Seeking Refuge: A Mountaineering Journey Thesis by Tin Tu

SEEKING REFUGE A mountaineering journey

A mountaineering journey responding to the absence of safety facilities and promoting environmental education in ecologically sensitive mountain regions

A Thesis report submitted to meet in part the requirements of Architectural Thesis Project ARCH6006

Presented for the degree of Masters of Architecture at Curtin University School of Design and Built Environment

SEEKING REFUGE A mountaineering journey

A mountaineering journey responding to the absence of safety facilities and promoting environmental education in ecologically sensitive mountain regions

Student Name: Student ID:

Tin Tu 18848104

Unit Coordinator:

Dr Tanja Glusac

Thesis Supervisor:

Dr Chamila Subasinghe

Thesis Preparation Supervisor:

Thesis Type: Word Count: Date of Submission:

Khoa Do

70% Design, 30% Written 7752 (+10%) 8 June 2022

A Thesis report submitted to meet in part the requirements of Architectural Thesis Project ARCH6006 This thesis is written in A4 portrait format with connected pages. View as 2 page spread when reading online. Presented for the degree of Masters of Architecture at Curtin University School of Design and Built Environment

D E C L A R AT I O N S

This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award or any other degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgment has been made

The following sections have been adapted from previous written work titled “Altitude Refuge: Transitioning from Traditional to Contemporary Design of Mountain Refuges” submitted in the unit “Architectural Thesis Preparation - ARCH 6008” •

Research Question

•

Abstract

•

Background

•

Literature Review

•

Methodology

•

References

Signature:

Signed:

25.05.2022

SEEKING REFUGE Presented for the degree of Masters of Architecture at Curtin University School of Design and Built Environment

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To my thesis supervisor Dr Chamila Subasinghe, thank you for your on going support and constant push to improve my work every week, including the weekend. I am thankful for your input and efforts in shaping my thesis. To my parents, I am grateful for your commitment and consistently providing me with the goodies especially during my time in COVID isolation. To my partner Zoe, thank you for the last few years of our degrees together, you have pushed and challenged me in many ways that have ultimately made me a better person. I am truly grateful for your constant care throughout my final thesis semester. And finally, thank you to Yohannes & Tom for making my masters journey genuinely enjoyable. It’s been a pleasurable, fun and rewarding experience working together in our final units.

SEEKING REFUGE Presented for the degree of Masters of Architecture at Curtin University School of Design and Built Environment

PA G E 1

CHAPTERS

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

A b stra c t

R e se a rc h Qu e sti on

O b je c t i ve s

R e se a rc h Me tho d ol o g y

K e y Te rmi n ol o g y

JOURNEY TO THE TOP

BACKGROUND

Mo unt a i n e eri ng

Histo ri c a l Ou tl o ok

A R e g i o n F or Ac ti v i t y, Pe opl e & Plac e

A R e g i o n F or Ec onomi c & C ontrol G row th

THE ISSUES

R ise i n G l o b al Mou ntai ne e ri ng Tou rism

R isk A na l y sis

A l t i tud e S tu d i e s

Env i ro n me ntal Impac t s

D i mi n ish i n g Trad i ti onal De s i g n Cu l tu re

T HE E V OLU T I ON OF MOUNTA I N HU T S

Historic a l

Tra d i t i o na l

C o nte mp o rar y

PRECEDENT STUDIES

Mo nte R o s a Hu t - B e ar th & De plaz e s Archi te c t s

A H S A Fa rmstay - Cre ati v e Cre ws

C o c o A r t Vi l lag e s - Archwe rk + F ormafatal

Tun g e stø l e n Hi k i ng Cab i ns - Snøhe t ta

PA G E 2

CHAPTERS

CONTENTS

S I T E A N A LY S I S

T HE S T R AT E GY

105

Pro j e c t S trate g y Sy nthe s is

1 06

Significance

1 06

S i te S trate g y

1 09

DESIGN CRITERIA

117

Fro m R e s e arch to De s i g n

11 8

A sp i rat i o na l De s i g n Map

120

D e s i g n Bri e f : Fu nc ti onal R e q u i re me nt s

122

THE DESIGN PROPOSAL

125

Jo urn e y to R e f u g e : R e achi ng the B as e Camp

1 26

Masterpla n

128

S e e k i n g R e f u g e : The S afe Spac e

13 6

G a t h e r i n g : A C ommu nal Spac e

148

R e s o u r c e s : E s s e ntial Inve ntor y & S e r v i c e s

160

S h e r p a s : A De s i g nate d R e f u g e

1 74

Pre s e nt at i o n Pane ls

1 86

CONCLUSION

193

REFERENCES

195

APPENDIX

201

D e s i g n p ro c e s s

2 02

R e se a rc h p ro c e s s

217

01 INTRODUCTION

SEEKING

REFUGE

INTRODUCTION

0 1 .1 A B S T R AC T With increased mountaineering expeditions becoming more apparent in high altitude (HA) regions, there is a rising need for basic refuge to respond to the absence of refuge facilities in harsh and unforgiving climates. The need for temporary refuge accommodation is statistically linked to the fast-growing rate of mountaineering tourism, with a number of tourists heightening their ambitions of conquering the highest peaks. As a consequence, increased mountaineering tourism is directly associated with high rates of adverse health effects due to extreme cold, oxygen deprivation and perilous climate that so often result in unfortunate casualties. In exploring these issues through architectural design, it is evident that existing refuge provided for climbers and mountaineers do not contain sufficient standards, resorting to use of portable tents and temporary shelters that endure climatic and weathering damage. It is known that climbers utilize portable shelters for the fact of convenience, however the absence of structurally built shelters and minimal facilities along hiking trails triggers potential danger, prompting the emergence of architecture as a design response to the absence of safety refuge. The outcome of this thesis will be a design proposal of a series of refuge facilities on the Ama Dablam Base Camp, situated along the hiking routes of the Himalayan Mountain regions – providing basic forms of sheltered accommodation and essential support services for mountaineers and climbers who are at risk from the physiologic and physical effects of mountaineering. The facilities will essentially serve as a shelter space offering protection from not all, but most of the risks associated with high altitude. In addition, this thesis intends to utilize a progressive design framework that investigates the characteristics of historical, traditional, and contemporary mountain refuges. The framework will explore local traditional techniques intertwined with contemporary architecture to establish the conceptual foundation as a lesson of the past for design of the future. The focus of the design framework is to understand the blend of contemporary and traditional elements while preserving the beneficial aspects of traditional techniques.

