STRATEGIES FOR THINKING: A GUIDE Higher order thinking is the mental engagement with ideas, objects, and situations in an analogical, elaborative, inductive, deductive, and otherwise transformational manner that is indicative of an orientation toward knowing as a complex, effortful, generative, evidence-seeking and reflective enterprise. Higher order thinking will exhibit distinctive qualities arising from the nature of the domain within which the task or activity is situated. (Alexander, P.A. et al., 2011)
Anne’s Peace Garden
STRATEGY Metacognition Bloom’s and Revised Bloom’s Claim, support, question Classifying, sorting, ranking Circle of Viewpoints Comparing and contrasting Compass points Connect, extend, challenge Consequence and sequel Consider all factors (CAF) Creative questions Decision-making matrix Evaluating and judging Generate, connect, sort, elaborate Headlines I used to think … now I think … Jigsaw – a co-operative method Judge Jury – a co-operative method KWHL Pause, paraphrase, probe Plan, do, review Predicting, observing, explaining (POE) Pros, cons, quesitons Question starts S-C-A-M-P-E-R SWOT analysis Think, pair, share Think, puzzle, explore True for who? What makes you say that? 3-2-1 Bridge De Bono’s Thinking Hats Hyerle’s Thinking Maps Thinker’s Keys Habits of Mind
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Reference List Alexander, P.A., Dinsmore, D.L., Fox, E., Grossnickle, E.M., Loughlin, S.M., Maggioni, L., Parkinson, M.M., and Winters, F.I. (2011) Higher order thinking and knowledge: Domain-general and domain-specific trends and future directions. In G. Schraw & Robinson, D.R. (Eds.), Assessment of higher order thinking skills.Charlotte: IA Publishing. Conklin, W. (2012). Higher-order thinking skills to develop 21st Century Learners. Huntington Beach: Shell Education. de Bono, E. (1974). CoRT1 Breadth Thinking Tools. Retrieved November 8th, 2012 from www.cortthinking.com. Ritchhart, R., Church, M., & Morrison, K. (2011). Making thinking visible: How to promote engagement, understanding, and independence for all learners. San Francisco: Josey-Bass. Williams, R.B. (2003). Higher order thinking skills: Challenging all students to achieve. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Acknowledgements I would like to thank Hannah Human for the drawings she created, the interesting discussions we had around the strategies and the time she took out of her busy schedule. I would also like to thank Philemon Ngubane for his help with producing the booklet.
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Metacognition refers to thinking about and regulating one’s thinking (Schraw, McCrudden, Lehman and Hoffman, 2011). Thinking about one’s thinking includes declarative knowledge (knowledge about ourselves as learners and what factors influence our performance), procedural knowledge (knowledge about strategies and procedures) and conditional knowledge (knowledge of why and when to use a particular strategy). Regulation of one’s thinking includes planning, monitoring and evaluation. Planning includes goal setting, activating relevant knowledge background knowledge and time management. Monitoring includes self-testing skills. Evaluation refers to appraising the products and regulatory processes of one’s learning, such as revising predictions, consolidating intellectual gains and reevaluating one’s goals. Factors to consider for lesson planning • • • • •
decide whether the exercise should be done alone, in pairs, small groups or as a class – the purpose is to get students talking about their thinking make it visible by using a poster and/or explicit tools use strategies to help create a common language and to develop familiarity start small – master a few strategies assist students – expect deep thinking, expand strategies, choose ways of introducing appropriate strategies
Questions that can help in this process might include some of the key questions of philosophy, such as: • • • • • •
What kind of reasons have we used? Where else might we use this kind of reasoning? (logical questions) Do we know this or believe it? How do we know? What does this help us to explain or understand? (epistemological questions) What is there left to explain or understand? (possibly metaphysical questions) How might this help us, or other people? Is it useful? (values/moral/ethical questions) • Was there anything interesting , well-designed or beautiful about this? (aesthetic question) Strategies 1. Claim, support, question. (pg. 5) 2. I used to think …. now I think. (pg. 18) 3. Connect, extend, challenge. (pg. 10) 4. 3-2-1 Bridge (pg. 32) 5. K-W-H-L (pg. 21)
