those achieving a good pass and above has increased. On the other hand, Clegg et al. (2017: 6) reveal that the ‘performance gap between the richest and the poorest has remained persistently large between the mid1980s and the mid-2000s, with no significant improvement’. This indicates that the social distance between students from wealthier and poorer backgrounds has been maintained; moreover, this signifies that disadvantaged pupils are not given the same opportunities as their advantaged counterparts, and thus reflecting social class inequalities within British secondary schools. 2.2 Regional Inequality in English Secondary Schools and the NorthSouth Divide in England Another difference between students from different socioeconomic backgrounds concerns geographical

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location. This is exemplified by Clegg et al. (2017: 11) who highlight that there is a four per cent discrepancy of GCSE performance between 16-year-olds – achieving five good GCSEs (including English and Mathematics) – residing in London (60 per cent), and those living in the North East and North West of England (both 56 per cent). This would suggest that educational standards are worse in the North of England than in the South. In regard to social class inequality, this suggests that poorer individuals living in the Midlands would be even more disadvantaged than their equivalents residing in the South of England. As a result, this exhibits that geographical location exacerbates social class inequalities in English secondary schools. What is more, this reflects the North-South divide in England; this concept posits that England is divided by social, economic, and cultural factors that have led to regional inequality in England. For example, wealth is disproportionately concentrated into the South, especially in London. This is reflected in gross domestic product (GDP) – ‘a measure of the size and health of a country’s economy over a period of

time’ (Bank of England, n.d.) – figures published by Statista (2019), which highlight regional disparities in the UK in 2018 regrading GDP (see Graph 2.2). For example, in 2018, GDP in London was £487.15 billion in contrast to West and East Midlands, which was a combined £284.48 billion (Statista, 2019). This also has political ramifications given that, traditionally and contemporarily, support for the Conservative party tends to be stronger in the South. Conversely, support for the Labour party is strongest in the North as illustrated in Figure 2.1, which shows the 2019 General Election results for England. Therefore, current education policies are more beneficial to working-class pupils in the South, meanwhile, those in the North continue to be overlooked.

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Graph 2.2 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the United Kingdom in 2018, by Region Source: Statista (2019).

Figure 2.1 2019 General Election Results in England by Constituency Source: BBC News (2019a). 2.3 The Gender Gap in Secondary Education in England Gender is another social location to be examined in relation to social class inequalities in this report. Furthermore, Machin and McNally (2006: 10) found that the Education Reform Act 1988 was a major contributing factor that led to a gender gap in regard to GCSE performance. For instance, in 2019 – the most recent GCSE results figures, save

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for 2020 wherein examinations did not take place owing to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic – female students continued to outperform their male contemporaries vis-à-vis obtaining the top grades (9-7/A*-A) in England (Joint Council for Qualifications, 2019) [See Graph 2.3]. Whilst this shows that – on a meso-level – female pupils are at an advantage in the secondary education system in the UK, the gap is the antithesis on a macro-level; for instance, when female students enter the labour market, a gender pay gap – the average difference in wages between men and women – persists. For example, the Office for National Statistics (2020) reveals that in April 2020, the gender pay gap was 7.4 per cent, thus despite declining from 9.0 per cent in April 2019, such gender inequality must be eliminated to achieve gender parity in the United Kingdom.

Graph 2.3 Gender Differences in GCSE Results (9-7/A*-A) Source: The Guardian (2019)/Joint Council for Qualifications (2019). Similarly, girls markedly outperform boys in the following measures of performance: 5 A*-C GCSEs; 5 A*-C GCSEs or equivalent; and A*-C English GCSE (See Graph 2.4). There is also a small gender gap in favour of girls in the A*-C Maths category (Cavaglia, Machin, McNally and Ruiz-Valenzuela, 2020: 8). This suggests that boys are more disadvantaged in the current English secondary education system. What is more, the gender educational gap could be explained by the different ways in which boys and girls learn. This is exemplified by Ballantine and Hammack (2016: 91) who highlight

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that ‘current pedagogies and school structures are ill suited to the ways boys learn’; therefore, in order to alleviate the gender educational gap, teaching methods should be tailored towards increasing engagement of boys, and thus inclusive of everyone. As a result, gender inequalities remain widespread in the English secondary education system, which suggests that boys from workingclass backgrounds are more disadvantaged than their female counterparts.

Graph 2.4 Gender Performance Gap of GCSE Results in England (2000-2017) Source: Cavaglia, Machin, McNally and Ruiz-Valenzuela (2020).

2.4 Racial Inequality in the Secondary Education System in the United Kingdom Racial inequality refers to the discrepancies between those from black and minority ethnic (BME) backgrounds and their white equivalents. Furthermore, a report published in 2020 by Runnymede – an independent race equality think tank in the UK – focused on the experiences of 24 teachers, aged from 22 to 57 years-old, surrounding race and racism in secondary schools in Greater Manchester. It examined various factors, including teacher workforce; curricula; police in schools; and school policies. First, this report reveals that teachers from BME backgrounds are significantly underrepresented in the teacher workforce; as a result, antiracism sentiments are not promoted. Second, the national curriculum fails to recognise colonial legacies or racist underpinnings of contemporary Britain. Third, despite some commentators calling for an increased presence of police in schools – including the Home Affairs Select Committee in 2019 (Joseph-Salisbury, 2020: 14) – this report concludes that ‘a police presence in schools can be detrimental to all students’, especially those from BME and

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working-class students (JosephSalisbury, 2020: 2). This suggests that individuals from BME and working-class backgrounds are susceptible to prejudice within the secondary education system in the UK. As a result, this ostracises such individuals, and fuels racial and social class inequalities within secondary schools in the UK. What is more, research conducted by the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), reveals that racial hate crime in schools continues to rise annually amongst children, including individuals in secondary schools (NSPCC, 2019) [As illustrated in Graph 2.5]. Nonetheless, this increase may be attributed to improvements in recording, and better identification of hate crimes by the police (Home Office, 2020). Joseph-Salisbury (2020: 2) also posits that more comprehensive anti-racism policies are needed to eradicate the deep-seated culture of racism in secondary schools in the UK. Ultimately, this report exhibits that pupils from BME backgrounds are treated differently to their white contemporaries. Consequently, this shows that the British secondary education system is institutionally racist,

moreover, a more representative teacher workforce, a more diverse national curriculum, and more comprehensive anti-racism policies is a sine qua non to alleviate racial inequality in the secondary education system in the UK.

Graph 2.5 Racial Hate Crimes Against Children in the United Kingdom Source: NSPCC/BBC News (2019b). 2.5 Intersectional Perspective on Social Inequalities in the United Kingdom As aforementioned, gender and racial inequalities remain rife in the secondary education system in England, alongside social class inequalities. The relationship between these social inequalities can be considered using the notion of intersectionality. This concept was developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw in

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1989, and originated owing to differences in aspirations between feminists; for instance, Crenshaw (1989: 140) postulates that ‘black women are sometimes excluded from feminist theory and antiracist policy discourse’. Intersectional theory considers how an amalgam of social identities impact upon an individual’s or group’s experience in society. As a result, different treatment of those from marginalised social groups can subject such individuals to prejudice and discrimination, therefore, fuelling social inequalities. In regard to social class inequalities in British secondary schools, also belonging to more than one ostracised group – for instance, those from BME backgrounds, can further exacerbate social class inequalities in British secondary schools. What is more, this underlines that the relationship between disadvantaged social groups must be better recognised for education policies to be fully inclusive of each marginalised social group. This suggests that such social inequality will be perpetuated unless educational reform policies address all forms of prejudice.

Conclusion This report has explored social class inequalities in the secondary education system in the United Kingdom. This report concludes that education reform policies under New Labour were the most successful in mitigating social class inequalities that are widespread throughout the secondary education system in the United Kingdom. Furthermore, the social distance between social classes appears to be insurmountable, therefore, social class parity cannot be achieved within the current capitalist structures in the UK. This sentiment is ostensibly ever more difficult owing to New Labour being superseded by Conservative governments wherein social class inequality has widened. This is exemplified by the increasing social distance between pupils from middle class and working-class backgrounds thanks to education reform policies inspired by neoliberal ideology. This report also concludes that regional and racial inequalities are prevalent in the secondary schools in the UK, moreover, working-class pupils in the North of England and from BME backgrounds experience further maltreatment than their white equivalents. Female pupils

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outperform their male contemporaries in British secondary schools – suggesting that boys are at a disadvantage – although this may be explained by current pedagogies being more tailored towards the ways in which girls learn. An intersectional approach to understanding the relationship between social class, gender and racial inequalities in the secondary education system in the UK is a more comprehensive approach given that it better explains how a combination of social identities impact upon an individual’s experience in secondary education. In sum, in order to foster equality of opportunity in the secondary education system in the UK – whilst simultaneously alleviating social class inequalities – future education reform policies must circumvent using neoliberal ideology, and rather, be underpinned by social inclusion and social justice. References Adams, R., McIntyre, N. and Weale, S. (2019) GCSE results: girls fare better than boys under more rigorous courses. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/education

/2019/aug/22/gcse-results-morerigorous-courses-appear-to-benefit-girls [Accessed 8 November 2020]. Ballantine, J. and Hammack, F. M. The Sociology of Education: A Systematic Analysis. London: Routledge. Bank of England (n.d.) What is GDP? Available at: https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/knowl edgebank/what-is-gdp [Accessed 8 November 2020]. BBC News (2010) Election 2010: national results. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/election 2010/results/ [Accessed 2 November 2020]. BBC News (2019a) Election 2019: Results. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election/2 019/results [Accessed 4 November 2020]. BBC News (2019b) Children whitening skin to avoid racial hate crime, NSPCC finds. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk48458850 [Accessed 8 November 2020].

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Beauvallet, A. (2015) Thatcherism and education in England: a one-way street? Observatoire de la Société Britannique, 17, 97-114. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publicatio n/304421074_Thatcherism_and_Educatio n_in_England_A_One-way_Street [Accessed 8 November 2020]. Burgess, S. and Thomson, D. (2019) Making the grade: the impact of GCSE reforms on the attainment gap between disadvantaged pupils and their peers. Available at: https://www.suttontrust.com/wpcontent/uploads/2019/12/MakingtheGra de2019.pdf [Accessed 3 November 2020]. Cameron, D. (2019) For the Record. London: William Collins. Cavaglia, C., Machin, S., McNally, S. and Ruiz-Valenzuela, J. (2020) Gender, achievement, and subject choice in English education. Available at: http://cver.lse.ac.uk/textonly/cver/pubs /cverdp032.pdf [Accessed 5 November 2020].

Centre for Education and Employment Research (2019) GCSE 2019 Trends & Prospects. Available at: https://alansmithers.com/reports/GCSE 2019.pdf [Accessed 4 November 2020]. Clegg, N., Allen, R., Fernandes, S., Freedman, S. and Kinnock, S. (2017) Commission on Inequality in Education. Available at: https://www.smf.co.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2017/07/EducationCommission-final-web-report.pdf [Accessed 4 November 2020]. Crenshaw, K. (1989) Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 8 (1), 139-167. Available at: https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/c gi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1052&context= uclf [Accessed 7 November 2020]. Cutts, D., Goodwin, M., Heath, O. and Surridge, P. (2020) Brexit, the 2019 General Election and the realignment of British politics. The Political Quarterly, 91 (1), 7-23. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/1 0.1111/1467-923X.12815 [Accessed 4 November 2020].

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Department for Education and Skills (2006) Excellence in Cities. Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/200612130 61256/http:/www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/ sie/eic/ [Accessed 8 November 2020]. Education Reform Act 1988, Chapter 40 London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1 988/40/pdfs/ukpga_19880040_en.pdf [Accessed 8 November 2020]. Giddens, A. (1998) The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy. Cambridge: Polity Press. GOV.UK (n.d.) The national curriculum. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/national-curriculum [Accessed 8 November 2020]. GOV.UK (n.d.b) Types of school. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/types-ofschool/academies [Accessed 2 November 2020]. GOV.UK (2018) Guidance: Get the facts: GCSE reform. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/public

ations/get-the-facts-gcse-and-a-levelreform/get-the-facts-gcse-reform [Accessed 30 October 2020]. Hill, D. and Kumar, R. (2009) Global Neoliberalism and Education and its Consequences. Abingdon: Routledge. Holborow, M. (2012) What is neoliberalism? discourse, ideology and the real world. In: Block, D., Gray, J. and Holborow, M. (eds) Neoliberalism and Applied Linguistics. 1st Edn. Abingdon: Routledge, 14-32. Home Office (2020) Hate crime, England and Wales, 2019 to 2020. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publi cations/hate-crime-england-andwales-2019-to-2020/hate-crimeengland-and-wales-2019-to-2020 [Accessed 6 November 2020]. Howard, E. and Khan, A. (2019) Research and analysis: GCSE reform in schools: the impact of GCSE reforms on students’ preparedness for A level maths and English literature. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/a ttachment_data/file/851790/GCSE_refor

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m_in_schools_-_FINAL196556.pdf [Accessed 3 November 2020].

alienated-poor-pupils [Accessed 8 November 2020].

Joint Council for Qualifications (2019) Examination results: GCSE (Full Course) Results Summer 2019. Available at: https://www.jcq.org.uk/examinationresults/?post-year=2019&post-location= [Accessed 8 November 2020]. Joseph-Salisbury, R. (2020) Race and Racism in English Secondary Schools. Available at: https://www.runnymedetrust.org/upload s/publications/pdfs/Runnymede%20Sec ondary%20Schools%20report%20FINAL.p df [Accessed 6 November 2020].

Machin, S. and McNally, S. (2006) Gender and student achievement in English schools. Available at: http://cee.lse.ac.uk/cee%20dps/ceedp5 8.pdf [Accessed 5 November 2020]. Machin, S., McNally, S. and Meghir, C. (2007) Resources and Standards in Urban Schools. Available at: http://cee.lse.ac.uk/ceedps/ceedp76.pd f [Accessed 8 November 2020].

Leckie, G. and Goldstein, H. (2009) The limitations of using school league tables to inform school choice. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 172 (4), 835-851. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/230135 24.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A858d241914b eeb3851ac4b0ebc90b6a6 [Accessed 30 October 2020]. Lipsett, A. (2009) Poor pupils found private schools alienating, says study. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/education /2009/may/26/private-school-

NSPCC (2019) Race hate crimes against children reach 3 year high. Available at: https://www.nspcc.org.uk/aboutus/news-opinion/2019/race-hatecrimes-against-children-reach-3-yearhigh/ [Accessed 8 November 2020]. Office for National Statistics (2020) Gender pay gap in the UK: 2020. Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmenta ndlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earning sandworkinghours/bulletins/genderpay gapintheuk/2020 [Accessed 7 November 2020]. Parliament UK (2010) Academies Act 2010. Available at:

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https://services.parliament.uk/bills/2010 -11/academieshl.html [Accessed 2 November 2020]. Reid, I. and Brain, K. (2003) Education action zones: mission impossible? International Studies in Sociology of Education, 13 (2) 195-214. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/1 0.1080/09620210300200110#:~:text=Educ ation%20Action%20Zones%20(EAZs)%20w ere%20launched%20in%201998%20as%20' ,education%20(Byers%2C%201998) [Accessed 31 October 2020]. Smithers, A. (2019) GCSE 2019 Trends & Prospects. Available at: https://alansmithers.com/reports/GCSE 2019.pdf [Accessed 4 November 2020]. UCL Institute of Education (2018) ‘Chaotic’ government reforms are failing to tackle education inequality. Available at: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ioe/news/2018/j ul/chaotic-government-reforms-arefailing-tackle-education-inequality [Accessed 3 November 2020]. West, A. and Pennell, H. (2002) How new is New Labour? The quasi-market and

English schools 1997 to 2001. British Journal of Education Studies, 50 (2), 206224. Available: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/1 0.1111/1467-8527.t01-200199?casa_token=if6xf5qicUMAAAAA:rP A00WhH188E0ZPXLC4QPFyKLszWy1Mqz enf37psEerdCZMnNw7u6f2jyziH9ZmzKnA 6H13UlnpIDQ [Accessed 8 November 2020].

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In what ways has National or Cultural Identity influenced the discipline of Archaeology in Europe? Elis Thomas BA Ancient Classical and Medieval Studies Whilst Archaeology is regarded as a largely scientific and data-based discipline, it is important to understand that ideological projection is often present, at times, without the individual even noticing. Historic leaders and factions have commonly invoked the past to legitimise their own rule, or territorial expansion through ancestral claims. Nationalist identity throughout Western Europe during the 18th,19th and 20th centuries is seen reflected in Museums, intentionally or not glorifying imperial history. For example, the British Museum, established in 1759, or the Louvre in Paris aimed to emulate a sense of cultural superiority and colonial dominance over uncivilised peoples. This endeavour saw the looting of many Egyptian and Greek archaeological artefacts, such as the Elgin Marbles. Archaeology has been historically used to imply ethnic groups are the descendants of, and successors to, great empires and civilisations. It is imperative

to consider this, when researching early excavations as the framing of their interpretations may come from a contemporary socio-political bias. For example, Great Zimbabwe, a medieval monument was thought by many Europeans to be built by Mediterranean civilisations, believing native Africans where not developed enough as a society to construct advanced structures. In many examples throughout Europe, national and cultural identity has been used as a political tool to bolster support and patriotism. It often manipulates the discipline of Archaeology by setting it on an ideological trajectory void of fact or objectivity. National and cultural identity has in many ways, positively and negatively influenced the discipline of archaeology and this essay will aim to provide examples of how and why. Whilst this essay deals with historical examples, the impacts of National Identity on Archaeology are still felt today with recent years seeing increased focus on the colonial framework British archaeology is still presented in. The British Museum’s “Don’t Miss” recommended tour contains twelve artefacts, six of which have disputed ownership such as the illegally looted Benin Bronzes in the late 19th century.

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Whilst museums serve an educational role, “The British museum still behaves like a colonial museum”, claims African art historian Chika Okeke-Agulu (Vox 2020). The recent movements to decolonise academia and the curriculum has brought to the forefront that declining to return stolen historical goods echoes the colonial legacy of supremacy and conquest. In Britain, culture has historically played a large role in how antiquarians and archaeologists interpret the past. Many academic fields including Archaeology suffered from scientific Nationalism in which objectivity was sacrificed for the sake of appeasing a pre-conceived idea of one’s own innate superiority. Following the end of the renaissance, many members of the British elite had succumbed to intellectually lazy romanticism about Pre-Roman Britain. 17th and 18th century antiquarians, facing a lack of evidence, found it more satisfying to simply make up much of the work contemporarily regarded as academic. (Cunliffe 2013). It is crucial to understand this when researching early investigations or excavations of sites such as Stonehenge. William Stukeley for example, made

detailed plans of the site, conducted various excavations, discovered, and named the cursus, and would be by every metric by regarded as a serious objective scientist and archaeologist. He published a book in 1740 on Stonehenge, however it was a small amount of academically hollow volumes, besmirched by his infatuation with Druid myths. One of the earliest known records of Stonehenge was written by Geoffrey of Monmouth in “History of the kings of Britain” and claimed an Arthurian origin for the site. Up until the 16th Century, many believed that the wizard Merlin had instructed a mythical king on how to build the site (Castleden 1993). The revived interest and romanticising of the ancient British Celts and Druids was part of a culture that wanted its own National Heroes and legends. This can be seen exemplified in Scotland, with James Macpherson’s popular poems based on a semi-legendary bard, which originates from Celtic manuscripts. Similarly, a welsh author, Iolo Morgannwg, using imagination over archaeological evidence, created a ceremony known as “Gorsedd”. (Cunliffe 2013). This ritual is still used in the Welsh Eisteddfod to this day and involves druid altars and stone

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arrangements. Although this may not appear particularly damaging, it shows how a societies culture can drastically influence archaeological practise and interpretation. The romanticisation of British history is still dominant, perhaps explaining the 32% of the public who say they are proud of the British Empire (Booth 2020). Reactions against the normalisation of colonial undertones within British identity saw the taking down of Edward Colston statues in June 2020, with a large part of British identity still being drawn from a history perhaps incompatible with modern ideas of social equality and justice. Perhaps one of the most overt examples of National Identity influencing archaeology, was seen by the Nazis in the 20th century. The core tenet in Nazi ideology was the idea that Germanic/Aryan people were ethnically pure and were part of an ancient race of superior Nordic people. In 1935, Gestapo and SS leader Heinrich Himmler founded a research Institution known as the Ahnenerbe. Meaning “Something inherited from the forefathers”, the Ahnenerbe aimed to find archaeological and scientific evidence of German superiority throughout history. In February 1938, Himmler converted the

SS Excavation department into the Ahnenerbe and financed 18 excavations in hope that he could get a better understating of the great history of the Aryan race (Pringle 2006). From 1933-35, eight new chairs of German Prehistory were endowed, and mass funding became available for excavations across Germany and Eastern Europe. By 1939, prehistory was being taught in more than twenty-five universities across Germany. Meanwhile the Ahnenerbe devoted its research to tracking down ancient occult runes attempting to establish connections between the SS symbol and ancient works, fictionalising a German origin (Kohl et al 1995). An Example of the Nazi’s archaeological interpretations can be seen in the Bolivian ruin of Tiwanaku. Originally built by the Andeans 1,500 years ago, SS archaeologist Edmund Kiss was funded by Himmler to conduct a large scientific excavation of the site. These men both believed that the ruins were built by a prehistoric Aryan people originating from Atlantis over a million years ago. (Pringle 2009) One of the primary reasons that Archaeology was so deeply influenced by the Ahnenerbe was because of the major indoctrination effort. From 1936, the institute contributed towards the popular science

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journal Germania. This was selfproclaimed to be both scientific and “a Germanic-lore monthly to promote all things essentially German”. (Longerich 2012). Unfortunately, national and cultural identity has historically and even today heavily influenced Archaeology. Authoritarian leaders or factions used to great success, pseudo-archaeology to legitimise ownership of new territories, their own rule and bolster support of the people. This manipulation of the discipline of archaeology was not uncommon during Europe in the 20th century. Mussolini frequently invoked the Roman empire in order to portray himself as the embodiment of Italian History and Masculinity. Unfortunately, racist ideologies influencing archaeological interpretation is not a problem of the past. Modern examples such as the discovery of the American Kennewick man show how contemporary political beliefs can also be found projected onto archaeological data. Discovered in modern day Washington, the prehistoric skeleton was initially thought to contain typically “European” facial features, leading to white nationalist groups echoing Nazi concepts of lost ancient

aryan Civilisations. The Authoritarian influence on archaeology remained particularly devastating as the regimes almost always involve intense propaganda, suppression and destruction of opposing data, and the overseeing of educational systems. Similarly, the politicisation of archaeology to justify territorial expansion is a tactic still used today to manipulate or fabricate evidence. Another example in which national identity impacted archaeology can be seen in the late 19th and 20th century Spain. Cultural Heritage in Spain has been used in the past to validate territorial claims and seen regions vying for greater sovereignty utilise the discipline for their ideological advantage. In the 1880’s, Catalonia and Basque faced great industrialisation and urbanisation. The increasingly strong middle class in these regions felt disenfranchised by the central government in Madrid, and cultural and ethnic tensions began to rise. These regions and Spain held different languages and identities leading to both creating national histories which consolidated their claim and delegitimised the others. PseudoArchaeology was a useful tool for those

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wishing to bolster separatist or nationalist movements (Diaz-Andreu 1995). The forgery of Archaeological evidence to justify territorial claims was not a new thing for Spain, it was also a tactic of the Moriscos. After converting to Christianity from Islam, many of these people wished to end inter-ethnic violence by breaking their perceived identification with Arab Muslims. In hope of legitimising their settlement, forgeries such as the Lead Books of Sacromonte were created in the 16th century and even taken to the Vatican to be analysed. These were subsequently disregarded however as a fake (Garcia-Arenal 2009). The biggest case of Spanish Archaeology being influenced by national identity was undertaken by Enric Prat de la Riba. His visions of the Catalonian nation stemmed from areas which historically spoke the language as well as believing evidence of this cultures past glories were to be found through analysing Pre-Roman Iberia. He claimed areas such as Roussillon, Valencia and the Balearic Islands to be inherently belonging to Catalonians. His archaeological evidence for these claims were Iberian-Roman coins which he argued connected all the areas of Catalonia through their similar letter inscriptions. Prat de la Riba saw the

archaeological site of Empuries as the capital as the historic capital for the nation. He was deeply influential to the discipline of archaeology in Spain and Catalonia as in 1907, the Barcelona government and Prat de la Riba co created two institutions. They were the commission of Barcelona Museums and the Institute of Catalan studies, (the latter containing a section devoted to archaeology). In 1908, the believed historic capital of Catalan, the Empuries, was excavated leading to the finding of two statues dedicated to ancient Gods. Catalonian nationalists were overjoyed by this discovery claiming it was evidence of their long-repressed history and called for a rebirth of celebration and independence for Catalonia. (DiazAndreu 1995). Despite institutions like the Ahnenerbe corroding much of the public and academic information on archaeological finds, one could argue in favour of the beneficial influence of archaeological nationalism. For example, peaked public interest or romanticism about sites such as Stonehenge can lead to greater funding or preservation of sites. Public interest in the field should be encouraged as it allows a greater audience to support, learn and partake in

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future researching. Culture has additionally influenced archaeology positively and thoroughly through the increased creation of National Heritage sites. Britain has for centuries seen fluctuating, but consistent interest in its history which has contributed to some of the most concise museums and archaeological sites in the world. Regardless of intent, the British people’s interest in history led to great lengths being undertaken to extract and maintain monuments and artefacts from around the world. For example, Mortimer Wheeler was a popular archaeologist and voted 1954 TV personality of the year. This correlates with an increase of archaeological excavations, students, research, and maintenance during this time. Nevertheless, it is important to consider how and why various excavations were conducted, as well as what interpretations were reached at the time. We must discuss the influence that culture may have on the field to reiterate the need to reassess older work and interpretations using contemporary knowledge. Throughout this essay, I have attempted to express the power that political ideology can have as well as

how effective of a tool forged or falsified data can be. The discipline of archaeology has been influenced, for better or worse, in a plethora of ways across Europe. It has been used to bolster nationalism through manipulation of information, reaffirm political ideology through selective exposure, seen mass funding and state support, a rise in cultural relevancy and potentially more in the future. Recent movements to decolonise academia have taken aim at the inherited supremacist frameworks western archaeology unconsciousness takes, questioning centuries ingrained concepts of British identity. Where the forging of a new, decolonised, inclusive, National and cultural identity will lead remains to be seen. References Booth, R. (2020). UK more nostaligic for empire than other ex-colonial powers. The Guardian. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world /2020/mar/11/uk-more-nostalgic-forempire-than-other-ex-colonial-powers Castleden R, (1993). The Making of Stonehenge. London, Routeledge pages 9-19.

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Cunliffe B, (2013). Britain Begins. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Pages 20-29 Diaz-Andreu M, (1995). Archaeology and nationalism in Spain. In Kohl P and Fawcett C (ed.) Nationalism, politics, and the practice of Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Garcia-Arenal, M (2009). The Religious Identity of the Arabic Language and the Affair of the Lead Books of the Sacromonte of Granada. Arabica. Vol 56 issue 6: pages 495-528 Kohl P and Fawcett C. (ed.) (1995). Nationalism, politics, and the practise of archaeology. Cambridge: Press syndicate of the University of Cambridge

Niculesco G, (2001). Nationalism and the representation of society in Romanian Archaeology. In Boia, L. (ed.) Nation and National Ideology Past, Present and Prospects. Bucharest: New Europe College. Pringle H, (2009). A Chilling Fantasy at Tiwanaku. Archaeology Magazine Archive. Pringle H, (2006). Hitler’s Willing Archaeologists. Archaeology Magazine Archive Vol 59, Part 2 Vox, 2020. The British Museum is full of stolen artefacts. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= hoTxiRWrvp8

Kohl P, Kozelsky M, Ben-Yehuda N. (ed.) (2007). Selective Remembrances: ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE CONSTRUCTION, COMMEMORATION, AND CONSECRATION OF NATIONAL PASTS. Chicago: University of Chicago Press Longerich P, (2012). Heinrich Himmler. Oxford: Oxford University Press

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Transformations: Changing Times, Environments, Cultures Susanne Berger MA Creative Writing

alternative, inspired by people who have unjustly been pushed to the fringes of society, but may have valuable lessons to teach us.2

My creative piece is entitled "Changes". It explores the theme of loss of green and wild spaces, connection, and belonging, by juxtaposing development in a middleclass suburb to the minimalist lifestyle of a close-knit Gypsy family. The protagonist is transformed after an encounter with a Gypsy girl, discovering a sense of wonder and magic, as well as respect for the natural world, whilst the site of the encounter loses its magic due to development. The piece questions the prevalent mindset in modern society, valuing technology, wealth and ownership above community and the environment,1 and proposes an

Suburban sprawl As many of us know from personal experience, there has been a dramatic decline in green and wild spaces over the last few decades.3 Sprawl-lifestyle4 is a direct result of settled ownership. The NASA Earth Observatory reports that incidence rates of psychiatric disorders and substance abuse are 55% higher in populations with the least green surroundings.5 There are plenty of studies talking of the benefits of green

1 C. G. Jung and Meredith Sabini, The Earth Has a Soul: The Nature Writings of C.G. Jung (Berkeley, Calif: North Atlantic Books, 2002)., 9, 11, 14, 15, 19, 79, 137, 142, 150 155. 2 Jeremy Sandford, Gypsies (London: Martin Secker & Warburg Limited, 1973)., 3. 3 “How and Where Did UK Lose City-Sized Area of Green Space in Just Six Years? | Environment | The Guardian,” February 7, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/201 5/jul/02/how-where-did-uk-lose-green-spacebigger-than-a-city-six-years.

Patrick Gallagher, “The Environmental, Social, and Cultural Impacts of Sprawl,” Natural Resources & Environment 15, no. 4 (2001): 219– 67. 5 “Green Space Is Good for Mental Health,” Text.Article (NASA Earth Observatory, July 17, 2019), https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/1 45305/green-space-is-good-for-mentalhealth.

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spaces on mental health,6 implying their absence must have a negative impact. Moreover, children who grow up deprived of the opportunity to commune with nature will be less inclined to protect that which they do not know or understand in adulthood. Habitat loss, however, not only affects plants and animals; it also threatens the livelihoods of people who would otherwise choose to follow a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle.

Who are the Gypsies? The name Gypsy derives from the word Egypt,7 due to an early misconception that they were pilgrims from Egypt. This suited them,8 as pilgrim status guaranteed freedom to travel.9 They did not have an autonym,10 but defined themselves by what they were not, that is gadže, settled people.11 It was not until the first World Romani Congress 1971 that the name Roma was introduced, derived from the word rom – man.12 Most authors, many of them ethnically Romani, use several terms interchangeably, including Rom, Roma, and Gypsy. British

6 Jo Barton and Mike Rogerson, “The Importance of Greenspace for Mental Health,” BJPsych International 14, no. 4 (November 1, 2017): 79–81. Matthias Braubach et al., “Effects of Urban Green Space on Environmental Health, Equity and Resilience,” in Nature-Based Solutions to Climate Change Adaptation in Urban Areas: Linkages between Science, Policy and Practice, ed. Nadja Kabisch et al., Theory and Practice of Urban Sustainability Transitions (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017), 187–205, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56091-5_11. Kristine Engemann et al., “Residential Green Space in Childhood Is Associated with Lower Risk of Psychiatric Disorders from Adolescence into Adulthood,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 116, no. 11 (December 3, 2019): 5188–93, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1807504116.in Urban Areas, Theory and Practice of Urban

Sustainability Transitions, DOI 10.1007/978-3319-56091-5_11 . 7 Jean-Pierre Liégeois, Gypsies An Illustrated History, trans. Tony Berrett (London: Saqi Books, 1986), 24-29, 57. 8 Patrick Jasper Lee, We Borrow the Earth: An Intimate Portrait of the Gypsy Shamanic Tradition and Culture (London: Thorsons, 2000)., 35, 38. 9 Angus M. Fraser, The Gypsies, The Peoples of Europe (Oxford, UK ; Cambridge, Mass. USA: Blackwell, 1992)., 62-63. 10 Liégeois and Berrett, An Illustrated History., 57. 11 Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 16. Dominic Reeve, Smoke in the Lanes: Happiness and Hardship on the Road with the Gypsies in the 1950s (Abacus, 2011)., Kindle edition, Loc. 61. 12 Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 155.

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Roma also use Romanichel. In a BBC documentary writer Damian Le Bas states he didn't mind being referred to as Gypsy, it all depended on the tone.13 Origins The Roma's origins have been debated. Early theories ranged from descendants of bronze age people, to Africa, the Camargue, and the Middle East.14 However, most traces lead back to India.15 They were documented in Persia by the historian Hamza of Esfahan in 950 AD, who relates older accounts of the monarch Bahram Gur (reign ended 438 AD) inviting 12,000 musicians from India to entertain the public.16 The Persian names Luri and Nawar for Gypsies are still in use to this day,17 the latter being indicative of their association with music. 13 “A Very British History - Romany Gypsies” (BBC1, October 16, 2019), https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondemand/i ndex.php/prog/127B9236?bcast=130418771., 21:40-56. 14 Liégeois and Berrett, An Illustrated History., 23. 15 Fraser, The Gypsies., 193. 16 Fraser, The Gypsies, 33. “ROMBASE - Didactically Edited Information on Roma,” accessed January 5, 2021, http://rombase.uni-graz.at/.(History and Politics / From India to Europe / Persia) 17 Liégeois and Berrett, An Illustrated History., 30.

A nomadic tribe in modern Iran is called Luri,18 the province Luristan being named for them. Lee claims that his ancestors were held prisoners in camps in the Dasht-e Nawar for 300 years,19 quoting Moreau. I am not convinced though, given that Moreau's theory is the result of recent travels and interviews, and assumes an implausible ethymological link of the word ghazzi (as in Ghaznavid, the rulers of Persia at the time), to gadže.20 Some migrated West along the Silk Road and were travelling Europe by the 15th century.21 Unsurprisingly, given the lack of a national identity and the nature of the journey, there are many tribes22 and dialects, all related to Hindi as

Fraser, The Gypsies. 18 University of Graz, “ROMBASE - Didactically Edited Information on Roma,” accessed 5 January 2021, http://rombase.uni-graz.at/(History and Politics / From India to Europe / Persia) 19 Lee, We Borrow the Earth., 27, 29. 20 Roger Moreau, The Rom: Walking in the Paths of the Gypsies (Toronto, Ont: Key Porter Books, 1995)., 53-63, 98. 21 Liégeois and Berrett, An Illustrated History., 44. Fraser, The Gypsies., 66. 22 Fraser, The Gypsies., 290-299.

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the closest modern linguistic cousin.23 Clan names too show relation to Indian cast names, often based on profession.24 Romanse is an Indo-Iranian language,25 derived from Sanskrit, and has picked up words from other languages en route, as well as leaving its mark. Some Romanse terms in English include common words such as pal (from phral – brother), togs, and lollipop (from loli phabai – red apple).26 Children of the Wind According to Liégeois, nomadism remains a quintessential characteristic, even when settled, but he concedes that 'not all Gypsies are nomads, and not all nomads are Gypsies'.27 When and why 23 Liégeois and Berrett, An Illustrated History., 3637. Eldra Jarman and A. O. H Jarman, The Welsh Gypsies: Children of Abram Wood (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1998), http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t rue&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=32773., 55. Yaron Matras, I Met Lucky People: The Story of the Romani Gypsies (London: Allen Lane, an imprint of Penguin Books, 2014)., 106, 110. 24 University of Graz, “ROMBASE - Didactically Edited Information on Roma,” accessed 5 January 2021, http://rombase.uni-graz.at/(Ethnology and Groups / General Topics / Names of Roma) 25 Fraser, The Gypsies., 17.

they started traversing continents is unclear, but Lee makes the case that, traditionally, nomadic people tend to follow set routes with the seasons, ensuring a steady food-supply, unless there are compelling reasons to depart from ancestral regions, such as persecution, or being under pressure to settle.28 Work – “Playing the Tinker”29 Gypsies are pragmatic and capable, but resent regimented employment,30 engaging instead opportunistically in activities that earn a living as appropriate,31 for example as itinerant tinkers or farm-hands.32 Young and old contribute to the upkeep of the family, 26 Lee, We Borrow the Earth., 104-107. 27 Liégeois and Berrett, An Illustrated History., 5054, 57. 28 Lee, We Borrow the Earth., 26. 29 Liégeois and Berrett, An Illustrated History. 30 Isabel Fonseca, Bury Me Standing (Vintage Digital, 2011)., Kindle edition, Loc. 637-645. Liégeois and Berrett, An Illustrated History., 78, 82, 83. 31 University of Graz, “ROMBASE - Didactically Edited Information on Roma,” accessed 5 January 2021, http://rombase.uni-graz.at/(Database / Ethnology and Groups / Work and Professions) 32 Liégeois and Berrett, An Illustrated History., 83, 85.

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with children often learning valuable skills early on from their elders. Such learning is valued higher than formal education33 or organised religion.34 I have hinted at this in my creative piece by the children not attending school and Naomi being apprentice to her grandmother, a healer. Rombase explains the distinction between manual labour, trade and being an artisan or musician, in ascending order of respectability, manual labour being a last resort.35 The incarceration of Roma in forced labour camps during Wold War II left many feeling they had lost respectability and would never be able to return to their previous status within the community.36 Borrowing Versus Owning Among Roma, the attitude prevails that the Earth provides, but isn't ours.37 If 33 Lee, We Borrow the Earth., 3-4, 15. Sandford, Gypsies., 39. 34 Lee, We Borrow the Earth., 13-14. 35 University of Graz, “ROMBASE - Didactically Edited Information on Roma,” accessed 5 January 2021, http://rombase.uni-graz.at/ (Database / Ethnology and Groups / Work and Professions / Buti (Work)) 36 Ibid. 37 Garth Cartwright, Princes amongst Men: Journeys with Gypsy Musicians (London: Serpent’s Tail, 2005)., 110.

something presents itself at a time of need this is a sign that it is meant to be used, for example an animal, which has to be charmed rather than pursued.38 Ownership is unhealthy:39 Lee sums up the Purrum tribe's attitude as 'befriend and borrow the Earth',40 and quotes his great-grandfather: 'the curse would extend to all mankind if it insisted on owning rather than borrowing'.41 I have incorporated this concept into my creative piece when Naomi gets upset about “house-dwellers” (a term I picked up from Smith-Bendell42) hogging resources.43 The opportunist use of resources mirrors the natural world: Lee relates how he observed a blackbird pecking at the ground without questioning his personal rights to the land, he 'merely took from the land what he needed and no more'.44 Viewed 38 39 40 41 42

Lee, We Borrow the Earth., 101-102. Lee. We Borrow the Earth, 63, 66, 67, 80. Lee. We Borrow the Earth, XIV. Lee. We Borrow the Earth, XV. Maggie Smith-Bendell, Rabbit Stew and a Penny or Two (London: Abacus, 2010), Kindle edition, Loc. 247. 43 Fonseca, Bury Me Standing, Kindle edition, Loc. 745. 44 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 66.

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through the lense of an 'ownership […] state of mind',45 this may be misconstrued as stealing,46 when in fact the Gypsy would just as easily surrender what has been obtained under different circumstances.47 Money is seen as a necessary evil (hence dosh, from the Sanskrit root dush for evil).48 It only became necessary to use currency when living off the land was made impossible through the restrictions imposed by settled society.49 A Path of Non-Attachment It strikes me that the essence of being a Gypsy lies in non-attachment: I am not my possessions, I am not my occupation, I am not of my location.50 What I am is my experience,51 and a member of my tribe and family,52 an identity which cannot be 45 Lee. 46 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 72-73. 47 Fonseca, Bury Me Standing. Kindle edition, Loc. 712. 48 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 103. 49 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 103. 50 Sandford, Gypsies, 5. 51 Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 54. 52 Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 6.5 53 “They Steal Children Don’t They,” BBC4, 7 September 2008, https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondemand/i ndex.php/prog/00A2E21E?bcast=29821102. 2:25-3:08.

taken away by a change in external circumstances. This attitude is suggestive of a clarity of mind that arises from a minimalist philosophy, as opposed to the cluttered mindset of a person with many attachments. It speaks of trust in the world as a benevolent home: every being has a right to be sustained, the Earth itself provides, it is not humanity's place to administer and bestow resources.53 There is also an acceptance of change,54 with some even changing name when moving on to a new location.55 I incorporated this in my creative piece when the girl spontaneously picks her name, Naomi. Community, Authority and Children Romani people have a tribal56 mindset. 57 They like to keep themselves to 54 Fonseca, Bury Me Standing, Kindle edition, Loc. 712. 55 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 68. 56 “tribe” being defined by Oxford Languages on Google as “a social division in a traditional society consisting of families or communities linked by social, economic, religious, or blood ties, with a common culture and dialect” [accessed March 18, 2021] 57 Matras, I Met Lucky People. 37. Fonseca, Bury Me Standing., Kindle Edition, Loc. 535-543, 611, 696. Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 84-85.

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themselves and consider this part of the tacho drom, the true path, not just a result of being outsiders.58 The total absence of privacy and individualism can of course be claustrophobic for some.59 Respect has to be earned, a person has to be “well-thought-of” if they are to gain a position of importance.60 Children are people in their own right, raised collectively by the community with great freedom.61 Men and woman have set roles, with the former often producing items for the latter to sell. Negotiations with outsiders, especially over conflicts, would typically be held by men;62 however, women are highly influential and imbued with magical powers,63 the Puri Dai (grandmother), being a matriarch.64 Politics are a gadže concept; there would be no point voting for someone who does not know personally

those for whom they are responsible,65 likewise banks are not considered trustworthy.66

58 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 36-37. 59 Reeve, Smoke in the Lanes: Happiness and Hardship on the Road with the Gypsies in the 1950s., Kindle edition, Loc. 145 Fonseca, Bury Me Standing, Kindle edition, Loc. 554. 60 Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 59, 61-63. 61 Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 68. 62 Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 83. 63 Lee, We Borrow the Earth. 90-97. 64 Jarman and Jarman, The Welsh Gypsies, 15.

65 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 32-33. 66 Fonseca, Bury Me Standing, Kindle edition, Loc. 662. 67 Jarman and Jarman, The Welsh Gypsies, 28-32. 68 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 79-81. Jarman and Jarman, The Welsh Gypsies, 27. 69 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 78. Fonseca, Bury Me Standing, Loc. 703. Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 84. 70 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 97-98. 71 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 98.

Ritual Cleanliness It is of utmost importance to avoid items or people becoming mokado (contaminated),67 a deceased's possessions must be burned. 68 Contact with gadže can lead to contamination,69 as they too possess powerful magic, though unaware.70 Lee relates his mother providing food for him to take to band practice, and he had to refuse food prepared by his friend's Mum.71 I used this in the story when Naomi excuses herself when food is offered. Sense of Humour In spite of all the hardship they have suffered, Romani people retain their

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sense of humour, not taking life too seriously, even in the face of adversity, instead laughing at people, themselves and gadže alike;72 like Naomi after picking her name in my story. Sandford writes that two things that struck him most while researching his book 'were the humour and fortitude of the people' he spoke to.73 Persecution The history of the persecution of Gypsies is a long and painful one. Some telling examples from France: in 1606 gatherings of more than four led to 'punishment as “vagabonds and evil doers”,74 in 1666 simply 'being “a Bohemian”' was punishable by galleys, flogging, branding and banishment.75 In 1745 Spain, 'failure to settle' led to execution, apparently by any member of the public: 'It is legal to fire upon them to 72 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 4. 73 Sandford, Gypsies, 10. 74 Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 95. 75 Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 96. 76 Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 109. 77 Moreau, The Rom. 256. 78 Matras, I Met Lucky People, 167. 79 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 39. 80 Matras, I Met Lucky People, 150. 81 Reeve, Smoke in the Lanes: Happiness and Hardship on the Road with the Gypsies in the 1950s, Kindle edition, Loc. 168.

take their life.'76 Britain banned them from entering the country in 1530.77 Behind these disproportionately punitive measures is the desire to control citizens78 in order to tax them,79 make them fight for king and country, or exploit them in other ways. Settled citizens are more convenient in that respect,80 and should be prevented from observing those of a nomadic disposition getting away without making such sacrifices,81 lest they get the idea of taking to the road.82 Often laws were not so much broken by Gypsies, but rather constructed around them, effectively outlawing their lifestyle.83 If more and more common land is fenced off and declared private property,84 including its wells and the animals that live on it, you become a trespasser, poacher and thief,

82 Sandford, Gypsies, 1. 83 Sandford, Gypsies, XV. “Tonight: Not in My Back Yard,” ITV, 27 October, 2011. https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondemand/i ndex.php/prog/020F2E92?bcast=72889217. 9:29-35. 84 Len Smith, Romany Nevi-Wesh: An Informal History of the New Forest Gypsies (Minstead: Nova Foresta, 2004), 74.

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simply by using resources that you have always accessed.85 During the Holocaust, more than 500,000 Roma lost their lives in workand death-camps, and through horrific experimentation.86 Recent examples of people's homes being bulldozed in Romania,87 with refusal of political asylum in Britain on the grounds of coming from a “safe country”, serve as a reminder that this sad chapter of history continues.88 Fear (and ignorance)89 of the law persists: there is a sense that if a Gypsy and a gadžo go to court, the Gypsy will be disadvantaged.90 Prince Nathaniel Petulengro Lee's accounts of his personal history confirm this 91 perception. Even after obtaining British citizenship, a man drummed it into his

children they must not cause offence lest they'd be deported.92 Attempts to integrate Gypsies have taken the form of making them adopt a settled lifestyle on gadže terms,93 rather than enabling them to pursue theirs94 in a dignified way and with access to resources. The mistrust against gadže, their laws and attitudes,95 I have reflected in my piece when Naomi relates people avoiding them, and when her grandmother is protective against her mixing with gadže.

85 Matras, I Met Lucky People, 148. “They Steal Children Don’t They.”, 3:23-31. Sandford, Gypsies, 182-183. 86 Moreau, The Rom, 275-285. Matras, I Met Lucky People, 183. “Entschädigung und NS-Verfahren,” Zentralrat Deutscher Sinti und Roma (blog), accessed 6 January 2021, https://zentralrat.sintiundroma.de/arbeitsber eiche/entschaedigung-und-ns-verfahren/. 87 “The Struggle for Survival of the Roma People: Europe’s Most Hated”, YouTube, posted 24 July 2014. https://youtu.be/ALdlphTYdi4.

88 Matras, I Met Lucky People, 9. 89 Smith-Bendell, Rabbit Stew and a Penny or Two, Kindle edition, Loc. 255. 90 Lee, We Borrow the Earth, 18, 171. 91 Sandford, Gypsies, 13-25. 92 Matras, I Met Lucky People, 9. 93 Liégeois, An Illustrated History, 139. Matras, I Met Lucky People, 168. 94 Sandford, Gypsies, 38-39. 95 Reeve, Smoke in the Lanes: Happiness and Hardship on the Road with the Gypsies in the 1950s., Kindle edition, Loc. 73-82. 96 Matras, I Met Lucky People., 156.