SEEKING

REFUGE

INTRODUCTION

0 1 . 2 R E S E A R C H Q U E S T I O N How can environmental design solutions be integrated within traditional refuge facilities to encourage environmental education and safe mountaineering tourism?

0 1 . 3 O B J E C T I V E S Primary Objectives •

To investigate the impacts of mountaineering tourism on lives, environmental and spatial cultures

•

To analyze the risks and issues of altitude mountaineering in assisting to identify the essential support required for mountaineers and native climbers (Sherpa Community). Secondary Objectives

•

To explore how contemporary design strategies can be integrated within traditional refuge facilities to enhance living of users.

•

To produce an evolutionary design framework of historical, traditional, and contemporary research of mountain refuge that will guide the process of design into acknowledging traditional forms

SEEKING

REFUGE

INTRODUCTION

01.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The methodology employed by this thesis utilized a combination of design and research methods.

Quantitative Analysis Primary analysis of risks were performed through quantitative data, where data was collected through official databases, assessed and compared against one another to identify the main causes of mountaineering injury and death. Data was also extracted from official Himalayan database to assess the impacts of rising mountaineering tourism on injuries and death statistics. Literature Reviews This thesis examined and extracted information from various literature to assess and analyze the historic Nepalese design culture, specifically looking into Nepalese vernacular and how overtime has diminished due to the evolution of altitude architecture. The literature assessed acknowledges the traditions of Nepalese culture and attempts to bring back better, the architecture of the past with contemporary additions that will enhance refuge qualities. Case Studies (Precedent Studies) The analysis of case studies was used to explore effective design characteristics that were later implemented into the design proposal. Strategies throughout traditional and contemporary mountain huts were explored, to understand common themes that can be applied as a design response.

01.5 KEY TERMINOLOGY Definitions: Mountaineering: A form of outdoor physical activity that involves climbing mountains. Refuge: The state of being safe or sheltered from pursuit, danger or threats. Sherpa: A Tibetan ethnic group of people who lives on the high southern slopes of the Himalayas in Nepal and are renowned for their exceptional climbing abilities, superior strength, endurance and providing support for foreign trekkers and mountain climbers. Base Camp A main encampment providing rudimentary supplies and shelter for people who are engaging in wide range of physical activities. Summit The highest point of a hill or mountain

SEEKING

REFUGE

02 JOURNEY TO THE TOP “the mountaineering journey”

SEEKING

REFUGE

JOURNEY TO THE TOP

0 2 .1

T H E M O U N TA I N E E R I N G J O U R N E Y While this thesis intended to investigate the relationship between mountaineering and its overarching impacts on the fatality tolls, environment and cultural traditions, it was worthwhile to understand the journey it takes to reach base camp. Make be, mountaineering is not for everyone, only a certain handful of active tourists and hikers with ambitions and motive are willing to adventure out. Therefor this visual narrative illustrates the basic journey and highlights certain points along the route that captures the mountaineering experience

S TA G E 3 HIKING 1: ASCENDING

S TA G E 1

•

D E PA R T AT K AT H M A N D U • •

•

Meet initial representative of the tour and be transferred to a hotel. Initial briefing is provided, and arrangements are made for distributing utility kits and sleeping bags. Meet fellow tourists and tour group.

•

From the hotel, you will be begin trekking through local villages and traditional landmarks of the region. Crossing through huge peaks and rivers, you will witness beautiful views of landscape and lakes. By the end of the day, you will reach the first overnight private eco campsite.

S TA G E 2 FLIGHT TO REGIONAL CAMP •

•

You will be flown to a local airport where next, you and the tour group will be transported via bus to the next hotel. As the tour group are preparing for the hike, you will have an opportunity explore the local town and significant landmark Figure 1. Tin Tu, Mountaineering Journey. 2022. Digital Collage. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

S TA G E 5

HIKING 3: ASCENDING • • • •

•

The trek will continue through the cultural villages, experiencing the cultural lifestyle of Sherpas. You then cross through a monastery representative of the Buddhist religion You begin to feel the early effects of altitude, which you can opt for an alternative shorter route directly to the next campsite. You’re able see spectacular mountain ranges and famous summits all around you including Everest, Kantega and AmaDablam. The trek flows through a pine forest next to a Buddhist temple region where wildlife can be seen around cultural villages and landmarks By the end of the hiking day, you reach the campsite setting and preparing for another hiking day.

S TA G E 6 A R R I V E AT B A S E C A M P •

• • •

After long hours of hiking during the day, you have finally arrived at base camp. This is the base camp where you stay before deciding to ascend to the top or descend back down. Temperature and wind are much more hazardous. You and the tour group begin setting up tents and prepare shelter. The base camp serves as a resting destination for tourists

S TA G E 4 HIKING 2: ASCENDING •

•

After the first overnight stay, you then continue to ascend, hiking for the day into higher altitudes. The journey consists of crossing green / aqua waters and through the gates of urban national parks further highlighting spectacular views of landscape and parkland’s. While ascending you are also collecting wood and timber logs to create controlled campfires that will greatly benefit during cold nights. The trail continues to climb reaching a local Sherpa village and camping overnight at the campsite.