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Bloom’s taxonomy helps teachers and students know the purpose of their lessons. It is a hierarchical taxonomy so teachers can plan methodically plan from the foundation cognitive levels to ensure that their students remember, understand and then apply or use the data, and then consciously direct the learning to higher order levels of analyzing, evaluating and sometimes coming up with new ideas. Bloom’s taxonomy was revised by Anderson and Kratwohl. The six cognitive levels were changed from nouns to verbs. Revision 1:
Remember
Knowledge
Understand
Comprehension
Apply
Application
Analyse
Analysis
Evaluate
Synthesis
Anderson’s Revised Taxonomy (verbs) Design
Bloom’s Original Taxonomy (nouns) Evaluation
Revision 2 by Anderson and Kratwohl introduced four levels of the Knowledge Dimension: factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. This is so that teachers can consider the degree of complexity within each of the six cognitive levels. Revision 2: Knowledge Dimensions Factual Knowledge Conceptual Knowledge
Procedural Knowledge
Metacognitive Knowledge
Cognitive Dimensions Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Design Basic knowledge for all subject areas, such as terminology and facts needed to solve and deal with the topic. This category builds on basic knowledge and deals with general principles, theories, categorization, classifications and general ways of dealing with a topic or area of study. Procedural knowledge deals with material that makes the students competent operators in the area of study. It deals with the processes of problem solving, inquiry processes, techniques, specialized skills, methods of working. This is the ability to look at one’s own learning and cognitive processes in a critical way. The ability to self-regulate and critique one’s conceptual and procedural knowledge to redirect what one is doing.
The 20 Thinkers keys are a set of twenty different activities designed to engage and motivate learners in a range of thinking tasks to broaden and deepen their thinking. 1. The Reverse- Challenges children to think of the never, cannot 2. The What If- A what if question, come up with solutions 3. The Disadvantages- List disadvantages and improvements 4. The Combination- List attributes of both, then combine 5. The Alphabet- Come up with something for each letter of the alphabet 6. The B A R- Bigger, Add, Replace acronym. Come up with a solution for each 7. The Variations- How many ways can you… 8. The Picture- Draw a picture/diagram 9. The Prediction- Make a prediction 10. The Different Uses- Find 10 different uses for… 11. The Ridiculous- Try to justify a ridiculous statement 12. The Commonality- Find common points between… 13. The Question- Come up with 5 questions for… 14. The Brainstorming- Brainstorm solutions for… 15. The Inventions- Design a … 16. The Brick Wall- Consider alternatives to… 17. The Construction- Construct a… Materials… 18. The Forced Relationships- Come up with a solution to a problem involving two dissimilar objects 19. The Alternative- Work out 3 ways to… 20. The Interpretations- Give 3 possible explanations for… http://ryansthinkerskeys.wikispaces.com/An+Introduction+to+Tony+Ryan's+Thinkers +Keys
Anderson, L and Krathwohl, D, 2002. Theory into Practice, Vol 41 No 4, Autumn 2002.
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REMEMBER: • Mnemonics. An example is ‘My Very Eager Mother Just Served Us Nectarines’ for the order of the planets. • Acronyms. If order is not important, then the acronym for the four longest rivers in the world is MANY (Mississippi, Amazon, Nile, Yangtze). UNDERSTAND: • Cause and effect maps (Multi-Flow Map) (pg. 34) • Classifying (Tree Map) (pg. 34) • Compare and contrast (Double Bubble Map) (pg. 34) APPLY: • POE (Predicting, Observing, Explaining) (pg. 24) ANALYSE AND EVALUATE: (often used together for critical thinking) Analysing is when students break down the material and detect relationships of the parts and the way they are organized. Analysing involves: o finding patterns o organising parts o recognizing hidden meanings o identifying components Evaluating is when students make judgements about the value of ideas, solutions, policies, methods and materials. It involves the use of criteria and standards for appraising the work. Evaluating involves: o comparing and discriminating between ideas o assessing the value of theories and policies o making choices based on reasonable argument o verifying based on evidence o recognizing subjectivity • • • •
SWOT analysis (pg. 28) Double Bubble map (pg. 35) Decision-making matrix (pg. 14) PCQ (pros, cons, questions) (pg. 25)
DESIGN Divergent thinking occurs when people break out of an existing thought pattern and their thinking turns in new directions. Lateral thinking involves looking at things from a new perspective to challenge existing assumptions. Initial creative ideas need refinement and the PCQ (pg. 24) or the SWOT analysis (pg. 26) are effective ways for students to review and refine their creative work in progress. Thinker’s Keys (pg. 35) can help students to develop their creative ideas.