Stereotyping and Cultural Appropriation The romantic representation of “The Gypsy” in film and literature has not done anything towards furthering the cause of acceptance.96 Their way of being has been stylised to the point of caricature.

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As a result, they are regarded like fictional characters, and are not taken seriously as real people facing real problems, such as an ever increasing lack of spaces on which to camp.97 Some of the more stereotypical literature could be accused of cultural appropriation. However, it is my view that we all share one world and should cherish and safeguard all of its rich heritage. If we refrain from writing about others, their issues receive less exposure. Thus, in the spirit of borrowing, not stealing, I have appropriated the results of my research to propose a change of attitude. We, as a society, need to become more inclusive towards Gypsies, without attempting to assimilate them. Learn about them. Learn from them. Preserve wild spaces for the benefit of all, we need them! Could we live with less? If you can borrow it, why own it? References “A Very British History - Romany Gypsies.” BBC1, October 16, 2019. https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondem and/index.php/prog/127B9236?bcast=1 30418771.

Barton, Jo, and Mike Rogerson. “The Importance of Greenspace for Mental Health.” BJPsych International 14, no. 4 (November 1, 2017): 79–81. Braubach, Matthias, Andrey Egorov, Pierpaolo Mudu, Tanja Wolf, Catharine Ward Thompson, and Marco Martuzzi. “Effects of Urban Green Space on Environmental Health, Equity and Resilience.” In Nature-Based Solutions to Climate Change Adaptation in Urban Areas: Linkages between Science, Policy and Practice, edited by Nadja Kabisch, Horst Korn, Jutta Stadler, and Aletta Bonn, 187–205. Theory and Practice of Urban Sustainability Transitions. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31956091-5_11. Cartwright, Garth. Princes amongst Men: Journeys with Gypsy Musicians. London: Serpent’s Tail, 2005. Engemann, Kristine, Carsten Bøcker Pedersen, Lars Arge, Constantinos Tsirogiannis, Preben Bo Mortensen, and Jens-Christian Svenning. “Residential Green Space in Childhood Is Associated

97 “Tonight: Not in My Back Yard.” 6:13-33; 9:4910:11; 17:31-45; 25:20-40.

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with Lower Risk of Psychiatric Disorders from Adolescence into Adulthood.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 116, no. 11 (December 3, 2019): 5188–93. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.180750411 6. Zentralrat Deutscher Sinti und Roma. “Entschädigung und NS-Verfahren.” Accessed January 6, 2021. https://zentralrat.sintiundroma.de/arbei tsbereiche/entschaedigung-und-nsverfahren/. Fonseca, Isabel. Bury Me Standing. Vintage Digital, 2011. Fraser, Angus M. The Gypsies. The Peoples of Europe. Oxford, UK ; Cambridge, Mass. USA: Blackwell, 1992. Gallagher, Patrick. “The Environmental, Social, and Cultural Impacts of Sprawl.” Natural Resources & Environment 15, no. 4 (2001): 219–67. “Green Space Is Good for Mental Health.” Text.Article. NASA Earth Observatory, July 17, 2019. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ima

ges/145305/green-space-is-good-formental-health. “How and Where Did UK Lose City-Sized Area of Green Space in Just Six Years? | Environment | The Guardian,” February 7, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/environ ment/2015/jul/02/how-where-did-uklose-green-space-bigger-than-a-citysix-years. Jarman, Eldra, and A. O. H Jarman. The Welsh Gypsies: Children of Abram Wood. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1998. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx ?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=n labk&AN=32773. Jung, C. G., and Meredith Sabini. The Earth Has a Soul: The Nature Writings of C.G. Jung. Berkeley, Calif: North Atlantic Books, 2002. Lee, Patrick Jasper. We Borrow the Earth: An Intimate Portrait of the Gypsy Shamanic Tradition and Culture. London: Thorsons, 2000. Liégeois, Jean-Pierre, and Tony (Tr.) Berrett. An Illustrated History. Place of

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publication not identified: Saqi Books, 1986. Matras, Yaron. I Met Lucky People: The Story of the Romani Gypsies. London: Allen Lane, an imprint of Penguin Books, 2014. Moreau, Roger. The Rom: Walking in the Paths of the Gypsies. Toronto, Ont: Key Porter Books, 1995. Reeve, Dominic. Smoke in the Lanes: Happiness and Hardship on the Road with the Gypsies in the 1950s. Abacus, 2011. “ROMBASE - Didactically Edited Information on Roma.” Accessed January 5, 2021. http://rombase.unigraz.at/. Sandford, Jeremy. Gypsies. London: Martin Secker & Warburg Limited, 1973. Smith, Len. Romany Nevi-Wesh: An Informal History of the New Forest Gypsies. Minstead: Nova Foresta, 2004. Smith-Bendell, Maggie. Rabbit Stew and a Penny or Two. London: Abacus, 2010.

“The Struggle for Survival of the Roma People: Europe’s Most Hated.” YouTube Video. VICE News, July 24, 2014. https://youtu.be/ALdlphTYdi4. “They Steal Children Don’t They.” BBC4, September 7, 2008. https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondem and/index.php/prog/00A2E21E?bcast=2 9821102. “Tonight: Not in My Back Yard.” London: ITV, October 27, 2011. https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondem and/index.php/prog/020F2E92?bcast=7 2889217. “Tribe Definition - Google Search.” Accessed March 18, 2021. https://www.google.com/search?q=trib e+definition&rlz=1C1CHBD_engbGB923GB926&oq=tribe+definition&aqs =chrome..69i57j46i433j46i175i199j0i433j4 6i175i199j0l4.4577j0j15&sourceid=chrom e&ie=UTF-8. Additional Sources “Angloromani.” Accessed 7 December 2020. https://romani.humanities.manchester.a c.uk/angloromani/dictionary.html?page =65.

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Donert, Celia. “Anti-Roma Stigma of Czech President Miloš Zeman Threatens Progress over Romani Rights.” The Conversation. Accessed 27 November 2020. http://theconversation.com/antiroma-stigma-of-czech-president-miloszeman-threatens-progress-overromani-rights-88437. “Flächennutzung.” Accessed 23 November 2020. https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/ BranchenUnternehmen/LandwirtschaftForstwirtschaftFischerei/Flaechennutzung/_inhalt.html . Foreman, Jonathan. “Lionel Shriver Is Out of Line: And Thank God.” Commentary 142, no. 5 (2016): 31–36. “Frontiers | Relatively Wild Urban Parks Can Promote Human Resilience and Flourishing: A Case Study of Discovery Park, Seattle, Washington | Sustainable Cities.” Accessed 23 November 2020. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10. 3389/frsc.2020.00002/full.

“Green Space, Mental Wellbeing and Sustainable Communities - Public Health Matters.” HM Gov UK, October 2016. Accessed 23 November 2020. https://publichealthmatters.blog.gov.uk /2016/11/09/green-space-mentalwellbeing-and-sustainablecommunities/. “Green Spaces Improve Schoolchildren’s Mental Development, Study Finds” The Guardian, 15 June 2015. Accessed 23 November 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/environ ment/2015/jun/15/green-spacesimprove-school-childrens-mentaldevelopment-study-finds. “Günter Grass on Europe’s Gypsy Population,” 28 May, 2013. Accessed 23 November 2020. https://literatureandthetortoise.wordpre ss.com/2013/05/28/gunter-grass-oneuropes-gypsy-population/. Lev, Elizabeth, Peter H. Jr Kahn, Hanzi Chen, and Garrett Esperum. “Relatively Wild Urban Parks Can Promote Human Resilience and Flourishing: A Case Study of Discovery Park, Seattle, Washington.” Frontiers in Sustainable Cities 2 (2020).

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https://doi.org/10.3389/frsc.2020.0000 2. “Lionel Shriver’s Full Speech: ‘I Hope the Concept of Cultural Appropriation Is a Passing Fad’” The Guardian, 13 Sep 2016. Accessed 23 November 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/comme ntisfree/2016/sep/13/lionel-shriversfull-speech-i-hope-the-concept-ofcultural-appropriation-is-a-passing-fad. “List of English Words of Romani Origin.” Wikipedia. Accessed 23 September 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti tle=List_of_English_words_of_Romani_or igin&oldid=979882672.

McFarlane, Robert. Landmarks. Illustrated ed. London: Penguin, 2015. Kindle Edition. Robinson, Ken. Out of Our Minds: Learning to Be Creative. Fully revised and Updated ed. Westford, MA: Capstone, 2011. “Revealed Extra: My Gypsy Life.” BBC2, 9 April 2010. https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondem and/index.php/prog/016B32F0?bcast=5 2495445.

Macdonald, Helen, Vesper Flights, read by Helen Macdonald (Bolinda Audio, 1 September 2020). Audiobook. “Martin Niemöller: ‘First They Came for the Socialists...’” Accessed 23 November 2020. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/conte nt/fa/article/martin-niemoeller-firstthey-came-for-the-socialists.

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Changes Susanne Berger MA Creative Writing It was early March when they arrived. A small encampment of half a dozen caravans, parked on one of the meadows by the Wolfstream Forest. It had been raining for weeks and spring was nowhere to be seen. They chose this field because it sloped down towards the wooded valley, so the water had been running off into the little stream below, and unlike everywhere else it had not turned to mud. We local children considered it our meadow, because this was where we played when the weather was better. We pretended it was a prairie through which cowboys were chasing Indians on invisible, but very vocal, horses. We built teepees from sticks and leaves at the forest-edge, and smoked peace pipes made of twigs round imaginary camp fires. Only the initiated were allowed to know the location of the gatherings. Those we didn't like were tied to a totem pole. Someone else making camp on our meadow seemed an imposition, even though we had not been using it since the

snow melted, putting an end to sledging season. We were not exactly rushing out to play, with all the colours of the previous year well and truly washed away. We were waiting inside our warm and cosy houses for new colours to emerge and inspire our imagination to new games. Who were these people who had taken over what was rightfully ours? We heard the adults in the village talk of “the Gypsies”, forbidding us to go out to play around the forest and fields, and demanding the Parish Council to intervene and break up the camp. That sparked our interest. A forbidden field became an attraction, regardless of how unattractive the weather might have rendered it. *** My house was not far away, surrounded by an unfenced garden which most respectable citizens would have called wilderness, and full of treasured possessions which most would have considered junk. One Friday morning on my way to school I passed the field with the Gypsies. There was a girl about my age sitting on a stool in front of the nearest caravan, minding and occasionally stirring a large pot over a gas burner. Some other children were

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noisily playing further away near the forest's edge. I couldn't understand what they were saying. The girl had curly brown hair held together in a lose ponytail, some unruly strands hanging down her face. She looked up from her pot as though she had known I was coming and smiled at me. My heart was thumping in my throat and the hairs on my back bristled. I got hot and cold at once and didn't know how to respond. My friends' parents had been saying not to play with these children. I had just been wondering with a little pang of envy why they weren't at school, and what they might get up to in our forest whilst we weren't there to guard it. Had the girl read my mind? But then, why was she smiling? She looked friendly. That did not tally with my expectations, having been warned against her kind, and having just entertained hostile thoughts as I was passing. I felt rumbled, looked at my shoes and picked up my pace, the satchel full of books weighing me down, making me clumsy and holding me back. I had to lean forward to keep my balance. The girl was looking at me, I was sure. Later that day, on my way home, I was considering a detour to avoid another embarrassing encounter. But then I decided against it. I was curious

and part of me wanted to see her again, so I could make up for the bad impression I must have made earlier. As I approached the camp I could smell cooking, a kind of stew. The pot from this morning was steaming above the burner, the flame extinguished now. All was quiet and there was no one outside the caravans. I was a little disappointed, when suddenly one of the doors opened and out came the girl, dish in hand. This time she ignored me, busying herself with the stew, then rushing back inside. I tried not to stare, and carried on. When I got home, over dinner (sausage and chips), I quizzed my Mum what types of stew there were. She explained the few variations she usually made, mentioning that some people add rice instead of pasta, but she could tell that this was not the answer I'd been looking for. 'Why are you asking?' 'Just because,' I mumbled, hiding my hot, blushing face in my bowl. She shrugged and started tidying the dishes away. *** The next day the sun came out. The sky was still hazy, but the birds were singing and spring seemed in the air. I plotted an excuse to hang out near the camp. After

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breakfast I announced that I would go play outside and take the dog. My parents were only too happy to have us out from under their feet. We went down the hill and into the forest from the other side, then ambled through the familiar trees and along the stream, visiting all the different little ponds it formed along the way. When we got to the point where the tall beech trees along the edge of the field could be seen, I zig-zagged through the undergrowth towards the little path, making it look as though the dog was pulling me here and there. As I had almost reached the meadow I tripped on a muddy patch and landed on my hands and knees, splashing my face. The leash slipped my hand and Spot took full advantage of his freedom. Cheerfully barking he charged across the meadow and made a beeline for the pot in the middle of the camp. I scrambled to my feet and limped across, familiar heat rising to my face, covered in mud. There was the girl making a fuss of Spot, who was wagging his tail like he had met an old friend. 'Thanks for catching him,' I said, attempting a smile, feeling like an idiot.

'He came by himself,' she replied, looking at Spot, scratching his ear. Then she turned to me and said: 'You look a mess. Have you hurt yourself?' 'I, um, not sure,' I fumbled. 'Let's have a look,' she said, inspecting my mud-smeared face. She took out a handkerchief and dipped it in the boiling water. Her face was right up close, intently focused on me as she dabbed and wiped. Her eyes were an unusual colour, a mix of green, blue and brown. 'There,' she said, finally looking me in the eye and smiling. 'Thank you,' I said. 'I'm Tom. Sorry, I didn't talk to you yesterday.' 'It's okay,' she said. 'Most people don't want anything to do with us, I'm used to it.' 'What's your name?' 'Does is matter? – Naomi, you can call me Naomi,' she chuckled. Her laughter was infectious and I started laughing too. We both laughed until we had tears in our eyes, Spot running circles round us, barking, leaping up our legs in turn. 'Maybe we could play together some time,' I suggested.

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Naomi smiled. 'See you,' I said, picked up the end of Spot's leash and started walking, but my right knee was giving way. 'That leg of yours doesn't look good,' Naomi said, 'sit down and let my Grandma check it over!' She ran off to one of the caravans and banged on the door. 'Puri Dai, Puri Dai,' she shouted, the door opened, and a short, stout, wrinkled old woman with piercing black eyes appeared. Naomi gestured in my direction and said something to her. She stepped outside, pushing past Naomi and came marching towards me. If it hadn't been for my knee I would have taken flight. She looked fierce. She squatted and rolled my trouser-leg up. I winced. Naomi had caught up and was standing by, watching intently as the old woman took my shin, wriggled it to and fro, then gave it a sudden jerk, making it crack. She spat into a handkerchief and rubbed the mud from my grazed knee and shin, muttering as she worked. Then she said something to Naomi who dashed back to the caravan, returning with a small tub. 'Put this on for three nights and wrap it with a bandage,' the old woman ordered without a smile. She looked me

sternly in the eye. It felt like she could see right through me. 'Go home now,' she commanded, as she stood up and put her arm round Naomi's shoulders. I got up, took the dog-lead, and did as I was told. Naomi smiled and waved. I limply lifted my free hand to return the wave and walked away. The two of them must have been watching me. Next time I looked over my shoulder, the old woman spun Naomi round by her shoulder to turn away. *** Over the next few weeks I went out to play with Naomi many times. We explored the woods and hedgerows together as spring arrived, and I saw many things I had never noticed before, all the little creatures that lived there, the hedge-hogs, mice, and birds. Naomi seemed to know them like friends and was surprised how little I understood their habits. Her talking about them, and to them, made them become real for me. Sometimes we played in our garden, my Mum occasionally watching us from the upstairs window, but when she offered us drinks and snacks, Naomi always found a reason to go back home to her people.

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She seemed to know what was going on in animals' minds and state it outright as fact, like it was self-evident for all to know. One time a red sock had gone missing from our clothes-line, and we found it while exploring the old apple tree. In a fork of two sturdy branches, a squirrel had made a tangled nest of twigs, moss, bark, and leaves. Amongst the mess of materials a bit of red wool was peeking through here and there, and on closer inspection I recognised it as my Dad's missing sock. I started tugging at it, untangling it from the other materials. Naomi got upset. 'Hey, you're destroying the squirrel's nest,' she yelled. 'How are its babies supposed to keep warm at night?' 'Well, it's my Dad's sock, and the squirrel took it without asking. That's theft!' 'Was your Dad wearing the sock when the squirrel took it?' 'No, it was on the clothes-line, silly.' 'It was not in use and the squirrel needed it, it just borrowed it. Has your Dad got no other socks to wear?' 'Of course he has, gosh, hundreds.'

'So, what's the problem? You house-dwellers are all the same, hogging and hoarding stuff and never sharing with those in need,' she screamed with a red face. She slid nimbly down the tree and stormed off in a huff. I told my parents over dinner what had happened, and how upset I was about Naomi's outburst. ‘She's a child of nature,' Mum said. 'And she's right: your Dad has more than enough socks, he can spare one for a squirrel.' My Dad grunted assent as he put another bite in his mouth. 'Why don't you go and make up with her after we're finished?' I was never so quick to finish my chores, but when I got to the camp I couldn't see Naomi anywhere, the stewpot was gone and the caravan doors were shut. I knocked on the door I had seen her come out of before, but to my horror her scary Grandma opened. She stepped outside and shut the door behind herself. 'Is Naomi there,' I asked. 'Naomi? – She's gone out with her sisters,' came the answer, 'It's best you don't see her any more, she was crying this afternoon.'

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'I know, that's why I'm here.' 'That girl is special. One day she will continue my work. She doesn't need a gorjo to break her spirit. If her spirit breaks, it hurts us all. Do you understand? Go home.' I did not know what to say. Of course Naomi was special, she was special to me, and I wanted us to stay friends. Suddenly I saw her running down the lane towards me. 'I'm sorry,' I said when she caught up. 'We're leaving tomorrow. My Dad has work elsewhere. Here –' She handed me a beautiful, alabaster snail-shell. I was dumbfounded. I wanted to give her something in return, but I'd come emptyhanded. 'I will hang out my Dad's other sock,' I offered, 'for the squirrels and the birds next year.' Naomi smiled and gave me a long hug. When we finally parted we looked each other in the eye before saying our good-byes and going on our separate ways. *** Four decades have passed, and the vast majority of the fields in which we used to play have been built on. Mansions of

increasing grandeur have replaced our makeshift teepees. Wrought metal bars cover their windows, the double garages are fitted with automatic doors. Ostentatious burglar alarm systems are in place to contain and protect the valuable possessions inside. One or two retired occupants hide behind netcurtains for privacy, and are rarely seen in the large gardens with the manicured lawns, surrounded by tall electrified fences. The cosy caravans are a distant memory now, like the children who once played in that wildflower meadow. Their world has melted away like the winter snow that March back in 1980. I went on to study Biology and took a job at the Environment Agency. Naomi's shell is on my desk, and whenever I have an important decision to make, I pick it up and think of her. I try to do right by nature, acknowledging its pre-eminence over us humans, mindful of all we have already done to ruthlessly exploit and appropriate her resources, destroy her health and take away her nurturing presence from common people, sedantary and nomadic alike.

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Prejudice as a Psychosocial Issue During the Coronavirus Pandemic Charlotte Cheatle BSc Psychology The coronavirus outbreak began in November 2019, originating in Wuhan, China. Within only four months the virus had spread to 114 countries, resulting in more than 118,000 cases and 4,291 deaths (Bavel et al., 2020), and on the 11th March 2020, the outbreak was officially declared a global pandemic. One psychosocial issue that arose during the COVID-19 pandemic was an increase of hostility and prejudice towards ethnic minorities, in particular those of Asian descent. This concerns the crucial area of discourse of this publication: social justice. An article by Sky News reported at least 267 anti-Asian hate crimes, in the UK, in the first three months of 2020, a significantly high number compared to a total of 375 offences throughout the whole of 2019 (Mercer, 2020). Another article reported a 21% increase in hate crimes directed at South and East Asian communities, during the coronavirus Ingroup referring to a set of people with whom one shares some attribute that contributes to one's positive social identity (Triandis et al., 1988) 1

crisis (Grierson, 2020). These statistics provide a rationale for this work; the reasons for this increased racial prejudice are needed to be better understood, in order to help reduce such atrocities in the future. When referring to prejudice, it can be defined as “an unreasonable negative attitude towards others because of their membership in a particular group” (Fishbein, 1996, p. 5). This notion of prejudice will be discussed during this essay in terms of two fundamental concepts: ethnocentrism and anonymity. Various social psychological theories will be used to explain these concepts, and how they may contribute to an increase in prejudice. This includes social identity theory, realistic conflict theory, and deindividuation as key ideas to be considered when explaining the increase of discrimination towards ethnic minorities. Much research has looked at the links between ingroup1 threat and prejudice. One study found that the threat of infectious disease is often associated with higher levels of ethnocentrism (Schaller & Neuberg,

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2012), which suggests people would likely be more ethnocentric during the COVID-19 pandemic. Ethnocentrism, coming from the Greek word ‘enthos’ meaning a particular nation or ethnic group, can be defined as a view in which one’s own group is the centre of everything, and outsiders are looked at with contempt (Sumner, 1906). Some researchers have distinguished between two types of ethnocentrism: explicit and implicit, two similar yet distinct concepts. With explicit (conscious) ethnocentrism people are willing to express negative stereotypes toward outsider groups, whereas implicit (unconscious) ethnocentrism is characterised by an inhibition to covey these opinions (Cunningham et al., 2004; Hooghe, 2008). There are several conceptualisations of ethnocentrism; the evolutionary approach2, threat and conflict explanations3, self-aggrandizement theories4, and socialization and normative explanations5 to name a few. The most noteworthy in this context is

the threat and conflict explanation. This theory argues that ethnocentrism arises as a defence mechanism6 against threat and conflict (Bizumic, 2015). The importance of this will be discussed later in this essay. Consequently, it can be said that ethnocentrism has long been intertwined with prejudice and may provide a reasoning behind the increased discrimination during the COVID-19 outbreak, underpinning this notion of social justice. Ethnocentrism is a key component in social identity theory (SIT) (Abrams & Hogg, 1990a; Henry Tajfel & Turner, 1979). The main premise of SIT is that social groups provide members with a social identity; a sense of who they are, and a framework of norms and behaviour based on their group membership (Abrams & Hogg, 1990b). Subsequently, we divide the world into us (the ingroup) and them (the outgroup) through the process of social categorisation. Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed that these groups, to which we identify with, provide

A perspective concerning evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviours. 3 Explanations which look at the ideas surrounding danger and protracted disputes

The idea that oneself is more important or powerful 5 The notion of conforming to the norms of the social group 6 Defence mechanisms, originating in Freudian psychology, refer to behaviours people use to separate themselves from unpleasant situations

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a sense of pride and self-esteem. People strive to maintain and enhance positive self-esteem, and in doing so exaggerate the positives of the ingroup and the negatives of the outgroup. Therefore, parallel to this is the notion of ethnocentrism and in-group favouritism. Tajfel and Turner (1979) described three stages of social identity theory. First is categorisation; this involves putting people into categories and is based on the normal cognitive process of grouping things together. By doing so, one accentuates the differences between groups and the similarities within groups. The second phase of SIT is social identification, which entails what was discussed earlier; one adopts the identity of the group and conforms to the group’s norms. Likewise, there is an emotional connection to this group identity. The third stage is social comparison,

comprising of one group comparing their group with others7. In order to maintain positive self-esteem, this comparison needs to be favourable to one’s own group. When this identity becomes unsatisfactory there are two options; leave the group or make the existing group more advantageous. Although social identity theory and ethnocentrism can be thought of as a universal concept (see footnote 7), some research suggests that individuals from collectivist cultures8 exhibit a heightened distinction between ingroup and outgroup members, compared to those from individualist9 backgrounds (Hagger et al., 2014; Triandis, 1995). This highlights the cultural variations that surround the idea of social justice. As previously stated, research indicates people become more ethnocentric when there is a threat of

Interestingly, a study by Mahajan et al. (2011) found that monkeys (Rhesus Macaque) share the same intergroup bias that humans do, indicating that the premise of social identity theory is an evolutionary adaptation as well as a universal phenomenon, dating back at least 25 million years (when humans and the Rhesus last shared a common ancestor). This notion ties in with the general idea of social justice, hinting that it is not just localised to humans.

Collectivist referring to cultures in which the needs and goals of the group as a whole are favoured over the needs and desires of the individual. Examples include Japan, China and Indonesia 9 Individualist referring to cultures which are oriented around the individual and the self. Examples include the US, Germany and Australia

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infectious disease, i.e., during the COVID19 pandemic, and so the negative perceptions of the outgroup are intensified. In the case of the coronavirus outbreak, ethnicity can be seen as a social identity and therefore, in England and many other countries, Asians would be viewed as the outgroup, thus becoming the subject of blame and prejudice, a key idea in the topic of social justice. An example of racial discrimination stemming from the coronavirus pandemic is the violent assault on Mok, a twenty-three-year-old Singaporean. Mok was attacked on Oxford Street, London in February 2020 (Ng, 2021). His attackers physically beat Mok whilst shouting “I don’t want your coronavirus in my country”. The relevance of the possessive pronouns “your” and “my” highlight this differentiation between the attackers’ ingroup and outgroup, white British vs Southeast Asian. They viewed Mok as a member of the outgroup and as a result, the negative associations surrounding

Asian people become exaggerated. Mok was blamed as a potential bringer of the virus, and consequently was the subject of racial discrimination. Although, it must be noted that many criticise the empirical evidence that supports the idea that social identity theory even exists. Some refer to the participant’s uncertainty of the experimental procedure, arguing this uncertainty increases levels of discrimination. However, the research findings of Tajfel and Billig (1974) dispute this statement10. In addition, suspicions that empirical evidence of social identity theory is merely a result of group members assuming high levels of interpersonal similarity has been put to rest by Billig and Tajfel (1973)11. Others claim that experimental results are merely showing demand characteristics, yet St. Claire and Turner (1982) investigated this and argue that results are genuine12.

Results showed subjects who were familiar with the experimental setting showed more outgroup hate and discrimination than that of the unfamiliar condition 11 They found that randomly assigned groups, with no interpersonal similarities still showed outgroup discrimination. They also found that

discrimination was actually more marked in the randomly assigned group than the condition in which individuals had similarities (but were not introduced to the notion of the ‘group’) 12 Their results showed ingroup favouritism in both the prejudice condition, but also a control group.

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Discrimination during the COVID19 pandemic is further exemplified through a case in Solihull, Birmingham, against Huang, a 28-year-old Chinese woman (Gregory, 2020). The event entailed a man shouting, “take your fucking coronavirus and take it back home” and repeatedly attempting to spit at her. The man subsequently assaulted a friend of Huang’s who tried to intervene. This example of outgroup hate could be explained further in terms of ethnocentrism. As previously noted, some argue ethnocentrism arises as a defence mechanism against threat and conflict. This links into realistic conflict theory (Sherif, 1966), which states that prejudice and conflict are the results of competition over valuable but limited resources between groups. Those of Asian descent are viewed as an outgroup, as was illustrated earlier, and thus competition develops. In this case, healthcare can be seen as the valuable but limited resource. The number of people in hospital with coronavirus

peaked at 29,346, in England, in January 2021(ITV News, 2021), highlighting the crucial role healthcare services play during the height of the pandemic. Consequently, Asians may be viewed as competitors to the resource of healthcare13. This conflict for resources would be noted as an intractable conflict14, as it concerns an issue of great importance to the survival of the group15. Intractable conflicts are often zero-sum; they are perceived as unsolvable and therefore result in long-lasting hostility between parties. This intractable conflict would lead to prejudice and outgroup hate, such as the discrimination against Huang. It may be significant that the perpetrator said to “take it back home”, perhaps referring to the limited resource of healthcare in England and the competition which arises due to the threat that Asian people supposedly represent. This premise of realistic conflict theory was demonstrated initially through a series of field experiments

E.g., hospital beds, ICU ventilators and hospital staff 14 Conflicts which follow more destructive paths, are often long-lived and are of concern to the safety of the group. They often resist intervention

and instead become increasingly hostile and sometimes even violent. 15 i.e., without hospital beds members of the group would die

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(Sherif, 1954, 1958, 1961), which became known as the Robbers cave experiments . The general procedure involved a group of young boys, unknown to each other but with similar family backgrounds, arriving at a summer camp and taking part in various camp-wide activities. The camp was then divided into two random groups which were completely isolated from each other, splitting previously formed friendships. The groups were then subject to the three phases of the experiment. First was the bonding stage, in which members of each group engaged in co-operative tasks where they formed their own norms and status differentiations. It was during this phase the boys showed embryonic ethnocentrism (Hogg & Vaughan, 1995). The second stage, the friction phase, saw the two groups brought together to engage in organised intergroup contests to compete for prizes, such as trophies16. This phase saw the amplification of ethnocentrism and outgroup hate, beginning with verbal abuse and quickly escalating to hostility outside the competitions, such as the burning of the other group’s flags and stealing of 16

Used to represent resources

personal property. The intergroup conflict became so intense that two of the three experiments were ended preemptively at this stage. The third and final stage, known as the reducing friction phase, involved the researchers introducing superordinate goals17 wherein the two groups would have to work together in order to earn their reward. This was shown to reduce conflict and enhance positive intergroup dependence. This study demonstrates how competition for resources results in ethnocentrism, prejudice, and outgroup hate, and can be directly applied to the COVID-19 situation. Nevertheless, there lies a critical weakness to the Robbers cave experiments. The study used only white, middle-class boys and therefore may not be generalizable to girls, adults nor those of different ethnicities and backgrounds, reducing the general external validity of the research. What’s more, the boys involved were all teenagers. During puberty, testosterone increases by approximately 30 times (Duke et al., 2014). Studies have found significant correlations between testosterone levels Referring to goals which require two or more groups to co-operate in order to achieve the end result. 17

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and aggression (Archer, 1991; Batrinos, 2012; Ricci et al., 2013) and so this may give an alternative explanation as to why the study resulted in conflict. Moreover, despite being a field experiment, the groups and the tasks in the Robbers cave studies were artificial and did not reflect real-life situations. This could be said to reduce the ecological validity of the experiment. Another key idea to be considered, when aiming to explain the increase in discrimination against ethnic minorities during the COVID-19 pandemic, is anonymity. Anonymity refers to any condition in which one’s identity is unknown to others and is of interest as much research argues that under such conditions people tend to behave in ways that are often immoral and unethical (Reber & Reber, 2001). Research by Singer et al. (1965) investigated the effects anonymity has on behaviour. Results showed subjects dressed in laboratory coats used more obscene language than those who were more easily identifiable, showing the impact that anonymity has on antisocial behaviour. This idea of anonymity is particularly significant now that the country is being encouraged to wear

face masks. Research has suggested that people are more antisocial whilst wearing masks (Diener et al., 1976; Miller & Rowold, 1979), perhaps hinting at a reason for the increase in racial prejudice during the pandemic. The key idea behind why anonymity leads to antisocial behaviour is de-individuation, a concept originally discussed by Le Bon (1895) and built upon significantly by (Zimbardo, 1969). The term de-individuation, coined by Festinger et al. (1952), is a psychological state in which an individual loses their sense of self-identity and takes on the identity of the social group (Flanagan et al., 2016). In an individual state, our behaviour is constrained by social norms, whereas when in a deindividuated state behaviour is often emotional, impulsive, irrational, regressive, and atypical (Zimbardo, 1969). In short, whilst wearing a mask people shift from an individual state to a deindividuated state, therefore increasing the potential for immoral and unethical behaviour. In addition to de-individuation theory, anonymity is also a fundamental idea in crowd psychology. Crowds provide a sense of anonymity; we become an anonymous member of a

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group rather than a distinct individual, and thus our behaviour can change. Crowds also closely relate to the concept of diffusion of responsibility18. According to Beyer et al. (2017) diffusion of responsibility underpins an increase in aggressive behaviour in group contexts, such as behaviour in crowds. Although crowds were discouraged during the coronavirus pandemic, some persisted. A video went viral depicting a case of discrimination in Nairobi, Kenya, although it is clear this sort of behaviour was happening all over the world. The incident involved an angry mob threatening a man and a woman of East Asian descent regarding the virus (Mwaura, 2020). One crowd-member shouted, “You are coronavirus!” and another raised his hand, threatening to hit the man. The idea of deindividuation and anonymity may explain why the individuals acted the way they did in the incident in Nairobi. Members of the group may have shifted to a deindividuated state due to the anonymity provided by the crowd. This may have led to their

discriminatory behaviour like shouting racist comments. On the other hand, Prentice-Dunn and Rogers (1982) argue de-individuation in crowds is not a result of anonymity directly, but the effects anonymity has on self-awareness19. They found that participants who were prevented from becoming self-aware, administered more powerful electric shocks than a control group, highlighting the importance that self-awareness has on negative behaviour. This process can be explained further in terms of private and public self-awareness. Private selfawareness denotes the attention one displays to their own feelings and behaviour (Carver & Scheier, 1981). This is reduced when in a de-individuated state, such as when one is in a crowd (Bovasso, 1997). Distracted by the external events of the crowd, our attention instead becomes focused outwardly, and subsequently triggers a state where one is less self-evaluative. This could give further explanation to the crowd’s behaviour in Nairobi; the group may have caused a reduced sense of private self-

the idea that the presence of others makes one feel less responsible for the consequences of their actions and therefore can change behaviour (Bandura, 1991)

A concept concerning one’s conscious knowledge of their personality and individuality

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awareness, meaning they were less selfcritical which therefore led to behaviour which was disinhibited and impulsive, such as the threat of violence. Additionally, a reduced sense of public self-awareness may have affected the individual’s behaviour during the incident in Nairobi. Public self-awareness refers to how much we care about how others perceive our behaviour (Carver & Scheier, 1981) and is influenced strongly by anonymity. Reduced attention to public self-awareness is associated with deindividuation and antisocial behaviour (Hogg & Vaughan, 1995). If the individuals were less concerned about how they were being represented, they may begin to act in ways that were anti-normative and discriminatory, for instance, in shouting “You are coronavirus!” However, despite there being research support for deindividuation theory (e.g., Singer et al. 1965), not all scholars concur. Some argue deindividuation does not always lead to aggression. By way of example, a study known as ‘deviance in the dark’ (Gergen et al., 1973) assembled eight groups of strangers and left them in a dark room for one hour. They were told there were no rules, they could do whatever they

wanted to and that they would never encounter each other again. Although it may have been assumed that conflict and aggression would arise, instead the participants ended up kissing and touching one another intimately. This shows deindividuation does not always result in negative behaviours. To further illustrate, a study by (Johnson & Downing, 1979) investigated how the presence of a uniform affected the intensity level of electric shocks given to a confederate. Those in a Ku Klux Klan-type outfit, with masks to hide their identity, administered more powerful electric shocks than a control group dressed in their own clothes. Interestingly, participants dressed as nurses gave fewer shocks at lower levels and were said to be more compassionate towards their ‘victims’, compared to the control group. This shows how normative cues influence the outcomes of deindividuation. Anonymity may also explain the increase in discrimination and hate crimes online. According to Blaya and Audrin (2019), cyberhate is a persistent problem that should be looked at with mounting concern. Kahn et al. (2013) argue that the anonymity of the internet provides a space where people can

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openly express their thoughts and beliefs, free from social desirability concerns20. They state that this may result in less self-censoring of prejudicial attitudes. They also refer to the opportunity the internet provides for prejudiced individuals to connect and contact each other, opening up more avenues for hate crimes to occur. Much research has investigated cyberhate and ‘flaming’ in online chatrooms, of which the latter refers to the sending of threatening or hostile messages using instant messaging or the internet. Results found a strong correlation between anonymity and flaming, and also found that the most aggressive messages were sent by those who chose not to reveal their identity (Douglas & McGarty, 2001). This study demonstrates how anonymity encourages anti-social and discriminatory behaviour in a context increasingly relevant; online. This idea of anonymity hints at one of the reasons why people may show discrimination in general, however, there is a distinct link to the coronavirus outbreak. There has been a 10.5% increase in social media use during the pandemic (Snyder, 2020),

meaning more people are using the internet than ever before. As such, there will be an increase in flaming due to increased usage. One analysis found more than 10,000 Twitter posts tagged with or including the derogatory term “kung-flu” and many posts including other offensive slurs such as “chop fluey” and “rice rabies” (Macguire, 2020). Other examples of racial discrimination can be seen on the website 4chan (https://www.4chan.org) where comments such as “go eat a bat” and “THIS IS BIOTERRORISM NUKE CHINA NOW” have appeared. One particular case was of the internet vlogger, Jing He, 26, who received a thread of discriminatory comments regarding China being responsible for the virus (Macguire, 2020). The individuals leaving these messages may have not done so if it was not for the anonymity providing them with a shield of reduced responsibility. In conclusion, several theories could be used to explain the increase in hostility and discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic, against ethnic minorities and particularly those of Asian

Social desirability referring to the tendency for people to change their behaviour to appear more socially acceptable 20

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descent. These include social identity theory, realistic conflict theory and deindividuation. Additionally, two key concepts were discussed in this essay: ethnocentrism and anonymity. Research has found levels of ethnocentrism increase during the threat of infectious disease. This ultimately links to social identity theory and the idea of ingroup vs outgroup; ethnicity can be seen as a social identity and therefore Asians will be viewed as the outgroup, resulting in prejudice. Furthermore, some state ethnocentrism occurs as a defence mechanism against threat and conflict. This relates to realistic conflict theory. In the case of the coronavirus pandemic, healthcare services are an extremely important resource, and so prejudice develops against competing groups (i.e., Asians). Moreover, anonymity may have played a part in the discrimination against ethnic minorities. The presence of facemasks induces a deindividuated state which has been found to increase antisocial behaviour. Deindividuation theory may also explain the hate crimes that occurred in crowds. The group makes one unidentifiable and provides a lowered attention to one’s private and public self-awareness and therefore,

members of the group become less accountable for their actions, ultimately making them more likely to become racially discriminatory. Anonymity can too explain the racial discrimination online; the presence of anonymity opens up an avenue of online hate, due to the lowered self-censoring. In summary, there are a number of theories which aim to explain the increase discrimination against ethnic minorities during the COVID-19 pandemic, and it is particularly important to better understand these ideas in order to reduce racial discrimination and promote social justice in the future. References Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. (1990b). Social Identification, Self-Categorization and Social Influence. European Review of Social Psychology, 1, 195–228. Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. A. (Eds.). (1990a). Social identity theory: Constructive and critical advances. Social Identity Theory: Constructive and Critical Advances., viii, 297–viii, 297. Archer, J. (1991). The influence of testosterone on human aggression.

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British Journal of Psychology, 82(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.20448295.1991.tb02379.x Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 248–287. Batrinos, M. L. (2012). Testosterone and aggressive behavior in man. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 10(3), 563–568. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijem.3661 Bavel, J. J. V., Baicker, K., Boggio, P. S., Capraro, V., Cichocka, A., Cikara, M., Crockett, M. J., Crum, A. J., Douglas, K. M., Druckman, J. N., Drury, J., Dube, O., Ellemers, N., Finkel, E. J., Fowler, J. H., Gelfand, M., Han, S., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., … Willer, R. (2020). Using social and behavioural science to support COVID19 pandemic response. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(5), 460–471. Beyer, F., Sidarus, N., Bonicalzi, S., & Haggard, P. (2017). Beyond self-serving bias: Diffusion of responsibility reduces sense of agency and outcome monitoring. Social Cognitive and Affective

Neuroscience, 12(1), 138–145. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw160 Billig, M., & Tajfel, H. (1973). Social categorization and similarity in intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 3(1), 27–52. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.242003010 3 Bizumic, B. (2015). Ethnocentrism and Prejudice: History of the Concepts. In International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (pp. 168–174). Blaya, C., & Audrin, C. (2019). Toward an Understanding of the Characteristics of Secondary School Cyberhate Perpetrators. Frontiers in Education, 4, 46. Bovasso, G. (1997). The Interaction of Depersonalization and Deindividuation. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 6, 213–228. Carver, & Scheier. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behavior. Springer. Cunningham, W., Nezlek, J., & Banaji, M. (2004). Implicit and Explicit Ethnocentrism: Revisiting the Ideologies

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of Prejudice. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1332–1346. Diener, E., Fraser, S. C., Beaman, A. L., & Kelem, R. T. (1976). Effects of deindividuation variables on stealing among Halloween trick-or-treaters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33(2), 178–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.33.2.178 Douglas, K. M., & McGarty, C. (2001). Identifiability and self-presentation: Computer-mediated communication and intergroup interaction. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 399– 416. Duke, S. A., Balzer, B. W. R., & Steinbeck, K. S. (2014). Testosterone and Its Effects on Human Male Adolescent Mood and Behavior: A Systematic Review. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(3), 315–322. Festinger, L., Pepitone, A., & Newcomb, T. (1952). Some consequences of deindividuation in a group. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47(2, Suppl), 382–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0057906

Fishbein, H. D. (1996). Peer prejudice and discrimination: Evolutionary, cultural, and developmental dynamics. Westview Press. Flanagan, C., Berry, D., Jarvis, M., & Liddle, R. (2016). AQA psychology: For A Level year 2. Gergen, K., Gergen, M., & Barton, W. H. (1973). Deviance in the dark. Psychology Today, 7, 129–130. Gregory, A. (2020). Man racially abuses woman then knocks her friend unconscious after she confronts him. The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/ uk/crime/coronavirus-racism-uk-chinaepidemic-birmingham-west-midlandspolice-a9343216.html Grierson, J. (2020). Anti-Asian hate crimes up 21% in UK during coronavirus crisis. The Guardian. Hagger, M. S., Rentzelas, P., & Koch, S. (2014). Evaluating Group Member Behaviour Under Individualist and Collectivist Norms: A Cross-Cultural Comparison. Small Group Research,

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45(2), 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496414525 479 Hogg, M. A., & Vaughan, G. M. (1995). Social psychology: An introduction. Prentice Hall. Hooghe, M. (2008). Ethnocentrism. In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. MacMillan Reference. ITV News. (2021). Covid situation to worsen, doctors warn, as UK hits record infections and deaths. ITV News. https://www.itv.com/news/2021-0109/covid-situation-to-worsen-doctorswarn-as-uk-hits-record-infections-anddeaths Johnson, R. D., & Downing, L. L. (1979). Deindividuation and valence of cues: Effects on prosocial and antisocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(9), 1532–1538. https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.37.9.1532 Kahn, K. B., Spencer, K., & Glaser, J. (2013). Online prejudice and discrimination: From dating to hating.

The Social Net: Understanding Our Online Behavior, 2nd Ed., 201–219. Le Bon, G. (1895). The crowd: A study of the popular mind. Macguire, E. (2020). Anti-Asian hate continues to spread online amid COVID19 pandemic. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020 /4/5/anti-asian-hate-continues-tospread-online-amid-covid-19-pandemic Mahajan, N., Martinez, M. A., Gutierrez, N. L., Diesendruck, G., Banaji, M. R., & Santos, L. R. (2011). The evolution of intergroup bias: Perceptions and attitudes in rhesus macaques. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(3), 387–405. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022459 Mercer, D. (2020). Coronavirus: Hate crimes against Chinese people soar in UK during COVID-19 crisis. Sky News. Miller, F. G., & Rowold, K. L. (1979). Halloween Masks and Deindividuation. Psychological Reports, 44, 422–422. Mwaura, W. (2020). Letter from Africa: The spread of coronavirus prejudice in

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Kenya—BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica-51770856 Ng, K. (2021). Attack on London law student over coronavirus was ‘racially motivated’. The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/ uk/crime/coronavirus-attack-londonracism-jonathan-mok-b1782233.html Prentice-Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (1982). Effects of public and private selfawareness on deindividuation and aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(3), 503–513. https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.43.3.503 Reber, A. S., & Reber, E. (2001). The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology 3rd Third Edition. Penguin. Ricci, L. A., Morrison, T. R., & Melloni, R. H., Jr. (2013). Adolescent anabolic/androgenic steroids: Aggression and anxiety during exposure predict behavioral responding during withdrawal in Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus). Hormones and Behavior, 64(5), 770–780. PubMed.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.10. 002 Schaller, M., & Neuberg, S. L. (2012). Danger, Disease, and the Nature of Prejudice(s). In J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 1–54). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012-394281-4.00001-5 Sherif, M. (1958). Superordinate Goals in the Reduction of Intergroup Conflict. American Journal of Sociology, 63(4), 349–356. JSTOR. Sherif, M. (Ed.). (1961). The Robbers Cave experiment: Intergroup conflict and cooperation (1st Wesleyan ed). Wesleyan University Press ; Distributed by Harper & Row. Sherif, M. (1966). In common predicament social psychology of intergroup conflict and cooperation. Houghton Mifflin comp. Sherif, M., University of Oklahoma., & Intergroup Relations Project. (1954). Experimental study of positive and negative intergroup attitudes between

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Triandis, H. C., Bontempo, R., Villareal, M. J., Asai, M., & Lucca, N. (1988). Individualism and collectivism: Crosscultural perspectives on self-ingroup relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(2), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.54.2.323 Zimbardo, P. G. (1969). The human choice: Individuation, reason, and order versus deindividuation, impulse, and chaos. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 17, 237–307.