SEEKING

REFUGE

03 BACKGROUND “why mountains? a sense of place.. economic growth.. historical outlook ”

SEEKING

REFUGE

BACKGROUND

0 3.1

M O U N TA I N E E R I N G Mountaineering can be broadly defined as the activity of hiking, trekking and climbing in regions that are generally situated at higher altitude. The environment of mountain regions are often unpredictable, as geographic land forms are unmaintained and conditions are regional compared to urban areas. Mountaineering entails risks associated with perceived physical danger and uncertain outcomes (Ewert and Hollenhorst 1989). The perception of danger and risks revolves around the foundation of risk recreation stimulating “intense levels of cognitive an emotion arousal” in participants (Robinson 1992, 53). Competent participants who are actively in control of the events outcome experience positive motivation and emotional arousal (Pomfret 2006, 116). Conversely, participants who cannot control the events outcome experience negative arousal, feeling fear and anxiety (Pomfret 2006, 116)

Why Mountains? Mountains are recognized as regions of relaxation and healing, exposed to a broad range of natural environment stimulates excitement throughout the human body. It brings about rewards and satisfaction such as achieving personal goals when arriving at base camp or eventually reaching the summit. Participation in mountain activities enable a feeling of rejuvenation or achieving new technical skills that were never previously established (Pomfret 2006). Individuals are intrinsically motivated and are influenced by various ‘push’ factors associated with mountaineering ambitions. Given that Mountaineering is a form of adventure tourism, it shares similarities between conventional recreational sports, with both activities considered as a form of physical exercise. (Pomfret 2006). The motivational dimension of challenge and risk embodies the motives of excitement, personal testing and accomplishment (Pomfret 2006, 117), where risk factors act as stimulants to motivate individuals to participate in events. A mountaineering participation model is developed to explore the key influences on people participating in mountaineering activities.

SEEKING

REFUGE

03 P R I N C I P L E S I M PA C T I N G M O U N TA I N E E R I N G PA R T I C I PAT I O N K E Y I N F L U E N C E S O N P E O P L E S PA R T I C I PAT I O N I N M O U N TA I N E E R I N G E X P E R I E N C E S

Cognitive Arous al

Adrenaline Rush

Seek ing Sens ation Self Determination

Thrill of Risk s

Lands cape Pleasure

Explore Wildlife

Stimulating Risk s

Experience Nature

Cultural Experience

Achievement Satis faction

Pers onal Goals

Physical Setting

Changed Motives

Long/Shor t Term Goals

MOUNTA I NE E R I NG

Es capism

Relationship Development

PA R T I C I PAT I ON

Pers onal Closure

MODEL

Public Satis faction

Recognition

Self Rejuvenation

Achieving Public Glor y Public Inf luence

Creativit y

Identit y Construction

Expanding Minds et

Self Fulf illment

Spatial Expression Self Securit y

Exploring Spaces Idea Formulation

Figure 2. Tin Tu, Mountaineering Participation Model. 2022. Digital Diagram. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

BACKGROUND 03. 2 A HISTORICAL OUTLOOK Research conducted on altitude architecture draws from a variety of articles that explore the underlying history behind traditional refuge huts. Before the integration of architectural built forms on mountains, the possibilities of high altitude (HA) mountaineering and living was unknown. That was until 1786 where the first ascent of Mont Blanc marked the beginning of a new climbing era (Machedon 2019). During these early years, climbers have begun unveiling human capabilities of sustaining HA for a short period of time. The introduction of architecture followed closely to these series of events, beginning in its initial primitive phase where the earliest mountain huts and bivouacs first construction commenced the first of many discussions on the ethics of high altitude building (Machedon 2019).

In 1953, first ascent of Mount Everest brought about further advancement in human capabilities, managing to reach the highest point on Earth whilst limited to technology unlocks the potentials of architecture as a response to human improvement. Altitude architecture progressively saw a shift from its early primitive gestures to more complex objects, increasing tourism and mountaineering journeys each year. Brands saw this an opportunity for economic consumerism, developing products that are easily accessible by everyone. For example, Kathmandu is a popular clothing retail company with its name originating from the popular mountains region of Kathmandu, Nepal. The company offers premium outdoor clothing and accessories in response to the growing demands of mountaineering tourism.

TIMELINE OF SIGNIFICANT EVENTS Figure 3. Tin Tu, History of Mountaineering: Image Collage. 2022. Digital Image. Reproduced From: Google Images

1786

1800’s

1870 - 1900

FIRST ASCENT OF MONT BLANC

THE FUTURE OF ANTHROPOCENE

T H E “ P L AY G R O U N D ” O F M O U N TA I N E E R S

•

The first ascent of Mont Blanc completed by De Saussure

•

Climbers have begun unveiling human capabilities of sustaining high altitude for short periods of time.

•

Architecture followed closely during these early years.

•

Decisive turning point in the conceptualization of high mountains, marking its entry into the modern culture.

SEEKING

REFUGE

•

Scientists and Romanic artists were the first to approach remote, dangerous high territories as precursors of the future of anthropic expansions and therefor the Anthropocene (Machedon 2019, 1)

•

Mountaineering within the alpine regions saw a progressive transformation of the alpine region from an ancestral construct into a scientific learning, the “playground” of mountaineers (Stephen, 1871)

•

They initially started out building small stone shelters named the temples of nature, used in high grounds to observe and admire the scenic environment (Machedon 2019)

•

Mountain guides extensively tame the entire alpine area, initiating a process of systematic physical alteration of high-altitude region, paving the way for a widespread building colonization that continues to evolve to this day (Dini and Girodo 2018)

03 M AY 2 8 th First summit ascent of Mt Everest

Sir Edmund Hillar y & Te n z i n g N o r g a y - S h e r p a

1900’s

1953

2000’s

A N A DVA N C E M E N T IN GLOBAL TOURISM

FIRST ASCENT OF MOUNT EVEREST

A NEW SHIFT IN THE S O C I A L PA R A D I G M

•

The advancement in tourism saw a global rise mountaineering tourism.

