Contents
3
Modernism
4
Pre-Raphaelites
6
Bauhaus
8
Le Corbusier
9
Chandigarh
10 - 11
Italian Modernism
12 - 13
Avant Garde and Manifesto
14
Regional Modernism
15
Brutalism
16
Frank Lloyd Wright
17
Transcultural Space
18
Bibliography
Modernism Modernism is a 20th century movement in art, architecture, design and literature. We live in it legacy, the world we live in today is largely shaped by modernism. The word ‘modernism’ was rarely used to define a specific time period or ideological definition, rather it was used to define the new and innovative, with a sense of contemporary forward thinking and looking design. It was also used as a synonym for Adant-Garde, a movement started in the 1860’s. This style was limited to itself only with concerns purely aesthetic. It was described as Greenberg as the arrangement and intervention of spaces, surfaces, shapes and colours etc... To the exclusion of anything outside itself. Most fundamental was the ineluctable flatness of the surfaces , which emphasised the rejection of many relationships between art and society. The use of the word in historical context, separate from the meaning of contemporary is more recent and was not used by the artist of the era. This arouse in the late 1950’s. It was used to describe both the inter-war era and more recent buildings (1900’s-1960’s) Whilst the definition of modern being about departing from tradition is correct the common definition of being new and current is just as important. The only difference between the word being used in the 19th century and now is the idea of what’s “new”. From the information above it is obvious to see that modernism is playing a huge part in the 21st century, especially now because modernism is seen as the most important aspect towards architectural methods and design as it relates to the functionality of the buildings. Materials used internally and externally reject decoration and are designed to be as simple and as practical as possible. Below is some art work that can be classed as being post-modern but I personally belive that the following paintings helped inspire the modern movement as we know it today.
Composition en Rouge : Mondrian
http://delires-ongulaires.over-blog.com/article-na-et-culture-piet-mondiran-composition-en-rouge-jaune-bleu-etnoir-1926-106760263.html
This art piece was created in 1921. Mondrian tested the effects of coloured fields in his paintings structured with black lines crossing at right angles. The both monumental and harmonic effect of his paintings varied depending on the size and position of the coloured field. In talking with artists and architects,Mondrian became convinced that ‘Neo-Plasticism’ – as this new form was called, would first be fulfilled in architecture. I have to agree with this as modern buildings are designed to be minimalistic and maximise functionality of the space which is visually represented here by only using squares and rectangles as opposed to circles.
Portuguese : Georges Baraque http://www.georgesbraque.org/the-portuguese.jsp
This piece was created in 1911, its a drawing of a woman as she moves into multiple positions and poses, when it comes together its a mess but appealing to the eye. When I see this I can relate it heavily to the works of Frank Ghery, although the works of Frank are more post-modern due to its complex form I feel like he has inspired the modernists of today and some designs might not be the same without his influence.
Pre-Raphaelites The Pre-Raphaelites were a group of young artists who opposed the methodology in which London’s Royal Academy of Arts taught painting; in an artificial and mannered approach. They had a known preference when it came to early Renaissance works that followed a programme of ‘truth to nature’ as they were inspired by the works of old masters. Their name as the ‘Pre-Raphaelites’ also explores the opposition that the group felt towards the Renaissance master, Raphael, of whom was promoted by the Royal Academy. His work was a prime example of the “traviality of the immensely popular genre painting of the time”. The Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood was founded by three individual artists: John Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Holman Hunt. Overtime these founding artists were joined by other young and revolutionary thinkers, before the term of ‘Pre-Raphaelites’ developed to refer to the style of art made famous by the brotherhood. The society didn’t last very long, however it still had a huge impact on the art world. After only having been together for two years, the group had already gained masses of recognition, mainly because they used to post their ideas in a short-lived literacy magazine called ‘The Germ’. A few difficulties were met along the way after gaining criticism on a piece exhibited by Rosetti, still this didn’t prevent them from continuing working and developing ideas. The Brotherhood only lasted a total of 5 years but their journey shaped the art world. Millais and Hunt both went on to establish important places for themselves in the Victorian art world, in addition Millais ended up being elected president of the ‘Royal Academy’ as well as seeing his work sell for a large sum of money. Examples of Pre-Raphaelite design can be seen in the Saint Phillips Cathedral in Birmingham. For example the series of stained glass windows (as shown below), designed by Edward Burne-Jones which were made to replace the plain glass windows which were original to the Cathedral when it was built in 1715. Burne-Jones was a designer whom was heavily influenced by the Pre-Raphaelite design movement and became a ‘second generation’ brotherhood artist. He was known for his drawings, painting and stain glass and furniture. A wide collection of his work is displayed at Birmingham Art Gallery/ Museum.