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Critically addressing the reconciliation of the relationship between humans and nature using Næss and Krishnamurti Tanya Welton BA Education Studies The present climate crisis has culminated out of the fractured relationship between humans and nature, following years of exploitation of the earth and its resources. Yet the responsive action to this issue has been slow and quiet in comparison to the speed at which the atmosphere and life on earth is changing, and the ‘industrial world’s kamikaze mission is the story of a single lifetime’ (Wallace-Wells, 2019:4). With the situation worsening, it is clear that the relationship between humans and nature needs to be repaired in order for change to happen; by gaining an understanding as to what has caused the divide between humanity and the natural world in order to address how the relationship can be restored. This essay will explore psychological, political and philosophical outlooks regarding the deterioration in this relationship and then pose how a solution can be found within these frames. Firstly, by briefly assessing the

psychological outlook on climate change and the split in the human brain, referred to as our emotional brain and rational brain (Marshall, 2014:49), that allows and prevents us from seeing how severe climate change is. This has spilled over into politics, where ‘our economic system and planetary system are now at war’ (Klein, 2014:21) preventing the reconciliation of humans and nature further, choosing to ignore climate change in favour of the present society. This can be taken further when questioning the philosophical foundations which this evolutionary and political perspective has stemmed from, which will be discussed through the writings of Arne Næss (1912-2009), a Norwegian philosopher who added several works and inspiration to environmental movements, namely the Deep Ecology Movement, and Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895-1986), a philosopher and teacher from India who was concerned by the growing divisions in society, and questioned how these came about. By demonstrating that the disconnect between humans and nature is down to an individual’s egocentric worldview, is has therefore not been ‘necessary to hold discussions and

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engage in dialogues concerning fundamental philosophical issues’ (Næss, 1995:446), and without addressing the philosophical framework, humans are prevented from reconnecting with nature. The development of consciousness and thought has only fragmented the world further, and the selfish acts of humans distort their place in the world and their relationships within it (Krishnamurti, 2015:94). In order for individuals to recognise these issues of climate change and be prepared to act on them, there must be an addressing and shift in the philosophical foundations, something the Deep Ecology movement (Næss, 1995) aims to achieve. This goes beyond the psychological and political issues first posed, as the issues that the climate crisis has produced also cross over into issues surrounding social injustices. By reframing an individual’s place in the world through a wider engagement of ‘the “Self”’ (Næss, 1985;1995), this allows for the reconnection with nature, as selfrealisation strengthens the relationships with the earth and individuals can identify with the many complex aspects within it. Ultimately, as ‘we are all human beings and we are all living on this extraordinary, beautiful earth’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:170),

acting in defence of climate change will be acting in defence of our Selves, and therefore allowing one to live a joyful and sustainable life. The presence of climate change as an immediate and threatening issue is largely hidden behind ‘comforting delusions’ (Wallace-Wells, 2019:3), and so the issue may be partly psychological, as although ‘we recognise that climate change is bad, it does not make us feel noxious or disgraced’ (Marshall, 2014:47), therefore we are unlikely to respond in an urgent manner. As humanity and society has grown, it has been demonstrated that through the long journey of psychological evolution humans have developed ‘two distinct information processing systems’ (Marshall, 2014:47), described as the emotional and rational brain (Marshall, 2014:49). The rational, analytic brain is ‘slow and deliberate … [whilst] the emotional system is automatic [and] impulsive’ (Marshall, 2014:49). These two brains are not separate from each other, rather they are in constant communication, although it is apparent that the emotional brain more often wins out over the rational (Marshall, 2014:49). Living in this state of ‘cognitive dissonance’ (Klein, 2014:3) in regards to climate change is preventative to its

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resolution. This is due to the ‘perception of risk [being] dominated by our emotional brain’ (Marshall, 2014:49), creating quick responses to immediate issues faced in everyday life, all stemming back from our hunter-gatherer ancestors. With the risks of climate change not appearing immediate, the emotional brain doesn’t respond as quickly, and so the rational brain takes over, ‘using its abstract tools of planning and forward thinking’ (Marshall, 2014:50). Yet as the rational brain continuously looks forward, the present impacts of climate change are dealt with the rationalisation that ‘we are too busy to care about something so distant and abstract’ (Klein, 2014:3). This is not only a psychological issue but crosses into the political fore as ‘the stranglehold that market logic secure[s] over public life … [makes] the most direct and obvious climate responses seem politically heretical’ (Klein, 2014:17). If the route out of the climate crisis involves heavier taxation on an elite, corporate minority, and coincides with a greater expense on behalf of governments to implement new technologies, the implemation of such policies would be unfavourable, while being portrayed as impossible

(Klein, 2014:17-18). With the responsive, emotional brain already ignoring climate change, society and culture ensure that it remains disengaged, suiting the needs of the few over the many. With the frequency and severity of natural disasters increasing, they are being treated as a normal tragedy, a ‘false friend’ (Marshall, 2014:54-55), rather than fully acknowledging the worsening state of the climate. Furthermore, ‘[d]roughts and floods create all kinds of business opportunities’ (Klein, 2014:9), as the earth’s continuous destruction only serving the growth of capitalism. This has in turn contributed to further inequalities amongst those which are under a greater threat from these disasters. However, climate change ‘has never received the crisis treatment from our leaders’ (Klein, 2014:6), and so individuals are able to carry on without those worries, rather spending more money in sectors that will allow them to adapt to the change in climate. With our brains rationalising ignoring the immediate threat of climate change, and our emotions shut off, humans are now ‘too self-centred, too addicted to gratification to live without the full freedom to satisfy our every whim – or so our culture tells us’ (Klein, 2014:17).

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The separation of humans and nature therefore must stem from a deeper foundation than the psychological and political issues presented. If the solution lies in ‘changing how we live, how our economies function, even the stories we tell about our place on earth’ (Klein, 2014:4), then the framework from which all these ideals stem from must also be re-evaluated. Næss suggests that there is a preconscious disposition ‘that we have before making philosophical inquiries—a “totalitarian” disposition’ (Næss, 2008:156), by which we are able to build concepts from. Therefore, in order for there to be a claim to ignorance, it must be within a surrounding framework of knowledge which will have grown throughout one’s lifetime (Næss, 2008:147). If the response of the rational brain is to have one profess ignorance regarding climate change, it can only be done by there being a prior understanding to what climate change would look and feel like, so instead would ‘rather subtly reveal how we would classify and describe what we profess to be ignorant of’ (Næss, 2008:146). It may be that individuals are ‘perhaps quite unable to verbalize the intricate web of mutually supporting

elements’ (Næss, 2008:147) that claims of ignorance comes from, yet these claims reveal the underlying framework and ‘unquestioned assumptions’ (Næss, 2008:147). For Næss, this ‘implicit frame of reference makes it difficult, perhaps impossible, to justify … professing ignorance’ (Næss, 2008:148), as the framework can only be based upon knowledge, and so would make the claim contradictory. Ultimately, as the underlying frame of reference reveals believed truths about the world, this would make the claim to know nothing about how to approach the current climate crisis impossible, as one would need to know what would need to be done to prevent further damage in order to deny knowing this. This is because as soon as ignorance is ‘about something, a piece of ignorance is like a hole in a piece of Swiss cheese – it is only there because of the cheese around it’ (Næss, 2008:147). Even without hard facts regarding how to tackle climate change, individuals know enough about the climate to know that carrying down the destructive path we are currently on cannot resolve the issues. The problem therefore lies within individuals being ‘sufficiently detached that they do not have to deal with the problem’ (Marshall, 2014:51), a

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detachment that has been born out of the worldview that is prevalent in most western societies. The building of frameworks and worldviews has arguably been a catalyst for the division between humans and nature which can be traced back to the Renaissance period. Great advances in science and the pursuit of facts and knowledge spilled over in philosophy of the time, such as that of Descartes. The act of engaging in questioning and forming doubts regarding knowledge took place ‘with a view to establishing a platform, however small, of truths’ (Næss, 2008:152). The ‘indubitable truth’ (Næss, 2008:153) for Descartes therefore, was himself, his thoughts and his doubts; this formed his ‘egocentric frame of reference’ (Næss, 2008:153) by which Descartes could build his worldview. As these egocentric ideas spread, other frameworks became apparent such as that of Spinoza, where that which was beyond doubt was God, and so the framework which he would reference was deocentric (Næss, 2008:153). The differing worldviews that have stemmed over the past centuries have only caused more division between both cultures and nature, particularly as the dominant

worldview has become egocentric, in which ‘nature exists for our use, our convenience, and so [we] lose communication with the earth’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:51). As the egocentric worldview allows individuals to doubt anything outside themselves, then nature becomes a prime target for exploitation in order to serve anthropocentric needs. Krishnamurti states that ‘[t]he mind with its emotional responses, with all the things thought has put together, is our consciousness’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:77), and it is the actions of thought within this developed consciousness that has brought humanity down this path of destruction within the world. The preconscious disposition that is present at birth then encourages individuals ‘to set deep-rooted values for [them]selves’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:94), yet it is these values that have built the egocentric worldview is has separated humans and nature. As the ‘selfish mind is very cunning’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:71), this has resulted in the detachment of the rational brain from the ever increasing climate issues and the consequences that have followed. Instead of responding to these issues to prevent them, individuals are

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becoming ‘more than ever concerned with [their] own survival’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:99). The egocentric worldview thus allows only the emotional brain to engage when responding to these issues, and as the values that stem from this are centered around individuals only, ‘[t]hese ideological differences … are the roots of a division that is preventing human survival’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:99). Although Krishnamurti does not directly address the issue of climate change, he was deeply concerned of the division between humans and nature, as he argued that losing our connection with nature will lead us to lose connections with others (Krishnamurti, 2015:51). The level of destruction displayed in the world as a result of this egocentric worldview has impacted more than just nature, but also created the division and inequalities within human relationships. The egocentric worldview has separated humans and nature further by its attempt to ‘establish a master-slave role [which] has contributed to the alienation of man from himself’ (Næss, 1995:152). As individuals are acting ‘according to their narrow responses, according to their immediate pleasures’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:99), the disconnect from nature has removed the ability to

fully acknowledge how badly it has been damaged following years of intense exploitation. The selfishness of individuals, concerned with their own problems and ambitions, is preventing cooperation with the universe (Krishnamurti, 2015:102), no longer recognising that nature is something that sits outside the consciousness that thought has created (Krishnamurti, 2015:169). This has constructed the social lens by which climate change is viewed through (Marshall, 2014:55) and as the direction of action to take in response to these issues is set by ‘intellect or desire, … the very direction becomes a distortion’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:94). It is the outcome of this egocentric consciousness that has developed the rational and emotional brains to look away from the issues of climate change, and so the imminent challenge is for the mind to ‘free itself from the network it has woven’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:77). The longer humanity continues to travel down this destructive and divisive path, the harder it will be to come back from. The rise in understanding and recognition of the damage that is being done to the planet first began during the 1960s, and as these issues came to the fore, ‘the emerging environmental

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movement had to be … politicized’ (Næss, 1995:445). For Næss, this saw the beginnings of Shallow Ecology, focused on the ‘[f]ight against pollution and resource depletion’ (Næss, 1995:151). These issues also influenced those who held a deocentric worldview, ‘denouncing the arrogance toward, and ruthless exploitation of, the planet’ (Næss, 1995:211). Although the efforts and work of Shallow Ecology ‘are admirable and indispensable’ (Næss, 1995:209) into bringing these issues into the public sphere, they do not question or take ‘sufficiently seriously: the necessity of a substantial change in economic, social, and ideological structures’ (Næss, 1995:211). As the outcomes of Shallow Ecology are anthropocentric, this leaves it within the egocentric worldview. Furthermore, the pressure applied by the green movements ‘try to influence policy-making bodies largely through threats … [and] predictions’ (Næss, 1995:154), and so are not always successful if the argument is not politically popular enough. These short comings of a variety of social justice movements within the shallow ecology perspective have contributed to the remaining inequalities in the world (Klein,

2014:396). Consequently, ‘when projects are implemented which reduce pollution [they can] increase evils of other kinds’ (Næss, 1995:153), and so cannot be long term solutions. The approach to tackling climate issues yet still ensuring growth of capitalism, can only cause an increase in the inequalities between classes. There is now a ‘gap between rights and resources – between what the law says and what impoverished people are able to force vastly more powerful entitites to do’ (Klein, 2014:328). The back and forth of politicians has kept in place the ‘tremendous social and political obstacles to the needed ecological changes’ (Næss, 1995:415), and whilst the shallow approach may cause a ‘shift to ecologically sane policies’ (Næss, 1995:210), it maintains the fragmented relationship between humans and nature due to is egocentric framework. With the relationship between humans and nature more separated than ever, individuals have become ‘incapable of living and working together harmoniously’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:101). It is now impossible to deny the ‘catastrophic result of all this obfuscation and procrastination’ (Klein, 2014:11), and individuals need to start questioning and

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problematising the current state of the world in order to begin repairing humanity’s relationship with it, as ‘if we are to survive, then there must be a spirit of cooperation with the universe’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:101). For Næss, this can be achievable when one addresses ‘not only “facts” of pollution, resources, population etc., but also value priorities’ (Næss, 1995:155), in order to change their central framework to that within the Deep Ecology movement. This involves the recognition that if ‘you hurt nature you are hurting yourself’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:169), and would therefore replace the egocentric worldview with an ecocentric one, where in place of the self, nature is that which is beyond doubt. Deep Ecology is concerned with all living beings on earth, presenting ‘life-centered long-term arguments’ (Næss, 1995:452). This is also present within the United Nation’s seventeen Sustainable Development Goals, which were first outlined in 2016, and it’s seventeenth goal seeks to ensure a partnership across nations that share both knowledge and resources in order to ‘support the achievement of the sustainable development goals in all countries’ (United Nations, 2021: [online]). The recognition of the importance of diversity

on earth rejects the anthropocentric view in favour of sustainability, as it ‘enhances the potentialities of survival, the chances for new modes of life, the richness of forms’ (Næss, 1995:152). Once these ideas start to take root, individuals are able to develop what Næss calls an ecosophy, ‘a philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium’ (Næss, 1995:155), allowing for the reengagement of the emotional and rational brain with nature in order to further prevent its destruction. Næss outlines the process of deep ecology further by labelling his ecosophy ‘Ecosophy T … [to] emphasize that other people would … if motivated to formulate their world view and general value priorities, arrive at different ecosophies’ (Næss, 1985:258). There is not a one way approach in reconciling the human nature relationship, rather it is a process of self-realisation that individuals must go through in order to develop their own understanding and relationship with the world. The ecosophy individuals can develop would therefore be based on ‘wisdom rather than science or information’ (Næss, 1985:258), which will ultimately contribute to a better understanding of their place in the complexity of the world. This is achieved through the ‘synthesis of

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theory and practice’ (Næss, 1985:258) via self-realisation, which at ‘its absolute maximum is … the mature experience of oneness in diversity’ (Næss, 1985:261). The “I” that is present in the egocentric worldview is what Næss labels as the ‘self’, and this becomes the ‘Self’ through a ‘process of ever-widening identification and ever-narrowing alienation’ (Næss, 1985:261). Individuals are able to widen their sense of Self when they spontaneously react to the interests of others as their own (Næss, 1985:261), such as feeling sorrow and joy as another does. As these short bursts of identification allow for the narrow self to become wider, and the more in which individuals can identify with, the stronger their relationship with nature will become, as it will become part of their Self. This widening of the Self, for Krishnamurti, would allow for the comprehension of ‘the necessity to go beyond and above self-centred interest’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:144-145). Once one moves beyond the created consciousness of the ego, it will allow them to ‘see [themselves] as part of the whole; to see the immensity of the universe’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:140). The

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ability to go beyond what thought has told us our values should be is vital for the reconciliation of the relationship between humans and nature, as living in this egocentric framework ensures that individuals are an enemy with themselves (Krishnamurti, 2015:170). Rather, individuals need to be ‘without value judgement if there is to be any deep, living change, to perceive that complexity of our life without choice’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:153). This will allow for the spontaneous process of identification, as freedom from choice and thought provides a harmonious, responsible relationship with the world, one that ‘is not induced or imposed’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:201). It is therefore clear that the approach to the reconceiving of the human nature relationship must not be one that is based on politics, but one that addresses the deeper philosophical foundations on which these ideas have been formulated; only ‘when the heavens, the earth and human beings are seen as one vast unitary process, then inquiry as to the cause of our conditioning will not be fragmentary’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:136). It is key that Deep Ecology and Self-realisation does not fit a set

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framework of rules or policies, as it ‘does not eliminate conflicts of interest’ (Næss, 1985:262). Fitting points that individuals must meet undermines the very principle of the ideas within the ecosophies, as each individual is able to make their own interpretation and identifications. The bringing together of differing ecosophies will aid in creating an approach to climate change that gives humanity the ‘chance to right those festering wrongs’ (Klein, 2014:396), which are goals present within the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals, seeking equality and prosperous growth 'while tackling climate change and working to preserve our oceans and forests’ (United Nations, 2021: [online]). This united approach allows differing perspectives on how to address and prioritise that which is within the world, such as deciding not to build in specific areas if that would be detrimental to the wildlife that lives there. However, if humans act under the false pretence that to act more responsibly they must sacrifice their own needs (Næss, 1995:236), the process of selfrealisation will be hindered. If an individual feels that ‘they unselfishly give up, or even sacrifice, their self-interests to show love for nature, this is … a treacherous basis for conservation’

(Næss, 1995:229). Consequently, this would return to a man and environment distinction, as conservation will be under the premise ‘of moral duties and as a burden, not spontaneously, out of joy’ (Næss, 1985:262). Yet, as the Self is widened, the boundaries within this dualism are crossed (Næss, 1985:265), and identification can therefore allow for the conditions for self-realisation to be ‘experienced as positive and basically joyful’ (Næss, 1985:264). The emphasis on joyful approaches to life within nature is beyond the egocentric, and building the ecocentric worldview, where the wider one identifies with the living world, the more intrinsic values are attributed to others (Næss, 1985:266). Identifying the Self within the world brings about not only a ‘natural consideration, [and] affection for others’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:171), but also the protection of ‘our vital interests … [w]e are engaged in selfdefence’ (Næss, 1995:232). This acting out of the recognition of the ‘sacredness of all living things’ (Krishnamurti, 2015:100) preserves the resources on the planet, and so bringing to light these ‘fateful dependencies and interrelations … [makes] it easier for people to admit and even to cultivate their deep concern for nature’ (Næss, 1985:265). The more it is

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recognised that everything on the earth has the ‘equal right to live and blossom’ (Næss, 1995:152), the more the continuing destruction of the earth can be prevented. There is now a dramatic pinnacle in which the relationship between humans and nature may be past the point of reconciliation. The approach of selfrealisation, therefore, is based on the joyful experiences of the richness in reality, as joy ‘is an attribute of a reality wider than a conscious ego’ (Næss, 1995:237). This can be emphasised through the variety of sources in which joy stems from within the diversity of life (Næss, 1995:236), allowing for the spontaneous identification that will ensure a harmonious relationship with nature. This can be something as small as the turning of spring, seeing the first butterflies, or observing the winter solstice, as there is arguably nothing ‘more extraordinary and exceptional than the annual rebirth of the world’ (McCarthy, 2016:131). The feelings of identification would allow for a ‘revolution in sustainability … [and] would realign us as a species in harmony with the natural world’ (Attenborough, 2020:203). With the basis of the human

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and nature relationship being based on a feeling of joy, which is a feeling that sits outside the political and the scientific, it would be a non-subjective realisation of the richness of the world (Næss, 1995, 237). The emergence of the Self accompanied with this sense of joy can allow for the reconceiving of the human and nature relationship, and following the ecocentric worldview can allow for the relationship to remain strong. To conclude, the division between humans and nature has left the planet in a state of turmoil, and the climate crisis is now accelerating at such a speed that the status of the human nature relationship must be addressed in order to protect both humanity and the earth. Marshall suggests that this issue stems from the evolutionary psychology of humans, with the division of the brain as the emotional and the rational brain (Marshall, 2014:49). As the emotional brain is more impulsive it controls the immediate threat response, yet as climate change is such a vast and abstract threat, the emotional brain has detached as it does not view the climate crisis as an immediate threat. Instead, the rational brain, forward-thinking, takes the issues and treats them as a distant future,

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allowing the situation to worsen. The political response therefore has remained limited, following minimal pressure groups on the matter, the war is continuing between the economy and planet, with the economy heavily in the lead of the battle (Klein, 2014:21). As the climate crisis continues to deepen, it is clear that the split of humans and nature must go much deeper than the psychological and political stances suggest, and that it is our philosophical foundations which need questioning and re-evaluating in order for the relationship between humans and nature to be repaired. For Næss, the climate crisis is a consequence of the egocentric worldview, which has been a dominant force in society evolving from the thought of Descartes (Næss, 2008:153). This positions the self as that which is beyond doubt, and so everything outside the remits of the self is able to be exploited. Krishnamurti states that the selfishness of humanity leaves them concerned only with their survival (Krishnamurti, 2015:99), and so individuals are not concerned with the turmoil of the planet. Separated from the planet and relationships among others, humanity is in a constant state of conflict, and so by

questioning and problematising this egocentric framework, humanity is able to arrive at a point of resolution and a new set of values under an ecocentric worldview. Næss describes this within the Deep Ecology Movement (Næss, 1995), which goes beyond the man and environment division through the process of identification which allows for self-realisation. When this is ‘experienced as positive and basically joyful’ (Næss, 1985:264), rather than a sacrificial experience, the complexity of relationships within the world can be recognised, and individuals are able to widen the Self and identify with the living beings on the planet. This allows for the rebuilding of the relationship with nature, as humans will be acting in self-defence against further destruction of the planet (Næss, 1995:232), and so rebuilding the relationship with nature in this way allows for humanity and the planet to grow together within a joyful existence. References Attenborough, D. (2020) A Life on Our Planet. London: Witness Books. Klein, N. (2014) This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs. The Climate. London: Allen Lane.

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Krishnamurti, J. (2015) The Whole Movement of Life is Learning. Great Britain: CRAFT Verlag Raab/Sosath.

United Nations (2021) The 17 Goals. Available at: https://sdgs.un.org/goals. [Accessed 09-March-2021]

Marshall, G. (2014) Don’t Even Think About It: Why our brains are wired to ignore climate change. London: Bloomsbury.

Wallace-Wells, D. (2019) The Uninhabitable Earth: A Story of the Future. London: Penguin.

McCarthy, M. (2016) Joy in the Calendar. In: McCarthy M. The Moth Snowstorm: Nature and Joy. London: John Murray. 125-136. Næss, A. (1985) Identification as a Source of Deep Ecological Attitudes. In: Tobias, M. (Ed) Deep Ecology. San Diego: Avant Books. 256-270. Næss, A. & Sessions, G. (Ed.) (1995) Deep Ecology for the twenty-first century. London; Boston: Shambhala. Næss, A. (2008) Reflections on Total Views. In: Næss, A., Drengson, A.R. & Devall, B. (Eds.) Ecology of Wisdom; Writing by Arne Næss. Washington D.C.: Counterpoint. 145-159.

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Battling a crisis – primates of East Asia are calling for help! Dominika Cáriková BA Anthropology Human activities around the world have been threatening to around one million animal and plant species with extinction. This includes many of our closest living biological relatives. Approximately 75% of the world's primates are in decline due to human activities related to deforestation, population growth, climate change, hunting, and industrial agriculture. Wildlife trade is one of the main issues in China. However, corruption, weak judicial systems, and light sentences make this a low-risk business, which is estimated to run into billions of dollars. Conservation efforts have been raised, yet suitable habitats for primate species are still lacking!

he Species Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is working towards the vision of nature conservation and reducing the loss of diversity of life on earth. The IUCN/SCC Primate Specialist Group together with Conservation International provide occasions for the primatologists, who

have the first-hand knowledge on the causes of the threats to primates, to debate, review, and update the list of the World’s 25 Most Endangered Primates (Fig. 1). Ten years ago, this list included 11 primate species from Asia, 5 of which had been on the list since 2000. In 2008, the Asian primates comprised 71% of all primate taxa assessed for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (Mittermeier et al, 2009). The newest ‘Primates in Peril’ report from 2018-2020 (Fig. 1) includes 7 Asian species, one of which remained since 2000 and 4 have been on the list since 2010 (Schwitzer et al., 2019). When do species become endangered? The IUCN provides categories of species according to their extinction risk and criteria as guidance to evaluating different factors which affect the risk of extinction (IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria). The main categories a taxon can be classified as are the following: vulnerable, endangered, and critically endangered. An endangered taxon is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild and the criteria for this category are:

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population size estimated to be fewer than 2,500 mature individuals and declines at least 20% within five years or two generations • population size estimated to be fewer than 250 mature individuals (then area of occupancy not considered) • probability of extinction in the wild at least 20% within 20 years or five generations (IUCN, 2012:18-20)

Figure 1- Cover of the 2018-2020 iteration of the World’s 25 Most Endangered Primates list (Schwitzer et al., 2019).

• •

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reduction in population size of ≥70% over the last 10 years or three generations geographic range in the form of extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 5,000km2, or area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500km2

Primate diversity in Southeast Asia is represented by five families (tarsiers, lorises, macaques and colobine monkeys, gibbons, and orang-utans). The diversity of threats can be classified into 10 major categories that are relevant to the southeast Asian primates. By order of most species affected, the first being agriculture and aquaculture development, second is biological resource use, and third, the residential and commercial development. Other threats involve human intrusions in the form of building transportation and service corridors, energy production and other natural system modifications (Boonratana, 2013).

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Additional pressures that have a negative impact, especially on East Asian primate populations, are bushmeat hunting, wildlife trafficking, and capture for local, regional, or international pet trade (Estrada et al., 2020). Such activities are sustained by a rise in demand, increasing prices and the growth in human populations. This phenomenon is especially threatening as the rate of human consumption and demand for wild animals pushes them to the point of extinction. Wildlife trade or trafficking ‘hotspots’ are places in the world with a high flow of alive or dead primates and/or their body parts. One of those areas is China's international borders as well as Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar (Boonratana, 2013). As a result of hunting, capturing, killing, trading, or domesticating wild animals, such as primates, infectious diseases are often passed onto humans and spread among wild or domesticated animals (Estrada et al., 2020). Why do primates matter? Primates have several meanings in this world and represent one very important part of the earth’s ecosystem:

We share close evolutionary history and their contribution to the countries’ natural heritage is the social and cultural importance of primates to us as humans. Primates are the central figures in local and regional traditional knowledge, folklore, and history. 2. Primate species are the prey, the predator, and the interdependent figures in food webs. All these roles influence the ecosystems’ structure, function, resilience and eventually, the dynamics and sustainability. Their significant ecological role as pollinators due to their feeding habits can greatly impact flora demographics. 3. Primates as model animals, can provide an insight into human behaviour, cognition, parenting, cooperation, social bonds, social conflict, but also resolution, learning and memory, evolution of tool use, and language. Further to all that, advancing our knowledge in evolutionary history can have implication to medicine, as well (Estrada et al., 2017:7,8).

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What is happening now? Due to current circumstances, wildlife conservation issues have been brought into the spotlight by the COVID-19 pandemic and its potential source in wildlife trade. In October 2020, specialists and associations like International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (CITES), the Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC), World Wildlife Fund (WWF), International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW), and China Wildlife Conservation Association (CWCA)

organised an online event- Coalition to End Wildlife Trafficking to review and explore approaches to the illegal wildlife trade.

Figure 2- Primate species distributions and the percentage of species threatened in comparison with declining populations

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pproximately 512 primate species are distributed in 91 countries, mainly Neotropics, mainland Africa, Madagascar, and Southeast Asia (Fig. 2). These areas represent the critical part of our planet’s biodiversity, but sadly the main ‘hotspots’ where primates are facing multiple threats, too. The major human-related pressures impact the primate endurance, cause a widespread loss and reduction of natural habitats as a result of industrial agriculture expansion. Forest-risk commodities that are demanded on the global market are predominantly soybean, palm oil, rubber plantations, and hardwoods, all of which have negatively impacted tropical biodiversity. As a result, the main regions (Neotropics, Africa, South and Southeast Asia) suffered from forest loss of c. 179million hectares over the last 20 years (Estrada et al., 2019). The highest commodity-driven permanent deforestation, caused by the global market demands, over the 20012015 period was in Southeast Asia averaged up to 47%. China was also a leader among the importers of forestry products in Southeast Asia. 20 out of 25 primate species in China are threatened, 30% of which are due to

forestry, 46% due to grazing and 18% due to agriculture. Prognoses say that from the primate richest countries in the world, in China 95% of the species will be endangered within the next 80 years (Estrada et al., 2019). In addition to deforestation caused by industrial agriculture and the growing global market, primates in China have also been increasingly threatened by unsustainable trade (Ni et al., 2018). Non-human primates are often traded live or dead for body parts for consumption, biomedical research, as exotic pets, zoos, wildlife collections, traditional medicine, as talismans, or as trophies. Unfortunately, reported global primate trade for 2005-2014 according to CITES Trade Database was assessed at 450,000 live individuals and additional 11,000 individuals in body parts. Alarmingly, Asian primates represent 93% of this trade (Estrada et al., 2017). Based on the CITES Trade Database, 537,480 live individuals were reported to have been involved in primate trade in China between 1975 and 2017 (Ni et al., 2018). These alarming numbers echo the East Asian primates crying for help.

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Primate trade in China Interestingly enough, the international trade has been widely documented and regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES), in which the South-eastern Asian countries are involved, however, the wildlife trade is problematic on the national level, where species are being captured and remain in countries of origin. China is the

Figure 3- Illegal trade in Bengal slow lorises (Nycticebus bengalensis) at market, Myanmar. Photos by Vincent Nijman and Chris R. Shepherd (Nijman et al., 2014).

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second-most diverse country in Asia in terms of primate species and 9 of those are considered endemic to a particular area. Eleven native species that have been reported to be involved in illegal trafficking in China include macaques, colobus, slow lorises, and gibbons. The growth of the global economy has resulted in a considerable rise in people’s demand for wild animal products, which made China one of the world’s largest consumers of wildlife goods (Ni et al., 2018). High demand in the primate trade is for the Bengal slow lorises, that were found to be traded on China-Myanmar border. They are traded as exotic pets or in some regions killed, dissected and sold for individual body parts as medicine (Fig. 3) (Nijman et al., 2014). The increase in commercialised bushmeat hunting has also been associated with human population growth (Estrada et al., 2017). On the other side, high levels of poverty have consequences that hinder prioritisation of primate conservation, where food insecurity, unsustainable use of natural resources, and civil unrest prevail. The pressure expands onto primate habitats and populations by colonisation of these

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primate range regions, although some are legally designed protected areas and intact forests (Estrada et al., 2020).

with the climate change that resulted in a 50% population decline (Luo et al., 2015).

Climate change and rubber plantations in China Shifting ecological conditions put species with limited geographic distributions at high risk as it strongly affects food supplies. East and Southeast Asia are one of the ‘hotspots’ of climate change, which even stimulates primate vulnerability. (Estrada et al., 2017). An upsetting example of species threatened by climate change in China is the Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Fig. 4) that are endangered colobine primates occupying only central and southwestern China. Their populations are small, they live in mountain areas and they feed on fruits, seeds, buds, leaves, tree bark, and seasonal lichen. Rising temperature and changing precipitation patterns have negative effects on the plants in the natural habitats of these monkeys, which is then reflected on their survival rates, growth rates, and reproduction. This population in this region of China represents a highly susceptible subspecies to habitat change associated

Figure 4- Sichuan Golden Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) at the Yangxian Nature Reserve, China (credits Staffan Widstrand https://wildwondersofchina.photoshelter.com/image/I0000MGDop TNK7tU)

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China is today one of the countries in the world most deficient of forest. Attempts to replant usually employ only small areas with single or non-native flora species Conservation Efforts Easing the pressures upon primate habitats requires a major modernisation in policy and a turn in humanity’s commitment. Instead, conservation needs are generally held back by political uncertainty, socio-economic instability, criminality, and corruption. Policies are designed for temporary solutions, not long-term sustainability (Estrada et al., 2017). As mentioned earlier, it is difficult for the official statistics to monitor illegally traded species at the national or regional level. Conservation implications of primate trade in China have been designed under legal protection by The Law of Wild Animals Protection of the People's Republic of China from 1989 that forbids hunting, killing, trade, import or export of wild animals classified as rare or endangered. However, this only gave rise to ‘underground’ trade networks, especially online trade on social media, that replaced specialised open markets.

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Although similar to potential new COVID19 associated protection measures, as a result of the SARS outbreak in 2003, thought to have originated from a small wild animal, Chinese government strengthened the management of wildlife markets (Ni et al., 2018). United Nations Sustainable Development Goals have undertaken several conservation efforts in regards to biodiversity and the unsustainable wildlife trade. Firstly, the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) maintains political international cooperation and strengthens the political will to address illegal wildlife trade (UNEP, 2018). Secondly, the programme supports enforcement measures by strengthening legal and regulatory systems to effectively implement wildlife laws to tackle illegal wildlife trade (UNODC, 2017). And finally, by promoting and publishing on certain topics UNEP spread knowledge to prevent and reduce demand for illegally sourced wildlife products.

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Figure 5- Primate species distribution in China (Li et al., 2018).

Impacts of climate change on Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys in Shennongja area are even more severe in the 21st century. Shenongija National Nature Reserve has been created

together with other reserves in surrounding provinces on a national level as parts of conservation efforts in this area. Nevertheless, these do not seem to be effective in provisioning suitable

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habitat conditions for this particular species of monkeys in the region. Required and suggested are additional efforts in conservation policies for ecosystems at higher mountain elevations, population monitoring, habitat restoration and education within the local community. Illegal hunting and other human activities need to be managed and restricted to counteract the decrease in golden snub-nosed monkey populations (Luo et al., 2015). Expansion of rubber plantations in Yunnan province in China drove rapid deforestation for nearly two decades, however, luckily for biodiversity conservation, it ended in a huge decrease in rubber prices. Rubber plantations are long-term investments and after the price drop, they were not quite profitable. On the other hand, small crops replaced some of these plantations, which means that deforestations still persist (Zhang et al., 2019). Regardless, tyres are a big part of our modern lifestyles and 90% of the world’s natural rubber comes from rubber trees in Asia, including China (WWF, 2016). WWF has begun a mission of promoting sustainable natural rubber to the companies that use and produce

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rubber. In June 2016, the world's largest buyer and second-largest manufacturer, Michelin partnered with WWF and committed to a new responsible sourcing policy related to natural rubber (McCarthy, 2016; WWF, 2016). The primates are essential to our ecosystem, to the understanding of our own species, and they are being threatened and endangered by the human action. The solution is feasible, yet not as attractive as it involves changes in the modern economic and political systems. We propose media attention that would promote the conservation of primates. If the public is aware and can recognise the endangered species, suggestions for management strategies can be generated and communicated to law enforcement. An example of a conservation effort to help end the wildlife trade in China is through an internet monitoring regulatory mechanism that would aid enforcement of legislation to protect the victimised animals (Ni et al., 2018). References Boonratana, R. (2013) Primate Conservation in Southeast Asia: Threats,

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issues and constraints. In: Latiff, A. and Mashhor, M. (eds.) Ex Situ Conservation of Orang Utan. Semanggol, Malaysia: Bukit Merah Orang Utan Island Foundation. 14-40. Estrada, A., Garber, P.A., and Chaudhary, A. (2019) Expanding global commodities trade and consumption place the world’s primates at risk of extinction, PeerJ, 7, 1-45. Available at: https://peerj.com/articles/7068/ [Accessed 3 December 2020]. Estrada, A., Garber, P.A., and Chaudhary, A. (2020) Current and future trends in socio-economic, demographic and governance factors affecting global primate conservation, PeerJ, 8, e9816. Available at: https://peerj.com/articles/9816/ [Accessed 3 December 2020]. IUCN (2012) IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1. 2nd edn. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN. Li, B., Li, M., Li, J. et al. (2018) The primate extinction crisis in China: immediate challenges and a way forward, Biodiversity and Conservation, 27, 3301–

3327. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-0181614-y [Accessed 3 December 2020]. Luo, Z., Zhou, S., Yu, W., Yu, H., Yang, J., Tian, Y., Zhao, M., and Wu, H. (2015) Impacts of climate change on the distribution of Sichuan snub‐nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Shennongjia area, China, American Journal of Primatology, 77, 135-151. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full /10.1002/ajp.22317?saml_referrer [Accessed 3 December 2020]. McCarthy, S. (2016) WWF Statement on New Zero Deforestation Policy from Michelin. Available at: https://www.worldwildlife.org/pressreleases/wwf-statement-on-new-zerodeforestation-policy-from-michelin [Accessed 12 March 2021]. Mittermeier, R.A., Wallis, J., Rylands, A.B., Ganzhorn, J.U., and John, F.O., WIlliamson, E.A., Palacios, E., Heymann, E.W., Kierulff, M.C.M., Yongcheneg, L., Supriatna, J., Roos, C., Walker, S., Cortes-Ortiz, L., and Schwitzer, C. (2009) Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most endangered

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Primates 2008-2010, Primate Conservation, 24, (1), 1-57. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1896/052.024.0101 [Acessed 30 November 2020] Ni, Q., Wang, Y., Weldon, A., Xie, M., Xu, H., Yao, Y., Zhang, M., Li, Y., Li, Y., Zeng, B., Nekaris, K.A.I. (2018) Conservation implications of primate trade in China over 18 years based on web news reports of confiscations, PeerJ, 6, 1-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti cles/PMC6286804/ [Accessed 1 December 2020] Nijman, V., Shepherd, C.R., and Nekaris, K.A. (2014) Trade in Bengal Slow Lorises in Mong La, Myanmar, on the China Border, Primate Conservation, 28, 139142. Schwitzer, C., Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B., Chiozza, F., Williamson, E.A., Byler, D., Wich, S., Humle, T., Johnson, C., Mynott, H., and McCabe, G. (2019) Primates in Peril: The World’s 25 Most Endangered Primates 2018– 2020. Washington, DC: IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group, International Primatological Society, Global Wildlife

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Conservation, and Bristol Zoological Society. UNODC (2017) Africa-Asia Pacific Symposium on Strengthening Legal Frameworks to Combat Wildlife Crime, report. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/documents/so utheastasiaandpacific/Publications/wild life/Africa-AsiaPac-Wildlife-lawsymposium-SUMMARY-FINALSHARE.PDF [Accessed 3 December 2020]. UNEP (2018) Strengthening legal frameworks for licit and illicit trade in wildlife and forest products, report. Available at: https://www.unenvironment.org/resour ces/publication/strengthening-legalframeworks-licit-and-illicit-tradewildlife-and-forest [Accessed 3 December 2020]. WWF (2016) Making the production of rubber better for the planet, World Wildlife Magazine, Winter 2016. Available at: https://www.worldwildlife.org/maga zine/issues/winter-2016 [Accessed 2 December, 2020].

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Zhang, J., Corlett, R.T., and Zhai, D. (2019) After the rubber boom: good news and bad news for biodiversity in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China, Regional Environmental Change, 19, (6), 1713-1724. Available at: 10.1007/s10113-019-015094 [Accessed 3 December 2020].

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Our Island Story: Exploring the Political and Social Perspectives That Influence Cultural Inclusion in the History Curriculum Megan Willsher BEd Primary Education What is the purpose of a curriculum? Neem (2015) writes that there are two primary purposes for a History curriculum. The first is to establish historical truth, to understand factually what occurred in our past. The second is to provide civic understanding, to give a community or nation a context for our present day. Therefore, History curriculums should provide learners with the historical facts needed to make sense of their present circumstances, and allow them to make more educated choices for the future (Neem, 2015). In order to better understand the existing curriculum, it’s evolution over time must be analysed. Pre-1880, learners consisted of middle to upper class young men, who aspired to positions of power and economic success. Due to this, the purpose of most 19th century History curriculums was to teach the ideological elements of male History, leaving the social History - the

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History of lower classes, women and children – overlooked (Cunningham, 1989; Nolan, 2010). Throughout the 20th century the approach towards teaching History did gradually shift from ideological to social, thanks to large social changes. One such change was the Education Act of 1880, which mandated free education for all. This resulted a larger population of literate, lower class individuals – who desired socially relevant history (Nolan, 2010; Cunningham, 1989). Another such change was the two World Wars, which saw Women being integrated into the workforce. This resulted in a greater focus upon uncovering and retelling female history (Scott, 1984). These large societal changes caused the curriculum to repurpose itself as a more socially relevant syllabus - aiming to engage and contextualise a more diverse pool of learners (Neem, 2015; Nolan, 2010). Whilst the purpose of the curriculum did change to provide a more relevant level of civic understanding amongst learners, the sedate pace at which it was evolving meant that it was by no means fit for modern practice. This was identified in the 1985 Swan report, in which the teaching of both primary and

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secondary History across Britain was deemed to be irrelevant for adult life and unrepresentative of the diversity present in our country (Department for Education and Skills, 1985). In the 3 decades following The Swan report, politicians attempted to curate a highly purposeful History curriculum that contextualised the nation's past in a way that could help individuals make decisions in the future (Alexander and Weekes Bernard, 2017; Harris and Clarke, 2011; Neem, 2015). Politicians sole purpose for the History curriculum was to provide civic understanding, and unpartnered this from History’s other purpose: to establish and provide historical truth (Alexander and Weekes-Bernard, 2017; Harris and Clarke, 2011). Neem (2015) writes that this is an incredibly dangerous approach to curating a History curriculum; providing civic understanding without focusing on historical truth leads to politicians guiding the curriculums narrative in a way that suits them. This results in the History curriculum becoming an extended form of propaganda. When New Labour formed a majority government in 1997, they introduced many progressive policies regarding multiculturalism and education (Moosavi, 2015; Tomlinson, 2005; Alexander and

Weekes-Bernard 2017). Examples of this include providing standard state funding for Islamic faith schools, policies supporting increased levels of immigration and introducing independent units to investigate fairness of BAME exclusions in schools (Tomlinson, 2005). Their term was a period of increased multi-culturalism, but they failed to provide a History curriculum that achieved its modern purpose: to educate young people to enter a diverse society (Moosavi, 2015; Neem, 2015; Tomlinson, 2005). This, paired with Blair’s decision to enter the Iraq War, and the worldwide rise of farright terrorism – specifically far-right Islamic terrorism – led to a society rife with Xenophobia and Islamophobia (Moosavi, 2015). Britain therefore left the 2000’s scarred from The Age of Terror, The Iraq War and the 2008 recession (Moosavi, 2015). The public seemingly felt uneasy with Britain's new multi-cultural heading. This is evidenced by the Conservative party taking the majority of the vote in the 2010 election– with then conservative leader David Cameron running on the promise to limit the number of non-EU migrants and asylum seekers entering the UK each year (Mason, 2015; Levy,

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2019). Cameron formed a coalition with then Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg, and together they attempted to unite the country through a new national identity – British Values (Busby, 2018; Alexander and Weekes-Bernard, 2017; Levy, 2019). Cameron charged his education secretary Michael Gove with writing a new primary curriculum, the purpose of which was to promote British values – and reunite the country through patriotism (Watson, 2019; Busby, 2018; Alexander and Weekes-Bernard, 2017; Levy, 2019). Under Gove, the primary History curriculum’s purpose was to aid the government in civic-reunification (Gove, 2010) – or, as others believe, aid the government in propagating civicconformity (Alexander and WeekesBernard, 2017; Watson, 2019). As mentioned above, the teaching of History should serve two purposes – to establish historical fact and to contextualise the present day (Neem, 2015). The purpose of Gove’s updated primary History curriculum was almost solely to contextualise the present day; the contextualisation occurring in a subjective way that reflected his party's conservative immigration stance, and

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would cultivate agreeable, conservative citizens and workers (Alexander and Weekes-Bernard, 2017; Watson, 2019). Examples of this include naming the new primary History curriculum “Our Island Story” (Gove, 2010) - a name brimming with white, nationalistic sentiment (Watson, 2019). Another example was Gove focusing almost the entirety of the History curriculum content on Kings, Queens and Wars, as they “showcase the best of British History” (Gove, 2010) – which left little room for more culturally relevant social History (Alexander and Weekes-Bernard 2017). When questioned, Gove denied claims he was airbrushing Britain's more horrific moments, arguing instead that he was rebalancing the curriculum to focus more on the celebratory moments of History (Watson, 2019; Alexander and WeekesBernard, 2017). Despite this, many argue the updated History curriculum, which is still taught in schools today, is a highly manipulated narrative. Its purpose is to showcase White, male, English success – with cultural relevancy, engaging content, and historical truth forgotten (Watson, 2019; Alexander and WeekesBernard, 2017; Harris and Clarke, 2011).

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Who is it for? Britain's primary History curriculum should be written to support the education of all British children, regardless of race or other diverse characteristics. Therefore, it is imperative that a fit-for-practice curriculum contains elements that are representative of, and relevant to, a variety of backgrounds and ethnicities (Harris and Clarke, 2011). Despite 28% of school aged children being BAME (ONS, 2011), Gove’s curriculum is unrepresentative of modern Britain's diversity; by teaching it in our schools millions of multi-cultural students report feeling disenfranchised and irrelevant (Gillborn, 2015; Stokes, 2014; Alexander and Weekes-Bernard, 2017; Shilliam, 2016; Harris and Clarke, 2011). This nationalistic, civic-conforming curriculum verges on illegality due to Britain's commitment, as per the Race Amendment Act (2000), to actively promote anti-racism and to support community cohesion and empathy. How has History shaped our current perspective? During the 17th century, France, Belgium, Britain and other imperialist world powers participated in colonialism; Britain’s engagement in colonialism is

celebrated as the foundation of the 19th and 20th century British Empire (Daley, 2019; Osbourne, 2016). Whilst colonialism did provide a basis for Britain to hold the largest Empire in History, it came at the cost of the lives and cultures of many West African, Maori and other indigenous people (Daley, 2019; Pruitt, 2019; Osbourne 2016). Imperial nations in the 17th century held the view that bringing Christianity to ‘pagan’ people legitimised their use of power and might against smaller, culturally non-conforming countries (Willinsky, 2000; Clark, 2016). Using this view as a justification for colonial atrocities – such as Britain’s concentration camps in Boer which detained over 100,000 people and killed 26,000 individuals – generates a view that some scholars refer to as the imperial metropole and the colonial periphery (Osbourne, 2016; Connell, 2010; Clark, 2016). The imperial metropole prioritises certain behaviours, beliefs and values over those held by the subject people in the colonial periphery – this belief legitimised Britain’s colonial successes, and atrocities, between the 17th and 20th centuries (Connell, 2010; Clark, 2016). Willinsky (2000) concurs that our nation’s current Anglo-centric perspective is an extension of our past

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imperialistic beliefs, although he, in an albeit less comprehensive way, exemplifies the perspective using us vs them comparisons – Pagan vs Christian, East vs West, civilised vs primitive. Regardless, both agree that longstanding imperial beliefs are hard to overcome, especially when the results are celebrated and the failures hidden – making the values entrenched in the imperial metropole and the colonial periphery key in our current Anglocentric perspective (Willinksy, 2000; Connell 2010). How is the current National Curriculum singular in its perspective? The most recent rendition of Britain’s KS2 History curriculum evolved to include the opportunity to study a diverse topic – a choice of Benin, Baghdad, Indus Valley and Mayan histories (DfE, 2013). Notably, the curriculum mandates only a singular topic; in the entirety of a child’s time in KS2 they are only expected to study nonEuropean History once. This, alongside the curriculums requirement that this be a diverse History on another continent, and that the study should be a juxtaposition to British History, leaves the

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curriculum feeling tokenistic and compartmentalised (Busby, 2018). Bousted (2018) and Lee (2020) make similar points regarding the KS1 History curriculum, arguing that it is tokenistic because all but one of the ‘significant historical figures’ is white – and compartmentalised due to the only person of colour being American. The focus upon American colonial History continues with Columbus being named an individual contributing to ‘great national and international achievement’ by the NC (DfE 2013), yet his violence against, and enslavement of, many South American and Caribbean Natives is not mentioned. Bousted (2018) argues that this is a clear example of the restrictive narrative that the curriculum currently portrays; White British, or in this case White European, successes are bolstered, and atrocities are minimised or entirely redacted from the narrative. Willinksy (2000) too abhors the KS1 History curriculum naming Columbus’s ‘a significant figure of great international achievement’ (DfE, 2013) as it shows no respect to the Indigenous Caribbean people of whom he enslaved and killed. Willinksy’s primary example is the Arawak people of Taino, a tribe who were

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wiped out by 1550; it is often taught in schools that this was due to Old World diseases, but more recent research points to Spanish brutality, enslavement and genocide of the Arawak people (Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020a). Willinksy is a North American writer, with familial ties to Native Canadian tribes and therefore may be subjective in his view of colonising figures like Columbus. Understandably, his works intended purpose is to broaden the perspective of North American educators, but one can see how its content is applicable to British educators: Britain is home to more than 500,000 individuals who immigrated to the UK between 1948 and 1971, all of whom deserve to have their History taught in a sensitive and holistic manner (Parkinson, 2020). Whilst Columbus’s portrayal in our History curriculum is an example of Eurocentrism, the curriculum also engages in Anglo-centrism. Eurocentrism is an intense world-wide bias towards Europe, most often western Europe; Anglo-centrism is a deeper level of pre-eminence, in which the bias is focused pre-dominantly on Britain, most often southern England (Harris and Clarke, 2011; Russell, 2020). This is

apparent when considering the lack of Scottish, Irish, Welsh and Northern English histories included in our curriculum (Harris and Clarke, 2011). Russell (2020) concurs, highlighting the curriculums focus upon Southern English History – The Great Fire of London, The Plague, The Romans and The Anglo Saxons; yet topics such as The Potato Famine, The Troubles, Celtic and Highland histories are either not included or reduced to 2-dimensional narratives (Harris and Clarke, 2011; Russell, 2020). Whilst both Euro and Anglocentrism dictate the topics included in the curriculum, they also dictate the level of subjectivity by which these topics are taught. An example of this being The Indian Mutiny, which was an Indian rebellion against British imperial rule in 1857 (Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020b; Marshall, 2011). In England this is labelled as a mutiny or rebellion, however in India many refer to the conflict as India’s First War of Independence (Marshall, 2011). The Anglo-centric tone continues in the historical narrative taught in the GCSE curriculum: India is taught to be the jewel in the 19th century British Empire – with spices, jewels, textiles and a large population it was a great colonial

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achievement (BBC Teach, 2020). However, Britain actually crushed the social, political and religious systems present in India pre-imperial rule (Marshall, 2011; Editors of encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020b). These examples show how the British curriculum engages in both Euro and Anglo-centrism, to the extent that the curriculum holds a singularity of perspective that focuses almost entirely on White-British success (Russell, 2020; Harris and Clarke, 2011; Willinsky, 2000). What are the implications of this Anglocentric perspective and how can we move forward? The current primary History curriculum suffers from a singularity of perspective. This is due to two reasons: first, the coalition government desired civic conformity, causing an under representation of BAME people; and secondly, a long-casting colonial shadow is present, causing an Anglo-centric narrative (Watson, 2019; Harris and Clarke, 2011; Alexander and WeekesBernard, 2017, Willinsky, 2000; Russell, 2020). An implication of this singularity of perspective is that our primary History content lacks ethnic inclusivity (Gillborn,

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2015; Busby, 2018). For many, the idea of positive multi-culturalism, and ethnic inclusivity, is mutually exclusive to Anglo-centrism (Alexander and WeekesBernard, 2017; Willinsky, 2000; Watson, 2019; Heath, 2018). To be a more inclusive society, the purpose of our curriculum must be to teach about people of colour being contributors to national and international History, rather than enslaved victims of it (Heath, 2018). In agreement, former leader of the opposition, Jeremy Corbyn, says ‘Black History is British History’, and highlights that until we stop teaching Black History solely through the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, British society will never appreciate the integral role people of colour played in British and World History (Heath, 2018). This is further supported by Ofsted (2007 and 2011), whom found almost all references to BAME people was in the context of slavery, therefore ignoring the plentiful number of BAME individuals whom have contributed significantly to the scientific or cultural historical narrative (Heath, 2018; Alexander and Weekes-Bernard 2017). Our curriculum should shift to include more internal racial histories, and histories of ethnically diverse Briton’s; this

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will show that diverse History does not only occur ‘over-there’ in other continents and cultures, but will instead highlight how diversity is an integral part of ‘Our Island Story’. References Alexander C. and Weekes-Bernard D. (2017) History lessons: inequality, diversity and the national curriculum, Race Ethnicity and Education, 20:4, 478494, DOI: 10.1080/13613324.2017.1294571 BBC Teach. 2020. History KS3 / GCSE: Why Was India So Valuable To The British Empire?. [online] Available at: <https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/classclips-video/gcse-history-why-wasindia-so-valuable-to-the-britishEempire/zv2rwty#:~:text=India%20was% 20the%20jewel%20in,backbone%20of%2 0their%20military%20power.> [Accessed 18 December 2020]. Bousted in Ward, H. (2018). Curriculum 'must cover more than dead, white men' - Bousted. Times Educational Supplement. [online] Available at: https://www.tes.com/news/curriculum -must-cover-more-dead-white-menbousted [Accessed 7 Jan. 2020].