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Purpose - for students to be more critical consumers of information by becoming better at spotting and analysing ‘truth claims’ for students to identify and probe claims -
Steps: - the word ‘claim’ encompasses a lot: conjectures, speculations, generalisations, assertions, statements of fact, theories, hypotheses, etc. Present a situation to the class and give them a definition of a claim - identify claims: introduce a topic by asking students ‘What claims, explanations or interpretations might you have already about this topic?’, document the claims (post-its, chart paper) - identify support: ask students ‘Now that we have these claims to consider, what can we see or notice, know or find out that might support them?’. This could be additional experimentation, research, fact finding or drawing on previous knowledge - raise questions: get students to be healthy skeptics of the claims being considered. Ask them ‘What questions do we need to raise about these claims in order to truly examine their credibility?’, ‘What more might we need to examine or explain?’ - share the thinking by documenting the routine throughout the process, claims could be ranked on a line of confidence from ‘still questioning’ to ‘definitely believe’ (Making Thinking Visible, pg 191)
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Initial Response 3 Words 2 Questions 1 Metaphor/simile
New Response 3 Words 2 Questions 1 Metaphor/simile
BRIDGE Identify connections or shifts Purpose To identify how new responses connect to or have shifted from your initial response. Steps: • generate three words that quickly come to mind when you think of this topic (don’t overthink this) • generate two questions that quickly come to mind (again, don’t overthink this – purpose is to uncover initial, surface ideas) • create a metaphor or simile for the topic • after an instructional period, do the second 3-2-1, this time informed by what you have learnt. • share the thinking, discuss how your initial thinking, which is neither right or wrong but a starting point, shifted. In a group or the whole class, discuss the new thinking and changed in thinking that have taken place.
Purpose To organise, categorise and make priority judgments about information helps us to understand data and what is being conveyed. Classifying refers to naming clusters into which data can be organized. Sorting refers to clustering data and information with other pieces of related data and information. Ranking refers to giving the clusters or data a priority. Questions • Into what clusters could you organize the data/facts? • What could you name these clusters? • How would you differentiate them in order to perceive each cluster’s uniqueness? • Are there any clusters that are linked in some way? • How would you rank these clusters according to levels of impact or importance? (Williams, 2003, pg 42-45)
Hyerle’s Tree Map – a useful tool for classifying
(Making thinking visible, p.86)
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This strategy gets us to identify different perspectives that could be present in or affected by what you have just read, seen or heard. One of these perspectives is explored further. Purpose - to help us to identify and consider the different and diverse perspectives involved in and around a topic, event or issue it reinforces that people can and do think differently about the same things the ultimate goal is to gain a broader and more complete understanding of the topic, event or issue. -
Steps: - source material is introduced (an image, story, issue, event, topic) - identify viewpoints by generating a list - select a viewpoint to explore - respond to the ‘I am thinking of … from the viewpoint of …’ prompt. Take on the character of the viewpoint you have taken and describe the topic from this perspective - respond to the ‘A question I have from this viewpoint is …’ prompt. Imagine what this person might be puzzled about and create a question from this perspective share the thinking in small groups or as a whole class. What new ideas do you have about the topic that you didn’t before? What new questions do you have?
This strategy is useful in a whole host of contexts. Purpose - when asked this question, it helps us identify the basis for our thinking by getting us to elaborate on our thinking behind our responses - it fosters a disposition toward evidential reasoning (justification) - it empowers the class to examine the reasons and evidence behind possible explanation to determine their worth - it gives students an opportunity to consider multiple viewpoints and perspectives on a topic or idea Steps: - push for elaboration with evidence: ‘So what do you see that makes you say that?’ or ‘So what do you know that makes you say that?’ - share the thinking: this exists mainly in the interchanges between the teacher and their students, and this is often enough to enrich a conversation (Making thinking visible, p. 165)
-
(Making Thinking Visible, pg 171)
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Purpose This strategy is good for exploring truth claims from different perspectives. This strategy works well with the Circle of Viewpoints.