https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&id=41DF3FABDB02222CF1CBF3409431FFD944477E20&thid=OIP.Px8p4Jo3Ry9R0FDv6YjXigHaGR&exph=1101&expw=1300&q=saint+phillips+pre+raphaelites&selectedindex=49&ajaxhist=0&vt=0&eim=1
The four stain glass windows reflect the Ascension, the Nativity, Crucifixion and Last Judgement. Though they are not the original windows as mentioned above, these and the cathedrals most treasured possession and are a fantastic of the Pre-Raphaelite movement.
http://www.birminghamcathedral.com/windows/
Bauhaus
https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/walter-gropius-7109.php
Walter Gropius is an Architect and the founder of the Bauhaus School. The Bauhaus was an art school that ran all the way through 1919 to 1933, this may not seem like a long period of time, but even after it closed it had a huge international impact throughout Europe and the United States. The aim of the Bauhaus movement was to inspire students of certain trends of the 19th and early 20th century, these were trends such as arts and crafts development, which had looked to level the qualifications among fine and connected expressions and to rejoin imagination and assembling as explained by the editors of the ‘Art story’. before World War 2, Architecture and furniture designs were never meant to be creative, the designs were always honest with form and materiality avoiding something that wasn’t necessary, this was the opposite of the Bauhaus movement. When looking at Walter Gropius’s work you realise that he had a very strict colour palette, this is apparent as he tends to use very neutral colours such as white, grey, black and sometimes the occasional primary colour to pay contrast to the surrounding or meaning of the building. He worked with a range of materials for the making of his furniture, these ranged from steel, to wood, leather and woven textiles. This choice was made because the artists which were working within the Bauhaus studio didn’t want things to feel overcomplicated, hence why things were kept modern and clean, this also links to modernism influences. In addition to this, Walter Gropius seemed to have been inspired by his masters and teachers as they were also modern artists and designers, from looking at the Bauhaus studio it is somewhat apparent that his style was based on the medieval society, which included Paul Klee, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Marcel Breuer and Wassily Kandinsky. Looking at Walter Gropius’s work it is clear that he had a strong belief that if art, craft and industrialisation were combined, then we could have been creating a new way of living.
Olivares Aluminium Chair This chair was designed in 2012 by Jonathan Olivares and it could be said to have many Bauhaus manifesto characteristics and properties. Olivares and his team experimented with manipulating sheet metal more specifically casting a chair form from and single sheet of metal which would reduce manufacturing costs and will mean the chair is light weight and thin. The final chair as show on the right is made from an aluminium body and extruded legs with plastic connections that allows the chair to be stacked without scratching. This mainly conforms with the manifesto that stated ‘being smart and progressive with materials’ https://design-milk.com/get-out-olivares-aluminum-chair/
https://www.pinterest.co.uk/kelsimad/barcelona-pavilion/ http://dmitri1201.blogspot.com/2010/04/project-2-mies-van-der-rohe-and-open.html https://www.tripadvisor.com/LocationPhotoDirectLink-g187497-d313686-i20760317-Pabellon_Mies_van_
The Barcelona Pavilion : Mies Van Der Rohe and Lilly Reich The Barcelona Pavilion was designed as part of the ‘Barcelona international Exhibition’ by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe alongside Lilly Reich. The Exhibition was designed to advertise Germany as modern, demographic and new following the First World War. The building was commissioned by the Weimar Republic. The building expresses the economic recovery Germany made by the time of its construction in 1929, in addition it explores the Weimar’s determination and will to regain international influence. The Barcelona Pavilion manifests the Bauhaus ethos in adhering to the Bauhaus manifesto, “The ultimate, if distant, goal of the Bauhaus is the collective work of art in which no barriers exist between the structural and decorative arts”. In this sense the building provides a sense of authenticity through its use of materials. In relation to Dieter Rams’s 10 principles of good design; the building remains ‘honest’ and reflects the organic characteristics of the steel, glass and stone used to construct the Pavilion, to produce and unobtrusive design accompanied by minimal design. Therefore as well as adhering to the Bauhaus Manifesto, the design of the Barcelona Pavilion is reinforced by the modernist principles of Dieter Rams. The Barcelona Pavilion appeals to me personally as its design is elegant and timeless. It expresses and aesthetic that remains current almost 90 years after its design and construction.