Busby, E., 2018. Diverse school pupils feel 'warmer' toward other ethnic backgrounds, reveals study. The Independent, [online] Available at: <https://www.independent.co.uk/news /education/education-news/schooldiversity-ethnic-bame-pupils-studentsuk-education-a8363441.html> [Accessed 15 July 2020]. Clark, A., 2016. Indigenous histories in metropole and periphery. History Australia, 13(1), pp.174-179. Connell, R., 2010. Periphery and Metropole in the History of Sociology. sociOlogisk forskning 2010, 1(47). Cunningham, P., 1989. Educational History and Educational Change: The Past Decade of English Historiography. History of Education Quarterly, [online] 29(1), p.77. Available at: <https://doi.org/10.2307/368606> [Accessed 22 December 2020]. Daley, P., 2019. Captain Cook's legacy is complex, but whether white Australia likes it or not he is emblematic of violence and oppression. The Guardian, [online] Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/australi

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a-news/postcolonialblog/2019/oct/03/captain-cookslegacy-is-complex-but-whether-whiteaustralia-likes-it-or-not-he-isemblematic-of-violence-andoppression> [Accessed 15 July 2020]. DES (Department for Education and Science). 1985. Education for All. The Swann Report. London: HMSO. Elementary Education Act 1880, Available at: http://www.educationengland.org.uk/d ocuments/acts/1880-elementaryeducation-act.html Gillborn, D. 2015. The Monsterisation of Race Equality: How Hate Became Honourable. In The Runnymede School Report: Race, Education and Inequality in Contemporary Britain, edited by C. Alexander, D. Weekes-Bernard, and J. Arday, 6–9. London: Runnymede Trust. Gove, M. 2010. All Pupils Will Learn Our Island Story. October 5, 2010. www.conservatives.com Harris R. and Clarke G. (2011) Embracing diversity in the history curriculum: a

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study of the challenges facing trainee teachers, Cambridge Journal of Education, 41:2, 159-175, DOI: 10.1080/0305764X.2011.572863 Harris, R. and Clarke, G., 2011. Embracing diversity in the history curriculum: a study of the challenges facing trainee teachers. Cambridge Journal of Education, 41(2), pp.159-175. Heath, D., 2018. British Empire is still being whitewashed by the school curriculum – historian on why this must change. The Conversation, [online] Available at: <https://theconversation.com/britishempire-is-still-being-whitewashed-bythe-school-curriculum-historian-onwhy-this-must-change-105250> [Accessed 22 December 2020]. Lee, A., 2020. Why Christopher Columbus wasn't the hero we learned about in school. CNN, [online] Available at: <https://edition.cnn.com/2020/06/12/ us/christopher-columbus-slaverydisease-trnd/index.html> [Accessed 15 July 2020].

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Levy, M. 2019. British general election of 2010. In: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1st ed. London: Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall, P., 2011. British History In Depth: British India And The 'Great Rebellion'. [online] BBC. Available at: <http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/ victorians/indian_rebellion_01.shtml> [Accessed 18 December 2020]. Mason, R., 2015. How much of the Conservatives' 2010 election manifesto was implemented?. The Guardian, [online] Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/politics /2015/apr/14/how-much-of-theconservatives-2010-election-manifestowas-implemented> [Accessed 22 December 2020]. doi: 10.1177/1468796814525379. Moosavi, L. 2015. ‘Orientalism at home: Islamophobia in the representations of Islam and Muslims by the New Labour Government’, Ethnicities, 15(5), pp. 652– 674. Neem, J., 2015. The Publics Of History: A Report On The National History Center’s Discussion Of The History Manifesto. American Historical Association:

Perspectives, [online] (4). Available at: <https://www.historians.org/publication s-and-directories/perspectives-onhistory/april-2015/the-publics-ofhistory-a-report-on-the-nationalhistory-centers-discussion-of-thehistory-manifesto?Src=longreads> [Accessed 22 December 2020]. Nolan, J. 2010. Western Education in the 19th Century. In: Encyclopedia Britanica. London: Encyclopedia Britannica. Ofsted 2007. History in the Balance. http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/7089/1/History_in _the_balance_%28PDF_ format%29.pdf Ofsted. 2011. History for All. www.ofsted.gov.uk/resources/historyfor-all ONS (Office of National Statistics). 2011. Population Estimates by Ethnic Group, 2002–2009. available at www.ons.gov.uk/ons.taxonomy/index.ht ml?nscl=population±estimates±by±ethni c±group Osborne, S., 2016. 5 of the worst atrocities carried out by the British Empire. The independent, [online] Available at: <https://www.independent.co.uk/news

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/uk/home-news/worst-atrocitiesbritish-empire-amritsar-boer-warconcentration-camp-mau-maua6821756.html> [Accessed 16 December 2020]. Parkinson, J., 2020. Windrush generation: UK 'unlawfully ignored' immigration rules warnings. BBC, [online] Available at: <https://www.bbc.com/news/ukpolitics-55065061> [Accessed 17 December 2020]. Pruitt, S., 2019. What part of Africa did most slaves come from? History.com, [online] Available at: <https://www.history.com/news/whatpart-of-africa-did-most-slaves-comefrom> [Accessed 15 July 2020]. Race Relations Amendment Act 2000. Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2 000/34/contents. Accessed: July 15th 2020 Russell, D. (2020). Why decolonising the curriculum is a job for teachers. Times Educational Supplement. [online] Available at: https://www.tes.com/news/why-

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decolonising-curriculum-job-teachers [Accessed 4 Jan. 2020]. Scott, J., 1984. Women and War: A focus for rewriting History. Women's Studies Quarterly, [online] 12(2), pp.2-6. Available at: <http://www.jstor.org/stable/40004302 > [Accessed 22 December 2020]. Shilliam, R. 2016. “Austere Curricula: Multicultural Education and Black Students.” In Austere Histories in European Societies: Social Exclusion and the Contest of Colonial Memories, edited by Stefan Jonsson, and Julia Willén. London: Routledge. Stokes, E. 2014. Free Schools, Equality and Inclusion. Race on the Agenda/NASUWT. http://www.rota.org.uk/webfm_send/2 58. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020a. Arawak. In: Encyclopaedia Britannica. London: Encyclopædia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ara wak [Accessed December 16 2020]

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The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020b. Indian Mutiny. In: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1st ed. London: Encyclopædia Britannica. Avaliable at: https://www.britannica.com/event/Indi an-Mutiny. [Accessed 18 December 2020] Tomlinson, S., 2005. Race, ethnicity and education under New Labour. Oxford Review of Education, [online] 31(1), pp.153-171. Available at: <https://www.jstor.org/stable/4618610 ?seq=1>. Watson M. 2019. Michael Gove’s war on professional historical expertise: conservative curriculum reform, extreme white history and the place of imperial heroes in modern multicultural Britain. British Politics, 20. Willinsky, J. (2000). Learning to divide the world. Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press.

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A Comparison of Representations of Mentally Ill Women in Popular Literature Written in the Seventeenth and Nineteenth Centuries Isabelle Hudson MA History The nature and classification of mental illness has undoubtedly changed throughout the course of history and has influenced many aspects of popular culture. Literary depictions of mental illness in women typically reflect the medical theories and treatments of the centuries in which they were produced, thus serve as a means for historians to understand and consider the development of gendered mental health representation. This examination of the past is vital to identifying and confronting the social injustice present among our current medical model, as well as the way that the health of minority groups is viewed among the populace. In seventeenth-century literature, lovesickness was among the most commonly portrayed origin of insanity, with the experience of female madness

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having been presented as significantly more passive than the male. These concepts were based upon the contemporary holistic medical model, and is evident in texts such as William Shakespeare’s Hamlet (c. 1602) and Macbeth (c. 1606).[1] Conversely, the institutionalised, scientific model of the nineteenth century firmly established insanity as a predominantly female condition associated with physical symptoms.[2] Victorian literature is often interpreted as challenging the established male perceptions and treatment of mentally ill women, as seen in Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper (1892) and Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre (1847). Such works depict scientific rather than religious or humoral theories behind female hysteria and were increasingly presented from the female perspective. Despite this, aspects of these depictions remained similar, primarily regarding the portrayal of the female reproductive system as the leading cause of madness in women as well as the idea of distinct gendered

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predispositions to insanity.[3] Thus, literary images of mentally ill women were adapted to reflect changing social context and leading medical theories, having been further influenced by changing consumer popularity such as expanded interest in the Romantic and Gothic genres.[4] Madness as a medical ailment became more intrinsically linked and depicted alongside the natural female condition throughout the nineteenth century, whereas popular texts that focused on female insanity in the seventeenth century did not present madness as uniquely feminine, but as having uniquely female causes.[5] This is exemplified by the fact that, despite Shakespeare’s gendered portrayal, Hamlet’s madness is ultimately no less compelling than Ophelia’s, whereas later nineteenth century texts such as Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper and Bronte’s Jane Eyre do not depict female experiences of mental illness alongside that of the male.[6] This change can be accredited to the firm organisation of medicine as a state institution in the

nineteenth century. This brought with it the ability to verify through statistics the predominance of female mental health patients in asylums after the passage of mental health laws such as the 1845 Lunatics Act, thus confirming in the eyes of society that women were the gender most inclined towards mental illness.[7] This overrepresentation of female mental health patients is further displayed in primary sources, such as W.A.F Browne’s lectures, in which he recommended increased female dormitory space in public asylums as he considered it a well-known fact that female numbers would always exceed the male.[8] Such preconceptions of women’s mental health resulted in significant social injustice within the contemporary medical community as women were more likely to be deemed mentally unfit for behaviour and emotions considered ‘normal’ among men. However, these statistics can be considered “one-sided” given that some forms of madness were indeed understood to be strongly linked to femininity, but others were considered

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strictly male in nature, thus the interpretation that nineteenth-century individuals viewed madness as a distinctively female malady is inaccurate. Men, for instance, were more likely to remain in asylums until death, thus social injustice was present in the mental health treatment of both genders.[9] Consequently, historians such as Joan Busfield argue against the idea of an increased feminisation of madness, but rather that increased distinctions between gendered forms of madness had occurred.[10] Portrayals of this gendered distinction are indeed evident in literary portrayal of hysteria, which was considered to be a characteristic female disease. For instance, Bertha Mason’s madness is firmly associated with hysteria in Jane Eyre in contrast to the vaguer feminine insanity illustrated by Shakespeare. During both the nineteenth and seventeenth centuries, women were consistently perceived as the weaker sex and hence more naturally prone to insanity, a reflection of wider social

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inequality of these periods. However, as evident in Shakespeare’s work, female madness was initially portrayed as subdued and less complex than men’s.[11] Lady Macbeth’s mental breakdown encompasses this distinction, having been portrayed as “feminised and guiltridden in contrast with Macbeth’s excessive, enraged, bloody ambition”, a firm representation of the perceived limitations of contemporary women’s emotional capabilities.[12] Furthermore, the seventeenth century literary portrayal of the origins of female mental illness heavily reflected that of lovesickness, a prominent concept in medicine that originated with the work of Hippocrates and Galen, based upon the assumption that women’s minds and bodies were too frail to endure heartbreak.[13] In Hamlet, Ophelia suffers from a melancholic love, prominently reflecting Elizabethan perceptions of love-madness in women, and is subordinated beside Hamlet’s male insanity and its associated intellectual genius; indeed, Hamlet could exist

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without Ophelia, but not vice versa.[14] Ophelia’s emotional and mental decline reflects Robert Burton’s theories on the causes and symptoms of mental illness, again in relation to Galenic theory.[15] Conversely, Bronte’s work presents a departure from the lovesick madwoman. Philip W. Martin contends that Bertha’s role is beyond that of a melodramatic device and exists to subvert; whereas Jane is the woman abandoned, she maintains her sanity, whereas Bertha’s sanity is lost after her marriage. This demonstrates a clear contrast regarding how the medical and popular societies of the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries understood the origins of women’s mental illness.[16] Enforcing this is the fact that Charlotte Dacre’s 1811 book The Passions perpetrated the seventeenth century portrayal of lovemadness but faced a significant lack of consumer popularity, indicating that this portrayal was no longer relatable to contemporary medical understanding or attractive to the Victorian audience. This was likely also a reflection of developing proto-feminist analysis among

academics and literature, as demonstrated by the works of Mary Wollstonecraft (1792) and Mary Shelley (1818), which developed social considerations of women and lay groundwork for gender related social justice over the following decades. The Victorian literary madwoman was historically unique in its presentation of mental health, with Bronte’s portrayal of Bertha’s feminine madness alongside masculine, murderous rage a shocking image for nineteenth century readers.[17] From the popularity of Bronte’s work, it can be inferred that this depiction was not only attractive and also perhaps anticipated by the audience due to their perceptions concerning how the mentally ill behaved. Despite this, the aspects of Gothic and Romantic literature adopted in Jane Eyre make it difficult to ascertain whether this depiction was influenced by the tropes within these genres or by contemporary perceptions of mentally ill women. Primary sources do depict cases of nineteenth century asylum patients in states of manic “excitement”, although what constituted

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erratic behaviour does not reflect our modern understanding given the restrictive social considerations forced upon Victorian women.[18] Given Bronte’s interest in contemporary medical theory and practice, it can be inferred that her depiction of mental illness actively attempted to reflect the reality dictated by medical understanding, although adapted for literary and entertainment purposes.[19] Bronte’s literature thus served as a means of criticising the impact of her society’s patriarchal medical system on the health and recovery of women, with Bertha having been locked away indefinitely by the men in her life and only descending into further madness. In contrast, Shakespeare depicted Ophelia as a pitiful figure martyred by her madness and Hamlet’s abuse of her love, her death being intrinsically linked with the implications of possible religious damnation. Given the absence of a fully institutionalised medical community during the 1600s, literary focus was placed on the association of physical

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symptoms with religious doubt, as evident in Lady Macbeth’s decline being the result of guilt.[20] These attitudes were also conveyed within female autobiographical writings of the century; Dionys Fitzherbert ardently argued that her symptoms were the result of religious affliction rather than illness.[21] Thus, although hysteria remained a dominant diagnosis of mental anguish in women during these two centuries, literary depictions varied due to the different understandings as to what hysteria was, what its symptoms were, and why it occurred in the first place. Developed scientific understanding of illness resulted not only in this development, but also in the greater capacity of writers such as Bronte and Perkins Gilman to criticise medical inequalities from the female perspective. Regardless of these distinctions, literary depictions of insanity in both the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries consistently presented womanhood and femininity as “psychologically incomplete” and intrinsically unstable

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states of being.[22] This reflected the leading patriarchal medical belief in both centuries that female madness was caused by the female reproductive system, thus certain medical understandings were indeed maintained. In 1871, G. Fielding Blandford argued that pregnancy and sexual organs were the leading cause of madness in women, reflecting Edward Jorden’s 1603 arguments concerning “the suffocation of the mother”.[23] In Jane Eyre, symbolism links Bertha’s insanity to these medical theories, her worst attacks on Thornfield Hall having occurred during times when the moon was “blood red” in reflection of menstruation.[24] Likewise, Ophelia exhibits gender-specific symptoms of female hysterics such as agitation and physical tics, suggesting spasms of the ‘mother’, or womb.[25] It is evident that the medical communities of both centuries adopted vague theories concerning mental illness in general, but very specific theories concerning female insanity and its relation to the reproductive system.[26] Despite this, the medical models of these centuries were

indeed different – changing from holistic to scientific – thus not all depictions of illness were strictly the same. Psychiatric work in the nineteenth century, such as that by Sir W.C Ellis, rejected the concept of the wandering uterus in favour of the brain becoming more sympathetic of the uterus.[27] Although seventeenth century medicine advocated for more scientific medical theories as a response to witchcraft trials, the medical model remained dominantly holistic, and Galenic theory maintained its popular influence.[28] The social context of witchcraft trials, the accompanying gender-based injustice, and their influence on demand for psychiatric diagnosis, is all very much reflected in seventeenth century literature. This is evident in Macbeth, with Shakespeare’s portrayal of the witches and their nonsensical, otherworldly speech contrasted alongside the mad, delirious speech of Lady Macbeth, demonstrating a clear divide between supernatural and earthly sickness.[29] Thus, although there was some wider continuity, literary portrayals of women were

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fundamentally and heavily influenced by the changing nature of historical context and medical understanding due to the significant impact these factors had not only on portrayals of mental health but also on how society viewed women. A further variation in literary portrayals was the depiction of how female mental health patients were treated, both by the medical system and wider society. Treatments are not typically depicted by Shakespeare, with neither Lady Macbeth nor Ophelia even being afforded the opportunity to die on stage. Due to a lack of records, it is difficult to fully understand the seventeenth century female experience with psychiatric medicine or to what extent its patriarchal domination resulted in matters of gender inequality. Wendy D. Churchill argues that analysed records have been examined under the “gendered eye” of male historians and therefore the extent of which female medicine “was governed by gynaecology and hysteria has remained a mystery”.[30] Indeed, women’s positions

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as medical patients has overall been neglected throughout historiography, a result of the traditionally maledominated sphere of history and lacking social justice for women.[31] A lack of comprehensive study of early modern sources results in difficultly cross examining with contemporary literature; thus, it is challenging to determine to what extent literature of the time portrayed how women were treated for mental afflictions. However, in comparison, the purpose of The Yellow Wallpaper was to directly criticise eminent nineteenth century neurologist S.W Mitchell’s recommended treatments for mentally ill women, acting as a commentary that encouraged greater gender-based social justice. Mitchell’s “celebrated rest cure... call[ed] for isolation, physical inaction, massage, mild electrical stimulation, and [32] fattening...” Through The Yellow Wallpaper, Perkins Gilman made an appeal for a sex-neutral medical model and demanded social reform within the domestic setting, conveying the

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contribution of a forced patriarchal environment on what was perceived as an unstable state of mind.[33] Gilman expressed this perspective primarily through use of setting; the narrator is confined to a nursery in representation of how Victorian women were essentially reduced to the status of a child through the social and economic oppression experienced within marriages, and the barred windows establish this malecreated world as a female prison.[34] From this examination, it is clear that Perkins Gilman intended to demonstrate the argument that female mental illness was the direct result of the inequal society in which she lived, and further reinforced by male-imposed treatments whilst simultaneously neglecting to consider the voices of the patients themselves. This is a widely different depiction from that in early modern literature, but does reflect other contemporary writings; for instance, Fitzherbert expressed frustration at having a diagnosis forced upon her by the male establishment without being able to express her own feelings and perspectives on her health.

The prevailing impact of a restrictive patriarchal society that dominated healthcare and medical understandings of women’s health resulted in women in both centuries not only feeling unheard but also ultimately desiring social change that better reflected their needs. Variations in literary portrayals of female mental illness have been the result of changing social contexts and medical models across time, as indicated by contemporary physicians whose work detailed various origins and preferred treatments of female madness. Indeed, examination of these literary depictions indicates the ever-changing nature of mental illness and societal perception over time, raising questions concerning our modern understanding of mental health and medical gender bias. The medical models of both the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries considered their approaches to women’s health to be scientific and grounded in reason, however a present-centred examination would frame these theories as at best ineffective or at worse highly abusive. Thus, modern society must not remain

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static with its consideration of psychiatry and must continue asking questions about the nature of mental illness and how it presents in minority groups. Social justice not only continues to be required for women in medicine, but also for other groups such as ethnic minorities. Social justice is especially important in consideration of the fact that medical theories and understandings are reflected within cultural depictions such as literature, thus further disseminating knowledge and possible bias that pose a negative effect on the medical experiences of certain societal groups.

John Connolly, An Inquiry Concerning the Indications of Insanity (London: University of London, 1830). https://archive.org/details/inquiryconc ernin00cono/page/n6ohn Connolly 234 Edward Jorden, A Briefe Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother (1603). [3]

Philip W. Martin, Mad Women in Romantic Writing (Brighton: Harvester, 1987), 16. [5] Small, Love’s Madness, VII. [4]

Neely, Distracted Subjects, 69. Katharine Hodgkin, Madness in Seventeenth-Century Autobiography (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 81. [6]

Endnotes Carol Thomas Neely, Distracted Subjects: Madness and Gender in Shakespeare and Early Modern Culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004), 4, 47, 99. [1]

Helen Small, Love’s Madness: Medicine, the Novel, and Female Insanity 1800-1865 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), VII. [2]

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Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture 1830-1980 (London: Virago, 1987), 52. [7]

W.A.F Browne, What Asylums Were, Are, and Ought To Be (Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1837), Digitised by The Internet Archive 2012. Accessed [8]

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30th November 2019, http://www.archive.org/details/whatas ylumswerea02brow Joan Busfield, "The Female Malady? Men, Women and Madness in Nineteenth Century Britain,” Sociology 28.1 (1994): 259-77, accessed 30th November 2019, www.jstor.org/stable/42855327. 259 [9]

[10]

Ibid., 276.

[11]

Neely, Distracted Subjects, 4.

[12]

Ibid. Small, Love’s Madness, 139.

[13]

[17]

Small, Love’s Madness, 142.

Jane Ussher, Women’s Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (London: Harvester, 1991), 64. W.C. Ellis, A Treatise on the Nature, Symptoms, Causes and Treatment of Insanity (London: Samuel Holdsworth, 1838), 89. Digitised by The Internet Archive, accessed 30th November 2019, https://archive.org/details/treatiseonn ature00elli [18]

[19]

Small, Love’s Madness, 155 and 163.

Wendy D. Churchill, Female Patients in Early Modern Britain (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), 182. [20]

Elaine Showalter, “Ophelia, Gender and Madness,” The British Library. 15th March 2016, accessed 30th November 2019, https://www.bl.uk/shakespeare/article s/ophelia-gender-and-madness. [14]

Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy (1612). As discussed in Hodgkin, Madness, 62. [15]

[16]

Martin, Mad Women, 124-5.

Neely, Distracted Subjects, 47. [21]

Hodgkin, Madness, 61.

[22]

Small, Love’s Madness, 23.

G.F Blandford, Insanity and its Treatment (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1871), 53. [23]

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Jorden, A Briefe Discourse. Loralee MacPike, "Environment as Psychopathological Symbolism in The Yellow Wallpaper," American Literary Realism 1870-1910 8.3 (1975): 287, accessed 30th November 2019, www.jstor.org/stable/27747980.287 [34] [24]

Ussher, Women’s Madness 86.

[25]

Neely, Distracted Subjects, 52.

[26]

Showalter, “Ophelia,” 55.

[27]

Ellis, A Treatise, 90.

[28]

Neely, Distracted Subjects, 6.

Hodgkin, Madness, 60. [29]

Neely, Distracted Subjects, 46.

[30]

Churchill, Female Patients, 2.

[31]

Ibid.

Jane F. Thrailkill, "Doctoring The Yellow Wallpaper," ELH 69.2 (2002): 526, accessed 30th November 2019, www.jstor.org/stable/30032030 S.W. Mitchell, Fat and Blood: And How to Make Them (Philadelphia: J.B Lippincott, 1877), 34, 36 and 71. [32]

[33]

Thraikill, “Doctoring,” 540.

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References Literature Discussed (Original Publications) Bronte, Charlotte. Jane Eyre. London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1847. Dacre, Charlotte. The Passions, 1811. Fitzherbert, Dionys. An Anatomie for the Poore in Spirit: Or the Case of An Afflicted Conscience Layed Open by Example, 1633. [Modern transcript found in: Hodgkin, Katherine, ed. Women, Madness and Sin in Early Modern England: The Autobiographical Writings of Dionys Fitzherbert. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 2010.

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Perkins Gilman, Charlotte. The Yellow Wallpaper. Boston: The New England Magazine, 1892. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Originally performed London, c. 1602. Published in Mr William Shakespeare’s Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies. London: Edward Blount and William & Isaac Jaggard, 1623. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Originally performed London, c. 1606. Published in Mr William Shakespeare’s Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies. London: Edward Blount and William & Isaac Jaggard, 1623.

Managers of the Montrose Royal Lunatic Asylum. Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1837. Digitised by The Internet Archive 2012. Accessed 30th November 2019. http://www.archive.org/details/whatas ylumswerea02brow Connolly, John, M.D. An Inquiry Concerning the Indications of Insanity. London: University of London, 1830. Digitised by The Internet Archive 2010. Accessed 30th November 2019. https://archive.org/details/inquiryconc ernin00cono/page/n6

Blandford, G.F. Insanity and its Treatment: Lectures on the Treatment, Medical and Legal, of Insane Patients. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1871.

Ellis, W.C., Sir, M.D. A Treatise on the Nature, Symptoms, Causes and Treatment of Insanity. London: Samuel Holdsworth, 1838. Digitised by The Internet Archive. Accessed 30th November 2019. https://archive.org/details/treatiseonn ature00elli

Browne, W.A.F. What Asylums Were, Are, and Ought To Be, Being the Substance of Five Lectures Delivered Before the

Hagen, Karl, ed. Robert Burton’s The Anatomy of Melancholy 1612. The Project Gutenberg 13th January 2004. Accessed

Primary Sources

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30th November 2019. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1080 0/10800-h/10800-h.htm Jorden, Edward. A Briefe Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother, 1603. Mitchell, S.W. Fat and Blood: And How to Make Them. Philadelphia: J.B Lippincott, 1877.

into the Increasing Prevalence, Prevention, and Treatment of those Diseases Commonly Called Nervous, Bilious, Stomach and Liver Complaints; Indigestion; Low Spirits; Gout, &c. London: Edw. Walker, 1807. Digitised by The Internet Archive 2010. Accessed 30th November 2019. https://archive.org/details/viewofnervo ustem1807trot Secondary Sources

Morison, Alexander, Sir, M.D and Morison, T.C., ed. Outlines of Lectures on the Nature, Cases, and Treatment of Insanity. London: Longman and S. Highley, 1848. Thurnam, John. Observations and Essays on the Statistics of Lunacy, 1845. [As discussed in: Showalter, Elaine. The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture 1830-1980. London: Virago, 1987.] Trotter, Thomas. A View of the Nervous Temperament: Being A Practical Enquiry

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Beattie, Valerie. “The Mystery At Thornfield: Representations of Madness in Jane Eyre.” Studies in the Novel 28.4 (1996): 493-505. Accessed 30th November 2019. www.jstor.org/stable/29533162. Busfield, Joan. "The Female Malady? Men, Women and Madness in Nineteenth Century Britain.” Sociology 28.1 (1994): 259-77. Accessed 30th November 2019. www.jstor.org/stable/42855327.

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Churchill, Wendy D. Female Patients in Early Modern Britain. Farnham: Ashgate, 2012. Gilbert, Sandra and Gubar, Susan. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. 2nd ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. Hodgkin, Katharine. Madness in Seventeenth-Century Autobiography. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Krugovoy Silver, Anna. Victorian Literature and the Anorexic Body. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. MacPike, Loralee. "Environment as Psychopathological Symbolism in The Yellow Wallpaper." American Literary Realism 1870-1910 8.3 (1975): 286-88. Accessed 30th November 2019. www.jstor.org/stable/27747980.

Martin, Philip W. Mad Women in Romantic Writing. Brighton: Harvester, 1987. Showalter, Elaine. “Ophelia, Gender and Madness.” The British Library. 15th March 2016. Accessed 30th November 2019. https://www.bl.uk/shakespeare/article s/ophelia-gender-and-madness. Showalter, Elaine. The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture 1830-1980. London: Virago, 1987. Small, Helen. Love’s Madness: Medicine, the Novel, and Female Insanity 18001865. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. Thomas Neely, Carol. Distracted Subjects: Madness and Gender in Shakespeare and Early Modern Culture. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004. Thrailkill, Jane F. "Doctoring The Yellow Wallpaper." ELH 69.2 (2002): 525-66. Accessed 30th November 2019. www.jstor.org/stable/30032030.

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Ussher, Jane. Women’s Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness?. London: Harvester, 1991.

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A Sustainability in Sport: A Case Study of the United Nations’ ‘World’s Greenest Football Club’ Laura Churcher BSc Sports Business and Management Who are Forest Green Rovers? The small village of Nailsworth, Gloucestershire is home to Forest Green Rovers (FGR), a football club with a unique sustainability philosophy (USP), which has gained them traction from the media. FGR was “adopted” in 2010 by Dale Vince, the founder of Ecotricity (Forest Green Rovers, 2020). Ecotricity is a British renewable energy supplier with strong principles routed in sustainability such as providing affordable green energy and improving infrastructure for electric cars across the UK (Ecotricity, n.d.-a). Vince took responsibility for the club, after a period of economical unrest, which continued until 2014, leading to £5.4 million of accumulated debt (Forest Green Rovers, 2014). 2018 was the first year in which FGR obtained a profit following their promotion up to Division Two of the English Football League. Vince is the business leader behind the shift in FGR’s ethos concerning the club’s social and environmental footprint. Implementing

changes such as becoming the first vegan and carbon-neutral football club have led them to be named the ‘Greenest Football Club’ (FIFA, 2017; Forest Green Rovers, 2020; Morris, 2018). Forest Green Rovers plan to move their operation to a new stadium, constructed of timber and surrounded by parkland (Forest Green Rovers, n.d.-e). The new Stadium (the Eco-park) comes after the club has outgrown The New Lawn, after maximising the ground’s sustainable capabilities (Ecotricity, n.d.- b). The Three Pillars of Sustainability This study seeks to determine where FGR fit into the Three Pillars of Sustainability model in order to analyse the management of this club in terms of its overall sustainability. Social, Environmental and Economic factors all contribute to the sustainability of an organisation. These factors are known as the three pillars of sustainability and have been described as a ‘common approach which is unable to be referenced (Giddings et al. 2002; Purvis, et al. 2019). The pillars have been represented in three different formats, a three-ring Venn diagram, a three-layer diagram and a model of the three pillars balancing sustainability, as shown in Figure 1 a, b

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and c respectively. A strength of the three-ring, Venn-diagram framework, shows the interconnectivity between the pillars, visually representing how each pillar affects the next with a wholly sustainable organisation residing in the middle.

Sustainable development often leads to the neglection of one of the pillars, as organisations have different priorities (Giddings et al., 2002). Hansmann et al., (2012) concluded that attention paid to the environmental factors of running an organisation has ‘synergetic positive effects’ on both the economic and social pillars. Thus, FGR is on the correct course to not only be the world’s greenest

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football club but the sustainable organisation.

first

wholly

Economical FGR currently compete in League Two of the English Football League. 53% of the revenue from clubs in this league are generated on match day due to ticket sales, season tickets, merchandising and refreshments (Marlow & Chaudhuri, 2020). This represents the influence of fans on the economic pillar. Thus, elevating the importance of staffing and match day customer service. Fans, shareholders and players will question how the financial resources are utilised and the impact this has on the sporting performance of the club. This performance is imperative to fans as they identify with their club through theories such as Basking in Reflective Glory (BiRGing) (Cialdini et al., 1976). This means a positive event or result for a team will lead to BiRGing fans perceiving the clubs benefit as their own. Conventionally shareholders want to receive dividends, therefore, improved on-pitch performance will increase revenue through increase merchandise sales due to the BiRGing taking place by fans. In addition to this, being promoted to a

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higher league leads to increases in revenue from broadcast and commercial avenues (Marlow & Chaudhuri, 2020). Figure 2 represents the financial performance of FGR since Vance’s acquisition of the club. 2011-2017 left FGR with a gross loss, this is due to their operating costs, such as lighting, water, maintenance and staffing costs superseding their revenue. The turnover of FGR in the first six years maintained while the team were in the National League, even while the team’s position on the league table increased due to more successful match play. Steady growth in the club’s revenue began in 2015, as they placed in the top five both years. This led to the team being promoted to league two at the end of the 2016-2017 season. National league 2 01 1 2 0t h

2 01 2 10 th

2 01 3 10 th

2 01 4 10 th

2 01 5 5t h

2 01 6 2n d

2 01 7 2 n d

Leagu e2 2 2 01 01 8 9 21 5t st h

Promotion indicates growth in a club’s variable income as it causes an increase

in the number of people exposed to the club. Additionally, the promotion of a football club leads to a larger supporting and a greater demand for sales of tickets and merchandising and the opportunity for higher-profile sponsorships (Marlow & Chaudhuri, 2020). Promotion from League Two to League One causes increased visibility and accessibility, thus, broadcasting revenue increases from 11% of the club’s total revenue to 20% (Marlow & Chaudhuri, 2020). Broadcasting rights are a predictable, regular and reliable stream of finance for a club, this is also known as a recurring revenue (Liberto, 2019). The promotion of FGR caused an increase in their turnover due to an increase in recurring revenues available to the club. Shareholders are key stakeholders in the economic pillar of sustainability. Conventionally, shareholders expect dividends at the end of a financial year as a return on their investment. However, investors such as Dale Vince and Hector Bellerin, a member of the current Arsenal first-team squad, invested in the club to improve sustainability in sport and raise awareness of environmental issues (Shaw, 2020). This allows FGR to prioritise the environment over profit and achieve

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goals that match their ethos without external pressure from conventional shareholders, in regard to satisfying targets and providing them dividends. Social The social pillar is built upon external factors and is largely influenced by stakeholders. FGR have received praise from FIFA, the international governing body of football when they described them as the ‘Greenest football club’ via a mini-documentary about the club’s achievements in sustainability (FIFA, 2017). Exposure such as this increases the club’s visibility on an international level and encourages other teams to consider sustainability when reviewing their strategies moving forward. When FGR play home games, an increase in noise pollution, light pollution and traffic, will impact the Nailsworth community putting their relationship with FGR under strain. The Eco-Park that has been announced will have a positive impact on this relationship as there will be less reliance on the infrastructure in Nailsworth, such as the roads, as it is planned to be built just off the M5. Improving transport links will also positively impact, the local community,

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fans, suppliers, competing teams and staff. In addition to this, sports tourism in Nailsworth as a result of travelling fans attending restaurants and shops before and after the match positively impacts the community economically. Therefore, the building of the Eco-park will continue to benefit these stakeholders in this way. The local community can be the catalyst or the barrier to change. Stroud District Council has previously refused planning permission of their Eco Park. (Ecotricity, n.d.-b). Striving to get their planning accepted, FGR vowed to plant 500 trees and 1.8 km of hedges and improve transport links such as the motorway roundabout and cycle routes around the park during construction (Ecotricity, n.d.). In addition to this, FGR has endeavoured to build a positive relationship with their local community, through initiatives such as Soccer Camps with ex-players, an Ambassadors scheme and a program called Fit2Last Program (Forest Green Rovers, n.d.-a). The Fit2Last program and the building of cycle routes promote two of the United Nations (n.d) Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs): Good Health and Wellbeing (Goal 3) and Sustainable Cities and Communities (Goal 11).

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On the other hand, Hill & Green (2000) have linked sportscapes with attendance and the motivation of spectators, so, building a new stadium can negatively impact these factors as fans have loyalty and nostalgia with FGR’s old stadium. Therefore, the replacement of FGR’s current stadium with an Eco-park with the same capacity may lead to unhappy fans. As the only benefit is increased sustainability. Problems such as this will not negatively impact new fans, however, the longterm fans from Nailsworth may feel a connection to the stadium (Hill & Green, 2000). Moreover, fan’s motivations are predominantly influenced by the performance of the team. Following the takeover of the club by Dale Vince, FGR has consistently improved on match day, thus, ensuring the happiness of the fans through phenomena such as BiRGing. The working conditions of players and staff is also essential to managing the social pillar, for example, minimum wage and working benefits. This seems to be an element FGR excels in with a 4.8 Star employee review, a higher score than clubs of comparative sizes on the same scale as of the time of writing. (Indeed, n.d.).

Ecotricity, the club's main sponsor, was the catalyst to their USP and supply the club with sustainable energy (Forest Green Rovers, n.d.-b). Additional sponsors include ESSI their stadium sponsor; Gurdon is the sponsor of their Ambassador Scheme and Quorn is the sponsor of their all-vegan menu who all believe in sustainable working practices (Forest Green Rovers, n.d.-b). This allows FGR to make decisions in line with the club's values to be made with support from their sponsors (Forest Green Rovers, n.d.-b). Additionally, their USP allows the club to obtain sponsors that otherwise, they may not have had the opportunity to work with. The stadium drinks supplier, Innocent Smoothies, has been contacted by other, larger, European clubs for the opportunity of stadium naming rights but, ‘Why would we (want to partner with the second most sustainable club in the world when we could partner with the first?’ (Forest Green Rovers, n.d.-b). Sponsors also provide the club with recurring revenue making them essential stakeholders in analysing both the social and economic pillar.

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Environmental This pillar relates to FGR’s USP with their ethos stating, ‘We seek maximum environmental gain for minimum environmental impact’ and therefore, is a top priority for the club (Forest Green Rovers, n.d.-d). Decisions made in relation to their ethos and the environment encapsulates many of the choices the club has made since Vince became their chairperson. FGR offset the carbon emissions accumulated by all club related travel, including journeys made by fans. This enables the club to sustain its carbonneutral certificate obtained in 2018 (Morris, 2018). To achieve this, FGR has installed an organic pitch that collects rainwater, electric vehicles and charging points and solar panels on the roof of one of their stands (Forest Green Rovers, n.d.c). Decreasing an organisations water footprint conserves energy, maintains aquatic ecosystems and preserves freshwater resources, in addition to promoting the UNSDG Life Below Water (Goal 14) (Kenny, 2016: United Nations, n.d). Reusing naturally occurring water also allows FGR to decrease operational costs, reducing the overheads of the club.

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Solar panels have been installed on the roof of the stadium to provide renewable energy in addition to the energy supplied by Ecotricity. The stadium runs on carbon-neutral gas and 100% renewable electricity, in line with the UNSDG Affordable and Clean Energy (Goal 7). Additional advancements to the ground include electric vehicle parking, solar-powered lawnmowers and an organic, pesticide-free pitch. This, coupled with their scheme to off-set carbon emissions of all club related to travel, fans or team, has led them to be named the first-ever carbon neutral Football Club (Morris, 2018). The plan to move to the new Eco-Park comes after the club has outgrown their current stadium, after maximising the ground’s sustainable capabilities in terms of conscious consumption and renewable resources. Sponsors are an important stakeholder in maintaining the social pillar as they partner with businesses with similar ethos to themselves. An example of such partnerships includes Quorn, the supplier of their 100% vegan menu (Forest Green Rovers, n.d.-b). Having Quorn as a key sponsor has impacted the fans, players and staff at

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the club as their food options are strictly vegan and the players are expected to lead a vegan lifestyle when directly involved in the club or its facilities for example, in the stadium or travelling to away matches (FIFA, 2017). It has been found that plant-based diets reduce food’s emissions by up to 73%, thus, largely impacting the club's carbon footprint and helping them achieve their goals (Poore & Nemecek, 2018). By prioritizing the environment, FGR has benefited from positive media which has led to unlikely relationships for a club their size. Stakeholders such as Arsenal player Hector Bellerin and Quorn have joined the club due to the club's values and as of 2018 FGR reported having fans in 20 countries across the world due to their ethos (Forest Green Rovers, 2018). Where do FGR fit into the Three Pillar Model? When referring to the three-ring framework of the three pillars, it is clear that FGR resides in the cross-section of social and environmental as ‘In any apparent conflict between the environment and money – we put the environment first’ (Forest Green Rovers, n.d.-d). In addition, the United Nations

presented FGR with the Momentum for Change climate action award in 2018 as recognition for their sustainable development as a football club through acting upon goals 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 14 and 15 of the UNSDG’s (Budd, 2018; United Nations, n.d). Conventionally, the main goal of traditional businesses is to generate profit and ensure financial stability. This allows them to continue trading, ensure stable employment and provide dividends for shareholders. This situates traditional businesses in the economic pillar. Many of their aims of a local football club are directed towards the performance and happiness of fans and players. Although, due to the commercialisation of football, professional teams need to account for the economic pillar, so they can re-invest into their club to continue to satisfy the social pillar by obtaining key players in the transfer window to achieve success in the league. This is where FGR differ from conventional teams as their actions

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prioritize the environmental and social pillars when making decisions.

In order to balance the economic pillar, FGR must sustain profitability, meaning, FGR must find ways of reducing their variable costs to lead to increasing profit margins and thus profit. This is a challenge for the club as, in relation to other clubs their size as the revenue they reinvest also attributes to sustaining their ethos, such as vegan food and planting trees to offset the carbon emissions of club related travel. An increase in the profit margin on items such as food and drink, merchandise and tickets and season tickets will increase

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the club's revenue. It is possible to increase contribution per unit by either, increasing revenue or lowering costs. As fans are a key stakeholder to FGR, increasing the price of goods or services they can purchase to support their club will negatively impact this community and the social pillar. Therefore, balancing the economic pillar should be achieved by reducing expenditure in the stadium, for example utilizing discounts such as economies of scale. The positioning of FGR within this model is speculative as this analysis is based upon future aspects of the club such as the Eco-Park. Conclusion The three pillars of sustainability rely on each other to function. Therefore, solutions and improvements relating to each pillar need to be put in place to achieve a balance between the pillars. The interconnectivity of the pillars has been evident through this case study with stakeholders being a key aspect affecting the management of each of the pillars. Fans generate the most income for the club through sales of tickets, merchandise and refreshments, therefore, the satisfaction of the fans is key. Additionally, the on-pitch

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performance is imperative to fans happiness; hence, funding needs to be re-invested into the club to ensure they have the best facilities in order to succeed. This represents the interconnectivity between the economic and social pillars. Most professional football clubs focus on these two pillars; however, FGR’s emphasis is on the environment. Many of the factors that affect the environmental pillar to help FGR achieve a carbon-neutral status such as solar panels, planting trees, using electric cars and the adoption of a vegan menu have an impact on the social and economic pillar. FGR should aim to balance the economic pillar in order to become a wholly sustainable organisation. References Budd, S., 2018. Forest Green Rovers Win Climate Change Award In New York. [online] Ecotricity.co.uk. Available at: <https://www.ecotricity.co.uk/ournews/2018/forest-green-rovers-winclimate-change-award-in-new-york> [Accessed 20 January 2021]. Cialdini, R.B., Borden, R.J., Thorne, A., Walker, M.R., Freeman, S., & Sloan, L.R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three

(football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 366-375. Ecotricity. (n.d.- a) Our Green Energy – Green Electricity [Online] Available from: https://www.ecotricity.co.uk/ourgreen-energy/green-electricity [Accessed on: 06/12/20] Ecotricity. (n.d.- b) Eco Park - a new home for FGR. [Online] Available from: https://www.ecotricity.co.uk/aboutecotricity/eco-park [Accessed on: 06/12/20] FIFA, 2021. The Greenest Football Club In The World?. [image] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B HErK7J9aAo> [Accessed 22 January 2021]. Forest Green Rovers (2011) Strategic Report, Directors’ Report and Financial Statements. Available from: https://findand-update.companyinformation.service.gov.uk/company/06 748691/filing-history [Accessed on: 06/12/20]

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Forest Green Rovers (2012) Strategic Report, Directors’ Report and Financial Statements. Available from: https://findand-update.companyinformation.service.gov.uk/company/06 748691/filing-history [Accessed on: 06/12/20] Forest Green Rovers (2013) Strategic Report, Directors’ Report and Financial Statements. Available from: https://findand-update.companyinformation.service.gov.uk/company/06 748691/filing-history [Accessed on: 06/12/20] Forest Green Rovers (2014) Strategic Report, Directors’ Report and Financial Statements. Available from: https://findand-update.companyinformation.service.gov.uk/company/06 748691/filing-history [Accessed on: 06/12/20] Forest Green Rovers (2015) Strategic Report, Directors’ Report and Financial Statements. Available from: https://findand-update.companyinformation.service.gov.uk/company/06

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748691/filing-history [Accessed on: 06/12/20] Forest Green Rovers (2016) Strategic Report, Directors’ Report and Financial Statements. Available from: https://findand-update.companyinformation.service.gov.uk/company/06 748691/filing-history [Accessed on: 06/12/20] Forest Green Rovers (2017) Strategic Report, Directors’ Report and Financial Statements. Available from: https://findand-update.companyinformation.service.gov.uk/company/06 748691/filing-history [Accessed on: 06/12/20] Forest Green Rovers (2018 -b) Strategic Report, Directors’ Report and Financial Statements. Available from: https://findand-update.companyinformation.service.gov.uk/company/06 748691/filing-history [Accessed on: 06/12/20]

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Forest Green Rovers (2018) FGR footprint report 2018. Nailsworth, Gloucestrshire: Forest Green Rovers.

https://www.fgr.co.uk/ourethos/greening-up-football [Accessed on: 06/12/20]

Forest Green Rovers (2019) Strategic Report, Directors’ Report and Financial Statements. Available from: https://findand-update.companyinformation.service.gov.uk/company/06 748691/filing-history [Accessed on: 06/12/20]

Forest Green Rovers. (n.d.-d) Our Environmental Policy. Our Policies. [Online] Available form: https://www.fgr.co.uk/help/ourpolicies/our-environmental-policy [Accessed: 02/12/20]

Forest Green Rovers. (2020). The journey so far. [Online] Available from: https://www.fgr.co.uk/our-history/thejourney-so-far [Accessed: 20/11/20]

Forest Green Rovers. (n.d.-e) A New Home for FGR. Our Ethos. [Online] Available from: https://www.fgr.co.uk/our-ethos/ecopark [Accessed: 02/12/20]

Forest Green Rovers. (n.d.-a) FGR Community Trust. [Online] Available from: https://www.fgr.co.uk/we-arefgr/fgr-community [Accessed on: 06/12/20]

Giddings, B., Hopwood, B. and O'Brien, G. (2002) Environment, economy and society: fitting them together into sustainable development. Sustainable Development, 10(4), pp.187-196.