Purpose This strategy promotes deep and careful thinking.
Steps: - identify the claim that has to be examined - imagine various perspectives for the topic: this is a brainstorming activity. Is the claim true, false or uncertain? - each student chooses one perspective and elaborates on the viewpoint by using the following three sentence stems: • My viewpoint is … • I think this claim is true/false/uncertain because … • What would convince me to change my mind would be … - each student has a turn to speak about their chosen standpoint. Provide a time limit for each response. Remind students to listen and not interrupt. While the student speaks, the viewpoints can be graphically documented on a board/poster as shown in the format below:
Steps: 1. How are they similar? 2. How are they different? 3. What similarities and differences seem significant? Which qualities do you value the most? Why? 4. What categories or patterns do you see in the significant similarities and differences? 5. What interpretation or conclusion is suggested by the significant similarities and differences? (Reagan in Costa and Kallick, 2009, pg 151)
- get the students to reflect and evaluate each of the viewpoints in regard to the truth claim
Double Bubble Map for Comparing and Contrasting (Hyerle)
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Purpose - to help students make decisions by giving perspectives from four points
Purpose Think-puzzle-explore activates prior knowledge, generates ideas and curiosity and sets the stage for deeper inquiry.
Steps: - identify the topic/issue/hypothesis/object you need to decide on - create your table with four compass points N = NEEDS What do you need to find out to understand the issue or to prepare for the event? S = STANCE, STEPS, SUGGESTIONS Take a stand/stance on your decision Identify the steps you need to do to make your decision work Make suggestions to improve the decision -
E = EXCITEMENTS What are the excitements/advantages/good points? W = WORRIES What are your worries/concerns/disadvantages/bad points?
Steps: -
individually write down or draw what you know about the topic share this knowledge with the class - make this visible on chart paper or post-it notes (include all knowledge, even misconceptions) write down questions or what puzzles you about the topic share write down what you want to explore in depth
(http://www.pz.harvard.edu/vt/VisibleThinking_html_files/01_VisibleThinkingInActi on/01a_VTInAction.html)
share your thinking
(Making Thinking Visible, pg 93)
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Purpose This strategy encourages students to think about something and then articulate their thoughts. It promotes understanding through active reasoning and explanation and encourages students to understand multiple perspectives. Steps: - pose a question to students and ask them to take a few minutes of thinking time, draw or write their ideas down - share these thoughts with a partner, reflect and refine your own thoughts - remind students to take turns, listen carefully, ask questions of one another - share the ideas with the class
(http://www.pz.harvard.edu/vt/VisibleThinking_html_files/01_VisibleThinkingInActi on/01a_VTInAction.html)
Purpose - to help students connect new ideas and prior knowledge and then raise awareness of questions worth further attention - the use of this strategy offers a structure and space in which new thinking around a topic, as inspired by new learning experiences, can be made visible - enables us to understand that thoughts and ideas are dynamic Steps: - before reading a passage, viewing a video, visiting an exhibit or participating in another information-rich activity, be mindful of how the ideas and information presented connect to what you already know - connect: after the activity, take note of these connections (write them down individually) - extend: identify how your ideas have broadened or expanded in some way as a result of the new learning experience (write this down individually). ‘How has your thinking been extended in some way, taking it in new or further or deeper directions?’ - challenge: consider ideas that seem significantly challenging - these might be questions or issues - share the thinking (pairs or small groups) after each step – it is important to give reasons for your thinking (Making thinking visible, p.132)
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This strategy gets us to look ahead to see the consequences of some action, plan, decision, rule, invention, etc. Purpose Consequences do not exist until you make an effort to foresee them. Factors (CAF) is a strategy concerned with factors that are present at the moment and on which a decision is based. C&S deals with what may happen after a decision has been made. Steps: The consequences of the action, plan, decision, rule, invention, etc. need to be considered. Look at: - immediate consequences - short-term consequences (1 – 5 years) - mid-term consequences (5 – 25 years) - long-term consequences (over 25 years)
This is a simple strategy for analyzing any issue, proposal, practice or organization. Step 1: List all the strengths of the idea and enter all related factors. Step 2: List all the weaknesses of the idea – problems, inefficiencies, etc. Step 3: List all the opportunities that come to mind to overcome the weaknesses. Step 4: List all the threats that exist to the topic being discussed. Step 5: Look for connections between the different parts of the SWOT. What opportunities are there to negate the weaknesses and threats? Write down some actions to be taken.