•

Temporary built shelters named bivouacs continued to be used marking the initial stages of built shelters.

•

During this time also saw evolution in structurally built shelters. Locals utilized traditional construction methods - a representation of function over form.

•

This event gave rise to the beginning of the Anthropocene, as humans managed to reach the highest point on earth

•

This glorious human achievement opened route to the most famous summit, affecting global tourism and cultural knowledge (Machedon 2019)

•

The beginning of the 21st century brought about a new shift in the social paradigm, sparking an evolution into the Anthropocene (Machedon 2019)

•

Advancements in technology paved way to new building styles and transportation techniques became the catalysts for intensive mass tourism

•

The result of advanced technology reduces complexity of mountaineering, thus a global rise in tourism within the sector. SEEKING

REFUGE

BACKGROUND

0 3 . 3 A R E G I O N F O R A C T I V I T Y, P E O P L E A N D P L A C E Mountaineering as Interconnection Physical Activity Mountaineering tourism in regional grounds encourage interpersonal interaction between foreign tourists and cultural ethnic groups enabling traditional learnings regarding the cultural environment (Weed 2005). It is a form of physical activity that constitutes engagement with expedition guides, fellow team members, fellow participants, host community residents and search and rescues services (Musa, Higham and Thompson-Carr 2015, 9). As a result, mountaineering is strongly conceptualized around Weed and Bull’s (2015) mountaineering tourism theoretical framework, interplaying between notions of activity, people and place (Musa, Higham and Thompson-Carr 2015).

ACTIVIT Y

PLACE

n ou

eering To tain ur is m

PEOPLE

Figure 4. Tin Tu, Mountaineering: Activity, People and Place. 2022. Digital Sketch. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

nge a ra e i n, t ide rov r t i c i pa t al p s en pa ain u nt t i e s t o v i r o n m o M tivi n c ne o f a gi ng i a e ng at i o n c edu

T AC

iro Env

ent

g klin Ta c o s u r e p Ex

in gW klin Ta c C o l d and

th E e to om re h plac e a s a ain o ds , ls u nt g m o nt a i n y l o c a b u mo hi p e d rs o w

l ces pla to f e e e are i ns l e c om lac e a t p p l un Mo re p e o . It is a i t iona d d e w h e nat e n d t ra v al a u j re l tur u nt . o f c g eme a eng

“ REACH FOR THE SKY” ONE GOAL , MANY ROUTES Teamwork

Sea

el Climbing

E 1

E 3

2 RO

A N EVE R E ND Mou ING ntain c oun eerin JOU t g le RN sum ss alte is a ne EY mit . r v n e ativ re T mou ntain he altern e routes nding jo t ha t u e a t r e t h iv r at r e n e y w e ro is told ing a with journe utes is wach the ith endle y, an h ss po everla at make s s ssibil ities. ting stor y

With endless amounts of route to the summit, only one final goal is consistent for everyone, that is to reach the summit.

Lev

Partnership

Figure 5. Tin Tu, Mountaineering: Exploration Collage. 2022. Digital Illustration. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

BACKGROUND

03.4 A REGION FOR ECONOMIC & CONTROL GROWTH Economic Impact on Regional Zones Due to the expanding influence of the neoliberal economic policies since the 1980’s global evolution, mountaineering has developed into an economical nature-based driving force for regional grounds outside the reach of western capitalist development (Musa, Higham and Thompson-Carr 2015). Mountaineering tourism presents a ‘spatial fix’ by navigating new forms of development to regions outside the urban environment, creating a pathway that directs mountaineering into a rising state of local economic growth (Harvey 2010). The principles underlying the rise of mountaineering into an economical growth has transformed nature to commodified tourism ‘products’ (Mowforth and Munt 2008; Neves 2004, 2010), where development is solely driven by consumer demand, social well-being and environmental sustainability. With most of the world population living and working in centralized urban areas, mountains have become places of ‘excitement, stimulation and potential adventure’ (Beedie and Hudson 2006, 625). This prompts the emergence of mountain-based activities to increase leisure that will promote a stronger local economy of regional zones. As mountaineering forms part of nature-based tourism, it is commonly associated with protected natural areas (PNAs), such as urban national parks and environmental ecosystems, providing opportunities to portray tourism in the light of development in disadvantaged regional communities and natural conservations areas (Pomfret 2006, 2011; Hales 2006). The significant increase in global tourism impacts local communities through the means of heightened income and lifestyle as a substitute for being considered a regional destination.

R E L AT I ONS HI P OF M OUN TA I NE E R I NG WI T H : E C O N O M Y, S O C I A L W E L L B E I N G A N D E N V I R O N M E N T

Economic Viability Financial Investment to Cultural Regions High demand on mountaineering consumer products Tourism promoting local economy of rural regions

MOUNTAIN

Social Wellbeing

SUSTAINABILITY

Increasing Population Advancing Technologies - Opportunities, applications in development Sense of wellbeing including physical and mental health

Environmental Sustainability Environmental Conservation awareness Pollution Awareness Land use choices Figure 6. Tin Tu, Relationship of Mountaineering with Economy, Social Wellbeing and Environment. 2022. Digital Diagram. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

04 THE ISSUES “rising mountain tourism.. rising risks.. injuries.. death.. acute mountain sickness.. human vs natural cause risks.. ” “environmental pollution, waste, solutions & education..” “diminishing cultural traditions, origin of attitude architecture..”

SEEKING

REFUGE

G L O B A L M O U N TA I N E E R I N G TOURISM AMERICAS

EUROPE

219 million +2%

744 million +4%

ASIA AND T H E PA C I F I C 362 million +4%

AFRICA 70 million +2%

MIDDLE EAST 65 million +8%

THE ISSUES

R E S P O N D I N G T O T H E I M PA C T S O F M O U N TA I N E E R I N G T O U R I S M I N T H E H I M A L AYA S

E C O L O G I C A L LY S E N S I T I V E MOUNTA I N R E G I ONS

CORE I S SUE ENV I RONMENTAL I MPACT MOUNTAIN WASTE

RI SI NG RI SK S INJURIES AND DEATH

CULT UR AL I MPACT DIMINISHING TRADITIONAL DESIGN THROUGH EVOLUTION

DESIGN PROPOSAL

RESPONSE

ISSUE

I M PA C T I NG

RISE IN MOUNTA I NE E R I NG TOURISM

REF UGE FACI LI T I ES PROV I DI NG: 1.