Forest Green Rovers. (n.d.-b) Our Partners. [Online] Available from: https://www.fgr.co.uk/our-ethos/ourpartners [Accessed on: 06/12/20]

Hansmann, R., Mieg, H. and Frischknecht, P. (2012) Principal sustainability components: empirical analysis of synergies between the three pillars of sustainability. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 19(5), pp.451-459.

Forest Green Rovers. (n.d.-c) Greening up Football. [Online] Available from:

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Hill, B & Green, B. C. (2000). Repeat attendance as a function of involvement, loyalty, and the sportscape across three football contexts. Sport Management Review, 3(2), 145-162. Indeed. (n.d.) Company Reviews. [Online] Available at: https://www.indeed.co.uk/companies?f rom=gnav-acme--acme-webapp [Accessed on: 01/12/2020] Kenny, D. (2016) How conserving water helps environment, bottom line. FMA. [Online] Available from: https://www.fmamfg.org/blog/howconserving-water-helps-environmentbottom-line [Accessed on: 06/12/20]

[Online]. Available at: https://www.sportbusiness.com/2020/ 11/reimagining-the-financial-future-oflower-league-football/ [Accessed: 20/11/20] Morris, S. (2018). Forest Green Rovers named worlds first UN certified carbonneutral football club. The Guardian. [Online] 30.07.18. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/football /2018/jul/30/forest-green-roversnamed--first-un-certified-carbonneutral-football-club [Accessed: 20/11/20] Poore, J. and Nemecek, T. (2018). Reducing Food’s Environmental Impacts Through Producers and Consumers. Science. 360(6392), 987-992

Liberto, D. (2019). Recurring Revenue. Investopedia. [Online] Available from: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r /recurringrevenue.asp [Accessed: 06/12/20]

Purvis, B., Mao, Y. and Robinson, D., 2018. Three pillars of sustainability: in search of conceptual origins. Sustainability Science, 14(3), pp.681-695.

Marlow, B & Chaudhuri, O. (2020) Reimagining the financial future of lower-league football. Sport Business.

Shaw, C. (2020) Hector Bellerin joins FGR. [Online] Available from: https://www.fgr.co.uk/news/septembe

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r-2020/hector-bellerin-joins-fgr [Accessed: 20/11/20] United Nations. (n.d.) Take Action for the Sustainable Development Goals. Sustainable Development Goals. Available from: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelo pment/sustainable-developmentgoals/ [Accessed: 18/11/20]

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Vice and Virtue in London’s Gin Craze: Social Justice and Alcoholic Consumption in the Eighteenth Century Holly Marsden Postgraduate Research Student Social justice in early modern England is here explored through the Gin Craze of the eighteenth century. This term refers to a period in which the consumption of gin rapidly increased for multiple reasons, which will be explored in this essay. Particularly rife in London, the Gin Craze attracted social critics of this period, whose moral judgement and attempted policing of gin consumption led to structural reforms that eventually ended the trend. Anguish, as expressed through print culture, was felt particularly by the middle or merchant class. This new social group was by no means homogenous, referenced throughout the essay by the use of ‘middling’ and ‘sort’ when appropriate. This essay highlights associations between gin and preconceived social boundaries of class, nationality and gender. Moreover, the imagined ownership of two household drinking vessels in the Victoria and Albert Museum aid in understanding these

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commentaries: Gin glass and Toby Jug.[1][2] What metaphorically fills a beer tankard and gin glass from mid eighteenthcentury England is the transformative power of gin in changing London’s urban landscape and igniting moral panic. Ultimately, these receptacles, and the owners who may have used them, inform us of different notions of Englishness in early modern London, highlighting classbased anxieties over public health, urbanisation and morality. By looking at these vessels, objects and their power as tangible traces of human history will be studied in conjunction with discussion of the interpretation of material culture by historians. London’s Gin Craze is best encapsulated by the social critic, artist and satirist William Hogarth in his engravings Beer Street and Gin Lane.[3] These provide a backdrop to understanding the objects and their reflections of power broking within early modern society. This comparative study then allows a re-imagining of object usage, providing an imagined space upon which the objects existed. Thus, we will partake not in a static practise but in a shared physiological experience that reflects the role of artefacts in animating lives.[4]

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Firstly, the objects will be explored in terms of nationalism. As Richard Grassby, Leonie Hannan and Kate Smith note, artefacts can fulfil a purpose where language is not accessible.[5] This approach is useful when considering the illiteracy of London’s urban poor at this time. The Victoria and Albert’s Gin glass (Figure 1) is a simple glass with a long, decoratively moulded stem.[6] Although the glass’ actual owners are unknown, it may have been used at home, on the street or in one of London’s many dram shops opened after the distilling industry was deregulated by William of Orange in 1689, who gained the English throne with Mary II the previous year. [7] With William of Orange and gin came Dutch sailors, increasing London’s population and the culture of drinking distilled spirits. No licensing on distilleries, moreover, meant that anyone could distil and essentially become business owners. In turn, gin became cheaper, and thus more accessible to the poor. However, the new-found freedom allotted to London’s poorer inhabitants was not favoured by all. Hogarth’s Gin Lane (Figure 2) demonstrates a city in moral and physical decline, where death and decay is rife.[8] Gin is the destabiliser in what was once a

prosperous and ordered society now characterised by crumbling buildings and brawling drunkards.[9] The Gin glass’ place can be envisioned in the hands of these drunkards, or behind the dilapidated facades. Hogarth, like other middle-class commentators such as Henry Fielding, then attributes in part the social decline of the city to the influx of a particularly foreign substance. Dutch gin, it seems, encouraged behaviours not in keeping with English moral values. Dutch William of Orange’s gain of the English throne mimics gin’s usurpation of ale as the drink synonymous with English identity, a dichotic theme running throughout this essay. Middling and upper-class anxieties over London’s increasing urbanisation is seen in the Toby Jug (Figure 3).[10] The design and replication of the jug reaffirmed an alternative nationalism to the one that had accompanied London’s gin addictions. Jugs such as this were displayed in homes, used in ale houses and taverns, and held a liquid significantly more expensive than gin. Typical to the Toby Jug design, this object depicts a seated man in a tricorn hat, who holds a frothing beer and brown jug in his hands.[11] The latter detail suggests the inspiration of

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the design was a fictional drinker named Toby Fillpot who was written into a song and pictured in an accompanying print. The jug is made of lead-glazed earthenware, of English clay, recreating an ‘olde England’ where only native alcohol was consumed.[12] The Toby figure could fit well in the scene of Hogarth’s Beer Street (Figure 4) in which jolly figures clutch beer jugs in front of tall infrastructure.[13] The Toby jug exemplifies how ‘eighteenth-century society turned to material artefacts to allay the kinds of social and cultural anxieties that arose from sweeping socio-economic changes.’[14] In this way, the Toby jug reacts against urbanisation and foreignness, with the user inadvertently rejecting moral depravity derived from spirit-based intoxication. This urbanisation was characterised by the symbiotic relationship of the consumption of gin and resulting threatened nationalism. Especially as the consumption of gin began to decline in 1770 after acts passed between 1729 and 1751, imagery of jolly beer drinking reinforced the negative perceptions of gin and its association with poverty and foreignness.[15] Social justice as discussed here was ultimately tied to regaining a

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sense of traditional nationalism that rejected cultural influences. What is most apparent is that these anxieties stemmed not from concerns over public health, but from concerns over the transgressions of social hierarchies. Material goods including household glassware were physically used in the transcendence of class boundaries and, as seen in the analysis of Gin glass, metaphorically symbolised social concerns such as the productivity of the workforce. For example, in a document entitled An Enquiry into the Causes of the late Increase of Robbers, &c. with some Proposals for Remedying this Growing Evil, Henry Fielding commented If therefore it be thought proper to suppress this Vice, the Legislature must once more take the Matter into their Hands; and to this, perhaps, they will be the more inclined, when it comes to their Knowledge, that a new Kind of Drunkenness, unknown to our Ancestors, is lately sprung up amongst us, and which, if not put a stop to, will infallibly destroy a

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great Part of the inferiour People. [16]

The urban underclass or ‘inferiour’ people, who he blames for the onset of street violence, are depicted in Gin Lane as causing social anarchy. Bottles and glasses, like the Gin glass, were vehicles of such ‘Vice’ as seen by moralists like Fielding, which accompanied lower class people in homes and dram shops. Fielding attempts to achieve social justice through petitioning against gin consumption that he argues would save lower-class people from destruction. Unintentionally, he reveals anxieties over the precarious nature of the middle-class position which had only gained strength in this latter half of the eighteenth century. Although the growing middling classes were by no means homogenous even in the local area of London, this broadly defined ‘sort’ applied new methods of definition from the labouring classes in order to define boundaries.[17] Characteristics of definition included hard work and discipline.[18] As H.R. French notes, ‘the question is whether such values were specific to the “middle sort”, or whether they merely possessed the power to articulate and apply them in the parish.’[19] Fielding’s statement is

reinforcing a clear divide between the ‘new Kind of Drunkenness’ and, through calling upon legislature to solve the issue, middle-class bureaucracy. Gin Lane displays women central to the gin epidemic, seen particularly through the neglectful mother depicted centrally in the image.[20] Gin allowed labouring-class women to not only indulge but to own small dram shops and distilleries within the home.[21] This demonstrates gendered anxieties over who now experienced drinking and commerce: once male, middle-class territories. It is interesting to note that middling and upper-class women such as Queen Anne also enjoyed gin, drinking at home from specialised glasses like this Gin glass and consumed under the guise of health.[22] The fact this was ignored by social commentators and moralists places class central to the debate. Conversely to the context of the Gin glass, the Toby jug as an image of a ‘crudely-rendered’ male drinker was celebrated, the style becoming particularly popular in homes in the second half of the eighteenth-century.[23] This imagery demonstrates that consumption in early modern England was a compulsory social activity, vulnerable to changes in fashion.[24] Also,

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that the meaning of material goods is dependent on belief systems and perceptions external to the objects.[25] In this case, that indulgence and intoxication were for men only, shown by the celebration of the drunken male image in the jug design and opposing denunciation of the intoxicated female in Gin Lane.[26] Hogarth’s engravings are not, as Sascha Mulholland notes a ‘public health promotional campaign’ that professes empathy for the working classes.[27] They are a gendered and classed attack on the experience of leisure and consequent disruption of social order. The growing power of the middling classes allowed critics and reformists such as Hogarth and Fielding to strip the ‘unworthy’ people of London of the freedom to enjoy business and pleasure. Society’s obsession with the spirit began to wane after a 1752 act aimed at regulating ‘disorderly houses’ passed, in combination with the 1758 ban of domestic distilling, and seasons of bad harvests.[28] The dichotomies that the liquid vessels reflect, and that can broadly be framed by beer versus gin, or jolly drunk versus immoral drunk, demonstrate a ‘nation divided entirely.’[29]

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Overall, the Victoria and Albert museum’s Gin glass and Toby jug embody different notions of Englishness, referencing anxieties over the disruption of status quo. Physical objects have been pivotal to this analysis, demonstrating the importance of material culture when studying the past. Grassby states that ‘the most effective method of reconstructing material culture is to combine written evidence...with the physical evidence of buildings, artefacts, and images.’[30] Thus, we have successfully begun a reimagining of the Victoria and Albert’s Gin glass and Toby jug in using documents from Fielding and Hogarth to situate objects’ physical positions and metaphorical significances. Fielding and Hogarth’s attitudes to social justice in the Gin Craze, embodied by the central argument of beer versus gin, demonstrate eighteenth-century anxieties over an ever-changing London. Endnotes Unknown, Gin glass, 1720-1740, glass, height: 4 5/7" (12 cm), Victoria and Albert Museum. [1]

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[2]

Ralph Wood the Younger, Toby jug, ca. 1785, lead-glazed earthenware, height: 10 1/8" (25.7 cm), Victoria and Albert Museum.

[7]

Jessica Warner, Craze: Gin and Debauchery in an Age of Reason (New York: Avalon, 2002,) 7; William Hogarth, Beer Street, 1751, etching and engraving, 15 3/8 x 12 13/16” (39 x 32.5 cm), Victoria and Albert Museum; William Hogarth, Gin Lane, 1751, etching and engraving, 5 5/16 x 12 11/16” (38.9 x 32.2 cm), Victoria and Albert Museum.

[8]

Hogarth, Gin Lane.

[9]

Ibid.

[3]

Leonie Hannan and Kate Smith, “Return and Repetition: Methods for Material Culture Studies,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 48, no.1 (2017): 48. [4]

Richard Grassby, “Material Culture and Cultural History,” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 35, no. 4 (2005): 591; Smith and Hannan, “Return and Repetition,” 47. [5]

[6]

Unknown, Gin glass.

James Nicholls, “Gin Lane Revisited: Intoxication and Society in the Gin Epidemic,” Journal for Cultural Research 7, no. 2 (2003): 128.

[10]

Wood, Toby jug.

[11]

Ibid.

Elizabeth Kowaleski Wallace, ““Character Resolved into Clay”: The Toby Jug, Eighteenth-Century English Ceramics, and the Rise of Consumer Culture,” Eighteenth-Century Fiction 31, no. 1 (2018): 30. [12]

[13]

Hogarth, Beer Street.

[14]

Wallace, “The Toby Jug,” 34.

[15]

Nicholls, “Gin Lane,” 127.

Henry Fielding, An Enquiry into the Causes of the late Increase of Robbers, [16]

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&c. with some Proposals for Remedying this Growing Evil (London: Henry Fielding, 1751), 175.

[27]

H.R. French, "The Search for the 'Middle Sort of People' in England, 16001800," The Historical Journal 43, no. 1 (2000): 282.

[28]

Nicholls, “Gin Lane,” 127.

[29]

Ibid, 133.

[30]

Grassby, “Material Culture,” 62.

[17]

[18]

French, “Middle Sort,” 289.

[19]

Ibid.

[20]

Hogarth, Gin Lane.

[21]

Warner, Craze, 11.

[22]

Ibid, 25.

[23]

Wallace, “The Toby Jug,” 29.

[24]

Grassby, “Material Culture,” 596.

[25]

Ibid, 595.

[26]

Hogarth, Gin Lane.

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Sascha Muldoon, “Hogarth’s ‘Gin Lane’ and ‘Beer Street,’” International Journal of Surgery 3 (2005): 159.

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Figures

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Unknown. Gin glass. 1720-1740. Glass,

Hogarth, William. Gin Lane. 1751. Etching and engraving, 5 5/16 x 12 11/16” (38.9 x 32.2 cm), Victoria and Albert Museum. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O115 7937/gin-lane-print-hogarth-william/

height: 4 5/7" (12 cm). Victoria and Albert Museum. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O278 7/gin-glass/

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Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Wood, Ralph the younger. Toby jug. ca. 1785. Lead-glazed earthenware, height: 10 1/8" (25.7 cm). Victoria and Albert Museum. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O148 866/toby-jug-wood-ralph-the/

Hogarth, William. Beer Street. 1751. Etching and engraving, 5 5/16 x 12 11/16” (38.9 x 32.2 cm), Victoria and Albert Museum. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O115 7934/beer-street-print-hogarthwilliam/

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References Fielding, Henry. An Enquiry into the Causes of the late Increase of Robbers, &c. with some Proposals for Remedying this Growing Evil. London: Henry Fielding, 1751. French, H.R. "The Search for the 'Middle Sort of People' in England, 1600-1800." The Historical Journal 43, no. 1 (2000): 277-293. Grassby, Richard. “Material Culture and Cultural History.” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 35, no. 4 (2005): 591-603. Hannan, Leonie and Smith, Kate. “Return and Repetition: Methods for Material Culture Studies.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 48, no.1 (Summer 2017): 43–59. Hogarth, William. Beer Street. 1751. Etching and engraving, 5 5/16 x 12 11/16” (38.9 x 32.2 cm), Victoria and Albert Museum.

Hogarth, William. Gin Lane. 1751. Etching and engraving, 5 5/16 x 12 11/16” (38.9 x 32.2 cm), Victoria and Albert Museum. Muldoon, Sascha. “Hogarth’s ‘Gin Lane’ and ‘Beer Street.’” International Journal of Surgery 3 (2005): 159-162. Nicholls, James. “Gin Lane Revisited: Intoxication and Society in the Gin Epidemic.” Journal for Cultural Research 7, no. 2 (2003): 125-146. Wallace, Elizabeth Kowaleski. ““Character Resolved into Clay”: The Toby Jug, Eighteenth-Century English Ceramics, and the Rise of Consumer Culture.” Eighteenth-Century Fiction 31, no. 1 (2018): 19-44. Warner, Jessica. Craze: Gin and Debauchery in an Age of Reason. New York: Avalon, 2002. Wood, Ralph the younger. Toby jug. ca. 1785. Lead-glazed earthenware, height: 10 1/8” (25.7 cm). Victoria and Albert Museum.

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Unknown. Gin glass. 1720-1740. Glass, height: 4 5/7” (12 cm). Victoria and Albert Museum.

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A Rationale For the Inclusion of Philosophy For Children (P4C) in the Primary Curriculum Katie Dix BEd Primary Education Introduced in the 1970s, Philosophy for Children (P4C) is a programme designed by Matthew Lipman, and the often less accredited Ann Margaret Sharp, with the aim of actively engaging children in philosophical dialogue (Gregory et al., 2017 and Topping et al., 2019). P4C was created with Vygotsky’s theories about the importance of language and collaborative learning as fundamental elements of the strategy (Fisher, 2013 and Topping et al., 2019). Lipman built on this social-constructivist theory and introduced the Community of Enquiry (CoE) (Fisher, 2013). A CoE is central to each P4C session: it is a group of children who work together to share their thoughts and reason with others while trying to reach a common aim (Jenkins and Lyle, 2010; Daniel and Auriac, 2011; Splitter, 2014). This discussion seeks to debate whether P4C is a worthwhile teaching activity to use in the primary classroom. The essay will specifically focus on the use of P4C in the context of promoting social and emotional

development and raising mental wellbeing. Although this essay will focus on the use of P4C in schools, the aims and outcomes of the method link to wider global goals. The democratic debates that take place between children in P4C link to goal number 16 of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDG). Where children are learning to disagree with each other respectfully and alter their opinions to reach a common goal they are also learning how to create peaceful, inclusive, and just societies: goal number 16. (United Nations, n.d). P4C has been adopted as a teaching and learning strategy in over 60 countries, each with their own adaptations and variations of the programme (Gregory et al., 2017). The global use of this unique, effective, and thought-provoking learning method further links to the UNSDGs through goal number 4 which focusses on quality education for all (United Nations, n.d). P4C is beginning to fulfil this aim as it is providing equitable education across the world. In England, the most commonly followed version of P4C is the SAPPERE Ten Step Model which can be seen in Appendix A (SAPERE, n.d). These 10 steps develop Lipman’s (2003) five stage

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method of enquiry (see Appendix B). For example, in the SAPERE model a stimulus is offered but it does not have to be a text; in both variations’ children raise and discuss their own questions but in the SAPERE version specific time is allocated for warm up activities and final thoughts. In all variations of the programme pupils are empowered through dialogue to reflect on, critique and debate wider societal issues such as, but not limited to: identify, respect, equality and rights, conflict, sustainability, change and boundaries (SAPERE, 2020). However, despite the global use of P4C it has not escaped numerous critiques, some of which will be raised in this discussion. A recurring argument from philosophers is that P4C is not real philosophy because children are not learning about historical philosophers and their ideas (Daniel and Auriac, 2011 and Gregory, 2012). In line with this critique Hayes (2014) suggests that philosophy should be integrated as a subject in the curriculum and suggest that pupils should perform philosophical dialogues in drama as an example. Daniel and Auriac (2011), contrary to their first statement, explain that P4C was never

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designed as an academic programme. SAPERE (2020) support this as they define P4C as a strategy where children are practically taking part in an enquiry. Therefore, the critique raised is not relevant to P4C as it has never aimed to be an academic version of the subject. P4C centres around four distinct areas of thinking. More commonly known as the 4Cs they are: caring, collaborative, critical and creative thinking (Topping et al., 2019; SAPERE, 2020). Each thinking skill is equally important to an enquiry and the facilitator should help pupils to develop each disposition. Topping et al. (2019) explain that being collaborative and caring prevents arguments, but if pupils were not also creative and critical then no progress would ever be made in an enquiry. Critical thinking involves pupils giving evidence and reasons; weighing up other ideas and examples and being able to alter their own views based on new information (Gaut and Gaut, 2012; Fisher, 2013). Fisher (2013) and Topping et al. (2019) define creative thinking as coming up with new, innovative ideas and being imaginative. Collaborative thinking focusses on responding to other’s thoughts and building on their

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ideas (Topping et al., 2019). Finally, caring thinking is demonstrated by empathising and everyone being equal within the CoE (Fisher, 2013). The rest of this discussion will focus on justifying the use of P4C in the primary classroom in terms of the effects it can have on children’s social and emotional development. The National Curriculum clearly states that children should receive an education that helps them develop their social, mental, and moral understanding whilst also be prepared for the experiences and challenges they will face in later life (Department for Education (DfE), 2013). P4C is a unique teaching and learning strategy that, when used effectively, can help to promote each of those skills. One reason to have P4C in the curriculum is that it can help raise pupil’s self-esteem and confidence (Trickey and Topping, 2006 and Fisher, 2013). In 2018/19 Childline reported that 30% of their counselling sessions were linked to emotional health, including confidence and self-esteem issues; there was also a 90% rise in the number of sessions specifically focussing on low confidence (NSPCC, 2019). These figures show the large, and growing, scale of the problem which we need to find a way to address in classrooms. Fisher (2013) explains that

P4C supports children in developing the self-confidence needed to articulate their beliefs and become self-aware of their thoughts and feelings. This argument is supported by a study from Trickey and Topping (2006) which concluded that taking part in P4C enquiries can lead to significant increases in self-esteem and selfconfidence as well as decreasing student’s anxiety levels. They also reported gains in emotional intelligence (Trickey and Topping, 2006). Although this influential research led to promising results it was only conducted with children aged 11-12, in one specific geographical area, over a relatively short period of time. Therefore, it is important not to overgeneralise the results (Denscombe, 2017). As stated, there are limitations to Trickey and Topping’s (2006) research and it is also becoming outdated. However, their findings have been replicated in a more recent study by the Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) in 2015. Teachers fed back to the researchers that they had seen a positive impact on pupil’s confidence and selfesteem, especially on students who were often quieter and more withdrawn. These outcomes are further supported

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by Siddiqui et al. (2017) who found very similar results in their research of 2437 pupils across 42 different primary schools, giving further weight to the argument that P4C should be included in the curriculum as a measure to promote social and emotional learning. Siddiqui et al. (2017) themselves recommend that if further research can find an explicit link between improved social/emotional skills from P4C and academic attainment then space should be made in the curriculum for the programme, with pupil premium funding being used to implement it. If P4C is used for this purpose then it is important to recognise that the effects will arise from the way a subject is being discussed, not the question itself. Millett and Tapper (2012) explain that the benefits occur from children learning to think in a caring and collaborative way, this emphasises the importance of children understanding the 4Cs. Haynes (2008) also states that enquiries need to be held regularly for children to gain from them. In spite of the extensive evidence that P4C is valuable to develop social and emotional skills, a minority of authors argue that the approach has become too

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therapeutic (Ecclestone and Hayes, 2009 and Hayes, 2014). Hayes (2014) takes the stance that P4C is a form of therapy and most of the time it is too emotional and does not work at a teaching strategy. Similarly, Topping et al. (2019) have also drawn links between P4C and therapeutic approaches as they suggest there are similarities between P4C and CBT, but they argue these are positive links. In P4C children think critically to evaluate thoughts and ideas based on the reasons they are presented with and then may change their opinions considering the new evidence. Topping et al. (2019) suggest that this is very similar to the process of CBT where people reflect and change their thoughts/actions by trying to find evidence to support them. They suggest that the similar process partly explains why P4C has emotional benefits; by listening to and communicating with their peers pupils are learning to understand their thoughts and in turn can use this process to understand and regulate their emotions. Hayes further explains in his coauthored book with Ecclestone that the advocation of emotional wellbeing is taking over the philosophy element of

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P4C (Ecclestone and Hayes, 2009). They claim that in many sessions there is no philosophy or philosophical dialogue, providing an example of a CoE where children were not challenged in their thoughts and only discussed emotional ideas (Ecclestone and Hayes, 2009). However, rather than diminishing the value of P4C this argument highlights the importance of effective facilitation. The facilitator should guide the dialogue in a way that elicits deeper thought from pupils and progresses the conversation in a way that brings out philosophical thinking (Haynes, 2008; Fisher, 2013). If teachers are trained to be effective facilitators, the concern that Ecclestone and Hayes (2009) discuss and the situation they give as an example should not occur. Considering both the positive research and critiques it seems that most of the concern’s authors have can be addressed. Low self-esteem and confidence are prevalent problems in schools (NSPCC, 2019) therefore, P4C should be used in the curriculum to start to counteract these issues (Siddiqui et al., 2017 and Topping et al., 2019). P4C can also support pupils social and emotional learning by promoting tolerance and respect (Murris, 2008; Gaut

and Gaut, 2012). Love (2016) explains that these values are embedded at the heart of P4C. In which children learn that having a difference with someone is a chance to learn about another point of view and an opportunity to create new ideas together (Murris, 2008). Fisher (2013), Millett and Tapper (2012) also agree that P4C helps pupils to understand that it is important to respect others and become tolerant of differences we may have. In their research, Barrow (2015) found that pupils reported the importance of respecting other people’s opinions, but they also found students thought it was important to have respect for their own views. Therefore, P4C acts as a tool for children to develop respect for themselves as well their peers. Schools have a duty to promote the fundamental British values. One of these values is having tolerance and mutual respect to people who may have different beliefs (DfE, 2014). It is a school’s own choice on how they incorporate these into their curriculum but P4C would be an effective method to use as tolerance and respect sit at the centre of the teaching method. As children learn to respect the views of others through P4C sessions there may be a wider impact on

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behaviour, although it should not be seen or used as a behaviour management strategy. Haynes (2008) describe that in numerous schools who use P4C the respectful behaviours children learn during the CoE also become visible in the playground and wider community. This is further supported by Love (2016) as they explain how one London school reported that P4C had a large positive influence on the behaviour of their pupils across the entire school community. Pupils are able to take their learning about discussing situations in a respectful way to situations beyond P4C (Siddiqui et al., 2019). For example, being able to respond appropriately to a disagreement they may have in the playground. While on my SE1 placement and during self-directed days I have observed numerous situations where pupils were arguing due to a difference in opinion. In a majority of these situations a teacher had to intervene to solve the dispute because the students did not have the skills needed to have a respectful discussion about their differences to resolve the situation. Incorporating P4C into a school’s curriculum would help children to develop the skills needed to articulate their own thoughts and solve friendship

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disputes independently. Siddiqui et al. (2019) builds on Haynes (2008) argument that P4C sessions need to be regular as they warn for the positive impacts to be truly felt then P4C needs to be embedded as a whole school approach. Research by Cassidy et al. (2017) concluded that children who normally exhibit challenging behaviour did not show these expected actions during P4C sessions. They argue that the equal level of a CoE combined with the predictable rules help children to engage and regulate their behaviour. This research used a case study method which means it can be be difficult to generalise (Denscombe, 2017) but a further study conducted by Cassidy et al.(2018) found similar outcomes with a much larger sample. Pupils with Additional Educational Needs (AEN), prone to being disruptive, engaged in the P4C sessions with no more disruptions than the other pupils in the class; they also started to use these learnt behaviours in other areas of learning and at home (Cassidy et al., 2018). Therefore, P4C can be used as an inclusive approach to social and emotional learning for children with AEN whilst also supporting the development of every other class member.

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Some authors see the focus on respect and tolerance as a problem with P4C (Haynes and Murris, 2011 and Gregory, 2012). Haynes and Murris (2011) explain how tolerance can lead to a situation where thoughts and opinions are accepted without challenge because it is deemed disrespectful to argue against somebody’s belief, meaning that critical dialogue does not occur. This argument is also discussed by Gregory (2012) who explains some theorists object to P4C as it is value neutral due to the facilitators being completely impartial. These objecting theorists believe children should be presented with explicit opinions on certain topics. However, the response to these critiques is that as long as the 4Cs are being followed then there will always be criticality in an enquiry. As stated at the beginning of this discussion Topping et al. (2019) have explained how there needs to be a balance of all thinking types to make an enquiry effective. In relation to the critique that P4C is too value neutral the pedagogy was created to teach children the skills needed to think, not what to think (Fisher, 2013). At the opposite end of the spectrum some parents critique P4C as they want autonomy to educate their

children on sensitive issues that may arise in the enquiries, such as gender and race, or they may not want their children to question their traditional views at all (Gregory, 2012). On the contrary, Alix (2018) found that parents thought P4C was valuable to their families as it helped enable important, challenging conversations at home. This shows that parents can be very accepting of P4C, but it is important to communicate clearly with families the learning that is happening at school. Open lines of communication between home and school will prevent any shock about what children are learning and helps the philosophical conversations to be continued at home. In conclusion, P4C is a unique pedagogy that helps children to become sophisticated, philosophical thinkers. The CoE creates a democratic environment where everyone is equal with the facilitator helping to guide the dialogue in a direction that will elicit deeper thinking and philosophical ideas. The method is not without its critiques as some authors argue that P4C is therapizing, not real philosophy, too value neutral and takes away a parent’s right to educate their child on sensitive topics. However, an extensive range of research and theory

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gives evidence to support P4C as a strategy that can be used in the curriculum to support social and emotional learning, while also giving children a safe space to explore a widespread range of moral and social issues. When used properly it can support the education of children not just in English primary classrooms but across the globe, in 60 countries, and provides equal learning opportunities for all these pupils. Students are enabled to develop their self-esteem, confidence, tolerance, respect for others and behaviour. In turn this helps to create peaceful and inclusive societies in a sustainable way as children are equipped with the lifelong critical thinking skills needed to become empowered global citizens.

Children’s perspectives on Philosophy for Children as participatory pedagogy. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 17, 76-87. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2015.06.00 3 [Accessed 26 June 2020].

References Alix, S. (2018) The impact of introducing thinking skills through ‘Philosophy 4 Children’ (P4C) into a Year 2 class. Impact. Available at: https://content.talisaspire.com/winchest er/bundles/5e281f470cb4c33c53405d84 [Accessed 26 June 2020].

Cassidy, C., Marwick, H., Deeney, L. and McLean, G. (2018) Philosophy with children, self- regulation and engaged participation for children with emotionalbehavioural and social communication needs. Emotional And Behavioural Difficulties, 23, (1), 81-96. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2017.13 88654 [Accessed 26 June 2020].

Barrow, W. (2015) ‘I think she’s learnt how to sort of let the class speak’:

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Cassidy, C., Christie, D. and Marwick, H. (2017) Fostering citizenship in marginalised children through participation in Community of Philosophical Inquiry. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, 13, (2), 120132. Available at: https://journalssagepubcom.winchester.idm.oclc.org/doi/pdf/10. 1177/1746197917700151 [Accessed 26 June 2020].

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Daniel, M. and Auriac, E, (2011) Philosophy, Critical Thinking and Philosophy for Children. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 43, (5), 415-435. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14695812.2008.00483.x [Accessed 26 June 2020]. Denscombe, M. (2017) The Good Research Guide: For small-scale social research projects. 6th edn. London: Open University Press. Department for Education (2013) The national curriculum in England, DFE00178-2013. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/a ttachment_da ta/file/425601/PRIMARY_national_curric ulum.pdf [Accessed 26 June 2020]. Department for Education (2014) Promoting fundamental British values as part of SMSC in schools: Departmental advice for maintained schools, DFE00679-2014. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/a ttachment_da ta/file/380595/SMSC_Guidance_Maintai

ned_Schools.pdf [Accessed 26 June 2020]. Ecclestone, K. and Hayes, D. (2009) The Dangerous Rise of Therapeutic Education. Abingdon: Routledge. Education Endowment Foundation (2015) Philosophy for Children: Evaluation report and Executive summary. Available at: https://educationendowmentfoundation. org.uk/public/files/Projects/Evaluation_ Reports/EEF_ Project_Report_PhilosophyForChildren.pd f [Accessed 26 June 2020]. Fisher, R. (2013) Teaching thinking: philosophical enquiry in the classroom. 4th edn. London: Bloomsbury. Gaut, B. and Gaut, M. (2012) Philosophy For Young Children: A Practical Guide. Abingdon: Routledge. Gregory, M. (2012) Philosophy for Children and its Critics: A Mendham Dialogue. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 45, (2), 199-219. Available at: https://doiorg.winchester.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/j.1467 -9752.2011.00795.x [Accessed 26

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June 2020]. Gregory, M., Haynes, J. and Murris, K. (eds.) (2017) The Routledge International Handbook of Philosophy for Children. Abingdon: Routledge. Hayes, D. (2014) Can kids do Kant? The Conversation. Available at: https://theconversation.com/can-kidsdo-kant-22623 [Accessed 26 June 2020]. Haynes, J. (2008) Children as philosophers: learning through enquiry and dialogue in the primary classroom. 2nd edn. London: Routledge. Haynes, J. and Murris, K. (2011) The Provocation of an Epistemological Shift in Teacher Education through Philosophy with Children. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 45, (2), 285-303. Available at: https://doiorg.winchester.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/j.1467 - 9752.2011.00799.x [Accessed 26 June 2020]. Jenkins, P. and Lyle, S. (2010) Enacting dialogue: the impact of promoting Philosophy for Children on the literate thinking of identified poor readers, aged

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10. Language and Education, 24, (6), 459472. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2010.4 9578 [Accessed 26 June 2020]. Lipman, M. (2003) Thinking in Education. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Love, R. (2016) The Case for Philosophy For Children In The English Primary Curriculum. Analytic Teaching And Philosophical Praxis, 36, 8-26. Available at: http://journal.viterbo.edu/index.php/atp p/article/view/1135 [Accessed 26 June 2020]. Millett, S. and Tapper, A. (2012) Benefits of Collaborative Philosophical Inquiry in Schools. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 44, (5), 546-567. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14695812.2010.00727.x [Accessed 26 June 2020]. Murris, K. (2008) Philosophy with Children, the Stingray and the Educative Value of Disequilibrium. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 42, (3-4), 667685. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-

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9752.2008.00640.x [Accessed 26 June 2020].

https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2017.14 00948 [Accessed 26 June 2020].

NSPCC (2019) Childline Annual Review 2018/19. Available at: https://learning.nspcc.org.uk/media/189 8/childline-annual-review-2018-19.pdf [Accessed 26 June 2020].

Splitter, L. J. (2014) Preparing Teachers to 'Teach' Philosophy for Children. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 1, (1), 89-106. Available at: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/dow nload;jsessionid=275B2D91A2265F996765 4E604D 52B275?doi=10.1.1.672.7304&rep=rep1&typ e=pdf [Accessed 26 June 2020].

SAPERE (n.d) SAPERE Handbook Level 1. Handbook SAPERE (2020) SAPERE P4C: Philosophy for Children, Colleges and Communities. Available at: https://www.sapere.org.uk/home.aspx. [Accessed 26 June 2020]. Siddiqui, N., Gorard, S. and See, B. (2017) Non-cognitive impacts of Philosophy for Children. Available at: http://dro.dur.ac.uk/20880/1/20880.pdf ?DDD34+DDD29+czwc58+d700tmt [Accessed 26 June 2020]. Siddiqui, N., Gorard, S. and See, B. (2019) Can programmes like Philosophy for Children help schools to look beyond academic attainment? Educational Review, 71, (2), 146-165. Available at:

Topping, K., Trickey, S. and Cleghorn, P. (2019) A Teacher’s Guide to Philosophy for Children. Abingdon: Routledge. Trickey, S. and Topping, K. (2006) Collaborative Philosophical Enquiry for School Children: Socio-Emotional Effects at 11 to 12 Years. School Psychology International, 27, (5), 599- 614. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/1 0.1177/0143034306073417 [Accessed 26 June 2020]. United Nations (n.d) The 17 Goals. Available at: https://sdgs.un.org/goals. [Accessed 12 March 2021].

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Appendices Appendix A: SAPERE 10 Step Model SAPERE (n.d) SAPERE Handbook Level 1. Handbook.

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Appendix B: Lipman’s Five Stage Model of Enquiry Lipman, M. (2003) Thinking in Education. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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An Analysis of Nike Within the Context of Sustainable Development Phoebe Meades MSc Project Management 1.0 Introduction Nike, originally conceived as Blue Ribbon Sports, is a sportswear brand founded in Portland, Oregon in 1964 by Phil Knight (Nike News, 2015). Since its small beginnings as a company specialising in running shoes alone, Nike is now a leading business within its sector, with a total brand value of $34.8 million that now offers a vast range of products including sportswear, equipment and footwear (O’Connell, 2020). The sportswear trade has expanded immensely within the past decade alone and, with it, has brought new competitors to the forefront of the industry, including Puma, Adidas and Under Armour (Statista, 2020). The company has faced many challenges throughout its lifetime, including a recent shift to online retailing, its sponsorships of athletes and questions about ethical practices within its supply chain (Danzinger 2017). However, it has also been presented with modern and innovative opportunities

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through the expansion of social media influencing, sponsorship of world class athletes and the advancement of sportswear technology (Kim, 2020). Nevertheless, Nike is the leading corporation within the sports apparel sector, with its next biggest competitor, Adidas, worth $16.5 million (Statista, 2020). With Nike leading the way in its market share and innovative products, it is evident that the corporation must become a leading business within responsible management in order to establish a more sustainable method of production and consumption that other organisations within the sector will follow. Therefore, this essay will examine the management practices of Nike, alongside the relevant theory, and provide recommendations for sustainable development within the corporation. 2.0 Responsible Management Theory and Nike The value mapping tool was developed by Bocken et al (2013) to assist in the identification of value creation opportunities to support sustainable business modelling. This is displayed in figure 1. The value mapping model can

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also be utilised to understand how value can be missed or destroyed in order to substantiate how firms or stakeholders have failed to capitalise on resources or resources (Blowfield and Murray, 2014). Here, it is evident that Nike creates value through its increased use of recycled materials, responsible manufacturing and reducing carbon emissions whilst continuing to create and develop innovative products for its consumers (Nike, 2020a). However, it can be argued that Nike is destroying value through its continued use of a linear production model and unsustainable materials (Blowfield and Murray, 2014). Nevertheless, Nike can be presented as having many value opportunities as it is the leading corporation within the sports apparel sector and is a prominent company in relation to innovative design (Statista, 2020). Therefore, Nike must be able to understand and capture these opportunities to allow it to become a leading sustainable and responsible organisation.

Figure 1 - Shared Value Creation (Bocken et al., 2013) The typologies offered by Dyllick and Muff (2016) establish a new approach to defining business sustainability by focusing on the effective contributions to sustainable development. These typologies aim to align company activities with the global environment and society by integrating the social, economic and environmental issues within business practices. This framework sets out the differing levels of sustainable development that

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companies incorporate within their practice, from business-as-usual, a purely economic view, to a truly sustainable business, where businesses first understand the external environment within which it operates before attempting to overcome these challenges. It can be argued that Nike have moved away from the 1.0 typology of ‘refined shareholder value management’ and have begun operating within the 2.0 guidelines of ‘managing for the Triple Bottom Line’. This is applicable to Nike as, within recent years, the company have initiated the integration of sustainability objectives into its planning and reporting in order to remain accountable for its production and consumption (Nike, 2020b). This can also be evidenced through Nike’s use of recycled materials, sourcing renewable energy for its factories and production, and its contribution to sustainable initiatives such as Reuse-A-Shoe (Nike, 2020c). However, Nike cannot be examined as having obtained the 3.0 typology of ‘truly sustainable business’ as a company that operates within this typology first analyses the external environment and questions what the firm

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can do to overcome the critical challenges facing that sector. Ultimately, these businesses will translate sustainability challenges into opportunities, thus changing the value created for the Triple Bottom Line to creating value for the common good (Dyllick and Muff, 2016). Nike is yet to achieve this status as, whilst they have incorporated the Sustainable Development Goals into their operations, Nike has previously been criticised for its use of sweatshops, mass production practices which have led to increased waste, and questions of employee welfare within its factories (Haug and Busch, 2016). This is further supported by Hahn et al (2015) who set out the framework of paradoxical thinking that examines how paradoxes refer to a situation where opposing elements co-exist, however achieving sustainability depends on the ability of controlling conflicting elements simultaneously. Whilst many companies, including Nike, are trending towards a more sustainable approach, there lies an evident paradox within the industry as the sports apparel sector has traditionally promoted heavy consumption of products and materials and is commonly

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categorised as ‘fast fashion’. This is supported through the sector’s continual use of sweatshops, cheap labour and use of harmful materials, such as polyester which incorporates woven materials that are hard to reuse or recycle (Hayes, 2016). One of the most prominent examples of a paradox within Nike is their continued use of cotton which is commonly known for its connection with pesticides in manufacturing and is hazardous in terms of its after-treatments (Bruun and Langkjaer, 2016). However, Nike have responded to this paradox by stating within its financial and sustainability reporting that the company aims to use 100% sustainably sourced cotton within its manufacturing of products by the end of 2020 (Nike, 2020d). Nevertheless, the company has failed to report on their progress towards this goal. In recent years, some corporations, including Nike, have altered their business model to focus on strategic innovation with the incorporation of a ‘closed-loop’ manufacturing model which utilises renewable resources and disruptive technologies that radically reduce its carbon footprint (Cavaleri and Shabana, 2018). This is evidenced in Nike’s sustainability reporting which states how

the company is increasingly employing the use of recycled materials within its manufacturing whilst utilising waste management centres that consolidate and process scrap materials to other businesses for use (Nike, 2020e). A circular manufacturing and supply loop within the sportswear apparel industry would assist the sector in moving towards more sustainable practices as well as responsible consumption, which is in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs, 2020). 3.0 Towards Sustainable Development From this analysis of Nike’s current practices, it is evident that there are responsible management procedures that must be prioritised within Nike’s operations in order for it to become a leading corporation in relation to sustainable development. These recommendations focus on sustainable supply chain management and human resource management whilst incorporating the United Nations Sustainable Development. Additionally, these recommendations stem from the paradoxes that have arisen from promoting sustainability within the fast fashion industry and the issues

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surrounding Nike and its use of sweatshops with cheap labour. Furthermore, whilst corporations are required to report on their financial earnings and progress towards sustainability, their current reports are often generic and vague in its wording (Hopkins, 2016; Nike, 2020f). 3.1 Sustainable Supply Chain Management Sustainable supply chain management is defined by Jalilian and Mirghafoori (2019) as a set of directives that assist in the integration of environmental issues of the organisation into its production and processes of products in order to minimise material flow and reduce the negative impacts of production. The apparel industry faces the most prominent challenges for maintaining sustainability within their supply chains as the global fragmentation of the industry involves a high level of outsourcing within developing countries (Baig et al., 2020). In particular, Nike has been criticised for its use of harmful chemicals and toxic waste produced from its textile factories alongside its use of sweatshops (Pierce, 2020).

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Corporations that operate with a sustainable supply chain often benefit from a number of factors that are attached to sustainable business. One key benefit includes the reduced risk of prosecution or being subjected to boycotts as a result of unethical practices (Emmett and Sood). Nike have previously been the subject of boycotts when it was discovered that Nike was responsible for malpractice, poor employee welfare and use of harmful chemicals within its supply chain (Birch, 2012). This saw their profits fall by 16% and their share prices drop by 57% (Carlile, 2019). Furthermore, sports apparel commonly uses materials such as polyester which are seen as unsustainable due to the use of a variety of materials woven together (Ritch, 2020). The founder of Nike, Phil Knight, openly stated that the company had been slow to respond to reports of poor practice and set the target for the company to become transparent in its suppliers and operations within its supply chains (Jones, 2012). Nike employs the use of large manufacturing plants in many countries across the world with their key manufacturers located in China, Thailand and Vietnam (Nike, 2020g). With many large manufacturing plants located in

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Asian countries to exploit the use of cheap labour and materials, the company has been noted for its lack of reporting surrounding its supply chains and resources. Therefore, it would be recommended that Nike begin to prioritise transparent reporting of their suppliers that are connected to their manufacturing networks as well as moving towards a circular supply loop, as displayed in figure 2. Currently, the most common operating logistics of the fashion industry is one of mass production, fast fashion consumption and the linear ‘take-make-dispose’ model (Pulse of the Fashion Industry, 2017). By increasing reporting surrounding its supply chains and use of materials, Nike will be able to identify the most harmful practices and resources whilst understanding what can be done to further its responsible management and sustainability initiatives.