(de Bono, CoRT)
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Purpose To assist with creative thinking s
TERM Substitute
c
Combine
KEY IDEAS Who else? What else? When else? Where else? Change components, venue, setting, context Join, blend, synthesize, merge audiences , markets, purposes
KEY WORDS alternate, exchange, replace, swap, switch
amalgamate, blend, bring together, join, merge, mingle, mix, unite a Adapt Alter, modernize, adjust, alter, amend, antiquate, put in a new bend, change, fit, situation, employ a new modify, revise, purpose, add or remove a rework, vary constraint m Modify/ Change size, colour, amplify, attributes, magnify fabric, material, length, elaborate, enlarge, meaning, exaggerate, expand, increase in minimize scale, strengthen p Put to Find unusual ways of apply, bring into other uses using things, other places play, employ, to use, emergency uses exercise, harness, operate, utilise e Eliminate Take away, remove, Abolish, curtail, eradicate, edit diminish, eradicate, minimize, lessen, reduce to core functionality, reduce in scale, remove, elements, shrink, simplify r Rearrange/ Rearrange Change, contrary, reverse order/sequence, change converse, invert, layout, design or pattern; opposite, reorder, change direction or reorganize, swap, values; invert transpose, turn around (Conklin, 2012, pg 108-109)
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Purpose This strategy switches attention from the importance of factors to looking around for all factors. In a lesson, this would be difficult, so factors could be limited. CAF is useful before choosing, deciding or planning.
Steps: Examine what factors are involved by responding to the following: Key research questions: 1. Why is there a problem? Who is affected by my decision? Have I thought everything through? Do I have everything I need? Have I considered the unintended consequences? 2. What are the short and long term consequences of the problem? 3. What can be done to solve the problem? 4. Who is working on the issue? 5. How widespread is the problem? 6. Should I walk away from the problem? Take action? (de Bono, CoRT )
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Purpose - formulating and exploring an interesting question is often as important as finding a solution - this strategy encourages students to create interesting questions, imaginatively mess around with them for a while in order to explore their creative possibilities gives students the opportunity to practice developing good questions that provoke thinking and inquiry into a topic -
Steps: -
-
brainstorm a list of questions about an object or topic transform some of the questions into questions that challenge the imagination, such as: What would it be like if … How would it be different if … Suppose that … What would change if … How would it look differently if … choose a question to be imaginatively explored by playing out its possibilities reflect: ‘What new ideas do you have about the topic, object or concept?’
Purpose This strategy gives students the opportunity to practice developing good questions that provoke thought and inquiry into a topic. It helps students to brainstorm lots of different kinds of questions about a topic. It enables us to get at the breadth and complexity of a topic. Steps: -
-
(http://www.pz.harvard.edu/vt/VisibleThinking_html_files/01_VisibleThinkingInActi on/01a_VTInAction.html)
brainstorm a list of at least 12 questions about the topic. Use these questionstarts to help you think of interesting questions: Why? How would it be different if …? What are the reasons …? Suppose that … ? What if …? What if we knew … ? What is the purpose of …? What would change if … ? review the list and mark the questions that seem most interesting and/or relevant, select one of these to discuss reflect: what new ideas do you have about the topic, concept or object that you didn’t have before?