Fagus Factory : Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer The Fagus factory was another building I decided to research into for this task. This factory was built in Alfeild an der Leine, Germany by Bauhaus organiser Walter Gropius, alongside his contemporary Adolf Meyer. They structured the Fagus factory in 1911. This was Gropius’s first enormous undertaking and a noteworthy minute for innovation. Gropius communicated his shape pursues work standards with the proportion lines extensive windows, which are intended to get natural light to the workers inside the factory as explained by Beau Peregoy (2016). The Building follows the Bauhaus principle by having several elements which can be described as being the essentials of the Bauhaus building. What can be found within the building are: prismatic blocks, three plants with rectangular and flat bases, reinforced concrete structure with brackets displaced inwards which frees the exterior walls of any load bearing plant. The remarkable aspect within this structure is the fact that it was one of the fundamental Bauhaus pieces that started the whole Bauhaus journey. Walter Gropius took safe considerations when deciding to incorporate several other modernist ideas when designing the factory, this is another thing I found fascinating about this building. The curtain wall in particular is a modernist move which adds contrast and makes the factory stand out.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fagus_Factory https://www.timetravelturtle.com/fagus-factory-alfeld-germany/ https://www.archdaily.com/612249/ad-classics-fagus-factory-walter-gropius-adolf-meyer/53de8598c07a80bf02000037-ad-classics-fagus-factory-walter-gropius-adolf-meyer-image
https://thebridgetcd.com/2014/09/25/form-and-function-architectural-music-musical-architecture/
Le Corbusier Le Corbusier is widely considered to be one of the most influential and famous architects of the 20th century. He was born as Charles Edouard-Jeanneret in 1887 in Switzerland. Like many other designers of his time he never had a formal architectural education. As a young man, Jeanneret travelled extensively and visited many European cities including Paris, where he worked in the studio of Architect, Auguste Perret who was a pioneer in the use of the reinforced concrete. In 1910 he moved to Berlin and worked for Peter Behrens. This was where Jeanerete first met Gropius and Mies van der Rohe. The same year, he travelled to eastern Europe, visiting Budapest, Prague, Athens, Istanbul among other cities. Back at home, Le Corbusier had built several houses and began to teach Architecture. In 1917 he moved to Paris and began working with artist Amedee Ozenfant in developing Purism. During this time he didn’t build anything and instead focusing on painting and writing. Around 1920 he started designing again and was embracing modern materials and technology. In 1922 Le Corbusier formed a partnership with his cousin Pierre Jeanneret. The same year he exhibited his first Urban plan scheme ‘The Contemporary for Three Million Inhabitants’. in 1923, Le Corbusier published his five points of new architecture which where five key elements his believed were essential in modern design. By the late 1920’s he was becoming very well known and was embarking on an international career. Le Corbusier helped found the ‘International Congress of Modern Architecture’ in 1928. In 1929 he travelled to South America giving lectures in Brazil. He also visited the Soviet Union. By the late 1930’s , Le Corbusier’s commissions in France were depleting due to the Great Depression. Towards the end of World War Two, Le Corbusier created the ‘Modular’. This was a proportional system based on the scale of a human figure. It was in 1945, that Le Corbusier first visited the US. He famously declared that the skyscrapers in New York weren’t tall enough and recommended that they be built further apart. Back in France he had won the commission to build a new housing project in marseilles which he called Unite D’Habitation. in 1951, Le Corbusier was commissioned to design a north-western provincial Indian capital of Chandigarh. He saw this as a chance to prove Western powers that they had missed out on not implementing any of the urban schemes Le Corbusier had previously proposed to them. This project kept him occupied for ten years. the screen shots on the right page show some more in-depth information and research into the Chandigarh. Unfortunately Le Corbusier died of a heart attack on August 27th 1965 while swimming in the Mediterranean Sea. To conclude, during his six decade career le Corbusier built 75 buildings in 12 Countries, he has produced almost 40 books and hundreds of published essays.