Refuge - traditional style refuge huts to protect climbers from weathering elements 2. 3.

Gathering - Kitchen resources, cooking, communal dining and briefing Sherpa Space - additional refuge for expedition leaders and Sherpas

Resources - electrical generators, water storage and waste disposal services hut and essential stock

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Global Mountaineering Tourism

0 4 .1

R I S E I N M O U N TA I N E E R I N G T O U R I S M RESEARCH TRENDS

Over the last 40 years, the mountaineering tourism sector seen a gradual rise with the effects being both positive and negative. A graph of expedition numbers were recorded to assess how many expeditions were undertaken during the 40 year period and a summary of observations were recorded. •

It was clearly seen that mountain expeditions undertaken in Autumn and Spring seasons were the most popular, with little or almost no expeditions during Summer and Winter

•

In 1995, 42 Nepalese Sherpas died from Avalanches. This was also seen in 2013 however with 20 casualties.

•

By the end of 1999 saw a dramatic drop in mountaineering, this soon rose rapidly by the beginning of 2000.

•

Between the years 2009 and 2013 saw a significant drop in expeditions, however rapidly increased from 2014 onwards.

•

Mountaineering expeditions expected to decrease from 2019 onwards due to the COVID-19 Pandemic, however it also expected to gradually return to its rise 2023 onwards as travel restrictions ease.

As mountaineering tourism rises, it had seemed to boost the tourism sector positively however, the consequences of this are rising death tolls over years of rising expeditions.

N U M B E R O F E X P E D I T I O N S I N T H E H I M A L AYA N R E G I O N S , N E PA L Full graph from 1950 - 2019 can be viewed in the appendix

Legend Autumn

42 Nepalese Sherpas die in avalanches

Number of Expeditions

Spring Summer Winter

Year (1980 - 2019)

SEEKING

REFUGE

04 A S I A A N D T H E PA C I F I C S O U T H A S I A : N E PA L “South Asia achieved the fastest growth among Asian subregions with the Maldives recorded double-digit growth capitalizing on the increase in visitors from the Chinese and European markets. “Nepal and Bhutan continued to show strong results, while India, the subregion’s largest destination, posted strong growth in receipts.” - (United Nations World Tourism Organization 2020, 11) International Tourist Arrivals 2019

362

Million

NEPAL

+4%

HIMALAYAS

International Tourist Receipts 2019

USD 443

+1%

Million

FOCAL POINT SIGNIFICANT RISE IN GLOBAL TOURISM ZONE (2000 - 2019)

20 Nepalese Sherpas die in avalanches ourism lobal T Rise in G

Figure 7. Number of Expeditions reaching the Summit in Himalayan Regions (years 1980 - 2019) Source: Figure adapted from The Himalayan Database (2019)

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Global Mountaineering Tourism

04.2 IDENTIFYING THE TRENDS: TRENDS MAP A G L O B A L R I S E I N M O U N TA I N T O U R I S M Based on the graph of figure 7 of the global rise in mountain tourism in the Himalayan regions, a visual summary of identified trends were made

WHO ARE SHERPAS? Sherpas a Tibetan ethnic group, members of this group work as a support for tourists throughout mountainer expeditions.

TREND 1

TREND 2

SEASONAL CLIMBING

SHERPA DEATHS

What are the best seasons to climb?

SUMMER

AUTUMN

SPRING

WINTER

How many and what caused them to die?

WHEN?

HOW MANY?

AUTUMN

SPRING

A gradual r

WHAT CAUSED?

1970 6 1995 42

SEEKING

REFUGE

AVALANCHES

Avalanche deaths were a primary cause of mass casualties in the Himalayan regions. Without Sherpas, mountain tourism wouldn’t exist and less expeditions would occur.

1999

1998

2013

1997

According to the graph of results, it was clearly seen that mountain expeditions undertaken in Autumn and Spring seasons were the most popular, with little or almost no expeditions during Summer and Winter

04 REBUILDING TOURISM POST COVID-19 Is acknowledged that the current COVID-19 pandemic plays a detrimental role throughout the aim of thesis. Along with this decline, the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) predicts that global tourism will recover and rise from 2023 onwards (OECD 2020)

DE C LI NE

LI N

GRAD

G EN

E UAL INCLIN

TE PAT R AL

I NC

ID R AP

TREND 3

TREND 5

GRADUAL INCLINE

RAPID INCLINE

SUDDEN DECLINE

A further rapid rise in mountaineering expeditions

COVID - 19 Pandemic

rise in mountaineering expeditions

D’ S OE C UR E F U T I C T I ON D PRE

OECD’ S FUTURE PREDICTION

20 NEPALESE SHERPAS DIE

2024

2023

2022

2021

2020

2019

2018

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

PRESENT DAY

Figure 8. Tin Tu, Identifying Common Trends of Mountaineering: Trends Map. 2022. Digital Diagram. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

R I S K A N A LY S I S A S A R E S U LT O F R I S I N G M O U N TA I N E E R I N G T O U R I S M Q U A N T I TAT I V E A P P R O A C H