(http://www.pz.harvard.edu/vt/VisibleThinking_html_files/01_VisibleThinkingInActi on/01a_VTInAction.html)
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Purpose This strategy looks at the pros and cons of an idea. Then using the original idea as a starting point, gets you to come up with new ideas. Steps: • • • •
consider an idea record your thoughts from a positive, thumbs up perspective record your thoughts from a negative, thumbs down perspective using the idea as a starting point, brainstorm new ideas
Example I could have an alligator as a pet! (Boyes & Watts, Developing Habits of Mind, pg 53)
This strategy is effective when comparing and contrasting and then selecting or deciding between two or more items, proposals, texts, plans, characters, etc. It is an excellent strategy for critical analysis. Analysis or exploration stage: Steps 1 - 3 Step 1: Draw up a matrix and enter your options or choices in the left column. Criteria 1. 2. 3. 4. Step 2: Enter the factors by which you can compare these options or choices in the top row. Criteria
Factors 1.
2.
3.
4.
1. 2. 3. 4. Step 3: Weight the factors from 1 out of 3 to 3 out of 3 (least important to most important). Two factors can have the same weighting. Criteria
Factors 1.
1/3
2.
3/3
3.
3/3
4.
2/3
Score
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Step 4: Add all the relevant details for each criteria and each factor in the relevant block. The more that is written here, the greater the understanding should be. Step 5: Give each block with detail a score from 1 (low) to 5 (high). Multiply this score by the weighting (1, 2 or 3). Step 6: Add up all the scores for each row. The row with highest score is the winner.
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Purpose These two thinking skills require you to not only process data and information but examine it from all angles and then connect that examination with both previous information and with principles, values, personal thoughts and opinions. Questions: • Which alternative makes sense to you? Why does it make more sense to you? • Which approach will reach the most ethical resolution of this issue? Why? • What are the relevant values to keep in mind in order to settle this issue? • What are the consequences of doing x or doing y? • What criteria are you using to make your judgments?
Example: Mathematics Best Buy Divide page into three columns. Predict the best buy in the P column, write down the data and calculate which is the best buy in the O column, and then explain the difference (if there is one) between the P column and the O column. What made you predict the way you did? Was it the packaging? Marketing? Preconceptions? Example: Science A Cool Pack for a Sprained Ankle You will need: baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) citric acid water a teaspoon a zip-lock plastic bag Add 3-4 teaspoons of citric acid to the zip-lock bag. Add the same amount of baking soda. Mix well. Predict: Will the zip-lock bag feel hot or cold? What do you think will happen when water is added? Add 3 teaspoons of water to the bag and observe what happens. Feel the zip-lock bag. Observe: write down what you observed. Explain the difference between your prediction and the observation.
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Purpose - to think through something before attempting it, to put your ideas into action and then to reflect critically on what you have done Steps: - plan: think through something carefully before attempting it - do: put your ideas into action - review: reflect and record your thoughts on what you have done in order to improve your idea further (Boyes & Watts, Developing Habits of Mind – Elementary, pg 353)
Purpose - to actively foster more and better thinking needed to create a rich and revealing concept map - concept maps help us to activate our knowledge of a topic and then connect those ideas in a meaningful way - concept maps help us to solidify our thinking and understanding as well as to reveal that thinking to others Steps: - generate a list of words, ideas or aspects associated with the topic (this list can be added to at any time) - sort ideas according to how central or tangential they are, placing central ideas near the centre. Students can do this in pairs or groups. - draw lines between ideas that share a connection and briefly explain this connection by writing it on the line - elaborate on a few of the ideas, create some sub-categories that break the ideas into smaller parts - share the thinking (Making Thinking Visible, p.125)
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Purpose In wrapping up a discussion, this is a good way to hear from everyone in the group in a very succinct way. It is meant to capture the thoughts, impressions or key ideas about the topic being explored. This strategy asks students to reflect and synthesize. It helps to capture the essence of what has been learnt, which helps to build understanding of big ideas and core principles. Steps: • What are the core ideas in what you’ve been learning? • Write a headline. ‘Write a headline for this topic or issue that captures an important aspect or core idea that we would want to remember.’ • Share the thinking. Share the thinking and the reasoning behind the choice of headline. Share the thinking in small groups to start, and then as a class. Search for common themes or elements amongst the headlines. • Reflect. How has your headline changed based on today’s discussion? How does it differ from what you would have said yesterday? Examples: Grade 8 headlines on exponential growth
Doubling and thinking ahead, way way ahead
(Making thinking visible, p.112)
Purpose This strategy helps to develop good listening skills. Steps: • pause – stop and listen without interrupting • paraphrase – reword what a person has said to you and try to show you are trying to understand him/her • probe – ask questions if you are not sure what the person has said to you (Boyes & Watts,, Developing Habits of Mind – Elementary, pg 159) Checklist for good listening skills Did you.... Turn your head towards the speaker? Take turns speaking? Use eye contact? Question/probe for clarity? Paraphrase what the person said? Use facial expressions similar to speaker's expressions? Avoid judging? Add you own items to list......