Chandigarh Presentation slides
Giorgio de Chirico Giorgio de Chirico was an Italian artist and writer who started the Scuola Metafisica (Metaphysical) art movement. This movement was inspired by surrealism and after 1919 he was drawn to neoclassical styles. The two paintings seen here, Piazza D’Italia 1913 (top right) and Mystery and Melancholy of a Street 1914 (bottom right), both have a stark lack of people in what are quite large areas. Upon first glance the space feels empty and lonely but the colours used make the paintings feel warm making the large scenes seem peaceful. To me personally it also suggests a sense of freedom for the few people in the painting who are left to their own devices. Around the time of creation of these painting Europe was unknowingly approaching a series of events that would lead to the biggest war ever seen, being triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914, but also in the process of movements for change. In the United Kingdom on the Suffragettes movement was pressing for women’s rights making its mark on 1913 with the death of Emily Davidson while attempting to place a pro women’s rights sash upon the horse of King George VI. When comparing the state of Europe during this time to the peaceful atmosphere portrayed by these paints you get a complete it makes the paints quite surreal. In Cherico’s artwork he often paints Italian squares and public spaces, but constant element in his work is that they are never heavily populated. His artwork usually consists of a surreal landscape, they depict perspective and may be to represent the changes which were to come in terms of art, architecture and politics. Also the loneliness of life may symbolise how art movements are constantly changing but often people and artwork get lost in a struggle to keep up with the ever changing world. Particularly with modernism becoming part of the popular culture in 1913. Normally artists back in the time of the 1910’s would interpret the cities as what they are which is a conventional city scape. Instead Chirico interpreted the cities as ‘Haunted streets’ we might encounter in our dreams, this has a close contrast with surrealism but heavily reflects his homesickness. Being Italian Chirico was in a country that was highly influential in its art and political values.
At the late stage of this period, Chirico gradually turned his attention to studies of the cluttered, for example a storeroom. Rossi’s work has moulded into different shapes and styles, taking away from pre-war architecture but transforming architecture into post-war designs. In the second half of the 20th century, the architectural search of post-war period strained from reaching an alternative offer of the modernity. Aldo Rossi’s figures emerge as the most suggestive theoretical and coherent voice of the architectural panorama. he adopts the rigid position that it is born in the administration of Adolf Loos’s rationality and bases in his writing, where he proposes to the construction of a rational structure that stimulates to think over every project of a scientific way. ‘The painters family’
Aldo Rossi In 1966 Italian architect Aldo Rossi published L’architettura della Città (The Architecture of the City). This book was about urban design based on the traditional European city. In the text he makes reference to the lack of understanding for city architecture and goes on to talk about how monuments are the memories of a city and emphasising that cities should be built over time and studied. His work was inspired by architectural theory which was apparent in his early work. The publication of Rossi’s book gave fellow architects the ability to return to the old ideas and to rethink how traditional methods of design had impacted their modern works.
Aldo Rossi’s ‘The Architecture of the City’ book demonstrates a shift from modernism to a traditional European City. Rossi has the opinion that a city must be studied overtime and that it actively remembers its past through the creation of monuments and structures. An example of this would be Trafalgar Square in London, where it is both a monument and a landmark for the city, providing both historical links and connections to Leicester Square and Westminster. Aldo Rossi can be linked back to the artist Giorgio de Chiricos, his paintings portrayed the metaphysical approach to the art work, this helped convey a more mysterious and unknown environment through the contrasts of green and blue during first World War.
Avant Garde Avant Garde referred to new, radical on often unorthodox artwork during the early 20th Century. It encompasses movements such as Futurism, Expressionism, Dada and constructivism. These often had manifestos that were inspired by the political climate. When thinking about politics in relation to architecture in the UK today, one of the first things that comes to mind is the tragedy of Grenfall Tower. The event that occurred on June 2017 has sparked debate as to if the fire was an accident or was it an intentional act out of rage or if its the government trying to reduce the lower class that rely on benefits as their main source of income. The link below will take you to a discussion between myself and Joshua Veile as we talk about the politics within that area.
Regional Modernism Regional Modernism: this is a term used to characterize building design that opposed the standardizations of an international style promoted by the likes of architects such as le Corbusier. Critical Regionalism: this should adopt modern architecture critically for its universal progressive qualities but at the same time should value responses particular to the context. Emphasis should be on the topology, climate, light, tectonic form rather than scenographic and photogenic driven design and the tactile sense rather than the visual. The modernist approach of regional modernism is where architectural design has been influenced by regional forms and materials, also geographical location and culture that is implemented into the construction. Usually, this is the ‘modernist’ approach and includes ethnic and traditional influences as a combination of modern styles to create a hybrid of various different styles. In terms of critical regionalism, this is an approach where the architecture strives to focus on creating an identity within the international style of modernism in rejection of unrecognised individualism and meretricious post-modernist design.