THE ISSUES Risk Analysis

04.3 RISING RISKS A S A R E S U LT O F R I S I N G T O U R I S M Due to the increase in global tourism over 7 decades of mountaineering expeditions (Bishop and Naumann 1996), there are rising risks associated with tourist’s ambition of conquering the highest peaks. Mountaineering tourism has become conveniently desirable to the public, where a new generation of guides offering cheap expedition rates attract groups of novice mountaineers. This poses risk and requires urgent response as there are several factors regarding high altitude dangers that necessitate enlightenment for anyone seeking to adventure in potentially dangerous territories. Human Causes of Injury & Death Due to its extreme nature, the most significant dangers are also the most common occurring and life threatening, often resulting in casualties. However, it is the dangers caused by human fault that lead to causalities. Human fault is inevitable but can be reduced by raising awareness on the different factors that make the activity dangerous. Natural Causes of Injury & Death Another common risk making mountaineering an extremely dangerous form of physical activity are its natural causes. Its unpredictability poses high risk as any impulsive movement on its geophysical terrain may trigger natural hazards such as avalanches and ice fall. Mountain regions are more susceptible to earthquakes as they are the points where tectonic plates meet, forming a depression in the land due to constant pressure between the plates. These factors are the most common forms of natural disasters. Physiological Effects A major concern in higher altitudes is oxygen availability, where the fall in atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes decreases the partial pressure of inspired oxygen, and hence the strenuous pressure on the lungs for gas exchange (Peacock 1998, 1063). The significant drop in air pressure approaching high altitude causes a series of physiological effects to the lungs, heart, blood and brain as each of the major organs receive insufficient oxygen, resulting in a state of hypoxia. Acclimatization Acclimatization is key for safe traveling in high altitudes. It is the process where an organism gradually adapts to changes in climate and environment, resulting to being accustomed to its new conditions (Peacock 1998). Acclimatization should be progressive, should it not may result in symptoms of Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS), a harmful effect of high altitude caused by rapid exposure to insufficient levels of oxygen.

Figure 9. Tin Tu, Risks of Mountaineering . 2022. Digital Sketch. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Risk Analysis

0 4 . 4 C A U S E S O F I N J U R Y A N A LY S I S D ATA C O M PA R I S O N B E T W E E N T H E D I F F E R E N T L O C AT I O N S To understand the severity of accidents on mountains, a statistical data analysis was extracted from not two, but three different geographic locations to broaden the accuracy of data.

SITE SPECIFIC

ADJACENT REGIONS

DISTANT REGION

3 Region:

Region:

The Himalayan (The Himalayan Database)

The Middle Eastern (K2 Organization)

The U.S (The American Alpine Club Association)

PERCENTAGE RATE (% )

Region:

Figure 10: Causes of injury percentage comparison between three different locations Sources: Data from “The Himalayan Database (2019)”, “Pak Peak (2017)”, “American Alpine Club (2015)”

SEEKING

REFUGE

CAUSES OF INJURY

04 O B S E R VAT I O N S •

It was seen that weather exposure was main cause of injuries among the Himalayan and Middle Eastern regions, however is not so prominent in U.S regions.

•

Acute mountain Sickness (AMS) maintained relatively steady as one of the main causes of injuries in the Himalayas and U.S regions

•

Avalanches were the main cause of injuries within Middle Eastern regions however not so much in Himalayan and U.S regions

•

Falling remained a relatively consistent cause of injury across all selected regions

•

Falling rocks, disappearance, exhaustion and equipment failure remained a low cause of injuries across all selected regions

Legend Himalayan Middle Eastern U.S

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Risk Analysis

0 4 . 5 C A U S E S O F D E AT H A N A LY S I S D ATA C O M PA R I S O N B E T W E E N T H E D I F F E R E N T L O C AT I O N S With increased mountaineering expeditions comes rising death tolls. Upon investigating the main causes of injuries in the Himalayan, Middle Eastern and U.S mountaineering regions, it was understood that not all injuries result in death. Therefor below investigated the primary causes of death in the same three regions using the same causes as listed in figure 10.

SITE SPECIFIC

ADJACENT REGIONS

DISTANT REGION

3 Region:

Region:

The Himalayas

The Middle East

The U.S

(The Himalayan Database)

(K2 Organization)

(The American Alpine Club Association)

PERCENTAGE RATE (% )

Region:

Figure 11: Causes of death percentage comparison between three different locations Sources: Data from “The Himalayan Database (2019)”, “Pak Peak (2017)”, “American Alpine Club (2015)”

SEEKING

REFUGE

CAUSES OF DEATH

04 O B S E R VAT I O N S •

It was clearly seen that falling was the highest cause of death in all selected region, with Middle Eastern regions taking out the highest rate, followed by the U.S and then Himalayas.

•

Avalanches was seen as one of the highest causes of death in the Himalayan and U.S regions, however not so much the Middle East.

•

Exceeding abilities remained a consistent cause of death across the Himalayan and U.S regions, but not so much for the Middle Eastern region

•

Illness (Non-AMS) and disappearance cause of deaths were almost equal across all selected regions.

•

Falling rock causes of death were equal across all selected regions

•

Equipment failure remained a low cause of death in all selected regions.

Legend Himalayan Middle Eastern U.S

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Risk Analysis

0 4 . 6 D ATA C O M PA R I S O N C A U S E S O F I N J U R Y V S C A U S E S O F D E AT H CAUSES

Weather Exposure

Acute Mountain Sick ness (AMS)

Illness (Non - AMS)

Avalanches

Falling

Highest Average cause of injury across all three regions (26%)

32%

30%

34.54%

35%

26%

18.3%

22.34%

14. 4%

1.8%

6.87%

7.9%

10%

13%

11. 7%

11%

12%

15. 25%

15%

16%

17%

19. 8%

23%

22%

20%

PERCENTAGE RATES %

CAUSE OF INJURY DATA

SECTION 4. 4

25%

4.5%

5.38% 8.6%

4. 9%

8.85%

4. 5%

5.5%

PERCENTAGE RATES %

10%

15%

20%

20. 5%

22%

CAUSE OF DEATH DATA

SECTION 4. 5

33%

31%

30%

33.56%

25%

34. 4% 39.4%

35%

40% Figure 12: Data comparison between primary causes of injury and primary causes of death Sources: Data from “The Himalayan Database (2019)”, “Pak Peak (2017)”, “American Alpine Club (2015)”