Figure 2 - Closed Loop Supply Chain (Pulse of the Fashion Industry 2017) One of the key drivers to move towards a sustainable supply chain is the effect of external pressure from nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) and the media (Sajjad et al, 2019). These external influences often correlate with the stakeholder theory which sets out how corporations implement sustainability within their operations as a result of increased stakeholder expectations of ethical and transparent behaviour (Busse, 2016). The stakeholder

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theory is applicable to Nike and its supply chain management practices because, as a result of growing media pressure and an international boycott, the company began to report on their manufacturing processes and supply chains. Nevertheless, Nike continue to source most of its raw materials within the host country of the factory through independent suppliers (Singh, 2019). Whilst this lean manufacturing approach improves efficiency and optimises production, it can be argued that Nike’s supply chain lacks transparency and traceability through employing external suppliers. However, it must be noted that Nike has previously published its list of suppliers to create greater transparency, however this has not been updated since 2005 (Nike, 2005). Furthermore, as sustainable development is a key issue within industry today, many companies are beginning to move towards a circular supply chain in order to reduce waste and improve efficiency. Nike has begun to employ closed loop practices through its increased use of recycled materials and fibres as well as the development of innovative products that incorporate sustainable technologies (Nike, 2019). The company

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has vast influence over its suppliers as it is the leading company within its sector and, therefore, can leverage its influence to create a positive impact by employing sustainable, ethical suppliers (B Impact Assessment, 2018). This would assist in value creation for Nike as, by becoming transparent within its supply chain management and moving towards closed loop manufacturing, the corporation can quickly become a leading business within sustainable supply and production. Nike is currently creating value through its shoe recycling scheme, Reuse-A-Shoe, where trainers of any brand are returned to a Nike retail store to be broken down and its remaining materials can be reused in new products (Nike, 2020h). This is evidence that Nike are moving towards a closed manufacturing loop, however this is only apparent with its footwear and not with its apparel or equipment. Furthermore, creating a sustainable supply chain loop will directly correspond with Goals 12 and 13 of the UN SDGs, which focus on responsible consumption and production and climate action (UN SDGs, 2020). The recommendation to move towards a closed circular supply loop will highlight

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how Nike is conscious of sustainable development, whilst assisting in the elimination of waste production and use of more environmentally friendly materials that will create a longer life for the product itself. Nike has the opportunity to become a trailblazer in sustainable business and responsible management, which other companies within the sports apparel sector can imitate and follow. 3.2 Responsible Human Resource Management Human resource management is often defined as the systematic process of acquiring and engaging the required workforce that is appropriate for the job whilst developing and maintaining the operations of the business (Obedgiu, 2017). Responsible human resource management is closely interlinked with sustainable development and responsible business as the way in which corporations interpret social responsibility will have implications for its employees and human resources managers. The issue of responsible human resource management is closely linked with the UN SDGs as it relates to Goal 8 of decent work and economic growth which aims to promote sustained,

inclusive economic growth with full and productive employment for all (United Nations, 2020). Additionally, the Global Reporting Initiative’s Social Standards set out the crucial guidelines for responsible human resource management that can guide the corporation towards positive changes. Nike have previously been heavily criticised for its human resource management when it was made apparent that Nike’s suppliers and subcontractor factories were following unfair labour practices and failed to report on the working conditions within their key factories (Greenberg and Knight, 2004). Nike have employed the use of sweatshops to manufacture and produce their goods since their creation in 1964 as this method of production offers cheap labour costs and mass manufacturing (ibid). Sweatshops, often established within developing nations, were created as a response to the globalisation of business and the constant demand for goods and services in the western world. This presents an evident paradox as, whilst consumers will view sweatshops as objectionable and abhorrent, they are a necessity within today’s economy and global supply chains. As a result of this, Nike was the

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subject of an enormous boycott campaign in the 1990s after the information about the history of where, and under what conditions, products were made became a matter of concern for Nike’s consumers around the globe (Carty, 2002). Responsible human resource management became a key issue within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, as more customers turned to online shopping as stores and retail outlets remained closed (Meyer, 2020). This has put an increased strain on Nike’s human resources within its warehouse, supply and manufacturing as social distancing and the requirement for personal protective equipment (PPE) has been introduced. Nike have responded to this by stating that they are continuing to work closely with their suppliers to produce and distribute PPE for frontline workers (Nike, 2020i). Furthermore, in a recent report, Nike asserted that the company have implemented health and safety practices and processes in line with the regulations set out by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Centre for Disease Control (CDC) which include physical barriers and orders to stay home if any employee begins to

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develop symptoms of COVID-19 (ibid). Nevertheless, Nike’s reporting of their response to COVID-19 and how this has affected it employees within all areas of the supply chain, from manufacturing to retail stores, remains generic in its wording, with limited information as to the infrastructure it has in place if employees were to develop COVID-19 (WARC, 2020). Carroll’s (1991) Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) can assist in understanding where the company is positioned regarding responsible human resource management. This is displayed in figure 3. Currently, it can be argued that Nike is situated within the first two levels of the pyramid as it is only fulfilling its economic and legal responsibilities. This is evidenced through its obligation to follow the nation’s laws in which it operates and by generating annual profit which, ultimately, is the core aim for any business (Blowfield and Murray, 2014). However, Nike are not currently operating within the top two tiers of this pyramid as it can be argued that Nike are not fulfilling their philanthropic or ethical responsibilities. Whilst Nike have initiatives in place to support developing

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communities and its employees, their current model of utilising harmful practice of mass manufacturing with the use of sweatshops will not allow Nike to move into the top two tiers of the Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility (Nike, 2020; Carroll, 1991).

materials and the introduction of recycling initiatives as a response to reduce waste within the industry (Nike, 2020). However, its continued use of mass manufacturing and over production of goods presents a persistent paradox within its practices. Therefore, by analysing the relevant theory surrounding responsible management, it can be argued that Nike must increase its reporting surrounding its supply chains and utilise responsible human resource management systems in order to become transparent in its operations whilst facilitating the identification of any unsustainable or irresponsible practices within its procedures. Ultimately, Nike can become a leading sustainable business and contribute towards the positive development of the UN SDGs whilst creating constructive shared value and moving towards the philanthropic tier of the Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility (Carroll, 1991).

Figure 3 - Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility (Carroll, 1991)

References B Impact Assessment, (2018), Creating Impact Through Purchasing, Available at: https://kb.bimpactassessment.net/en/ support/solutions/articles/4300004733

4.0 Conclusion Overall, it is evident that Nike are moving towards a more sustainable business, through its increasing use of recycled

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https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/ 63990/1/JBE_2015_Framework_Tensio ns_Final.pdf, [Accessed 21 November 2020] Haug, A., Busch, J., (2016), Towards an ethical fashion framework, Fashion Theory, 20 (3), 317-339, Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ 10.1080/1362704X.2015.1082295, [Accessed 21 November 2020] Hayes, S., Venkatraman, P., (2016), Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel, CRC Press: New York Hopkins, M., (2016), CSR and Sustainability: From the Margins to the Mainstream A Textbook, Sheffield: Green Leaf Publishing Jalilian, N., Mirghafoori, S., (2019), Presenting sustainable supply chain fuzzy rotation matrix framework to manage business challenges in the context of sustainable supply chain management, Journal of Modelling in Management, 15 (1), 35-49, Available at: https://www.emerald.com/insight/cont ent/doi/10.1108/JM2-05-2018-

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0065/full/html, [Accessed 25 November 2020] Jones, D., (2012), Who Cares Wins: Why Good Business Is Better Business, Great Britain: Pearson Education Ltd Kim, M., (2020), How Phil Knight made Nike a leader in the sport industry: examining the success factors, Sport in Society, (23) 9, 1512-1523, Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ 10.1080/17430437.2020.1734329, [Accessed 9 October 2020] Klebnikov, S., (2020), Nike stock jumps nearly 10% after reporting surge in online sales, Forbes, Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/sergeikl ebnikov/2020/09/23/nike-stockjumps-nearly-10-after-reporting-surgein-online-sales/?sh=53ad6e0b6b6e, [Accessed 12 November 2020] Meyer, S., (2020), Understanding the COVID-19 effect on online shopping behaviour, Big Commerce, Available at: https://www.bigcommerce.com/blog/ covid-19-ecommerce/, [Accessed 14 December 2020]

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Mishra, J., Hopkinson, P., Tidridge, G., (2018), Value creation from circular economy-led closed loop supply chains: a case study of fast-moving consumer goods, Production Planning and Control, 29 (6), 509-521, Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ 10.1080/09537287.2018.1449245, [Accessed 6 November 2020] Nike News, (2015), Bill Bowerman: Nike’s Original Innovator, Available at: https://news.nike.com/news/billbowerman-nike-s-original-innovator, [Accessed 30 September 2020] Nike, (2005), Nike publishes list of global contract factories in push for greater transparency and collaboration to improve footwear and apparel industry labour conditions, CSR Wire, Available at: https://www.csrwire.com/press_releas es/24956-nike-publishes-list-of-globalcontract-factories-in-push-for-greatertransparency-and-collaboration-toimprove-footwear-and-apparelindustry-labor-conditions, [Accessed 26 November 2020] Nike, (2019), Nike Innovation, Available at: https://news.nike.com/innovation, [Accessed 14 December 2020]

Nike, (2020), Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Available at: https://purpose.nike.com/sustainabledevelopment-goals-sdgs, [Accessed 21 November 2020] Nike, (2020a), Measuring Our Value Chain Footprint, Available at: https://purpose.nike.com/value-chainfootprint, [Accessed 21 November 2020] Nike, (2020b), Manufacturing Map, Available at: http://manufacturingmap.nikeinc.com/ #, [Accessed 25 November 2020] Nike, (2020c), Community Impact, Available at: https://communityimpact.nike.com/, [Accessed 10 December 2020] Nike, (2020d), Guiding the Future of Design, Available at: https://www.nikecirculardesign.com/, [Accessed 10 December 2020] Nike, (2020e), Innovating Sustainably, Available at: https://purpose.nike.com/innovatingsustainably, [Accessed 21 November 2020]

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Nike, (2020f), Reports, Available at: https://purpose.nike.com/reports, [Accessed 25 November 2020] Nike, (2020g), Goal 12 Responsible Consumption and Production, Available at: https://purpose.nike.com/sdg-12consumption-and-production, [Accessed 21 November 2020] Nike, (2020h), Our Purpose: Waste, Available at: https://purpose.nike.com/waste, [Accessed 12 November 2020] Nike, (2020i), COVID-19 Response Efforts, Available at: https://purpose.nike.com/covid-19response-efforts, [Accessed 4 December 2020]

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Sajjad, A., Eweje, G., Tappin, D., (2019), managerial perspectives on drivers for and barriers to sustainable supply chain management implementation: evidence from New Zealand, Business Strategy

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and the Environment, 29 (2), Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full /10.1002/bse.2389?saml_referrer, [Accessed 26 November 2020] Singh, A., (2019), Nike manufacturing and Supply Chain Strategies, Market Realist, Available at: https://marketrealist.com/2019/10/nik e-manufacturing-and-supply-chainstrategies/, [Accessed 26 November 2020] Statista, (2020), Nike Market Overview, Available at: https://www.statista.com/study/12870 /nike-statista-dossier/, [Accessed 9 October 2020]

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Racial Discrimination in Education Angharad Williams BEd Primary Education Social justice describes the efforts to achieve a free and equal society for all through social, political and cultural changes (Park, 2007). Social justice relates to the balance of power between different groups and individuals within society through the distribution of privilege, wealth, and opportunities (Miller, 1999). This essay focuses on the institutional power structure of education and how racial discrimination within education presents itself in the classroom, in the curriculum, in teachers and in pupils. In the summer of 2020, a Black man named George Floyd was killed by a Police Officer in the United States of America (USA) and the video of his death was shared across the world resulting in protests, not only in the USA but internationally, including in the United Kingdom (UK) (Mohdin and Swann, 2020; BBC, 2020a; Cruse, 2020). Floyd’s death followed the death of many other Black people at the hands of Police including Eric Garner, Michael Brown, Tamir Rice, Stephon Clark, Breonna Taylor, and many

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others (BBC, 2020b; Chughtai, 2020). These deaths helped to spark an international conversation about racism and how to tackle it (Walker, 2020; Daragahi, 2020; Holmes and Ghebremedhin, 2020). In recent years understanding of racism has evolved to include institutional racism and implicit bias and despite many Americans believing that they live in a post-racial society implicit bias, structural inequalities and racism continue to impact the lives of Black people (Chapple et al., 2017). Institutional racism; defined as ‘racial discrimination occurring habitually or customarily within a society or organisation’ (Oxford University Press, 2020: online), continues to exist in educational settings (Mirza, 2018) and as such it is important that teachers are aware of these issues and equipped to tackle them. This essay will examine the cultural barriers that Black children may face in a school setting, issues surrounding the involvement of Black parents in their children’s education, the representation of Black people and Black history in the curriculum, and the effect my own identity as a White teacher may have on my Black pupils. For the purpose of this essay the term Black will be used

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to refer to people of African descent. This is due to the inaccuracy in terms such as People of Colour (PoC) and Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic (BAME) which might refer to any person with a heritage other than White (Sandhu, 2018; Fakim and Macaulay, 2020; Bunglawala, 2019). In order to include Black children fully, teachers need to be aware of the barriers these children may have in accessing the curriculum and learning. The coronavirus crisis could be used as an opportunity to change our current education system due to the pause in exam pressures and by giving an opportunity to examine the big issues in education including structural racial inequalities by using education to provide opportunities for Black children (Chalke, 2020). Despite the clear educational inequalities Black children face, such as being permanently excluded from school at three times the rate of White British children (GOV.UK, 2020), there are some who argue that to teach White working-class pupils about White Privilege is nonsensical, as this group of children statistically achieve poorly and therefore are not benefitting from White Privilege (Lough, 2020). It is true that White British pupils who are eligible for Free School Meals (FSM)

make lower than average progress according to Progress 8 data and indeed make less progress than other pupils eligible for FSM including: Black African pupils; Black other pupils; and Mixed White/Black African Pupils. However, it appears they make more progress than Black Caribbean pupils and Mixed White/Black Caribbean pupils who are eligible for FSM (Office for National Statistics (ONS), 2020). This data highlights the complexity of examining pupils’ progress and attainment by ethnicity and the importance of understanding intersectionality, such as how poverty and ethnicity together effect a person’s life. Furthermore, the idea that White working class pupils do not benefit from White Privilege due to other disadvantages shows a misunderstanding of what White Privilege is; White Privilege is not about class but more to do with privilege due to demographic and able characteristics (Lough, 2020). An example of White Privilege, and indeed class privilege, is the belief that what is referred to as Standard English is somehow better than a different dialect or that a person who uses a different dialect is not as smart as a person who uses Standard English (Luu , 2017; Hudley, 2014; Young, 2010). One

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example of a dialect children might be more familiar with than Standard English is Multicultural London English (MLE). The MLE dialect contains features of a range of different languages including most notably Jamaican Creole leading to MLE sometimes being referred to as ‘Jafrican’ (University of York; undated). Some of the language used to describe MLE is undoubtedly negative with Osmond (2017:Online) describing Received Pronunciation (or Standard English) as ‘under attack’ and under ‘assault’ from MLE and linking the dialect to ‘gang culture’. Braier (2013) highlights how the satirical use of ‘Jafrican’ by middle class White comedians has as much to do with mocking the lower classes as it has to do with race, which again shows the intersectionality between ethnicity and social class and how this can impact people’s perceptions of groups. In school, if teachers are required to ‘demonstrate…correct use of standard English’ (Department for Education (DfE), 2013a) to the detriment of using their own dialect such as MLE this has the potential to alienate children who could be made to feel like the way they speak is ‘wrong’ or ‘inappropriate’. This also forces Black

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children to code-switch between their own dialect and Standard English to avoid discrimination (Baker-Bell, 2020). The incorrect belief that someone’s intelligence can be evidenced by the way they talk could contribute to the unconscious bias that Black people are not as smart as White people. Issues around language that might affect Black children in the classroom may also contribute to issues with involving the parents and families of Black children in their child’s education. However, judging the involvement of Black parents is in itself an issue; Black parental involvement is misunderstood (McGee and Spencer, 2015) with many studies around parental involvement failing to account for the culturally distinct ways Black parents may be involved with their child’s education and as such they may appear less involved than they actually are (Roberts, 2020). McGee and Spencer (2015) and Roberts (2020) both write on Black parental involvement from an American perspective, so it is important to consider how relevant their conclusions are to Black parents of children in British Primary schools. Unlike White parents, Black parental involvement might

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include acts targeted towards racial issues (Cooper and Smalls, 2010) such as emphasising the child’s self-worth or expressing egalitarian messages. This leads to increased persistence on difficult school tasks and more academic curiosity (Neblett et al., 2006; Neblett et al., 2009). Furthermore, when Black parents help their children understand Black history and traditions and racial pride, children are more equipped to counteract racist experiences (Chavous et al., 2008; Hughes et al., 2009; Neblett et al, 2006; Neblett et al., 2009). Unfortunately, Costa (2020) argues that many Black parents do not feel they are able to talk to their children’s teachers and challenge preconceptions; they may not have the confidence or the vocabulary to do so which links to the perceptions of dialects and language other than standard English as described earlier. This is supported by Brandon et al. (2010) who highlights that Black parents can feel alienated through weak communications, lack of trust and the teachers’ misperceived values of parents. In order to achieve Teachers’ Standard (TS) Eight (DfE, 2013a) teachers must communicate effectively with parents. In order to achieve this with Black parents, teachers could broaden

their understanding of the issues these parents face in engaging with the school but also recognise that their involvement might be different to that of other parents, but that it is just as valid (Roberts, 2020). In the UK, Black History Month takes place in October with the first Black History Month celebrated in 1987 (Kalia, 2019; Martin, 2020). Despite the hope that dedicating a month to the learning of Black history will ensure it is acknowledged, there are some that argue that simply dedicating one month out of the entire year to Black history is not enough and that having a separate month for Black history removes it from our collective history (Martin, 2020). The Primary National Curriculum for History’s Purpose for study states that pupils should ‘gain coherent knowledge and understanding of Britain’s past and that of the wider world’ (DfE, 2013b:188) and that ‘History helps pupils to understand…their own identity’ (DfE, 2013b:188) but for history to help pupils understand their own identity it must be relevant to them. Unfortunately, many Black children do not see themselves represented in their history lessons and when they do it is often in the role of the victim (BakojiHume, 2020). Understanding of Black

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history is particularly important in helping children make sense of the current Black Lives Matter movement and how the historic injustices of the past, such as the Empire, lead to global inequalities today (Shaw, 2020). Under the current Primary Curriculum (DfE, 2013b) there is no requirement for children to be taught about the transatlantic slave trade or colonisation. It could be argued that these particularly difficult topics should be reserved for older secondary children, however this still leaves lots of other Black history to be covered. There have been Black people living in Britain since before the Germanic tribes and the Angles and the Saxons (Martin, 2020). Despite the existence of many historical Black Britons, in examples of significant individuals that Key Stage 1 children could be taught about only two (Rosa Parks and Mary Seacole) out of thirteen suggestions are Black (DfE, 2013b). It is not only the history curriculum that needs to diversify. Bakoji-Hume (2020) describes how through the sharing of African arts in school by African artists children’s understanding of African culture can deepen and activities such as drumming can provide a vehicle for oral history. In addition, Costa (2020)

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highlights the need for Black people to be included in examples of STEM excellence and as Nobel Prize winners. Costa suggests diversity should be brought to all subjects by highlighting where Black people feature and discussing their representation. For example, the titular character ‘Othello’ in Shakespeare’s work. This is supported by Seith (2019) who describes how pupils are likely to have heard of Mozart but not of Chevalier de Saint-Georges and points out that decolonising the curriculum by bringing these people to the foreground is an anti-racist act. This idea of representation across the curriculum is further supported by Farzana (2020) who describes the need for the representation of skin tones other than white in resources, using the example of most of the characters on Twinkl being White, which unconsciously increases the perception that White people are more prevalent. As a White middle-class teacher, it is important that I consider how my identity may affect the children in my class including children with a different ethnicity than my own as well as the same. In order to do this effectively I will consider how other intersectional traits,

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such as class or religion, contribute to my perceptions. As a teacher who has the ability to influence young minds, it is not enough to not be racist but I must be actively anti-racist; Utt and Tochluk (2020) argue that teachers must focus on the impact their racial identities have on their practice and move away from the implied deficits that the ‘achievement gap’ focus places on students of colour. With research suggesting that racial discrimination leads to more instances of lower self-esteem and higher rates of depression and behaviour problems, which in turn negatively impacts academic progress (Roberts, 2020), it becomes even more clear that creating a safe and equal environment in my classroom will improve the wellbeing and achievement of my Black pupils without explicitly highlighting the achievement gap. Roberts (2020) goes on to highlight that teachers often hold lower academic expectations of Black children which these Black children then internalise leading to lower self-esteem. This links to Merton’s (1948) seminal work on self-fulfilling prophecies. If teachers are aware of the effects unconscious biases can have on pupils in their class, then it is possible that they can actively work to change the biases and contribute

to creating an anti-racist environment. Furthermore, Rosenthal and Babad (1985) defined The Pygmalion Effect, which means that if a person expects a certain behaviour of someone then that person is likely to act in ways that make the behaviour occur. As a teacher this means that if Black pupils think they are going to be told off or sanctioned then they are more likely to act in a way that will lead to that sanction. In addition, children who often experience racial biases can develop aggressive or anxious personalities (Copeland-Linder et al., 2011) which contributes to a cycle of low expectations and poor behaviour and attainment as teachers have lower expectations of children whose behaviour they struggle to manage (Hinnant et al., 2009; McKown and Weinstein, 2008). Costa (2020) describes how cultural differences around respectful behaviour may lead to teachers incorrectly perceiving Black children as disrespectful. She gives the example of children looking adults in the eye, which while in the UK may be seen as showing respect, might represent the opposite to children from families from some parts of Africa. Understanding pupils’ cultural backgrounds could help to alleviate miscommunications such as

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these and teachers should aim to have a general understanding of their pupils’ cultures (Costa, 2020). In conclusion, racial discrimination in education exists and in order for it to be tackled, and for social justice to be achieved in this institution, there needs to be structural changes to the curriculum and in wider society. As an individual teacher I have the ability to tackle racial discrimination in my classroom by educating myself on the struggles and inequalities Black people face, by examining my own biases, by including explicit examples of Black excellence in the curriculum and actively working with parents to make them feel a valued part of their child’s education. I will meet the Teachers’ Standard (TS) One (DfE, 2013a) by having high expectations of all pupils regardless of ethnic background and meet TS Three (DfE, 2013a) by demonstrating good subject knowledge. This includes black historical figures and diverse arts and culture, as well as using standard English with the knowledge that children speaking different languages or dialects as home or in school does not make them less able. I will meet TS Five by adapting my teaching so that it is relevant to my pupils

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background and lived experiences and take into account when meeting TS Seven that my beliefs and expectations of pupils can have an impact on their behaviour (Merton, 1948; Rosenthal and Babad, 1985). TS Eight will be met by encouraging open communication with parents from all backgrounds and I will continue to develop professionally by listening and learning from people in the Black community. I will challenge racism when it occurs, whether from pupil or staff, and promote the British Value of mutual respect in line with Part Two of the TS (DfE, 2013a). References Baker-Bell, A. (2020) Dismantling antiblack linguistic racism in English language arts classrooms: Toward an anti-racist black language pedagogy. Theory Into Practice, 59, (1), 8-21. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/1 0.1080/00405841.2019.1665415?needAcce ss=true [Accessed 17 October 2020] Bakoji-Hume, K. (2020) 'Black history is more than slavery – let's explore it'. Times Educational Supplement. Available at: https://www.tes.com/news/black-

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history-slavery-african-culture [Accessed 17 October 2020]. BBC. (2020a) George Floyd: 'Pandemic of racism' led to his death, memorial told. BBC. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-uscanada-52928304 [Accessed 16 October 2020]. BBC. (2020b) Breonna Taylor: Timeline of black deaths caused by police. BBC. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-uscanada-52905408 [Accessed 16 October 2020] Braier, R. (2013) Jafaican it? No we're not. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/media/mi nd-your-language/2013/aug/30/mindyour-language-jafaican [Accessed 18 October 2020]. Brandon, R., Higgins, K., Pierce, T., Tankdy, R. and Sileo, N. (2010) An Exploration of the Alienation Experienced by African American Parents From Their Children’s Educational Environment. Remedial and Special Education, 31, (3), 208-222. Available at:

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/1 0.1177/0741932509338350 [Accessed 17 October 2020] Bunglawala, Z. (2019) Please, don't call me BAME or BME! Civil Service. July 8. Available at: https://civilservice.blog.gov.uk/2019/07/ 08/please-dont-call-me-bame-or-bme/ [Accessed 20 October 2020]. Chalke, S. (2020) A teacher's mission is to destroy barriers to equality. Times Educational Supplement. Available at: https://www.tes.com/news/teachersmission-destroy-barriers-equality [Accessed 17 October 2020] Chapple, R., Jacinto, G., Harris-Jackson, T., Vance, M. (2017) Do #BlackLivesMatter? Implicit Bias, Institutional Racism and Fear of the Black Body. Ralph Bunche Journal of Public Affairs, 6, (1), 3-12. Available at: https://digitalscholarship.tsu.edu/cgi/vie wcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.goo gle.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1028&cont ext=rbjpa [Accessed 18 October 2020] Chavous, T. M., Rivas-Drake, D., Smalls, C., Griffin, T. and Cogburn, C. (2008) Gender matters too: The influences of

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school racial discrimination and racial identity on academic engagement outcomes among African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 44, 637-654. Chughtai, A. (2020) Know their names: Black people killed by Police. Available at: https://interactive.aljazeera.com/aje/20 20/know-their-names/index.html [Accessed 15 October 2020]. Cooper, S. M. and Smalls, C. (2010) Culturally distinctive and academic socialization: Direct and interactive relationships with African American adolescents’ academic adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 199- 212. Copeland-Linder, N., Lamber, S., Chen, Y. and Ialongo, N. (2011) Contextual stress and health risk behaviors among African American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, (2), 158-173. Costa, M. (2020) Inbuilt Bias and the teaching of Black British History. [Online Video]. Available at: https://winchester.instructure.com/cours

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es/12685/pages/tc-2020-week2pr3501et [Accessed 18 October 2020]. Cruse, E. (2020) 'It's a fight for all of us': How George Floyd's death sparked outcry in the UK. Evening Standard. Available at: https://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/u k-shares-george-floyds-death-affectedlives-world-a4458736.html [Accessed 18 2020]. Daragahi, B. (2020) Why the George Floyd protests went global. Atlantic Council. Available at: https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/n ew-atlanticist/george-floyd-protestsworld-racism/ [Accessed 20 October 2020]. Department for Education (2013a) Teachers’ Standards: Guidance for school leaders, school staff and governing bodies, DFE00066-2011. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/a ttachment_data/file/665520/Teachers__ Standards.pdf [Accessed 16 October 2020].

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Department for Education (2013b) The national curriculum in England: Key stages 1 and 2 framework document, DFE-00178-2013. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/a ttachment_data/file/425601/PRIMARY_n ational_curriculum.pdf. [Accessed 16 October 2020]. Fakin, N. and Macaulay, C. (2020) 'Don't call me BAME': Why some people are rejecting the term. BBC. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk53194376 [Accessed 20 October 2020]. Farzana, F. (2020) 'Race equality in education is far from a reality'. Times Educational Supplement. Available at: https://www.tes.com/news/raceequality-education-far-reality [Accessed 17 October 2020]. GOV.UK (2020) Pupil exclusions. Available at: https://www.ethnicity-factsfigures.service.gov.uk/education-skillsand-training/absence-andexclusions/pupilexclusions/latest#main-facts-andfigures. [Accessed 18 October 2020].

Hinnant, J., O’Brien, M. and Ghazarian, S. (2009) The longitudinal relations of teacher expectations to achievement in the early school years. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, (3), 662-670. Holmes, T. and Ghebremedhin, S. (2020) Death of George Floyd sparks conversation about race, violence and protests. ABC News. Available at: https://abcnews.go.com/US/deathgeorge-floyd-sparks-conversation-raceviolence-protests/story?id=70959046 [Accessed 20 October 2020]. Hudley, A. (2014) Which English You Speak Has Nothing to Do With How Smart You Are. Slate. Available at: https://slate.com/humaninterest/2014/10/english-variation-notrelated-to-intelligence-code-switchingand-other-ways-to-fight-linguisticinsecurity.html [Accessed 19 October 2020]. Hughes, D., Witherspoon, D., RivasDrake, D. and West-Bey, N. (2009) Received ethnic-racial socialization messages and youths’ academic and behavioral outcomes: Examining the mediating role of ethnic identity and

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self- esteem. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 112-124.

need-make-black-history-month-last-allyear [Accessed 17 October 2020].

Kalia, A. (2020) From emperors to inventors: the unsung heroes to celebrate in Black History Month. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/20 19/oct/08/from-emperors-to-inventorsthe-unsung-heroes-to-celebrate-inblack-history-month [Accessed 17 October 2020].

McGee, E. and Spencer, M. (2015) Black Parents as Advocates, Motivators, and Teachers of Mathematics. The Journal of Negro Education, 84, (3), 473-490. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.770 9/jnegroeducation.84.3.0473.pdf?refreqid =excelsior%3A50dbf70d0c5ba5c60cc4d41 d1d1ed120 [Accessed 17 October 2020].

Lough, C. (2020) ‘Nonsensical’ to teach white privilege to working-class. Times Educational Supplement. Available at: https://www.tes.com/news/nonsensicalteach-white-privilege-working-class [Accessed 16 October 2020].

McKown, C. and Weinstein, R. (2008) Teacher expectations, classroom context, and the achievement gap. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 235261.

Luu, C. (2017) Does your accent make you sound smarter? BBC. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/2 0170523-does-your-accent-make-yousound-smarter [Accessed 20 October 2020]. Martin, B. (2020) Why we need to make Black History Month last all year. Times Educational Supplement. Available at: https://www.tes.com/news/why-we-

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Merton, R. K. (1948) The self-fulfilling prophecy. The Antioch Review, 8, (2), 193210. Miller, D. (1999) Principles of Social Justice. London: Harvard University Press. Mirza, H. (2018) Racism in Higher Education: ‘What Then, Can Be Done?’. In: Arday, J. and Mirza, H. (eds.)

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Dismantling Race in Higher Education. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 3-27. Mohdin, A. and Swann, G. (2020) How George Floyd's death sparked a wave of UK anti-racism protests. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/uknews/2020/jul/29/george-floyd-deathfuelled-anti-racism-protests-britain [Accessed 18 October 2020]. Neblett, E. W., Chavous, T. M., Nguyen, H. X. and Sellers, R. M. (2009) “Say It Loud – I’m Black and I’m Proud”: Parents’ messages about race, racial discrimination, and academic achievement in African American boys. The Journal of Negro Education, 78, (3), 246-259. Neblett, E. W., Philip, C. L., Cogburn, C. D. and Sellers, R. M. (2006) African American adolescents’ discrimination experiences and academic achievement: Racial socialization as a cultural compensatory and protective factor. The Journal of Black Psychology, 32, 199-218. Office for National Statistics (2020) Child poverty and education outcomes by

ethnicity. Available at: file:///C:/Users/Student/Downloads/C hild%20poverty%20and%20education%20 outcomes%20by%20ethnicity.pdf [Accessed 17 October 2020]. Osmond, A. (2017) The rise of Multicultural London English, innit? SOAS Blog. September 15. Available at: https://www.soas.ac.uk/blogs/study/m ulticultural-london-english/ [Accessed 17 October 2020]. Oxford University Press (2020) institutional, adj. Available at: https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/97111? redirectedFrom=institutional+racism+#eid 41833519. [Accessed 16 October 2020]. Park, C. (2007) A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Roberts, S. (2020) Reconsidering Parental Involvement: Implications for Black Parents. Available at: https://wp.nyu.edu/steinhardtappsych_opus/reconsidering-parentalinvolvement-implications-for-blackparents/. [Accessed 17 October 2020].

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Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968) Pygmalion in the classroom. The Urban Review, 3, (1), 16-20. Sandhu, R. (2018) Should BAME be ditched as a term for black, Asian and minority ethnic people? BBC. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ukpolitics-43831279 [Accessed 20 October 2020]. Seith, E. (2019) ‘Use the school curriculum to tackle racism’. Times Educational Supplement. Available at: https://www.tes.com/news/use-schoolcurriculum-tackle-racism [Accessed 19 October 2020]. Shaw, C. (2020) How history can help students make sense of the present. Times Educational Supplement. Available at: https://www.tes.com/news/howhistory-can-help-students-make-sensepresent [Accessed 18 October 2020]. University of York (undated) What is Multicultural London English (MLE)? Available at: https://www.york.ac.uk/language/resea rch/projects/mle/what-is-mle/. [Accessed 18 October 2020].

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Utt, J. and Tochluk, S. (2020) White Teacher, Know Thyself: Improving AntiRacist Praxis Through Racial Identity Development. Urban Education, 55, (1), 125-152. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/1 0.1177/0042085916648741 [Accessed 17 October 2020]. Walker, T. (2020) First Thing: George Floyd is 'going to change the world' but how? The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/usnews/2020/jun/10/first-thing-georgefloyd-is-going-to-change-the-world-buthow [Accessed 19 October 2020]. Young, V. A. (2010) Should Writers Use They Own English? Iowa Journal of Cultural Studies, 12, (1), 110-118. Available at: https://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi ?article=1095&context=ijcs. [Accessed 20 October 2020].

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The Representation of Female Characters in the Novel and OnScreen: Irene Adler in the BBC Adaptation of Sherlock Chloe Williams BA Creative Writing and English Literature Undoubtedly, in Arthur Conan Doyle’s A Scandal in Bohemia1 and the BBC’s adaptation A Scandal in Belgravia2 the main character is Sherlock. However, in the original short story, Irene Adler played a more central role in the plot. She was revered by Sherlock as ‘the woman’.3 Nevertheless, as she was adapted into the TV show, the creators sacrificed Irene’s intelligence in outsmarting Sherlock in order to preserve his image as the genius detective. This commentary will compare the BBC adaptation to the original text. It will look at how the role of Irene changed due to the pressure of an expectant audience. Besides this, it will also aim to discuss the Arthur Conan Doyle, ‘A Scandal in Bohemia’, in The Adventures and Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions, 1996), 3. 2 Sherlock, A Scandal in Belgravia, Episode 1, Series 2, Written by Stephen Moffat and Mark Gatiss. Directed by Paul McGuigan. BBC1. 1 January, January 1, 2012 (2012). 3 Doyle, ‘A Scandal in Bohemia’, 3. 1

representation of the female adversary and the role of women in the media. Towards the end of A Scandal in Bohemia,4 Dr. Watson, as narrator, wrote: ‘that was how a great scandal threatened to affect the kingdom of Bohemia, and how the best plans of Mr. Sherlock Holmes were beaten by a woman’s wit’.5 This leaves the reader with a sense of respect for Irene Adler after reading about her. The feeling of admiration is increased when Watson, at the beginning of the tale, recounted how he was confused that Sherlock knew he had put on weight and was employing a useless servant. Sandra Kromm expresses the opinion that: ‘since Watson is a member of the academic establishment, a medical doctor and man of science, Sherlock’s brilliance in outshining Watson as a product of academe indirectly undercuts this world’.6 The fact that Irene Adler managed to outsmart Sherlock, who outsmarted Watson, further displays how Doyle, ‘A Scandal in Bohemia’, 3. Doyle, ‘A Scandal in Bohemia’, 25. 6 Sandra Kromm, ‘A Feminist Appraisal of Intellectual One-Upmanship In the Sherlock Holmes Stories’, in Sherlock Holmes: Victorian Sleuth to Modern Hero (United States of America: Scarecrow Press, 1996), 270. 4 5

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important and unique a character she was. Sherlock is consistently portrayed as far more intelligent than Watson. Watson was a man grounded in the academic and economic fixtures of Victorian society. Thus Sherlock defies the logical and esteemed foundations that the Victorians relied so heavily upon. This helped to create the image of the detective as possessing an intelligence far more advanced than anybody else in the stories. The detective who neither Watson nor any other character in the tales could match wits with. Therefore, it was so much more extraordinary when he was beaten by a woman who also managed to exert power over a King. In the original tale, Irene displayed an uncommon amount of power. She controlled the King of Bohemia with one photograph that threatened to compromise his marriage with a Scandinavian princess. In Detective Fiction and the Rise of Forensic Science, Ronald. R. Thomas writes that Irene ‘challenges the detective’s perceptions of her and her conformity to gendered

codes of behaviour just as profoundly as she violates the sanctities of class by wielding this “weapon” of herself with the King’.7 This view suggests that Irene was an unusual character for the Victorian era because she defied how society assumed she should appear as a woman. Not only did her character test the boundaries of class, but also gender. In a society where women did not have power and were confined to a domesticated life and marriage, the character of Irene was profound. She was intelligent, powerful, and plotting. This was directly against the image of the Victorian angel of the house. However, this view of Irene seems to have been lost in the BBC adaptation. The Sherlock8 episode A Scandal in Belgravia was successful in terms of adapting the original material for a modern audience. The shift from a photograph of Irene and the King having the potential to cause political upheaval was updated but still recognisable. In the TV show, Irene was a dominatrix in possession of a compromising photograph of a member of the British

Ronald. R. Thomas, ‘Negative Images in “A Scandal in Bohemia”, in Detective Fiction and the

Rise of Forensic Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 173. 8 Sherlock, A Scandal in Belgravia.

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royal family. The plot was successfully updated to suit a modern audience that was less interested in political scandals in the East, a topic that would have been popular in the Victorian era. Instead, the modern version became more about sexual scandal than a political scandal, which suited modernday societal interests. Julian Symons believes that Doyle was: ‘writing of the world around him, a world somehow transformed by his imagination’.9 Thus, Doyle’s tale suited the society he lived in. Likewise, Gatiss and Moffat’s adaptation was suited to the society they lived in at the time. In their world, sexual scandals and plane crashes were much more appealing than foreign relations. What was also successfully adapted, and appreciated by loyal fans of Sherlock Holmes in the adaptation, was the scene where their clients arrive at 221B Baker Street. Many clients visited Sherlock and Watson’s apartment in the first episode, and there were many nods to the original tales used in Watson’s blog posts. True to the original stories, Sherlock also remains an intelligent, detached character whose charm lies in

his extraordinary capabilities. In the adaptation, we see this familiar character of Sherlock when he said: ‘as ever you see but you do not observe’10 which is a line taken directly from the original tale. This is a sentiment commonly linked to the detective. It forms part of the way we expect to see Sherlock portrayed, if details such as these were not included then the integrity of the adaptation would be questioned. In order to sustain the familiar image of the detective as highly intelligent, Irene’s intelligence is sacrificed. Despite the successful choices made by creators Stephen Moffat and Mark Gatiss, one cannot ignore the change in Irene Adler’s character. In the original tale, she was a common woman who held significant power over a King. Against Victorian ideas of women, this was an unusual choice made by Doyle that is respected by a modern, and especially female, reader. However, in the adaptation, the power she held was in regards to a female member of the British royal family, who was not even named. One can explain away the fact that Sherlock took greater importance

Julian Symons, ‘The Case of Sherlock Holmes’, in Bloody Murder: From the Detective Story to the Crime Novel (London: Faber and Faber, 1972), 74.

Sherlock, A Scandal in Belgravia.

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over Irene in the adaptation. After all, it was important to maintain the public perception of the ingenious detective because it is him the audience was interested in above all else. Regardless, there is a less clear reason as to why the gender of the person Irene holds power over was changed. It suggests that they did not want Irene to display too much power, perhaps in fear of her character eclipsing Sherlock and his importance. On the other hand, it can be argued that this change was made to facilitate an audience that was much more diverse than a Victorian readership. It was inclusive in the way it represents same-sex relationships. However, this could have been portrayed without sacrificing the power Irene displayed in the original tale. One also has to question whether this relationship was a result of the male gaze. It could have been the creators’ portrayal of the way they, and other men, imagine a relationship is between two females. Nevertheless, the integrity of such a choice is questioned in the modern context of gender and the female gaze. There is no doubt that Moffat and Gatiss’ Laura Mulvey, Visual and Other Pleasures, 2nd ed. (Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 19. 11

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Irene is portrayed as confident, powerful, and intimidating. But one cannot ignore that this power came from her position as a dominatrix. In Visual and Other Pleasures, Laura Mulvey writes that: ‘(i)n their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact’.11 The first scene where we are introduced to Irene is a shot of her hands caressing a picture of Sherlock. This then leads into a shot of her body, dressed in a sheer black dress and lingerie. It suggests that her body was being used to fetishise her character. In the adaptation, it is no longer just her intelligence that the audience will remember, but her image and how sexually appealing she was. This decision downplayed the importance of her character. She was no longer the woman who fooled the great detective through sheer cleverness, but a woman who only held power because she used sex to gain it. This could be due to the way the creators thought the audience wanted to see Sherlock portrayed. The figure of Sherlock is undoubtedly loved by a loyal fan base,

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much in the same way he held Irene in esteem. Therefore, in any adaptation of Sherlock, the narrative often steers in the direction of ‘pastiche rather than towards a self-consciously literal interpretation of the Conan Doyle narratives’.12 The pressure to present Sherlock as the character everybody expected to see meant that the significance of characters such as Irene Adler was downplayed in the BBC adaptation. The character of Sherlock has been adapted so many times that those adaptations play a role in deciding who Sherlock is just as much as Doyle did. ‘Here it is the cultural identity and prominence of the figure of Holmes that is deemed important rather than any of the original stories he featured in.’13 For example, it was not Doyle who imagined Sherlock wearing a deerstalker hat, but the illustrator. Despite this, the hat is a trope that has stuck with many adaptations, and that the audience expects to see. This displays how the audience potentially plays a big part in the decisions made by writers. The deerstalker hat was even included in the BBC adaptation when Sherlock was

forced to wear it to hide from fans and the press. This was a nod to what the fans expected to see, but also to the fact that Doyle didn’t intend for it to happen. It has become something forced on the detective by audience expectation. It had to happen so John and Sherlock could hide their identities. Not all decisions are this easy, and Moffat and Gatiss could not appeal to everybody’s expectations. In trying to portray Sherlock as the enigmatic character the audience expected, some characters lost their integrity. This is what happened to the character of Irene. Irene’s character suffered a tragic misdeed. She was reduced to the role of providing sexual appeal to the TV show. Her intelligence was not celebrated. In adapting yet another Sherlock story, the creators focused too much on bolstering Sherlock’s image. Arguably, their decisions could have been purely selfcentred. The Irene they portrayed may have been the product of their own desires, and her diminished role was due to what they believed women provide in a TV show. There is a constant debate over the portrayal of women as products

Neil McCaw, Adapting Detective Fiction: Crime, Englishness and the TV Detectives (London: Continuum, 2011), 21.

McCaw, Adapting Detective Fiction: Crime, Englishness and the TV Detectives, 21.

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of sexual appeal in modern media, and that should have been considered when adapting Irene’s story for the screen. In The Atlantic, Sophie Gilbert writes that ‘(t)his isn’t the first time the show has taken an intriguing female character and used her to propagate stale gendered archetypes’.14 So, it would seem that the choices made by the creators could have had a motive geared towards male satisfaction. The character of Molly was portrayed as being in love with Sherlock, who constantly rebuffed her. This presented Molly as weak and small in comparison to Sherlock. In making Irene a dominatrix who worked for Moriarty, Gatiss and Moffat sacrificed a character who was ahead of her time and had potential as an adversary to Sherlock. Ronald. R. Thomas also points out that: ‘“A Scandal in Bohemia” is the exception that proves the rule of the great detective’s infallibility, therefore. Having been outwitted by Irene Adler, Holmes henceforth remains

portrayed as a resolutely cold and unemotional “machine”’.15 The original tale remains integral to the man Sherlock becomes in the later stories. Irene had such a profound effect on him that he never loves another woman. She was the only one to match his wits, and who was good enough for the great detective. Yet this portrayal was eradicated in the BBC adaptation. When a female vs male dynamic is being portrayed there will always be comparisons drawn between the two. In The Silence of the Lambs,16 Clarice Starling was pitted against Hannibal Lecter. Arguably, her portrayal was more successful in the fact that she was not dressed to please Lecter and her body was not used to appeal sexually to the audience. However, one gets a sense that she was intimidated by Hannibal because of the way he analysed her appearance. This was also portrayed when Miggs shouted obscenities at her. Clarice’s portrayal in the novel, and the

Sophie Gilbert, ‘The Troublesome Women of Sherlock’, The Atlantic, 5 January 2017, accessed 19 November 2020 https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/arc hive/2017/01/sherlocks-women/512141/

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Ronald. R. Thomas, ‘Negative Images in “A Scandal in Bohemia”, in Detective Fiction and the Rise of Forensic Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 173. 16 The Silence of the Lambs, directed by Jonathan Demme, Orion Pictures, 1991, Feature Film.

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film, sits more comfortably with a female audience because it was a realistic portrayal of the treatment some women are subjected to in everyday work environments. However, one still winces when Clarice was described as ‘cheap’17. In the text and the film, a more realistic and relatable image of the female adversary was portrayed, as opposed to the BBC’s Irene. Clarice also retained her composure, and her character remains truthful to the text. In both the film and the novel, Clarice’s appearance was analysed and mocked by Hannibal. However, this was not to please a male audience. It brings attention to the treatment many women face daily. In regards to the BBC’s Sherlock18, it was extremely successful in adapting the premise of the original tale and making it suitable for a modern audience. However, it cannot be ignored that Gatiss and Moffat severely marginalised Irene. She was no longer an intelligent and headstrong character who was admired by Sherlock but a product of the male gaze. Her role in the narrative is almost unrecognizable from the original. In comparison to The Silence of the Lambs,19

Clarice received a much fairer adaptation and representation in the film. It was Sherlock that named Irene ‘the woman’20 because she left such an impression on him. It is this name that solidified her as admirable and unforgettable. However, even these details were changed in the BBC adaptation and it became her title as a dominatrix. Again, this undermined the significance of Irene’s character. She did not receive that name from Sherlock himself out of his admiration for her. It is another example of how her character became lost in a script that was fuelled by audience expectations and male expectations of women.

Thomas Harris, The Silence of the Lambs (United Kingdom: Arrow Books, 2002), 25. 18 Sherlock, A Scandal in Belgravia.

References Primary Sources: Doyle, Arthur Conan. ‘A Scandal in Bohemia’. In The Adventures and Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes, 3-25. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions, 1996. Harris, Thomas. The Silence of the Lambs. United Kingdom: Arrow Books, 2002.

The Silence of the Lambs. Doyle, ‘A Scandal in Bohemia’, 3.

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Sherlock. A Scandal in Belgravia. Episode 1. Series 2. Written by Stephen Moffat and Mark Gatiss. Directed by Paul McGuigan. BBC1. 1 January, January 1, 2012 (2012). The Silence of the Lambs. Directed by Jonathan Demme. Orion Pictures, 1991. Feature Film. Secondary Sources: Gilbert, Sophie, ‘The Troublesome Women of Sherlock’ The Atlantic, 5 January 2017. Accessed 19 November 2020 https://www.theatlantic.com/entertain ment/archive/2017/01/sherlockswomen/512141/ Kromm, Sandra. ‘A Feminist Appraisal of Intellectual One-Upmanship In the Sherlock Holmes Stories’. In Sherlock Holmes: Victorian Sleuth to Modern Hero, 267-286. United States of America: Scarecrow Press, 1996. McCaw, Neil. Adapting Detective Fiction: Crime, Englishness and the TV Detectives. London: Continuum, 2011.