.Fuente de los Amantes : Luis Barrigan Built in 1968 in Mexico city, Luis Barrigan’s Fuente De Los Amantes was the result of love for vernacular architecture deeply influenced by le Corbusier and his post-World War two architecture. Barragan’s work is known for taking the art of ‘emotional architecture’, therefore creating functional spaces without any particular order, but poetic enough to achieve what the architect has always sought ‘Delightful places’. Barragan has created a space where the architecture moves through the water, geometric abstraction and colour planes which fundamentally questions a united love between men and women. For example, the elements that represent those symbols: man is the strength of a horse, the woman’s elusive for changing water, landscape horizontal walls that limit the background and contrast with the lawn close-ups, the geometry is a perfectly regular plane which holds the aqueduct and porch beneath. http://www.atizapan.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_con http://archi-learner.blogspot.com/2014/01/fuente-de-los-amantes-lovers-
Unite D’Habitation : Le Corbusier Completed in 1952 in Marseille, as a result of Le Corbusier combining machine with living he was able to create this building. Shaped like a self-contained concrete vessel that is structured like an ocean liner. it has successfully accommodated a mix of users ever since completion. Its 337 apartments can accommodate 1,600 residents, but it also boasts two shopping streets, a hotel and a rooftop terrace. the building in its entirety answers the needs of people and works perfectly with its surrounding environment. https://www.boomsbeat.com/articles/5906/20140701/41-photos-unité-dhabitation-france.htm
United kingdom Brutalisim : Birmingham Central Library Birmingham Central Library was exactly what Brutalisim was all about, it had a strong solid structure and renowned rearranged ziggurat, it was labelled as one of the most important symbols of British Brutalist design. The Library was designed by John Madin and opened in January 1974. john Madin was an architect who many people believe was the reason as to why Birmingham looks the way it does today. Incorporating his brutalisim design ideas was crucial for him, and the same principle goes to when he designed the Birmingham central library.
Arguments for the Library to have been saved: Glenn Howells expressed that in order to produce a successful circulation between the east and west of Birmingham, and make pedestrians the priority in terms of movement through the city, that the Central Library had to be demolished. Campaigners against the demolition wanted the library to be preserved and given listed status. It was seen as an important example of brutalist architecture, in fact it was one of the few remaining in the UK and as such should be treated as a monument and maintained. It was also argued that the city would be making the same mistake as it did in replacing much of the Victorian architecture with modernist buildings. English heritage applied twice for the building to be listed but it was refused by the minister for culture both times. a 2,000 signature petition was also given to the council but was short after rejected due to Margaret Hodge failing to acknowledge the historical and architectural interest of the site back in 2009.
Arguments that support the demolition: In 2012 the world monuments fund identified the Central Birmingham library as being one of the three best brutalist examples of its kind and so had significant architectural and historical value for future generations. The building was also only 40 years old and could have potentially been re-purposed or get given a renovation. The central Library didn’t stand the test of time. The carpets were threadbare and the escalators leading up and down the 8 floors were prone to break down. The design of the building was also criticised. Many spaces within the building have low ceilings and very little natural light. Many also saw its massive concrete blocked form as ugly. City developers wanted to regenerate Birmingham’s City Centre into an innovative and contemporary design which unfortunately meant that they Library didn’t meet the design specifications. From this I personally feel like the demolition of the library is a great loss to Birmingham City but more so to British heritage and post war history as the common opinion of brutalist buildings is that they are unappealing to the eye but Birmingham Central Library was great example of brutalism at its finest and will be sorely missed in my personal opinion.
https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/local-news/gallery-goodbye-birmingham-central-library-4731792
Frank Lloyd Wright Frank Lloyd Wright’s architecture is so strongly associated with the landscape as a result of his focus on organic design. This focus explores how the buildings constructed by Frank Lloyd Wright are a response to the natural environment in which it sits, to enhance both the landscape and the building equally. his idea of organic architecture also incorporated his inherent, personal values from his early childhood. in this belief, his work is very different from the typical constructions of the time as America didn’t have a set ‘designated building style’.