SEEKING

REFUGE

04 SITE SPECIFIC

ADJACENT REGIONS

Falling Rock /Ice

Dis appearance

DISTANT REGION

Region:

The Himalayas

The Middle East

The U.S

(The Himalayan Database)

(K2 Organization)

(The American Alpine Club Association)

Exhaustion

Exceeding Abilities

Equipment Failure

Unk nown

35%

30%

Legend Himalayan 25%

Middle Eastern U.S Average %

20%

15.1%

15%

10%

1.3%

1. 2%

1.5%

2.5%

1.6%

1.95%

2. 2% 3%

1. 3%

2.3%

3.5%

2.5%

5. 5%

2 . 7% 5%

4.64%

3.5%

0% 4.5%

10% 11.6% 15%

13%

2 . 4% 4.42%

3.5%

3. 8% 3%

9. 3%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Highest Average cause of death across all three regions (34.4%)

40%

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Risk Analysis

0 4 . 7 L I N K I N G T H E D A T A : E S T A B L I S H I N G D E S I G N P A T H W A Y It was evident that despite the data comparison between causes of injury and death, there was an overarching rise in both injuries and death from mountaineering. Most of which could be categorized into human cause or natural cause in the next step (chapter 04.8) By assessing both injury and death cause results, three key observations were made from comparing both data sets. 1.

Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) remained a primary cause of injury for the Himalayas, Middle Eastern and U.S mountain regions with the highest average percentage rate of 26%

Falling was the primary cause of death throughout the Himalayas, Middle Eastern and U.S mountain regions with the highest average percentage rate of 34.4%

Avalanches was one of the top causes of death in Himalayas and Middle Eastern Mountain regions due to mass death in a single wipe.

R E S U LT S S U G G E S T S D E S I G N PAT H W AY A

PRIMARY CAUSE OF INJURY ACUTE MOUNTAIN SICKNESS (AMS)

LEADING TO

WHY? INSUFFICIENT OXYGEN LEVELS AT HIGH ALTITUDE

PRIMARY CAUSE OF DEATH

RESULTING IN

FALLING

RESPONSE

RISING DEATH TOLLS

HOW CAN DESIGN MAKE AN IMPACT? AIR - TIGHT OXYGEN THERAPY SPACE

BENEFITS OF OXYGEN THERAPY TO INCREASE OXYGEN FLOW THROUGHOUT THE BODY WHICH REDUCES FURTHER NEGATIVE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Risk Analysis

0 4 . 8 H U M A N C A U S E V S N A T U R A L C A U S E Each cause of injury and death were categorized as either human or natural cause to indicate the level of risk The statistical data were placed into their respective categories (eg. Avalanches are placed into 4.0 Natural Disasters under the main heading “Natural Cause”) Reading the Analysis The risk analysis below, assess the level of risks tourists face when mountain hiking. It addresses the risks in the form of human causes (human error) on the left side, and natural causes (inevitable situations) on the right side. Using percentages from the causes of injury and death analysis, the level of risk were estimated.

M O U N TA I N E E R I N G R I S K C AT E G O R I E S Level of Risk Low

Medium

HUMAN CAUSE

High

NAT UR A L C A US E

1.0 Technical Skills (Physical)

4.0

Natural Disasters AVALANCHES

1.1 Physical (Body Itself)

Avalanches Rockfall Thunder Icefall Landslides Glacial Shifts Geographical Hazards Volcanic Activity

Strength Cardiovascular Endurance Aerobic Capacity Postural Stability Flexible Motion Body/Fat Ratio

1.2 Physiological (Body Functions) Hypothermia Hypoxia Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) Hyperventilation LEADS TO FALLING Polycythemia Pulmonary Edema (HAPE)

5.0

AMS

Sun Wind Rainfall Snow Altitude Temperature Humidity

2.0 Non - Technical Skills (Mental) Situational Awareness Decision Making Teamwork Communication Leadership Mental Endurance

3.0 Survival Skills Rope Skills Protective Equipment Shelter First Aid Inventory Fire/Water Management

Environmental Exposure

6.0 Biodiversity Encounters 6.1 Flora Grey-Hairy Hodweed (Skin allergy) Musk Larkspur (Cardiotoxic) Milk Thistle (Anti-respiratory) Chinaberry Tree (Neurotoxic) Thorny Nightshade (Anti-Spermatogenic)

6.2 Fauna Himalayan Black Bear Royal Bengal Tiger (Endangered) Snow Leopard (Endangered) Snakes (King Cobras) Marsh Mugger Crocodile

Figure 13. Tin Tu, Mountaineering Risk Categories. 2022. Digital Diagram. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Risk Analysis

0 4 . 9 D ATA C O M PA R I S O N D I S T R I B U T I N G S E L E C T E D D ATA

23%

injuries

caused by AMS (Acute Mountain Sickness)

The U.S Alps (American Alps) (American Alpine Club Association) DISTANT REGION

33%

Legend

caused by Falling

Himalayan Middle Eastern U.S What is Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS)? Acute mountain sickness is physical illness caused by reduced air pressure and lower oxygen levels in the bloodstream affecting anyone who ascent above altitude heights of 3000m or higher (Medline Plus 2022). The immediate management of serious illness requires oxygen (if available) and descent of more than 300m as soon as possible (Imray et al. 2010, 467) Symptoms of AMS include: Headaches

SEEKING

Insomnia

REFUGE

deaths

Fatigue

Dizziness

Nauseous

Weak

04 SITE SPECIFIC

ADJACENT REGIONS

22%

DISTANT REGION

Region:

The Himalayas

The Middle East

The U.S

(The Himalayan Database)

(K2 Organization)

(The American Alpine Club Association)

injuries

caused by AMS (Acute Mountain Sickness)

34%

deaths

caused by Avalanches This is also related to recorded Sherpa deaths

ADJACENT REGIONS

The Middle East (K2 Organization) SITE SPECIFIC

The Himalayas (The Himalayan Database)

31%

32%

injuries

caused by AMS (Acute Mountain Sickness)

deaths

caused by Falling

39%

deaths

caused by Falling

Figure 14. Tin Tu, Causes of Injury and Death Statistics Map . 2022. Digital Diagram. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

A LT I T U D E S T U D I E S

THE ISSUES Altitude Studies

0 4 . 1 0 S U S T A I N A B L E H E I G H T S It was known that at higher altitude, the higher risks of physiological damage. To understand the limits of human physicality, the table below assessed the altitude heights and identified the associated risk and considerations in their respective categories. The altitude assessment criteria forms part of the background research that will reinforce the process of selecting an appropriate site for design.