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Mulvey, Laura. Visual and Other Pleasures. 2nd ed. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Symons, Julian. ‘The Case of Sherlock Holmes’. In Bloody Murder: From the Detective Story to the Crime Novel, 67-78. London: Faber and Faber, 1972. Thomas, Ronald. R. ‘Negative Images in “A Scandal in Bohemia”. In Detective Fiction and the Rise of Forensic Science, 167-180. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

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'Politics is a battle of ideas. That's how our democracy is designed.' (Barack Obama, 'Farewell Address', January 10, 2017): A critical examination of the tensions in American politics and society between different ideas of liberty Sarah-Marie Weekes MSc Digital Marketing and Analytics Examining Obama’s “battle of ideas” perception and the different ideas of liberty, first requires defining politics. The Cambridge Dictionary defines politics as ‘the activities of the government, members of law-making organizations, or people who try to influence the way a country is governed’ (Cambridge Dictionary, 2020). Regarding liberty, politics has potentially been an obstacle for Americans trying to attain certain liberties. Highlighting the different ideas of liberty is also crucial. Carl Eric Scott highlighted the five understandings of liberty, ‘“natural-rights liberty1”… This is the protection of natural rights for Americans. 2 This is where a group or community is selfgoverned. 3 A concept where the government are less involved and intervene less regarding the economy. 1

“classical-communitarian liberty2”… “economic-autonomy liberty3”… 4 “progressive liberty ”… “personal5 autonomy liberty ”’ (Scott, 2020). Civil liberties in American law are ‘protections against government actions’ (ushistory.org, 2020). The constitution is an example of this, such as the First Amendment preventing the government from stopping Americans practicing religion. Berlin also described the concepts of positive and negative liberty.6 Crowder outlines Berlin’s concept when he wrote, ‘negative liberty encompasses ‘the area within which a man can act obstructed by others’… positive liberty as having control over one’s life…’ (Crowder, 2004). Making use of these definitions, this essay will investigate how, in reference to LGBTQ+ rights as a case study, American politics has created tension within society between conservatives; liberals and libertarians. Obama’s “politics is a battle of ideas” analogy, will be utilised to show how on one hand, the LGBTQ+ The ideas surrounding social justice for the U.S. The morality of human behaviour. 6 Positive liberty is the idea of free will, whereas negative liberty is the freedom from exterior interference. 4 5

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community, are unable to attain certain liberties due to political protocols. The alternative side to the argument is that politics has helped further equality for LGBTQ+ citizens. LGBTQ+ rights in the US, refers to the 14th Amendment which says, ‘No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States….’ (Cornell Law School, 2020). Typical Liberal ideas favour increased equality for the LGBTQ+ community. An example of a Central Liberal politician was Bill Clinton, and throughout the Clinton-Gore administration, there were great attempts at making progress towards acknowledging that the LGBTQ+ community were more than deserving of basic human and Civil Rights, which reinforce Berlin’s concept of “positive liberty”. Clinton adopted a stance towards creating “An administration that includes all Americans” (Clinton White House Archives, 2020). Examples of politics and policies that helped the LGBTQ+ community, that were enforced during the Clinton-Gore administration include the banning of health insurance discrimination towards those who had HIV/AIDS, and the appointing of James

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C. Hormel who was the first overtly gay United States Ambassador (Ibid). Despite Clinton’s Liberal political views, due to the era when he was in office, just subsequent to the 1980s where there was controversy surrounding gay people and the HIV/AIDS epidemic, the policies implemented during his administration, did not always necessarily help improve the lives of the LGBTQ+ community. The 1993 “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” (DADT) policy could be acknowledged as an example of the complexities that can arise for a Liberal politician trying to implement ideas in a society of those with conflicting ideologies, and those that might uphold a fixed mindset of societal norms. In a theoretical sense, the DADT policy was an attempt to prevent discrimination when allowing people to join or remain in the military, where those who served were not allowed to be asked or personally disclose what their sexuality was. However, this policy in a sense, had somewhat backfired in later years, meaning that those who were overt about their sexual orientation, were discharged if they chose to be openly gay or lesbian, in addition to the detrimental mental health implications

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for the military members that were forced to hide their true identity. This almost creates the juxtaposition, of how some Liberal policies which intended to provide more Americans with “progressive liberty” (Scott, 2020) and “personal-autonomy liberty” (Ibid), had somewhat backfired and ended up creating a worse situation for gay and lesbian people within the military. The negative mental health implications that resulted from the DADT policy, has been highlighted by academics such as Mary E. Barber who wrote, ‘For the gay service member under DADT, it was likely difficult to feel close to fellow service members since it was unclear whether it was safe to be open with them’ (Barber, 2012:349). Barber’s view helps in demonstrating how gay and lesbian members of the military at times felt trapped and isolated as they felt as though they could not be authentic in front of their fellow military comrades. DADT is arguably a justifiable reason to believe that under a Liberal presidency such as Bill Clinton’s, the LGBTQ+ community were able to uphold “progressive liberty” (Scott, 2020) and “personal-autonomy liberty” (Ibid) since under legislation they were not allowed to be refused military entry due to their

sexual orientation, meaning they were able to finally pursue their desired career. On the other hand, the DADT policy almost reinforced prejudice towards gay and lesbian individuals and mirrors Belin’s concept of “negative liberty” (Crowder, 2004). This can be seen as an example of how “politics is a battle of ideas”, because despite the success of other policies and occurrences that impacted the LGBTQ+ community during the Clinton-Gore administration, DADT was a compromise to ensure that some Conservatives within American society in the 1990s and the turn of the century, could have their views taken into account, which ultimately prohibited gay and lesbian citizens from truly living a free life. A more contemporary example of Liberality in US politics would be the Obama administration, which witnessed an increase in “progressive liberty” (Scott, 2020); “natural-rights liberty” (Ibid), and “personal-autonomy liberty” (Ibid). Like Bill Clinton, Barack Obama is a Liberal politician, and his overt support for samesex marriage and equality in the workplace for people who fit into the LGBTQ+ category, also represents the increase in Berlin’s concept of “positive liberty” (Crowder, 2004). An example of a

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supreme court case during Obama’s presidency that improved liberty for LGBTQ+ citizens is Obergefell v. Hodges. This case was about how state agencies in Michigan; Ohio; Kentucky and Tennessee, where there were bans on same-sex marriage and a refusal to recognise legal same-sex marriage, were sued by same-sex couples for violating the Equal Protection and Due Process clauses of the Fourteenth amendment and one group brought claims under the Civil Rights Act. From this case, the Supreme Court ruled that, ‘Judicial precedent has held that the right to marry is a fundamental liberty because it is inherent to the concept of individual autonomy…’ (Oyez, 2020). This signifies how the Obama administration, finally acknowledged the LGBTQ+ community as equals within American society and that restrictions, were significant obstacles to their constitutional rights and ‘fundamental liberty’ (Ibid). An article from Ben Jacobs highlights Obama’s outlook towards the ruling of the Obergefell v. Hodges case. He wrote, ‘“It’s a victory for gay and lesbian couples who have fought so long for their basic civil rights…This decision affirms… when all

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Americans are treated as equal we are all more free”’ (Jacobs, 2015). Furthermore, on the topic of other forms of liberty such as “economicautonomy liberty” (Scott, 2020), the Obama administration arguably helped the LGBTQ+ community attain this through his policies. Examples of this include the 2010 Affordable Care Act and policies to diminish inequalities for LGBTQ+ citizens within the workplace. For instance, Daniel P. Gitterman has commented on this when he stated that, ‘Obama gave special attention to promoting equal opportunity by addressing diversity and inclusion in the federal workforce… federal employee benefits for same- sex couples, and prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity’ (Gitterman, 2017:94). Drawing on Gitterman’s argument, it would be verified to believe that political enforcements under a Liberal administration, resulted in the LGBTQ+ community, being able to live lives of liberty. In sharp contrast to Liberals, Conservative political procedures and outlooks that impact the American LGBTQ+ community can be seen to

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oppose “natural-rights liberty” (Scott, 2020); “economic-autonomy liberty” (Ibid) and “progressive liberty” (Ibid) and go against people’s civil liberties. During his presidency, Ronald Reagan overtly opposed equality for the then gay movement. A direct quote from Reagan expressed that, ‘“My criticism is that [the gay movement] isn’t just asking for civil rights; it’s asking for recognition and acceptance of an alternative lifestyle which I do not believe society can condone, nor can I”’ (Clews, 2017:140). Reagan’s opinion was almost reinforced by the Bowers v. Hardwick case. In this case, the supreme court ruled, ‘that there was no constitutional protection for acts of sodomy, and that states could outlaw those practices’ (Oyez, 2020). Sarah Schulman connotes towards how the Reagan administration had huge repercussions for the quality of life for homosexuals. Schulman argued, ‘‘For lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and transgendered people, the Reagan-Bush years were the worst years of our lives. To be a movement activist… was to work in the Resistance’ (Schulman, 2018). Reagan’s conservative politics towards homosexuals, has been mirrored during the Trump administration, which can be argued to

have undone the attainment of “progressive liberty” (Scott, 2020) that the Obama administration worked hard to uphold. An example of this is how in 2017, the Department of Education started to ignore the concerns of transgender students regarding not being able to utilise the school toilets that match their gender identity. An article from Avery Anapol commented on this issue when she wrote, ‘In February 2017, the Trump administration rolled back guidance put in place by former President Obama that allowed transgender students to use the bathroom that corresponds with their gender identity’ (Anapol, 2018). From both the Reagan and Trump administrations, it is apparent that conservative politics have meant that the LGBTQ+ communities were left to feel as though their Civil liberties are invalid and that their position within American society has been somewhat deemed as insignificant. It is justified to believe that the conservative political ideas of Reagan’s and Trump’s presidencies, are examples of “negative liberty” (Crowder, 2004). In relation to beliefs towards the LGBTQ+ community, Libertarians appear to uphold a rather confusing stance. For instance, Scott Shackford stated that

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‘libertarians generally believe the power of government should be limited to what is necessary to protect the rights of the citizenry’ (Shackford, 2014). Shackford connotes that regarding LGBTQ+ rights in America, libertarians appear to be supportive of same-sex marriage. However, libertarians would potentially not be opposed to a cake shop refusing to make a cake for a same-sex wedding. Libertarians appear to be highly supportive of Civil liberties. For example, they would be against conversion therapy for LGBTQ+ Americans. Conversion therapy has been viewed by the Human Rights campaign as, ‘a range of dangerous… discredited practices that falsely claim to change a person’s sexual orientation or gender identity or expression’ (Human Rights Campaign, 2020). From a libertarian perspective, conversion therapy prevents people within the LGBTQ+ community from having complete control over the destiny of their lives. This would be supported by Hunter Moyler who outlines the detrimental impact of conversion therapy. He wrote, ‘A study of over 27,000 transgender adults, reported on by Newsweek in September, found that conversion therapy is linked with a higher

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likelihood of attempting suicide’ (Moyler, 2019). From Moyler’s findings, it would be justified to believe that libertarians view a potential federal ban on conversion therapy, to help the LGBTQ+ community attain “natural-rights liberty”. To conclude, through exploration of different ideologies and implementations that impact the LGBTQ+ community, there have been a variety of ways that American politics has both helped, and hindered concepts of liberty. Conflict between Conservative; Liberal and Libertarian ideologies affirm Obama’s perspective of politics being “a battle of ideas”. Whilst Liberals and Libertarians appear to be supportive towards Americans being protected by the constitution and show greater focus to the individual, Conservatives appear to uphold an approach to American politics where they want what they perceive is best for the wider community. A key example of this on reference to LGBTQ+ rights, Liberals arguably view the Obama administration as the pinnacle era for “progressive liberty” (Scott, 2020), however, Conservatives would disagree and possibly support the Trump administration for not overtly opposing equality for the LGBTQ+ community in

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America, but ignoring its importance in society. References Primary Sources Clinton White House Archives (2020) A Record of Progress for Gay and Lesbian Americans. Available at: https://clintonwhitehouse2.archives.gov /WH/Accomplishments/ac399.html. [Accessed 5 May 2020]. Crowder, George (2004) Isaiah Berlin: Liberty and Pluralism. Cambridge: Polity. Legal Information Institute (2020) 14th Amendment. Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitutio n/amendmentxiv. [Accessed 5 May 2020]. Legal Information Institute (2020) Eighth Amendment. Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitutio n/eighth_amendment. [Accessed 29 April 2020]. Oyez (2020) Bowers v. Hardwick. Available at: https://www.oyez.org/cases/1985/85140. [Accessed 16 May 2020].

Oyez (2020) Obergefell v. Hodges. Available at: https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/14556. [Accessed 15 May 2020]. Schulman, S. (2018) My American History: Lesbian and Gay Life During the Reagan and Bush Years. Abingdon: Routledge. Available at: https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=e n&lr=&id=lmNwDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg= PT11&dq=reagan+gay+rights&ots=mb6Rz qRq19&sig=GOkhGDfxXIFSonfQa7t2EPw FWkU#v=snippet&q=reagan&f=false. [Accessed 15 May 2020]. Scott, C.E. (2020) The Five Conceptions of American Liberty. Available at: https://www.nationalaffairs.com/public ations/detail/the-five-conceptions-ofamerican-liberty. [Accessed 2 May 2020]. ushistory.org (2020) Civil Liberties and Civil Rights. Available at: https://www.ushistory.org/gov/10.asp. [Accessed 2 May 2020]. Secondary Sources Anapol, A. (2018) Education Dept. dismissing complaints from transgender students about bathroom access: report. The Hill. Available at:

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https://thehill.com/homenews/adminis tration/402673-education-deptdismissing-complaints-fromtransgender-students-about. [Accessed 12 May 2020]. Barber, M.E. (2012) Mental Health Effects of Don't Ask Don't Tell. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health 16, (4), 346-352. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2012. 705143. [Accessed 5 May 2020]. Cambridge Dictionary (2020) Politics. Available at: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictio nary/english/politics. [Accessed 29 April 2020]. Clews, C. (2017) Gay in the 80s: From Fighting our Rights to Fighting for our Lives. Leicester: Troubador Publishing. Gitterman, D.P. (2017) Calling the Shots: The President, Executive Orders, and Public Policy. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. Available at: www.jstor.org/stable/10.7864/j.ctt1hfr1c c.9. [Accessed 15 May 2020]. Human Rights Campaign (2020) The Lies and Dangers of Reparative Therapy.

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Available at: https://www.hrc.org/resources/thelies-and-dangers-of-reparative-therapy. [Accessed 13 May 2020]. Jacobs, B. (2015) 'Love is love': Obama lauds gay marriage activists in hailing 'a victory for America'. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/usnews/2015/jun/26/obama-gaymarriage-speech-victory-for-america. [Accessed 7 May 2020]. Shackford, S. (2014) Libertarians, Gay Marriage, and Freedom of Association: A Primer. Reason. Available at: https://reason.com/2014/08/19/liberta rians-gay-marriage-and-freedom/. [Accessed 12 May 2020].

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How William Finn and James Lapine’s Falsettos (2016 [1992]) continues to critique heteronormativity Rebecca Short BA Musical Theatre Theatre has the power to change and challenge conversations. For example, Oskar Eustis states that Frank Rich’s review of The Normal Heart (1985) in The New York Times included more information on AIDS than the newspaper had published in the four years prior (2018). Here it can be seen that by staging an AIDS narrative, a dialogue surrounding AIDS, that had previously been absent, was prompted. Marge Berer asserts that social justice pertaining to sexuality must ensure “that public and economic policies, and public services and education, prevent discrimination and abuse in relation to sexuality, and promote sexual health and rights” (2004: 8). Utilising Berer’s understanding of social justice, it can be argued The Normal Heart, by prompting a dialogue on sexual health and rights, played an active role in promoting sexual, social justice. This illustrates how theatre can operate as a forum to start conversations,

changing the dialogue surrounding sexual rights. The 1990s saw a spate of productions addressing or allegorising the AIDS epidemic across the USA. These ranged from regional productions such as AIDS! The Musical! (1991) through to Broadway’s Falsettos (1992) and Kiss of The Spiderwoman (1993). Recently there has been a re-emergence of some of the AIDS-orientated commercial productions that played during the 90s with William Finn and James Lapine’s Falsettos and A New Brain (1998) and Tony Kushner’s Angels In America (1993) all receiving a revival within the past six years. Additionally, original content is being created surrounding the AIDS epidemic that speaks to this revisitation of the trend, such as Ryan Murphy’s POSE (2018) and Russel T Davies’ It’s A Sin (2021). In 1992, AIDS became the highest cause of death for men aged twenty-five to forty-four in the USA (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2019) and so to write about gay men and AIDS during the 1990s was an exercise in observation of the surrounding context, politically foregrounding an illness that many felt was being given insufficient government attention and resource. However, revisiting these productions now, our

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perspective has changed. This is not to say that AIDS is not a concern in modern Western society but simply that it is now thought to be more treatable, people live healthy lives with HIV and undetectable viral loads, and commentary surrounding AIDS addresses multiple demographics (Pebody, 2020). In revival, these productions are no longer a reflection of a current cultural environment and instead are presented as period pieces, a dramatised history that reminds audiences of the initial devastation of the AIDS epidemic within the gay community. These productions act as a marker of an important moment within both gay history and American history. However, this shift in perspective raises questions of representation and relevance. Are we revisiting these productions as just an educational reminder, or do they hold a queer relevance that still speaks to current audiences? Arguably this raises a wider question surrounding why we restage historical events or cultural markers and whether this revisitation influences current identity formation. This study looks to explore how the recent rise in revisitation of AIDS narratives may also constitute a revisitation of queer

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narratives. This addresses how these narratives critique heteronormativity and may therefore provoke conversations surrounding the marginalisation of queer narratives. This reflects a wider lack of education on social injustices affecting the queer community. This will be explored through the analysis of the recent Broadway revival of William Finn and James Lapine’s Falsettos (2016 [1992]), addressing how this production may be considered to hold queer relevance for modern audiences through its overt critiques of heteronormativity. Falsettos compiles two one-act musicals, March of the Falsettos (1981) and Falsettoland (1990), to tell the story of Marvin, a man who has left his wife and child to be with his male lover, Whizzer, exploring the impact this has on him and his family. This study argues that this revival of Falsettos offers not only a marker of a culturally significant period in gay history but also a queer relevance to modern audiences. In choosing to explore this topic, it is important to acknowledge my authorial position as a straight, British woman. My interest in this topic stemmed from a resonance with Finn and Lapine’s storytelling. Rather than neatly-wrapped, grand narratives,

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Finn and Lapine offer worlds in which a series of smaller interactions shift our perception of the world around us and that which we value within it. To explore how the recent restaging of AIDS narratives offers queer relevance to modern audiences, this study will utilise Judith Butler and Eve Kosofsky Segwick’s genealogical understanding of queerness to address the manner in which Finn and Lapine embed queer techniques within Falsettos, critiquing heteronormativity and illustrating its performativity. However, to address the queer potential of Falsettos, it is vital to first explore the definitions of ‘queer’. The etymology of ‘queer’ traces back to the sixteenth century in which the word would be used as an adjective synonymous with strange or peculiar (Online Etymology Dictionary, 2020). This usage can be seen within musical theatre in Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Carousel (1945), utilised in the repeated phrase “You’re a queer one, Julie Jordan” (Rodgers and Hammerstein, 1993). Queer was first used as a derogatory term for a homosexual in 1894 (Perlman, 2019). However, the 1990s saw the term queer reclaimed by the LGBT+ community as an umbrella term for all non-normative individuals, utilising

queer as a descriptor and an identity, one example being activist group, Queer Nation. By utilising queer as a selfidentifier, the LGBT+ community attached a neutral connotation to a term that had previously been used predominantly in derogatory attacks against them. Queer became a matter of academia, with the phrase ‘queer theory’ being coined by Teresa de Lauretis in 1990 (de Lauretis, 1991). Queer studies views sexuality and gender as nondichotomous concepts. This suggests that identities are fluid, identity categories are unstable, and this fluidity is countered and restrained by prevalent systems of normativity within society. These systems prioritise representation of certain, approved identities and design laws and cultural practices around normative identities and family structures. Although, de Lauretis would go on to abandon the term, claiming it had become conceptually void and was not being applied in the political or critical way that she had intended (de Lauretis, 1994), it has found itself embedded in a world of scholarly research. Notions of normativity are built around monolithic understandings of gender and sexuality. Numerous

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scholars such as Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick and Judith Butler critique these normative understandings. Sedgwick argues “the number and difference of the dimensions that ‘sexual identity’ is supposed to organize into a seamless and univocal whole” is striking and that queer can refer to the “open mesh of possibilities” that are available when the constituent elements of an individual’s gender or sexuality are not or cannot be signified monolithically (1993: 8). Butler builds on this idea of queer as nonmonolithic in her article, ‘Critically Queer’. Butler addresses identity formation as unstable, an act that occurs through the power of repetition. Butler states “some norms are continually haunted by their own inefficacy: hence, the anxiously repeated effort to install and augment their jurisdiction” (1993: 26). This suggests that identity cannot be monolithic or stable as it must constantly be rearticulated. Butler also argues that “reiterations are never simply replicas of the same” (20), meaning that each rearticulation of identity offers the potential for change, consequently defining identity as flexible and fluid. Butler links this understanding of queerness to her concept of gender

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performativity, stating that performativity can be defined as “the unanticipated resignifiabilty of highly invested terms” (28). Therefore, we can understand that queerness embraces the instability of identity, whereas heteronormativity promotes an unacknowledged performativity in which individuals are expected to constantly reperform and re-signify a static, idealised understanding of gender and sexuality. In Undoing Gender Butler moves beyond looking at how queerness is positioned against norms and instead acknowledges how these norms operate within society stating that “the norm governs intelligibility, allows for certain kinds of practices and action to become recognisable as such, defining the parameters of what will and will not appear within the domain of the social” (2004: 42). This suggests the performative ideals promoted by heteronormativity are supported within social structures. Those who do not embrace the resignification of invested, heteronormative ideals are considered to operate outside of the social norm and can be identified by others as doing such.

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Butler’s work has been criticised for reducing gender to language and ignoring other factors that impact gender and the normative discourses surrounding identity, such as body. For example, Rosemary Hennessy raised the argument that “normative discourses are social practices that regulate action, behaviour, rituals, and institutions” and therefore encompass more than language, speech acts, and signs (2000: 137). However, there is still much merit to Butler’s work surrounding language as although it does not offer a fully comprehensive image of gender or identity formation, it draws attention to gender and sexuality as unstable and non-monolithic identities. This criticises normative discourses that try to embed an understanding of identity as static. This criticism will framework the analysis of Falsettos that this study undertakes. Falsettos presents the not-sohappily-ever-after of heterosexual marriage and critiques the normative ideals that such a concept is grounded in. By presenting failed heterosexual relationships and unsuccessful heteronormativity, Finn and Lapine disrupt the dominant heterosexual narrative. Millie Taylor and Dominic Symonds summarise the dominant

heterosexual narrative structure that exists within musical theatre stating that “musical narratives have tended to perpetuate the boy-meets-girl trope, in which the pretty woman melts in the arms of a strong and dominant man before walking down the aisle to embrace happily married bliss” (2014:140). Expounding the identity politics operating behind such a trope, Judith Butler positions heterosexuality as operating through “the regulated production of hyperbolic versions of ‘man’ and ‘woman’” suggesting that such actions are “for the most part compulsory performances” (1993: 26). This builds on her idea of identity as a rearticulated performance, suggesting that those operating within the norm are continuously trying to accomplish an unachievable, idealised image of a role, gender, or sexuality. From this understanding of the operation of heterosexuality, Butler suggests that subversion of heterosexual norms relies on “inhabiting the practices of its rearticulation” (27). Finn and Lapine inhabit the rearticulated performance of heteronormative coupledom and use this as an opportunity to highlight the oftignored failures of heteronormativity. Using Butler’s framework, this could be

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considered a queer subversion of these heteronormative ideologies. By subverting these ideologies, attention is drawn to their dominance within both narrative trends and wider society. The presentation of failed heterosexual pairings is introduced in Falsettos through the depiction of recently separated Trina and Marvin. This is a couple who performed the social markers expected of them by systems of heteronormativity; they got married and reproduced and yet have failed to achieve the happily-ever-after that previous musical theatre narrative trends suggest they should. By Butler’s standards Trina and Marvin are an example of the unattainable nature of compulsory normative performances. Despite their attempted production of the idealised images of man and wife the constant reperformance of these ideals was unsustainable. However, it could be argued that Marvin and Trina could not achieve this heteronormative ideal of wedded bliss as Marvin did not identify as a heterosexual and that therefore this relationship does not necessarily criticise systems of normativity as fully as it might. However, Falsettos goes on to further critique this heteronormativity by framing

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the narrative post-Trina and Marvin’s separation around the creation of an unconventional, found family that showcases the potential of non-nuclear family structures. The idea of Trina playing wife or performing womanhood connects to Luce Irigaray’s suggestion that women have been allowed to exist in three main categories: the mother, the virginal woman, and the prostitute (1985: 185 – 186). Irigaray argues here that women exist within a patriarchal society of laws and exchanges created by and for men in which women have no agency, only usability. The hangovers of such an understanding of womanhood are still noticeable within modern systems of normativity in which women are pressured to be monogamous and childbearing. Finn and Lapine highlight the transferral of these heteronormative assumptions onto homosexual couples and showcase how these systems of heteronormativity ultimately fail. Within Falsettos Trina is expected to play wife or per Irigaray’s categories, the mother. As Marvin has left Trina, this normative expectation of femininity and homeliness is transferred onto his new lover, Whizzer, who is expected to

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perform the womanly ideal Marvin previously expected of Trina. This expectation is demonstrated within the song ‘This Had Better Come To A Stop’. Marvin sings “Whizzer’s supposed to always be here,/ making dinner, set to screw./ That’s what pretty boys should do./ Check their hairlines, make the dinner,/ and love me.” (Finn and Lapine, 2019: 40). This is mirrored in Trina’s following lyrics “I was supposed to make the dinner,/ make it pretty on his plate./ Every wife should pull her weight./ Have it ready, make it tasty/ and love him.” (40). This song illustrates that Marvin has transferred his expectations of a partner from Trina to Whizzer and these expectations are grounded in normative views of gender, with the more feminine counterpart performing domestic duties and acting to please the desires of their more masculine partner. This showcases that despite Marvin’s sexuality operating outside of the norm, his understanding of what a relationship structure entails is still grounded in binary, heteronormative ideals of a domestic, feminine partner and a masculine economical provider. However, this normative expectation ultimately drives Marvin and Whizzer apart during ‘The Chess Game’ in Act One. Within the number, Whizzer

antagonises Marvin asking “How should I behave myself?” (Finn and Lapine, 2019: 65) acknowledging that part of his relationship has been performing the role he believes Marvin wants him to fill. This idea is amplified by the return of a listing of actions Whizzer feels he is supposed to perform, as introduced in ‘This Had Better Come To A Stop’. Whizzer sings “Whizzer’s supposed to make the dinner,/ be a Patsy, lose at chess,/ always bravely acquiesce./ Clip the coupons. Make the dinner…/ and love him.” (67). This suggests not only that Whizzer acknowledges his role in his relationship with Marvin as performative, but that he is aware he is being pressured to play a heteronormative, feminine ideal. Such an understanding is emphasised in the double meaning of “Patsy”, which could refer both to the American slang for a trusting fool or to a woman’s name. ‘The Chess Game’ concludes with Whizzer leaving Marvin, illustrating that these normative expectations ultimately caused his relationship with Marvin to break down. It is only in the second act when Whizzer is not pressured to perform this feminine role and is instead allowed to tease Marvin for his lack of athletic ability or demonstrate his knowledge of baseball that his

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relationship with Marvin flourishes. This is not to say that Whizzer transforms into a stereotypically masculine character but simply that his identity is no longer limited by normative expectations placed upon him by Marvin throughout the first act. This showcases an embrace of identity as fluid and individual. Butler’s suggestion that the norm defines “the parameters of what will and will not appear within the domain of the social” (2004: 42) showcases that the dominant perspective shapes that which we see as normal and abnormal and encourages us to view certain identities as common-sense or correct. Using this framework, Whizzer and Marvin’s relationship critiques this unquestioned blanket implementation of a norm, in particular heteronormativity. Their relationship succeeds only when their understanding of each other’s roles and identities moves away from the normative domain of the social, that promotes their adherence to an assimilationist relationship with a masculine and feminine counterpart. Therefore, this libretto foregrounds the queer perspective that heteronormative understandings do not always succeed in scaffolding a lasting relationship,

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despite what hegemonic narratives may suggest. Through this exploration of Falsettos it can be seen that Finn and Lapine critique heteronormative understandings. This is achieved by showcasing the intrinsic failure built into systems of normativity and highlighting the performativity of norms that are oft taken for granted as innate or commonsense. Finn and Lapine instead present norms as arbitrary sites invested with meaning, that given their performative nature are open to queering. It can be easy to dismiss the distanced revisitation of cultural markers as only an act of remembrance, suggesting the content depicted may seem historical to modern audience members. However, by dismissing the recent depictions of AIDSorientated narratives as simply acts of remembrance, their power to offer a queer relevance is ignored. The critiques of heteronormativity within Finn and Lapine’s Falsettos may offer a relevance or sense of representation to contemporary audiences who respond to the queer sensibilities proposed. By revisiting Finn and Lapine’s musical, there is not only a remembrance of the time that they depict, but also a

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revisitation of the queer values that they embody. This speaks to Román and Campbell’s assertions that performances about AIDS intervene in the present ideology (Román, 1998) and remind us that whilst the original epidemic may be historical, AIDS is not (Campbell, 2011). Extending this idea, this revisitation of AIDS also revisits the insufficient support the gay community received during the initial epidemic. These revivals, therefore, prompt a consideration of the ways in which marginalised communities are still in need of support, encouraging dialogue surrounding contemporary sexual, social justice. This study highlights the importance of approaching the restaging of productions marking cultural events from a multitude of perspectives, acknowledging the range of functions such a production may serve, whether this be remembrance, cautioning, or identity formation. More widely, the exploration of these revived productions reminds us of the continued deficit of queer representation and queer sensibilities that have been presented within commercial musical theatre. This reflects a wider lack of education surrounding queer lives. As such, practitioners and

researchers alike should seek to champion strong examples of queer representation within musicals and acknowledge where there is opportunity to present more queer dramaturgies. By presenting more queer dramaturgies arguably there are increased opportunities to prompt dialogues surrounding queer social injustices. By exploring the recent revival of Finn and Lapine’s Falsettos and noting how its queer sensibilities may be read by contemporary audiences, this study points to the revival as an opportunity to highlight queer dramaturgies and encourage the staging of new queer productions. References Berer, M. (2004) Sexuality, Rights and Social Justice. Reproductive Health Matters, 12, (23), 6-11. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S09688080(04)23130-5 [Accessed 6 March 2021]. Butler, J. (1993) Critically Queer. In: Hall, D.E. & Jagose, A. (eds.) The Routledge Queer Studies Reader. Oxon and New York: Routledge, 18-31.

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Butler, J. (2004) Undoing gender. New York and London: Routledge. Campbell, A. (2011) From Bogeyman to Bison: A Herd-Like Amnesia of HIV/AIDS in Theatre? Theatre Research International, 36, (3), 196-212. de Lauretis, T. (1991) Queer Theory: Lesbian and Gay Sexualities. Differences: a Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies, 3, (2), iii-xviii. de Lauretis, T. (1994) Habit Changes. Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies, 6, (2-3), 296-313. Eustis, O. (2018) Why theater is essential to democracy. TED Talk. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5foo u7mIA0w [Accessed 6 March 2021]. Finn, W. & Lapine, J. (2019) Falsettos. London: Samuel French. Hennessy, R. (2000) The Material of Sex. In: Hall, D.E. & Jagose, A. (eds.) The Routledge Queer Studies Reader. Oxon and New York: Routledge, 134 – 149.

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Irigaray, L. (1985) This Sex Which is Not One. New York: Cornell University Press. Online Etymology Dictionary (2020) Queer. Available at: https://www.etymonline.com/word/que er#etymonline_v_3174 [Accessed 5 October 2020]. Pebody, R. (2020) Undetectable viral load and transmission – information for people with HIV. Available at: https://www.aidsmap.com/abouthiv/undetectable-viral-load-andtransmission-information-people-hiv [Accessed 4 March 2021]. Perlman, M. (2019) How the word ‘queer’ was adopted by the LGBTQ community. Colombia Journalism Review. Available at:.https://www.cjr.org/language_corner /queer.php [Accessed 5 October 2020]. Rodgers, R. & Hammerstein, O. (1993) Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Carousel (1993 London Cast Recording) [CD] London: First Night Records. Román, D. (1998) Acts of intervention: performance, gay culture, and AIDS. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana

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University Press. Sedgwick, E. (1993) Queer and Now. In: Hall, D.E. & Jagose, A. (eds.) The Routledge Queer Studies Reader. Oxon and New York: Routledge, 3-17. Taylor, M. and Symonds, D. (2014) Studying musical theatre: theory and practice. London: Palgrave. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (2019) A Timeline of HIV and AIDS. Available at: https://www.hiv.gov/hivbasics/overview/history/hiv-and-aidstimeline [Accessed 26 September 2020].

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‘Frankenchickens?’ The physical, ethical and environmental limit of genetic selection in intensively reared broiler chickens Sara Pettit MSc Animal Welfare, Ethics, and Law Introduction Broiler chickens have been subjected to intense and dramatic genetic selection over the last 60 years, for fast growth, efficient feed conversion and breast yield (Tallentire et al., 2016). Since the 1950s, conventional broiler growth has increased by over 400% (Zuidhof et al., 2014) (See fig.1), whilst slaughter age has decreased from 16 weeks to just 6 weeks (Tickle et al. 2014). To put this into perspective, the rapid pace of broiler growth would be equivalent to a human weighing 28 stone by their third birthday (RSPCA, 2020). This genetic selection is celebrated by some such as the National Chicken Council (2019) to be a sustainable production achievement, due to decreased resources and land required to produce the same quantity of chicken product (Putman et al., 2017). Unfortunately, genetic selection has resulted in neglect of the bird’s behavioural needs and an abundance of

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severe welfare issues (CIWF, 2003), including high mortality, lameness, and muscle disorders often visible in the meat itself (Bessei, 2006). Claims of sustainability are further disputed due to these poor welfare factors, with the increased environmental burden of replacing the chickens lost to culling and poor meat quality. It also disregards the risk of antimicrobial resistance risk, and the environmental impact of intensive poultry farming, including, high emissions, deforestation and pollution. This issue is of high importance in the context of the incomprehensible numbers involved; 66 billion chickens are slaughtered annually (CIWF, 2019), 1 billion of these in the UK (CIWF, 2019), and an estimated 89% of UK chickens are fast-growing (Davies, 2019). There are calls for a change to eating less meat and to choose slow-growing, higher welfare chickens, with more retailers dedicating themselves to ‘The Better Chicken Commitment’.

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Fig.1. Image demonstrating a broiler breed chicken from 1957, 1978, and 2005 at the age of 56 days. Extracted from a study by Zuidhof et al., (2014: 2973). High mortality Intensively farmed broilers have high mortality rates in their short lives, suffering from heart failures: sudden death syndrome (SDS) and ascites. The rapid growth rate of broilers, selected for efficiency, means their heart and lungs cannot keep up. There is a genetically induced mismatch, whereby the increased oxygen demand is over the capacity of the birds respiratory and circulatory system, leading to cardiac failure and Sudden Death Syndrome (SDS) (European Commission, 2000). Ascites is a metabolic disorder that

affects fast-growing broilers and causes persistent suffering. The high strain of rapid growth enlarges the right side of the heart; the bird must increase breathing and the lungs become congested. This affects the liver resulting in an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the abdomen, increasing the risk of heart failure (CIWF, 2003; Baghbanzadeh and Decuypere, 2008). Death is usually prolonged as a result of dehydration and starvation, as well as respiratory and heart failure (Olkowski and Classen, 1998). This is a theme reinforced by concurrent welfare issues. The incidence of mortality from heart failures is at least 2%, which amounts to over 16 million broiler chickens a year suffering in this way (Maxwell and Robertson 1998; CIWF, 2003). The high mortality of conventional fast growth broilers, calls into question the true sustainability of fast growth broilers. In fact, a report by the RSPCA (2020a) demonstrates serious inefficiencies; mortality rates, including culls and excluding lameness, reach at least 11.2%.

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Lameness Lameness, in its broadest sense is an injury to the legs or feet that can result in impaired walking and is known to be a painful condition (Granquist et al., 2019). Although multifactorial, a key causation factor for lameness development is rapid growth (Bessei, 2006). Factors also include disease, stocking density, nutritional deficiencies, air quality, light circadian rhythms, age, and management practices (Granquist et al., 2019). The broilers’ relatively immature bones and joints are unable to keep up with this rapid growth and buckle under the broilers’ heavy weight (Kestin et al., 2001; CIWF, 2003) compromising their welfare. In one study, 57% of fast-growing birds had severe walking problems, compared to 17% in slower-growth birds (De Jong et al., 2016). The skeletal abnormalities further compromise the welfare of broilers, who may experience anxiety associated with aggression from other birds (Julian, 1998), and again, may experience prolonged death from starvation and dehydration (Meluzzi and Sirri, 2009). The welfare issues of fast-growth broiler systems are further exacerbated by the poor environment in intensive

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systems. The impaired locomotory abilities results in greater time spent sitting and lying in poor quality and often wet litter (Bessei, 2006). This can cause painful contact dermatitis; breast blisters, hock burns and foot pad burns (Bessei, 2006). As well as being painful, these skin conditions may become infected, and spread to cause joint inflammations (European Commission, 2000). Inactivity may also be worsened due to the highgrowth capacity overconsuming energy reserves, resulting in lethargy (CIWF, 2003). As with the high mortality in broilers, lameness represents a serious weakness to the claim of sustainability and responsible production. An RSPCA (2020a) report found a 136-245% increase in culling due to lameness in conventional chickens compared to slower-growth, high welfare breeds, potentially counteracting sustainability benefits of conventional fast-growth systems.

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Fig.2. A lame broiler chicken (CIWF, 2013: 2). Muscle abnormalities The dramatic growth rate has introduced serious abnormalities to the muscle; these myopathies are chronic, degenerative conditions (Kuttappan et al., 2013). The welfare impacts are yet to be studied. However, it is theorised the extensive muscle damage and inflammation results in further suffering (CIWF, 2020). These muscle abnormalities can be seen directly in the final product of meat, in conditions such as white striping, woody breast, and spaghetti meat (Petracci, 2019). A recent investigation into the muscle condition white striping (see fig.3), found 85% of packs of standard chicken in

supermarkets were affected, whereas it was only found in 11% of higher welfare packs (Humane League UK, 2020). These muscle abnormalities also decrease meat quality; texture properties and nutritional value are impaired (Petracci, 2019); with an increased fat content and decreased protein content (Kuttappan et al., 2012). This is not only detrimental to the welfare of chickens, but also detrimental economically, and to human health and nutrition. Studies of sustainability may only consider the environmental burdens of rearing the broiler to point of slaughter, without attention to changes in meat quality (Tallentire et al., 2018). Muscle myopathies lead to rejections at the stages of meat processing and selling, causing higher quantities of replacement birds to rear, and therefore an increased environmental burden at every stage of production (Tallentire et al., 2018). The RSPCA (2020a) states that the environmental sustainability and efficiency of conventional fast-growth breeds are likely to significantly be offset by the combined factors of high mortality, culling due to lameness, and loss due to poor meat quality. However, more research will be required in this area. Claims of the sustainability of

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conventional fast growth broiler chickens therefore have serious flaws due these combined wasteful and unethical inefficiencies.

Fig.3. Different severities of white striping in a chicken breast. Extracted from a study by (Bailey et al., 2015: 2872). Environmental concerns and broiler chickens Environmental and sustainability concerns are of great importance, yet despite the claims of sustainability from efficiency in feed conversion and breast yield, this disregards the abundance of environmental concerns still caused by intensive broiler farming. Similar to all intensive livestock farming, intensive poultry farming results in massive emissions, quantities of faeces, manure

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production, sick and dead animals, microbial pathogens and feed additives that pollute the environment through contaminated soil, air, and water (Blue, 2017). Intensive poultry farming also contributes greatly to deforestation worldwide, for example, to create space for soya grown for chicken feed (Heal et al., 2020). The poor welfare experienced by billions of chickens, exacerbated in fast-growing breeds, is not a worthwhile compromise for a system that is still hugely ecologically harmful and unsustainable. Industrial broiler chicken farming is detrimental to the UN Sustainable development goal for ‘climate action’ and ‘life on Land’, and efforts to improve these are needed to ensure the corresponding UN SDG of ‘responsible consumption and production’. Instead of the continuation of artificial selection for efficiency and fast-growth in broilers, there should instead be a change in human behaviour toward a sustainable reduction in meat consumption. For example, the ‘Better Chicken Commitment’ run by leading animal welfare charity Compassion in World Farming (2021), suggests choosing higher welfare chicken products and eating and wasting less to improve the

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environmental burden of food and promote responsible production and consumption. Solutions and Conclusion The fast growth of these chickens, and the resulting welfare issues that cause pain and suffering can no longer continue. A recent study suggests that the artificial selection for rapid growth and energy efficiency has potentially reached its limit in both biological and welfare concerns (Tallentire et al., 2018). A short life should still be a life worth living for these chickens. Therefore, producers must focus on breeding slower-growth chickens, which will help resolve many of these welfare concerns (Nielsen et al., 2003) whilst reducing waste from high mortality, culling and rejections over poor carcass quality. Slower-growing chickens are healthier and display more behaviours indicative of positive welfare (Rayner et al., 2020), and reduce inefficient, unsustainable wastage in the industry (RSPCA, 2020a). Whilst higher welfare systems using slower-growth breeds can be less efficient in terms of feed conversion and breast yields, there are opportunities for advancements in responsible production that should be explored, such as more

sustainable feed and manure management (Vaarst et al., 2015). Sustainable consumption and production are clearly of high importance, however, should not be able to disregard the welfare issues of the chickens as individuals. Instead, in order to coexist harmoniously with resources available, society must reduce consumption and production of animal products as whole. In fact, there is a wealth of existing research that demonstrates a plant-based diet has the least environmental impact (Chai et al., 2017). If individuals do decide to eat meat, support should be given to retailers dedicated to ‘the Better Chicken Commitment' and purchase chicken labelled ‘RSPCA assured free range’ and ‘Soil association’ to assure better quality, higher welfare, slow-grown chickens.

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References Bailey, R.A., Watson, K.A., Bilgili, S.F. and Avendano, S. (2015) The genetic basis of pectoralis major myopathies in modern broiler chicken lines. Poultry Science, 94 (12), 2870-2879. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S0032579119321182. [Accessed 29 October 2020]. Baghbanzadeh, A., and Decuypere, E. (2008) Ascites syndrome in broilers: physiological and nutritional perspectives. Avian Pathology, 37 (2), 117-126. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/1 0.1080/03079450801902062. [Accessed 1 November 2020]. Bessei, W. (2006) Welfare of broilers: a review. World's Poultry Science Journal, 62 (3), 455-466. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journa ls/world-s-poultry-sciencejournal/article/welfare-of-broilers-areview/E48ED32BF130ABE53B0614EED5F EBBB6. [Accessed 31 October 2020]. Blue, M. (2017) Ecological Impact of Chicken Farming. Available at: https://sciencing.com/ecological-

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impact-chicken-farming-5005.html [Accessed 29 October 2020]. Chai, B.C., van der Voort, J.R., Grofelnik, K., Eliasdottir, H.G., Klöss, I. and PerezCueto, F.J., (2019). Which diet has the least environmental impact on our planet? A systematic review of vegan, vegetarian and omnivorous diets. Sustainability, 11, (15), 4110. CIWF (2003) Leg and heart problems in broiler chickens, PS/MJ/ART0206. Available at: https://www.ciwf.org.uk/media/381889 8/leg-and-heart-problems-in-broilersfor-judicial-review.pdf. [Accessed 31 October 2020]. CIWF (2013) Welfare sheet: Broiler chickens. Available at: https://www.ciwf.org.uk/media/5235309 /Welfare-sheet-Broiler-chickens.pdf. [Accessed 28 October 2020]. CIWF (2019) Statistics: Broiler chickens. Available at: https://www.ciwf.org.uk/media/5235303 /Statistics-Broiler-chickens.pdf [Accessed 31 October 2020].

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CIWF (2020) Declining nutritional value of factory farmed chicken. Available at: https://www.ciwf.com/media/7429726/ declining-nutritional-value-of-factoryfarmed-chicken.pdf. [Accessed 31 October 2020]. CIWF (2021) Better Chicken. Available at: https://betterchicken.org.uk/#choosebetter. [Accessed 4 January 2021]. Davies, J. (2019). Slow-growing birds are fast becoming mainstream. Available at: https://www.poultryworld.net/Meat/A rticles/2019/7/Slow-growing-birds-arefast-becoming-mainstream454287E/. [Accessed 31 October 2020]. De Jong, I.C., Perez M, T., Gunnink, H., Van den Heuvel, H., Hindle, V., Mul, M., Van Reenen, C.G. (2016). Simplifying the Welfare Quality assessment protocol for broilers. Animal, 10, (1) 117-27. European Commission (2000) The Welfare of Chickens Kept for Meat Production (Broilers), Report of the Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare, SANCO.B.3/AH/R15/2000. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/fil es/animals/docs/aw_arch_2005_broiler

s_scientific_opinion_en.pdf. [Accessed 31 October 2020]. Granquist, E.G., Vasdal, G., De Jong, I.C. and Moe, R.O. (2019) Lameness and its relationship with health and production measures in broiler chickens. Animal, 13, (10) 2365-2372. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journa ls/animal/article/lameness-and-itsrelationship-with-health-and-productionmeasures-in-broilerchickens/4D52594BF38AF05CEEF2E96F6 03C5A5F. [Accessed 31 October 2020]. Heal, A., Wasley, A., Ross, A., Jordan, L., Howard, E., and Holmes, H. (2020) Soya linked to fires and deforestation in Brazil feeds chicken sold on the British high street. Available at: https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/202 0/11/25/brazil-fires-deforestationtesco-nandos-mcdonalds/ Accessed 5 January 2021]. Humane League UK (2020) White striping disease in supermarket chicken. Available at: https://assets.ctfassets.net/ww1ie0z745y 7/6c2m3SlCRioTbdMeBXpNnT/334cacbf f0ce304740f3dd7ed17b0b28/White_Stripi

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ng_in_Supermarket_Chicken.pdf. [Accessed 31 October 2020]. Julian, R.J. (1998) Rapid growth problems: ascites and skeletal deformities in broilers. Poultry science, 77 (12) 1773-1780. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S0032579119412327. [Accessed 1 November 2020]. Kestin S.C., Gordon S., Su G. and Sørensen P. (2001) Relationships in broiler chickens between lameness, liveweight , growth rate and age. Veterinary Record, 148, 195-197. Available at: https://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten t/148/7/195.short. [Accessed 31 October 2020]. Kuttappan, V.A., Brewer, V.B., Apple, J.K., Waldroup, P.W. and Owens, C.M. (2012) Influence of growth rate on the occurrence of white striping in broiler breast fillets. Poultry Science, 91, (10) 2677-2685. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S0032579119397767. Accessed [29 October 2020].