Falling Water House The Falling Water House, designed for Edgar Kaufmann in 1935 is an amazing example of one of his many successes by Frank Lloyd Wright during his career, in designing a building to enhance its landscape due to its focus on being organic so that it sits comfortably within its site context. Initially the client thought that the building was to sit facing the waterfall, rather than being placed on top of it. Instead, Frank used projecting terraces to echo the form of the below waterfall rock and consistently reflected the materiality of the sites surroundings by using stone floors and walls to echo the rocks within the site. Throughout the interior he has also incorporated splashes of bright colour to mimic the wildlife outside that could be spotted in the trees.
http://enolivier.com/te/162479/15gyi5-falling-water-house.aspx
Robie House
http://mentalfloss.com/article/90823/12-facts-about-frank-lloyd-wrights-fallingwater
In contrast with Falling Water, Frank Lloyd Wright also explored the integration of organic design into more urban architectural forms. This is evident in the Robie house built in 1906 and is a conclusive design to Wright’s ‘Prarie Houses’. the design of the houses were deemed recognisable by there features of horizontal lines that emphasised how the building was spread along the horizontal plane, producing a building that sat much closer to the ground in order to be much more in keeping with the landscape. To further this, the use of the overhangs, cantilevered roofs and the low pitch of the roof of the Robie House were design features used by Frank Lloyd Wright to emphasise with the landscape as it rolled away from the heights of Chicago.
https://educated-traveller.com/2015/04/29/chicago-the-robie-houseand-frank-lloyd-wright/
https://www.reddit.com/r/ArchitecturePorn/comments/1bm0bg/the_robie_house_by_frank_ lloyd_wright_1920x1080/
Transcultural Space : Birmingham Christmas Market For my transcultural space I decided to do the Birmingham German market, this is because its an event that I know of and attend every year. Everyday people navigate through the streets whether they’re passing through, going to work or going shopping. The German market brings everyone together to this warm, fun and friendly atmosphere. These events exhibit diverse transcultural space as multiple cultures visit Birmingham to display their society through their products weather it be food or a form of crafts, it creates social interaction between different people but also makes connections. During the daytime the German market is somewhat lively, the atmosphere is great and you’re more likely to get a seat if you want food or a drink, however its at night when the market comes to life. Each year the scene is set and sever seems to disappoint no matter how many times you go, everything is lit up making it a safe and easy to navigate around.
They have an array of different foods and snacks that go on for as far as the eye can see at some points, food ranges from warm to cold, sweet to salty. The German market is great for nearby shops as if a shoppers have come this far for the German they might also want to shop for gifts meaning more customers which is great for all the local businesses https://xsarahspeaksx.wordpress.com/2015/12/20/birmingham-german-market-2015/ https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-birmingham-24962979 https://nickgilmartin.wordpress.com/2011/11/23/birmingham-christmas-market/
Bibliography Birmingham Cathedral, the Cathedral Church of Saint Philip. (no date) The Church that became a Cathedral in the town that became a City. [ 13 September 2018 ] https://www.birminghamchthedral.com/story/ Grenfell Tower photos. 2017 [Online]. [13 September 2018] .https://www.pro-sapien.com/blog/2017/06/ grenfell-tower-tragedy-a-series-of-let-downs-and-lessons/ Georgio de Chirico history 2016 [Online] . [16 December 2018] https://arthistoryproject.com/artists/ giorgio-de-chirico/piazza-ditalia/ Anon. 2019. The Pre-Raphaelites. [10 January 2019]. Available from: http://www.birminghammuseums.org. uk/bmag/highlights/the-pre-raphaelites Wikipediaorg. 2019. Wikipediaorg. [Online]. [10 January 2019]. Available from: https://de.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Josef_Hartwig Widewallsch. 2019. Widewalls. [Online]. [10 January 2019]. Available from: https://www.widewalls.ch/ bauhaus-design/josef-hartwig-chess-set/ Wikipediaorg. 2019. Wikipediaorg. [Online]. [11 January 2019]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Birmingham_Central_Library Birminghamroundaboutcouk. 2019. Birminghamroundaboutcouk. [Online]. [11 January 2019]. Available from: http://www.birminghamroundabout.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/birmingham_central_library. jpg Theparisrevieworg. 2019. Theparisrevieworg. [Online]. [12 January 2019]. Available from: ht tps://www. theparisreview.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/mystery-and-melancholy-of-a-street-1914.jpg (Lack of references is due to background knowledge that I gained from studying at college cant send / attach my research as its on Google docs and my college account and has expired meaning its view only, All images have been linked to the source from new research)