1st time
2nd time
(Boyes & Watts, Developing Habits of Mind – Senior, pg 169)
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KWHL is a metacognitive strategy that requires you to think about: what you Know; what you Want to know; How you will find out; and what you have Learned.
Purpose - this helps us to focus attention on how the development of understanding is not just an accumulation of new information but often results in changed in thinking - helps develop reasoning abilities and to recognize cause-and-effect relationships
K W
H L
• •
List prior knowledge Can do concept mapping or brainstorming to establish this
• • •
List interests and questions Allows students to manage their own learning Used for an inquiry-based approach
•
Consider resources
•
Reflect on new ideas, concepts, strategies, knowledge that you have learned K
W
H
L
Steps: - purpose of this strategy needs to be explained - have some way of documenting your thoughts - individual reflection: students to write down their initial ideas of what the study/topic and what it was all about. Start with the words ‘I used to think …’ - individual reflection contd.: Now think about how your ideas have changed as a result of learning, doing and discussing in class. Start with the words ‘Now I think …’ - share the thinking: this could be done as a class activity the first time so that students can be probed about their thinking and pushed for explanations, and subsequently done in small groups when they are accustomed to explaining their thinking. (Making thinking visible, p.154)
(Conklin, 2012, pg 86)
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This is an effective strategy to allow students to take control of research, discussion and solution-finding. Home team
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4
Expert team 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
Home team 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
Step 1: Students are put into Home Teams of four members and they are numbered from 1 to 4. Step 2: The task is introduced to the Home Teams. Step 3: The Home Teams are then re-formed into Expert Teams, so that all the same numbers are in the same Expert Team. A specific part of the task is given to each Expert Team. Step 4: The Expert Team then research their specialized area and develop a range of ideas. Research, discussion and deliberation could take anything from 5 minutes to 2 or 3 lessons. Step 5: The Expert Teams then regroup into their Home Teams. At this stage, there should be an ‘expert’ on each of the areas covered. Each expert then reveals what she has learnt.
This is a co-operative learning strategy that is effective when students are required to argue a case on a debatable issue. It requires two students to analyse the issue from opposite perspectives. They then prepare and present their opposing cases. A third student listens and both viewpoints and delivers his/her verdict. Step 1: A debatable issue is chosen. Step 2: Assign a number from 1 to 3 to each student. If there are too many students, the teacher could assign these students as number 3s. The number 1s will present a 90 second argument FOR the topic (The Defence). The number 2s will present a 90 second argument AGAINST the topic (The Prosecution). The number 3s decide the outcome of the case and present their verdict (The Judge and Jury). Step 3: The number 1s meet in groups of 3 – 5 to prepare their case. The number 2s meet in groups of 3 – 5 to prepare their case. The number 3s meet to discuss the main points of the case, to anticipate the points of the defence and the prosecution and to develop criteria for deciding the case. Step 4: The number 1s are allowed 90 seconds to present their case to the Judge, who can be referred to as ‘Your Honour’. After allowing a bit of time for the Judge to write some notes, the number 2 are allowed their 90 seconds of argument. The number 1s are allowed a 30 second right of reply. The Judges are allowed 1 minute to complete their judgement and then present their findings. The Judges present their findings to the class. They may want to begin by saying ‘After considering the views of the defence and the prosecution, I find in favour of ….’ The Judges must then justify their decision by evaluating the arguments of the defence and prosecution.
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