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Kuttappan, V.A., Shivaprasad, H.L., Shaw, D.P., Valentine, B.A., Hargis, B.M., Clark, F.D., McKee, S.R. and Owens, C.M. (2013) Pathological changes associated with white striping in broiler breast muscles. Poultry Science, 92, (2) 331-338. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S0032579119395276?via%3Dih ub [Accessed 31 October 2020]. Maxwell, M.H. and Robertson, G.W., (1998) UK survey of broiler ascites and sudden death syndromes in 1993. British Poultry Science, 39, (2) 203-215. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/1 0.1080/00071669889132. [Accessed 31 October 2020]. Meluzzi, A. and Sirri, F. (2009) Welfare of broiler chickens. Italian Journal of Animal Science, (1) 161-173. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/1 0.4081/ijas.2009.s1.161. [Accessed 1 November 2020]. National Chicken council (2019) National Chicken Council Unveils New Sustainability Resources. Available at: https://www.nationalchickencouncil.org

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/national-chicken-council-unveils-newsustainability-resources/. [Accessed 4 January 2021]. Nielsen, B.L., Thomsen, M.G., Sorensen, P. and Young, J.F. (2003) Feed and strain effects on the use of outdoor areas by broilers. British Poultry Science, 44, (2) 161-169. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/1 0.1080/0007166031000088389. [Accessed 1 November 2020]. Olkowski, A.A. and Classen, H.L. (1998) High incidence of cardiac arrhythmias in broiler chickens. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 45, 83-91. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/ 10.1111/j.14390442.1998.tb00804.x?casa_token=cQ38Tz _TnloAAAAA:FgBHlfW27CnfizNhckPEhgIu fH1hypPOa3o-yuCDdf_W0AxLBqW0o3gY-PlMwzgb_lfyKQI8IjQa-0. [Accessed 31 October 2020]. Petracci, M., Soglia, F., Madruga, M., Carvalho, L., Ida, E. and Estévez, M. (2019) Wooden‐breast, white striping, and spaghetti meat: causes, consequences and consumer perception of emerging broiler meat abnormalities. Comprehensive Reviews in

Food Science and Food Safety, 18, (2) 565-583. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/1 0.1111/1541-4337.12431 [Accessed 31 October 2020]. Putman, B., Thoma, G., Burek, J. and Matlock, M. (2017) A retrospective analysis of the United States poultry industry: 1965 compared with 2010. Agricultural Systems, 157, 7-117. Rayner, A.C., Newberry, R.C., Vas, J. and Mullan, S., (2020) Slow-growing broilers are healthier and express more behavioural indicators of positive welfare. Scientific reports, 10 (1), 1-14. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598 -020-72198-x. [Accessed 1 November 2020]. RSPCA (2020) Fast growing chickens. Available at: https://www.rspcaassured.org.uk/getinvolved/fast-growing-chickens//. [Accessed: 31 October 2020]. RSPCA (2020a) Eat suffer sit repeat. The life of a typical meat chicken. Available at: https://www.rspca.org.uk/webContent

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/staticImages/BroilerCampaign/EatSitS ufferRepeat.pdf [Accessed 1 March 2021]. Tallentire, C.W., Leinonen, I. and Kyriazakis, I. (2016) Breeding for efficiency in the broiler chicken: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 36, (4) 1-16. Available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007 /s13593-016-0398-2 [Accessed 28 October 2020]. Tallentire, C.W., Leinonen, I. and Kyriazakis, I. (2018) Artificial selection for improved energy efficiency is reaching its limits in broiler chickens. Scientific reports, 8, (1) 1-10. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598 -018-19231-2. [Accessed 1 November 2020]. Tickle, P.G., Paxton, H., Rankin, J.W., Hutchinson, J.R. and Codd, J.R., (2014) Anatomical and biomechanical traits of broiler chickens across ontogeny. Part I. Anatomy of the musculoskeletal respiratory apparatus and changes in organ size. PeerJ, (2). Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl es/PMC4103091/ [Accessed 28 October 2020].

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Vaarst, M., Steenfeldt, S. and Horsted, K. (2015) Sustainable development perspectives of poultry production. World's Poultry Science Journal, 71, (4), 609-620. Zuidhof, M.J., Schneider, B.L., Carney, V.L., Korver, D.R. and Robinson, F.E. (2014) Growth, efficiency, and yield of commercial broilers from 1957, 1978, and 2005. Poultry science, 93 (12), 29702982. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc e/article/pii/S0032579119385505. [Accessed 28 October 2020].

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What can disasters reveal about social inequality and social injustice? Sean Burchett BA American Studies and History The COVID-19 pandemic has brought to public attention the relationship between social inequality and the impact of disasters, which is explored here through a historical context. ‘A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or society and causes […] losses that exceed the community’s or society’s ability to cope using its own resources.’1 It is not just the force of an event that turns a hazard into a disaster but also the inability to cope with its impact. In this way, the force of an event is ‘circumscribed by the capacity of social units to dynamically adjust before, during, and after the onset of the event’.2 Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources (such as power "What is a Disaster? - IFRC", Ifrc.Org, accessed 5 December 2020, https://www.ifrc.org/en/whatwe-do/disaster-management/aboutdisasters/what-is-a-disaster/. 2 Jonathan Bergman, "Disaster: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis", History Compass 6, no. 3 (2008): 934-946, doi:10.1111/j.14780542.2008.00519.x, 937. 1

and wealth) and opportunities (education, health and employment) within a society based on socially recognised differences between groups. This imbalance can lead to social injustice when access to resources and opportunity is denied based on those differences. Viewing disasters as ‘a complex mix of natural hazards and human action’ in that exposure to the former is determined by a mixture of geographic reality and social, political and economic systems, disaster studies explores the link between social inequality, injustice and disasters through the paradigm of vulnerability.3 Greg Bankoff suggests that vulnerability represents who and what a prospective disaster will impact/harm most and links risks to social hierarchies like class, gender, race and age.4 The recent pandemic highlights the connection between social inequality, disaster vulnerability and social injustice, shining a spotlight on the Ben Wisner, Piers M. Blaikie and Terry Cannon, At Risk, 2nd ed. (repr. Oxford: Routledge, 2003), 58. 4 Greg Bankoff, "Comparing Vulnerabilities: Toward Charting an Historical Trajectory of Disasters", Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung 32, no. 3 (2007): 104-105. 3

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link between structural inequalities and health outcomes. For example, in a pandemic where social distancing is the primary first-line defence, overcrowding is a significant issue that disproportionately affects specific groups in different countries. In the UK, a 2020 Government report showed that while only 2% of white households were overcrowded, corresponding ethnic households had much higher rates (Bangladeshi - 24%, Pakistani- 18%, Black African-16%, and Arab 15%).5 The containment strategy of lockdown makes overcrowded conditions even more oppressive and disproportionately affects those without savings, employment or employment protection, or other means of subsistence. India is a critical case in point where ‘around 95% of all workers in India are informal, with no legal protection vis-à-vis their employers and also little or no social protection’.6 This exacerbated the lowerincome groups' vulnerability to disease in

general, and COVID-19, as enforced lockdown increased hunger and destitution issues.7 History provides endless examples that illustrate the relationship between social inequality, disaster vulnerability and social injustice and the similarities of unequal impact and response to COVID-19 can be seen in them. An examination of Hurricane Katrina (2005), the Great Kanto Earthquake (1923), the Charleston Earthquake (1886) and the Guatemala Earthquake (1976) reveals that social inequalities (particularly wealth inequality) can affect impact and recovery and engender social injustice. These links have led to the idea of disaster justice, a term coined by Robert Verchick (2012), which sees justice as ‘an inclusive decision-making process, free of discrimination, that pays attention to risks disproportionately imposed on

Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government, Overcrowded Households (UK Government, 2020). Accessed 23 January 2021, https://www.ethnicity-factsfigures.service.gov.uk/housing/housingconditions/overcrowdedhouseholds/latest#download-the-data

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Jayati Ghosh, "A Critique of the Indian Government’s Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic", Journal of Industrial and Business Economics 47, no. 3 (2020): 522, doi:10.1007/s40812-020-00170-x. 7 Ibid,528.

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socially disadvantaged populations’.8 The absence of such processes is evident in the examples considered here. It reflects the importance of who has the power to define risk and allocate resources to mitigate and reduce impacts.9 The latter is becoming increasingly prominent with regard to vaccine allocation and distribution, both across the globe and within countries.10 While one might expect that disasters, particularly natural disasters, impact everyone equally, experience has shown them to be a polarising force. As Annie Lowrey writes, ‘Income and wealth shape who gets hit; how much individuals, insurers, non-profits, and governments are willing and able to help; and who recovers, as well as to what extent.’11 The United Nations also reflected this in 2009 in a report which acknowledged that ‘the first hit and worst

affected by climate change are the world’s poorest groups’.12 Those already marginalized in society may lack the power and resources to help them relieve the impacts of disaster. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has seen many face job loss or income reduction (due to being furloughed or not having access to overtime). The economically disadvantaged probably lack savings to help smooth the impact of this. The marginalized are also often more vulnerable to hazards in the first place, due to the intersections of wealth and location, with wealth often determining where one lives. Furthermore, wealth can also impact the ability to escape from disasters due to a lack of transport. The poorest often live in highestrisk areas, with lower quality housing not built to withstand a disaster. This can be

Anna Lukasiewicz, "The Emerging Imperative of Disaster Justice", in Natural Hazards and Disaster Justice (repr. Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 9. 9 Ulrich Beck, World at Risk (repr., Polity Press, 2008), 1-46. 10 Noah Higgins-Dunn, "WHO Warns Countries are Helping Covid Thrive through Inequitable Vaccine Distribution", CNBC.Com, 2021, Accessed 22 January 2021. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/08/who-

warns-inequitable-vaccine-distribution-helpscovid-thrive.html. 11 Annie Lowrey, "What the Camp Fire Revealed", The Atlantic, 2019, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/201 9/01/why-natural-disasters-are-worsepoor/580846/. 12 Global Humanitarian Forum, Geneva, The Anatomy of a Silent Crisis, 2009, ii, 3, http://www.ghf-ge.org/human-impactreport.pdf.

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seen in the 1976 Guatemala Earthquake and Hurricane Katrina. Deborah Levenson observes in Guatemala how the ‘well-to-do had built […] homes which were relatively earthquake resistant, and […] were on the whole unaffected’. By contrast, poorer homes, often built on the side of ravines or dangerously perched on top of them, ‘collapsed’.13 In Katrina, racial and ethnic discrimination meant that African-Americans predominately lived in the more flood-prone areas, as they lacked the wealth and social capital to move elsewhere.14 In both cases, systems beyond their control made certain groups more vulnerable to known hazards due to wealth inequality and racial injustice. The correlation between wealth and resilience to disaster is further illustrated with wealth differentials limiting the poor’s capacity to cope with

and escape from disasters. The disabled, the elderly, and people on meagre incomes often lack the technologies to alert them to the danger and struggle to pay the costs of leaving.15 At Katrina, ‘those with resources’ left in advance of the Hurricane, while ‘those without’ remained. Often the reasons they could not leave were as basic as lacking cars or money for petrol.16 Similarly, those who could afford to leave cities at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe did so, with people fleeing Madrid, Barcelona and Paris for second homes in the suburbs.17 The Access model (Amartya Sen; Bankoff) sees vulnerability and resilience as conditioned by access to resources determined by geographical and social conditions.18 Bankoff links ‘The realization that historical causality underlies

Deborah Levenson, "Reactions to Trauma: The 1976 Earthquake in Guatemala", International Labor and Working-Class History 62 (2002): 60-61, doi:10.1017/s0147547902000212. 14 Laska, Shirley and Betty Hearn Morrow. 2006. ‘Social Vulnerabilities and Hurricane Katrina: An Unnatural Disaster in New Orleans.’ Marine Technology Society Journal 40: 19 15 Lowrey. 16 Susan L. Cutter and Christopher T. Emrich, "Moral Hazard, Social Catastrophe: The Changing Face Of Vulnerability Along The Hurricane

Coasts", The ANNALS Of The American Academy Of Political And Social Science 604, no. 1 (2006): 105 17 Helen V. S. Cole et al., "The COVID-19 Pandemic: Power and Privilege, Gentrification, And Urban Environmental Justice in the Global North", Cities & Health, 2020, 2, doi:10.1080/23748834.2020.1785176. 18 Developed and critiqued by Amartya Sen and Greg Bankoff, the Access model argues that

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people’s vulnerability to disaster’ to the idea that disasters can serve as catalysts for change.19 This would seem to suggest that if a disaster reveals social inequality/injustice, the resulting crisis presents an opportunity for social change – presumably for the better. However, this is not always the case, as the experience of New Orleans postKatrina shows. As indicated, the lower economic areas, which people of colour disproportionately owned, were vulnerable to Katrina, their situation reflecting the social inequalities with which they lived. While the state used the disaster to address some of these issues, how they did so reflected and perpetuated existing injustices and power inequalities. For example, the

problems with public housing (low quality, overcrowding etc.) were addressed in part by the bulldozing of the “Big Four” regions of low-income housing as part of the recovery despite large portions of it being undamaged, not accounting for the residents hoping to return or their ability to pay new, higher rentals.20 This appeared to send a clear message that the poor were not wanted in the city. Furthermore, the “Road Home” housing program distributed money based on the value of homes destroyed rather than the cost of rebuilding. As racial bias meant Black homes were valued less highly than homes owned by white Americans, this privileged white homeowners, and for some Black people, it made it impossible to return.21

vulnerability to disaster is created by access to resources, economic, political and social such as economic opportunity, food, healthcare etc. Who has access to resources is defined by the social, political and economic structures of society, and access is not equal. It is the inequalities that influence conditions of vulnerability and the extent to which households can be resilient in the face of disaster. The model shows how access to resources makes some households subject to unsafe conditions and therefore more likely to be impacted by, or more seriously impacted by disastrous events. It sees both disaster and recovery as a process impacted by access to resources, and a potential catalyst for change.

(Based on Rob Gray, "Theorising Disaster-A Brief Introduction", (Presentation, repr. University of Winchester, 2020) and Wisner et al, 87-124.) 19 Greg Bankoff, "Vulnerability as a Measure of Change in Society", International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 21, no. 2 (2003): 17 20 Gary Rivlin, "White New Orleans Has Recovered From Hurricane Katrina. Black New Orleans Has Not.", The Nation, 2016, https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/whit e-new-orleans-has-recovered-from-hurricanekatrina-black-new-orleans-has-not/. 21 Ibid.

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Lack of public facilities and cheap housing forced many African-Americans (almost one-in-three) to relocate, changing New Orleans' demographics, making it a ‘whiter, wealthier city’.22 Disaster here has brought social change but not addressed the inequalities or injustices. Rather it has relocated them as recovery reinforced racial and class inequality in the city and provided opportunities for social injustice to occur. The lack of inclusion in the decisionmaking process because of inequities in power facilitates disaster injustice. The possibility for social change post-COVID19 exists; the question is will society learn from the past this time. As the previous two sections have shown, inequalities of wealth and race can make groups more vulnerable to the impacts of disasters, and recovery efforts can be socially unjust.

Stereotypical ideas about groups and discrimination can also become more evident in the aftermath of disasters, particularly when pre-existing tensions exist, and there may be competition for resources or groups looking for someone on whom to vent their frustrations or blame. For example, pandemic-related scapegoating has seen a rise in xenophobia in many countries, not least in America, where President Trump described COVID-19 as the ‘Chinese Virus’, and with a surge in attacks on Asian-Americans.23 An extreme example of a disadvantaged group being treated unfairly in this way is the experience of Korean immigrants in the aftermath of the Great Kanto Earthquake, whose experience can be understood in terms of the “Pressure and Release Model”.24 Prior to the quake, there was great fear

Ibid. Austa Somvichian-Clausen, "Trump's Use of the Term 'Chinese Virus' for Coronavirus Hurts Asian Americans, says Expert", The Hill, 2021. Accessed 23 January 2021, https://thehill.com/changingamerica/respect/diversity-inclusion/489464trumps-use-of-the-term-chinese-virus-for. N. Jamiyla Chisholm, "Asian Americans Report Hundreds of Racist Incidents in Less Than Two Weeks", Colorlines.Com, 2020,

https://www.colorlines.com/articles/asianamericans-report-hundreds-racist-incidentsless-two-weeks. 24 This model views disaster as the intersection between vulnerability and hazard. It is often explained in terms of a ‘nutcracker’ with people pressured by the factors of their vulnerability on one side and the impact of the hazard on the other. Vulnerability is seen as a progression with

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and resentment of Koreans from both the state and the people of Japan. This was rooted in Japan’s annexation of Korea, rising racist ideas about Japanese superiority to other Asian peoples (seen most famously in the essay “Goodbye Asia” by Fukuzawa Yukichi) and mass immigration of Koreans in the 1920s. 25 The Japanese lived with one of the foci of their racial resentment and responded by relegating Koreans to an economically deprived underclass of ghettoised wage labourers. Attempts to challenge this through trade unions were seen as Koreans importing leftist ideas like socialism and anarchism, which could weaken the nation.26 As a result, large numbers of Japanese hating and fearing Koreans.27 In the aftermath of the quake, rumours spread of Koreans planning an armed uprising, committing arson,

murder, rape, poisoning wells, and looting. Rather than squashing these rumours, the government declared martial law and assisted in the formation of, and co-operated with, vigilante groups called Jikeiden, who attempted to massacre the Korean diaspora, killing thousands.28 Japanese racism toward Koreans led them to be unfairly blamed for problems in the aftermath of the disaster, providing an opportunity for releasing existing tensions. The incident illustrates how the breakdown of law and order after a disaster can leave marginalised groups even more vulnerable and the significance of the historical background of the society impacted. The actions of marginalised groups can also be interpreted unfairly in the aftermath of a disaster, as with the

the effects of root causes (the economic, political and social structures and distribution of power in society) being translated into dynamic pressures and ultimately unsafe conditions. Risk from disaster is seen therefore as a function of hazard and inherent and consequential vulnerability which can be potentially managed/minimised by mitigating the hazard and/or by tackling root causes, thereby reducing pressures and achieving greater safety. (Wisner et al, 49-86) 25 Michael A Weiner, Race and Migration in Interwar Japan (repr. London: Routledge, 1994), Chapter 5.

Fukuzawa Yukichi, "Goodbye Asia", in AsianismGreat Compilation of Modern Japanese Thought (repr., Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1963), 38-40. 26 Rennie Moon, "FSI | SPICE - Koreans in Japan", Spice.Fsi.Stanford.Edu, 2020, https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/koreans_in_j apan Weiner, 78. 27 J. Michael Allen, "The Price of Identity: The 1923 Kantō Earthquake and Its Aftermath", Korean Studies 20 (1996): 64, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23719603. 28 Weiner, 78-82.

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response to Black behaviour post the 1886 Charleston Earthquake. Temporarily freed from the oppressive Jim Crow economic system by the societal upheaval caused by the earthquake, the appropriation of public space by large numbers of the Black population, camping out and noisily making the most of their short-lived freedom was seen as threatening and transgressive by white Charlestonians.29 As this disaster occurred within the context of racial segregation, mainstream white Americans were anxious to regain economic and social control as soon as possible. Whilst not alone in viewing the earthquake as an act of God, the emotionalism of the spiritual response of the Black community was seen as excessive, with Charleston’s News and Courier describing them as ‘completely unnerved and unstrung’, ‘fill[ing] the air with dismal groans of despair and lamentations’. The paper described their behaviour as an outbreak of ‘superstitious fear’, ‘impossible to

exaggerate’.30 Such singing, dancing and loud calls to God became for mainstream white Americans a worrying sign of increased Black cultural autonomy. Their behaviour was both seen and positioned as evidence that Black Americans were lazy and primitive, thereby justifying the social order of Jim Crow,31 This case serves as further evidence of how social conditions do not always change in response to disasters because those with power refused to see it as a systematic failure and refuted changes to a system that had otherwise benefited them. Those marginalised by the system did not have the power to use the recovery to change things, perpetuating inequity and injustice. This study has shown how disasters can reveal pre-existing social inequalities and the injustices they can create by making some groups more vulnerable to disasters and their lasting impacts. Since disaster vulnerability is a product of historical constructs, the social inequalities disasters reveal and

Ted Steinberg, Acts of God, Ebook (repr. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 9-10. 30 Steinberg, quoting the News and Courier, (Charleston, South Carolina) September 3 and September 4 1886 in Note 21, 208.

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the injustices they perpetuate provide insight into social history. The historical background of those vulnerabilities is critical to understanding why revealing inequality and injustice does not necessarily lead to positive change. Unequal representation in the management of disaster due to the disparity in power dynamics created by social inequalities (disaster injustice or lack of disaster justice) means that those with power can use that to take advantage of situations to promote their own interests and aims as in the case of the Kanto Massacre and the New Orleans recovery. While disasters can raise awareness of social inequalities and injustices, press and public attention outside an area move on frequently, and economic realities impede this, suggesting disaster injustice will remain for the foreseeable future. However, the longevity and global nature of the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on world economies make change inevitable as the world seeks to recover. It is hoped that the high visibility of this pandemic and its relationship with social inequality will encourage those with power to see that it is in everyone’s interest to rebuild a socially just and sustainable future. However, the

scramble for protective equipment and tests worldwide and now the pressure for vaccines indicate otherwise. References Allen, J. Michael. "The Price of Identity: The 1923 Kantō Earthquake and Its Aftermath". Korean Studies 20 (1996): 6493. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23719603. Bankoff, Greg. "Comparing Vulnerabilities: Toward Charting a Historical Trajectory of Disasters". Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung 32, no. 3 (2007): 104-105. Bankoff, Greg. "Vulnerability as a Measure of Change in Society". International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 21, no. 2 (2003): 5-30. Beck, Ulrich. World at Risk. Reprint, Polity Press, 2008. Bergman, Jonathan. "Disaster: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis". History Compass 6, no. 3 (2008): 934-946. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2008.00519.x.

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Chisholm, N. Jamiyla. "Asian Americans Report Hundreds Of Racist Incidents In Less Than Two Weeks". Colorlines.Com, 2020. https://www.colorlines.com/articles/as ian-americans-report-hundreds-racistincidents-less-two-weeks.

Business Economics 47, no. 3 (2020): 519530. doi:10.1007/s40812-020-00170-x.

Cole, Helen V. S., Isabelle Anguelovski, Francesc Baró, Melissa García-Lamarca, Panagiota Kotsila, Carmen Pérez del Pulgar, Galia Shokry, and Margarita Triguero-Mas. "The COVID-19 Pandemic: Power and Privilege, Gentrification, and Urban Environmental Justice in the Global North". Cities & Health, 2020, 1-5. doi:10.1080/23748834.2020.1785176.

Gray, Rob. "Theorising Disaster-A Brief Introduction". Presentation, University of Winchester, 2020.

Cutter, Susan L., and Christopher T. Emrich. "Moral Hazard, Social Catastrophe: The Changing Face of Vulnerability along the Hurricane Coasts". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 604, no. 1 (2006): 102-112. doi:10.1177/0002716205285515. Ghosh, Jayati. "A Critique of the Indian Government’s Response to the COVID19 Pandemic". Journal of Industrial and

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Global Humanitarian Forum, Geneva, The Anatomy of a Silent Crisis, 2009, http://www.ghf-ge.org/human-impactreport.pdf

Higgins-Dunn, Noah. "WHO Warns Countries are Helping Covid Thrive Through Inequitable Vaccine Distribution". CNBC.Com, 2021. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/08/w ho-warns-inequitable-vaccinedistribution-helps-covid-thrive.html. Laska, Shirley and Betty Hearn Morrow. 2006. ‘Social Vulnerabilities and Hurricane Katrina: An Unnatural Disaster in New Orleans.’ Marine Technology Society Journal 40 Levenson, Deborah. "Reactions to Trauma: The 1976 Earthquake in Guatemala". International Labor and

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Working-Class History 62 (2002): 60-61. doi:10.1017/s0147547902000212.

recovered-from-hurricane-katrinablack-new-orleans-has-not/.

Lowrey, Annie. "What the Camp Fire Revealed". The Atlantic, 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/arc hive/2019/01/why-natural-disastersare-worse-poor/580846/.

Sen, Amartya. Poverty and Famines. Reprint, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981.

Lukasiewicz, Anna. "The Emerging Imperative of Disaster Justice". In Natural Hazards and Disaster Justice, 9. Anna Lukasiewicz and Claudia Baldwin. Reprint, Palgrave Macmillan, 2020.

Somvichian-Clausen, Austa. "Trump's Use of the Term 'Chinese Virus' for Coronavirus Hurts Asian Americans, says Expert". The Hill, 2021. https://thehill.com/changingamerica/respect/diversityinclusion/489464-trumps-use-of-theterm-chinese-virus-for.

Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government. Overcrowded Households. UK Government, 2020.

Steinberg, Ted. Acts of God. Ebook. Reprint, New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Moon, Rennie. "FSI | SPICE - Koreans in Japan". Spice.Fsi.Stanford.Edu, 2020. https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/kor eans_in_japan.

Weiner, Michael A. Race and Migration in Interwar Japan. Reprint, London: Routledge, 1994.

Rivlin, Gary. "White New Orleans Has Recovered From Hurricane Katrina. Black New Orleans Has Not.". The Nation, 2016. https://www.thenation.com/article/arc hive/white-new-orleans-has-

"What is a Disaster? - IFRC". Ifrc.Org. Accessed 5 December 2020. https://www.ifrc.org/en/what-wedo/disaster-management/aboutdisasters/what-is-a-disaster/.

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Wisner, Ben, Piers M Blaikie, and Terry Cannon. At Risk. 2nd ed. Reprint, Oxford: Routledge, 2003. Yukichi, Fukuzawa. "Goodbye Asia". In Asianism-Great Compilation of Modern Japanese Thought, 38-40. Takeuchi Yoshimi. Reprint, Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1963.

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Why Write?: How Woolf and Beckett demonstrate literature’s power to challenge injustice within society and effect a revaluation of societal morals. Zoe Coles BA Education Studies and English Literature John-Paul Sartre posits that ‘what is can in no way determine by itself what is not.’1 As part of the continuum of history, humans fail to ‘imagine that things could be otherwise.’2 The sufferings of the present are merely part of the consciousness of being. To enact change requires a recognition of the present state of affairs as a structural system which lacks a different way of being. Only by ‘effecting a rupture’ with the prevailing societal structures - by imagining what is not - can one ‘form the object of a revealing contemplation.’3 This essay will argue that the works of the Modernist artists of the early twentieth-century were a strategic attempt to envisage such a rupture and that narrative styles developed by Virginia Woolf and Samuel Beckett contributed to a revaluation of morals in British society. Close readings John-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness: An essay on phenomenological ontology (London: Routledge,2006), 458. [emphasis added] 1

of the fictional and critical work of Woolf, in relation to Sartre’s theories on writing, will demonstrate how her reimagining of literature for a Modern epoch aimed to provoke social reforms in relation to gender inequality. I will propose Woolf’s use of narrative voice hoped to expose the masculine characteristics she viewed as preventative to social harmony. Turning to Beckett, I suggest he enacted another shift in narrative form in opposition to propaganda. By stripping characters of biography and identifiable features, voice becomes an abstract concept which questions partiality. Without context, there can be no mitigating circumstances. Responsibility lies with the individual. For both writers, literature becomes a site of resistance to societal ideologies which engender oppression. The lasting effect of their works has been positive, that is, promoting the use of literature to challenge the historic institutions that systematize injustice and inequality. Sartre states that good prose always forms part of a sociological dialectic.i A writer, in choosing to write, intends that the reader will be altered by 2 3

Sartre, Being and Nothingness, 457. Sartre, Being and Nothingness, 458

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his words. By deciding to reveal something about the world, in stating “This is how things are,” writers simultaneously act to effect change, by implying the question “Is this how things should be?” The text does not allow one to remain impassive; the act of reading necessitates an engagement with its message. By accepting or refuting the realities proposed by the writing, the reader must decide whether, from that point on, they agree or disagree with the author’s premise. Accordingly, Sartre proposes that ‘as words are action’ a writer must abandon ideas of ‘giving an impartial picture of society and the human condition’ and instead must choose a position.4 These tactics are clearly adopted by Woolf in To The Lighthouse. By depicting the normative gender roles she wishes to change, Woolf aims to show the fallacy of their assumed facticity. While the function of the writer is to prevent anyone from being able to say they are ‘ignorant of the world,’ Sartre contends that it is the

writer’s ‘style [that] makes the value of the prose.’5 He adds: ‘the harmony of words; their beauty, the balance of the phrases, dispose the passions of the reader without his being aware and orders them.’6 Hence, form is an important tool for communicating any idea and must be constantly renewed to meet with society’s needs. Sartre states that ‘the always new requirements of the social and the metaphysicalii involve the artist in finding a new language and new techniques.’7 By emphasizing difference, literature can draw attention to the injustices within society. It is clear from Virginia Woolf’s extensive collections of essays and diaries that she intended her narratives to engender social reforms, particularly in regard to women’s rights and prescriptive gender roles. To that end, her use of stream of consciousnessiii proposed to lift the veil on the reality of women’s thoughts and desires. With her work, Woolf embodies Sartre’s maxim: ‘To speak is to act.’8

Sartre, What is Literature? (London: Routledge, 1993), 14. 5 Sartre, What is Literature?, 15-17. 6 Sartre, What is Literature?, 16.

Sartre infers that writing is part of a conversation with both the reader and wider society. 7 8

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Sartre, What is Literature?, 17. Sartre, What is Literature?, 13.

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Woolf felt an insight into the human condition was lacking in the works of Edwardian writers; that they failed to represent the ‘complexity’ of ‘the thousands of ideas [...and] emotions [that] have met, collided, and disappeared in astonishing disorder’ during each day.9 What was needed, Woolf argued, was a new way of writing that could contribute to much needed social reform. She wrote that ‘there is no limit to the horizon, and that nothing - no method, no experiment, even of the wildest - is forbidden, but only falsity and pretence.’10 This commitment to truth, to painting life as it really is, would shape her use of form. The representation of consciousness would become an increasingly important narrative tool in Woolf’s fiction, fueling her optimistic vision of what could be achieved through art. In the 1927 novel, Woolf, Mr Bennet and Mrs Brown (London: Hogarth Press, 1924), accessed 14 November 2020, http://www.columbia.edu/~em36/MrBennettAn dMrsBrown.pdf, 23. 10 Woolf, “Modern Fiction,” in 20th Century Literary Criticism: A Reader, ed. David Lodge (Abingdon: Routledge, 2013), 91. 11 Joshua Kavaloski, “Discontinuity in Virginia Woolf’s To The Lighthouse,” in High Modernism: Aestheticism and Performity in Literature of the 1920s (Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer, 2014) accessed 12 October 2020, 124.

To The Lighthouse, Woolf focuses on the Edwardian family and the oppressive norms of a patriarchal society which dictate familial and gender relationships. At its centre, Mr and Mrs Ramsey epitomize turn of the century moral values and gender relationships. The novel juxtaposes unsaid thoughts with moments of narration and speech. The effect is to expose the destabilising undercurrents of the individual psyches struggling against the normative expectations of society. Woolf demonstrates how literature compels us to consider a perspective which deviates from the accepted norm, challenging the basis for this acceptance. For Joshua Kavaloski, Woolf’s writing has a ‘performative’iv aspect which forces the reader to engage with ‘the social construct of gender.’11 Central to this idea

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy based on abstract reasoning which examines the preconceptions of scientific thought, including the nature of reality. iii Stream of consciousness is a narrative technique which aims to imitate the mind’s experience of reality, by capturing the myriad thoughts which come to pass within any given moment. iv Kavaloski refers to the notion that masculinity and femininity are not essential characteristics, ii

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is the depiction of Mrs Ramsey. Through her thoughts we ascertain the effects of male domination and their impact on her life opportunities. Woolf highlights the expectation for women to subordinate their own needs to those of others: ‘They came to her, naturally, since she was a woman, all day long with this and that […] she often felt she was nothing but a sponge sopped full of human 16 emotions.’ Throughout the first section, The Window, Woolf contrasts Mrs Ramsey’s maternal, nurturing role with the subversive thoughts of the other female characters. Her daughters imagine ‘a life different from hers […] not always taking care of some man or another,’ just as Lily Briscoe hopes for an ‘exemption from the universal law’ of marriage.12 Even Mrs Ramsey herself questions the fulfilment of her life and marriage: But what have I done with my life? thought Mrs Ramsey, taking her place at the head of the rather they are the performative roles we adopt through societal influence. 12 Woolf, To The Lighthouse (London: Vintage, 2019), 8; 56. 13 Woolf, To The Lighthouse, 94.

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table […] At the far end, was her husband, sitting down, all in a heap, frowning. What at? She did not know. She did not mind. She could not understand how she had ever felt any emotion or any affection for him. She had a sense of being past everything, through everything, out of everything.13 Such glimpses of underlying discontent, exposed in the streams of consciousness, provide the narrative disruptions that Woolf uses to challenge ideas that a woman’s purpose in life is solely to marry and support men. Woolf’s challenge is still relevant today as, according to the United Nations, ‘[i]n an average day, women spend about three times as many hours in unpaid domestic and care work as men.’14 The message of Woolf ‘s literature is equally germane to arguments for equality for later generations.

United Nations, “United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5: Achieve Gender Equality and Empower All Women and Girls,” (2020), https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2020/goal05/ 14

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Sartre posits that, through the act of writing, a writer exposes a truth in order to provoke a response. If you name the behavior of an individual, you reveal it to him; he sees himself. And since you are at the same time naming it to all others, he knows that he is seen at the moment he sees himself. […] Thus, by speaking, I reveal the situation by my very intention of changing it; I reveal it to myself and to others in order to change it.15 By mirroring reality, writing exposes us to the unacceptable facets of our own character and the effect they have on our relationships. Once acknowledged, change becomes inevitable, either as a result of the modified behaviour of the actor or through the altered opinion of those around them. The characters created by Woolf provide an opportunity for such reflection. Mr Ramsey’s effect on his wife and children exposes the emotionally stunted nature of Edwardian masculinity and the drain it has on the happiness of those around him. When 15 16

Sartre, What is Literature?, 13. Woolf, To The Lighthouse, 43.

Ramsey interrupts his wife reading to their son, James feels ‘all her strength flaring up to be drunk and quenched by the beak of brass, the arid scimitar of the male.’16 When at last, ‘filled with words, like a child who drops off satisfied,’ Mr Ramsey leaves, Mrs Ramsey felt not only exhausted in body [...] but also there tinged her physical fatigue some faintly disagreeable sensation with another origin. Not that […] she knew precisely what it came from; nor did she let herself put into words her dissatisfaction when she realised.17 Mrs Ramsey’s pleasure in meeting her husband’s needs, does not completely overshadow the suppressed resentment at his neediness. It is a feeling Lily also experiences, when the group return to the house after the death of Mrs Ramsey. Mr Ramsey’s ‘imperious need’ of a woman’s attention, stifles Lily’s creativity.18

17 18

Woolf, To The Lighthouse, 44. Woolf, To The Lighthouse, 167.

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[W]ith Mr Ramsey bearing down on her, she could do nothing. Every time he approached […] ruin approached, chaos approached. […] He made it impossible for her to do anything […] he permeated, he prevailed, he imposed himself. He changed everything. […] That man, she thought, her anger rising in her, never gave; that man took. She, on the other hand, would be forced to give.19 Woolf’s characterisation of Mr Ramsey, alongside the thoughts and reactions of others, is a portrait designed to prompt change. By revealing the societal expectations for men and women, she reveals the inequalities which undermine harmonious relationships between them. Mrs Ramsey, unable to fully admit her disquiet to herself, highlights the role women play in perpetuating society’s paradigm of the ideal woman. Despite glimpses of her discontent with the familial power imbalance, it is Mrs Ramsey who is preoccupied with finding husbands for the young women around her. Furthermore, Lily’s resistance to 19

Woolf, To The Lighthouse, 168-169.

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becoming a wife emphasizes the improbability of a woman superseding such a role without wider societal change. The final section, The Lighthouse, proposes not only that change is possible but that it is inevitable. When the family and friends return to the house after ten years, the consistency of their society has been undone by the catastrophe of the First World War. Prue, who has died in childbirth, and Andrew, killed in the war, can both be said to have died of their gender. Mrs Ramsey’s death has unhinged Mr Ramsey, depriving him of the conduit that enabled him to relate to others. Yet, it is precisely this loss which gives him and others the room to grow, just as the war had provided an opportunity for a revaluation of society and its inequalities. Lily, finally out of the shadow of Mrs Ramsey, is free to deflect Mr Ramsey’s ‘demand for sympathy’ without judgement and is eventually able to complete her painting.20 Mr Ramsey, making a pilgrimage to the lighthouse, also has a moment of self-reflection: ‘He clutched his fingers, and determined that his voice and his face and all the quick expressive gestures which had been at 20

Woolf, To The Lighthouse, 173.

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his command making people pity him and praise him all these years should subdue themselves.’21 In determining to make Cam smile and by finally praising James, Mr Ramsey enables all three to let go of their anger. It is this sense that all is starting afresh, that past wrongs have been righted, and relationships built anew, that renders a vision of hope. One can imagine a society that begins to heal itself. Unlike Woolf, who asks us to consider the impact our actions have on the lives of others by asking “How should we live?”, in Endgame, Beckett draws on the cyclical nature of existence to question the absurdity of human life, effectively “How do we go on living?” The post-war hope of the 1920s had failed to prevent another global conflict and consequently had compounded feelings of despair at the human race’s propensity for destruction. Simon Blackburn writes that the ‘disenchantments of the Second World War’ had given rise to existentialist writing which ‘both reacts against the view that the universe is a closed,

coherent, intelligible system, and finds the resulting contingency a cause for lamentation.’22 Existentialism denies a determined order to the world. Accordingly, Beckett’s play, written and translated between 1955 and 1957, resists interpretation. Whereas Woolf ‘s verbose streams of language illuminated the psychological undercurrents behind human behaviour, Beckett’s pared down vernacular proposes the meaninglessness of a search for meaning in human existence. Michael Worton writes that Beckett’s early plays ‘mark the transition from modernism with its preoccupation with self-reflection to post modernism with its insistence on pastiche, parody and fragmentation.’23 Beckett’s use of form, therefore, is not to draw attention to what needs to be changed in society, but rather to recognise the ‘formlessness of existence’ and the insignificance of human action.24 Beckett argues, however, that does not mean that there should be no form in art, rather that a new form should be one which ‘admits the chaos, and does not try

Woolf, To The Lighthouse, 188. Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 130. 23 Michael Worton, “Waiting for Godot and Endgame: theatre as text,” in The Cambridge

Companion to Beckett, ed. John Pilling (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 69. 24 Worton, “Waiting for Godot and Endgame,” 74.

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to say that the chaos is really something else. The form and the chaos remain separate. The latter is not reduced to the former.’25 This creed manifests through Endgame’s lack of narrative arc - in essence the characters do and achieve nothing except pass time. Not only has the action been stripped of an identifiable location and time, but a lack of plot also suggests a continuum of futility which prevents resolution for the reader/ spectator. By embracing chaos, Beckett forces the audience to contemplate the play’s meaning and, consequently, the purpose of existence. By withholding any explanatory narrative, Beckett focuses on individual responsibility for the state of the affairs presented. His play encourages an engagement with the notion that we all are accountable for creating harmonious relationships. James McNaughton writes that Beckett’s perspective was influenced by the time he spent in Germany during the

interwar period, leading him to ‘formulate an aesthetic response […] to Nazi fascist totalising narratives.’26 Concerned by both a ‘fear of forgetting the past and a greater fear of rationally misshaping it,’ McNaughton states that by rejecting dramaturgicalv traditions, Beckett is able to ‘dramatise [...] the process by which the content of history becomes voided, repressed, and forgotten.’27 In Endgame we never know the truth of the characters’ pasts. When telling his ‘story,’ Hamm casts doubt on its content with his interspersed comments: ‘That should do it. [...] Nicely put, that. [...] A bit feeble, that. [...] I’ll soon have finished with this story. [Pause] Unless I bring in other characters. [Pause] But where would I find them?’ 28 Clov’s past is even more elusive.

Beckett quoted in Worton, “Waiting for Godot and Endgame,” 74. 26 James McNaughton, “Beckett, German Fascism, and History: The Futility of Protest,” in Samuel Beckett Today/Aujourd’hui, Vol 15 (2005): Historicising Beckett/ Issues of Performance/ Beckett dans l’histoire: 101-116, accessed 1

December 2020, https://www.jstor.org/stable/25781506, 102. 27 McNaughton, “Beckett, German Fascism, and History,” 112. 28 Samuel Beckett, Endgame (London: Faber and Faber, 2019) 31-33.

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HAMM: Do you remember when you came here? CLOV: No. […] HAMM: Do you remember your father?

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CLOV: Same answer. […]29 This vagueness frustrates the reader/spectator’s understanding of identity as something shaped by personal experience. It denies the characters a clear voice by removing the biographical details which would enable the audience to contextualize their positions. Instead, what Beckett presents is the unreliability of the narratives we are given as historical fact. As such, his work asks to what extent we can trust the things we are told. Mark Pedretti posits that late modernism’s recognition of an established Modernist tradition enforced a break from the ‘ideology of perpetual innovation’ to acknowledge ‘the tedium of the already-said.’30 Beckett’s use of repetition throughout Endgame not only suggests that nothing new can happen, but also conveys a sense of a neverending suffering. From the opening line, ‘Finished, it’s finished, nearly finished, it must be nearly finished,’ Beckett seems Beckett, Endgame, 24-25. Dramaturgy refers to the process of creating or adapting works to be performed on stage. 30 Mark Pedretti, “Late Modern Rigmarole: Boredom as Form in Samuel Beckett’s Trilogy” in Studies in the Novel 45, no. 4 (2013): 583-602. 29 v

to propose that what will follow is to be endured.31 HAMM: Have you not had enough? CLOV: Yes! [Pause] Of what? HAMM: Of this...this...thing. CLOV: I always had.32 Neither character is capable of qualifying exactly what they have had enough of, nor of conceiving of an ending. Additionally, Beckett alludes to the cyclical nature of human activity and the inevitability of living and reliving the same experiences. HAMM: It’s the end of the day like any other day, isn’t it Clov? CLOV: Looks like it. HAMM: [Anguished] What’s happening, what’s happening? CLOV: Something is taking its course.33 Thus, throughout the play, Beckett suggests that to live is to suffer (HAMM: Accessed December 1, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23594821. 585. 31 Beckett, Endgame, 6. 32 Beckett, Endgame, 7. 33 Beckett, Endgame, 12.

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‘Can there be misery loftier than mine?’; NELL: ‘Why this farce, day after day?’; HAMM: ‘Is it not yet time for my painkiller?’; CLOV: ‘I’m tired of our goings on, very tired’) and to suffer cannot be avoided.34 The absurdity of the situation is compounded by the characters’ simultaneous desire for and resistance to change. CLOV: So you all want me to leave you. HAMM: Naturally. CLOV: Then I’ll leave you. HAMM: You can’t leave us. CLOV: Then I shan’t leave you. HAMM: Why don’t you finish us? […] CLOV: I couldn’t finish you. HAMM: Then you shan’t finish me.35 The certainty of death seems to be suspended and with it a possible end to suffering. In such a desolate setting, the characters need each other to confirm their existence. Thus, the relationship between the characters becomes the purpose of life but also prolongs the agony of living indefinitely. By removing 34

Beckett, Endgame, 6, 12, 23, 45.

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past and future, Beckett questions what drives moral action if it has no consequence beyond the present. All that seems certain is repetition, which in no way can be an acceptable situation. Beckett’s work urges us to resist complacent acceptance of the status quo. In To The Lighthouse death is the catalyst that enables life to begin anew; in Endgame it is the elusive closure. However, in both works it instigates a reflection on the morality of the current state of affairs. Literature becomes the means to contemplate how things should be different. Woolf’s novel, like her critical writing, is full of hope. It proposes that catastrophe (in life and fiction) can become the impetus for change. Her work uses voice to undermine accepted authority and, therefore, to articulate the possibility of a different way of living. Alternatively, Beckett’s work has a pessimistic feel. The abstract nature of voice in his play postulates a predetermined course of events, an endless cycle of repeated actions that prolong suffering. However, by rejecting the traditions of drama (exposition, climax and denouement), 35

Beckett, Endgame, 24.

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Beckett also posits that change is possible. He challenges the reader/spectator to consider how language provides the context for our experiences and, by removing that context, questions what underpins the morality of our behaviour and what can provide the motivation for change. Ultimately, Woolf and Beckett infer that courage is required to step out of the habitual and hint at the dire consequences of failing to break from repeated patterns. It is this challenge to accepted norms which means these Modernist artists continue to be relevant. With their writing, Woolf and Beckett demand a constant reappraisal of societal structures and the literature/ language which give it authority. References Beckett, Samuel. Endgame. London: Faber and Faber Ltd, 2009. Blackburn, Simon. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Kavaloski, Joshua. “Discontinuity in Virginia Woolf’s To The Lighthouse.” In High Modernism: Aestheticism and Performity in Literature of the 1920s

(Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer, 2014), accessed 12 October 2020, https://www.jstor.org.stable/10.7722/j.c tt5vj759.8 Levenson, Michael. “Introduction.” In The Cambridge Companion to Modernism, edited by Michael Levenson, 1-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. McNaughton, James. “Beckett, German Fascism, and History: The Futility of Protest.” Samuel Beckett Today / Aujourd'hui, 15 (2005): 101-116. Accessed December 1, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25781506. Pedretti, Mark. “Late Modern Rigmarole: Boredom as Form in Samuel Beckett’s Trilogy” in Studies in the Novel 45, no. 4 (2013): 583-602. Accessed December 1, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23594821. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness. London: Routledge, 2006. Sartre, Jean-Paul. What Is Literature? London: Routledge, 1993. United Nations. “United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5:

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Achieve Gender Equality and Empower All Women and Girls.” (2020). https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/202 0/goal-05/. Woolf, Virginia. Mr Bennett and Mrs Brown. London: Hogarth Press, 1924. Accessed 14 November 2020. http://www.columbia.edu/~em36/MrB ennettAndMrsBrown.pdf Woolf, Virginia. “Modern Fiction.” In 20th Century Literary Criticism: A Reader, edited by David Lodge, 86-92. Abingdon: Routledge, 2013. Woolf, Virginia. To The Lighthouse. London: Vintage, 2019. Worton, Michael. “Waiting for Godot and Endgame: theatre as text.” In The Cambridge Companion to Beckett, edited by John Pilling, 67-87. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

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