C AT E G O R I Z AT I O N TA B L E O F M O U N TA I N H E I G H T S

Category 1

Category 2

Category 3

•

Generally situated in higher altitudes (4500 - 6000m)

•

Generally found in lower regions of mountains (2000 - 4500m)

•

Typically found in lower regions than category 2 (1000 - 2000m)

•

High support from Sherpa

•

Medium support from Sherpa

•

Medium-low support from Sherpa

•

Access through walking. No road access availability

•

Generally defined an Alpine Club refuge located in a popular area.

•

Little to no refuge accommodation

Often accessible by roads. However roads aren’t particularly clear and extra caution is required to drive to these locations

•

Generally more remote, routes are difficult to hike.

•

Route is generally accessible by regular hikers

Generally open all year round and is fully accessible by road transportation.

• •

Climate is much more dangerous.

•

Climate is generous during certain seasons

Routes are easily accessible by anyone

•

Higher risk of physiological altitude effects

• •

Medium risk of physiological altitude effects

Low risk of physiological altitude effects

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Altitude Studies

0 4 . 1 1 P L A C I N G A C U T E M O U N T A I N S I C K N E S S AMS being the primary cause of injury (refer to section 04.6) generally occurs at altitudes of 3000m and above (refer to section 04.10). By placing it on the height scale below, it was seen to be categorized in category 2.

CATEGORY

Death Zone

8000m

The oxygen concentration of this altitude is so low, your cells do not have enough oxygen to build new tissue. Your body will continue to wither away until death

Extreme Altitude

> 5000m

Many will experience unconsciousness at this altitude if not properly acclimatised. There are only a few mountain ranges in the world that reach this altitude.

1 Very High Altitude

3000m

4500 AMS

Tingling sensations, headache, fatigue, and other indications of AMS will usually begin to occur from approximately 3000m onward

2 High Altitude

2000

1500m

At this altitudes, the effects of AMS are very subtle. Environments are generous and are optimal for novice climbers

3 Sea Level Figure 15. Tin Tu, Levels of Altitude: Placing Acute Mountain Sickness . 2022. Digital Diagram. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

1000

THE ISSUES Altitude Studies

0 4 . 1 2 L O C A T I O N O F F A T A L I T I E S Each year many mountaineers unfortunately die during expedition. These are mainly due to common altitude effects that influence human bodily functions, thus making them incapable of continuing the journey. It was important to assess the fatalities and locate approximately where abouts of these occurred so that informed decisions are made into selecting the height of the site. The data extracted below were recorded from an annual expedition in spring 2019 and highlights the location of fatalities as well as what caused and how old they were, all within the Himalayan Mountain regions. C A US E OF D E AT H ( S P R I NG 2 0 1 9 ) Exposure / Frostbite

Acute Mountain Sickness

Exhaustion

Other

Age

Legend

Died Before Summiting

Died After Summiting

50 40 30 20 10

Each dot representing a climber who died on Himalayan Peaks in spring 2019

L OC AT I ON OF FATA L I T I E S ( 2 0 1 9 ) Death Zone Extreme lack of oxygen. Cells do not have enough oxygen

4 Deaths at 7900m On various dates in the vicinity of Camp IV

Legend Died Before Summiting Died After Summiting

8000m 7500m

LHOTSE

7000m

CHO OYO

KANCHENJUNGA MAKALU

6500m

ANNAPURNA I

Died Before summiting

Died after summiting

E V EREST Figure 16. Tin Tu, Location of Fatalities . 2022. Digital Diagram. Adapted From: Reuters Graphics

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Altitude Studies

0 4 . 1 3 I D E N T I F I E D B O D I L Y C H A L L E N G E S A T H I G H A L T I T U D E

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS R E L AT I N G T O B O D I LY F U N C T I O N S

Lack of oxygen is critical in these circumstances and often causes headaches, decrease in brain functionality, and confusion Exposed skin to intense UV sunlight can burn the skin and potentially cause “snow blindness” Low oxygen levels in the blood are detected, signaling the brain telling the body to adjust to the difference

A climbers breathing rate is generally 5 - 6 times faster than the average breathing rate Heart rate is significantly raised at higher altitude, therefor it has to work harder and faster in order to pump blood throughout the working body At high altitude, the body may experience poor digestion, loss of appetite intensive nausea

PHYSICAL EFFECTS R E L AT I N G T O M U S C L E F AT I G U E

Climbers suffer from hypothermia and frostbite which in deadly cases may result in amputation of the body part. Specialized climbing gear are made to reduce chances of frostbite and protect the body from extreme cold. Physical exhaustion in the quadriceps is common as climbers are constantly hiking at steep altitudes. This leads to fluid imbalances causing dehydration and malnourishment.

Physical exhaustion and cramping in the lower legs due to extensive hiking. Adequate resting periods are required if climbers are to proceed with their climbing journey. Physiological and physical effects at high altitude information were collected and sourced from Mayo Clinic

Figure 17. Tin Tu, Identified Bodily Challenges at High Altitude. 2022. Digital Sketch. Adapted From: Mayo Clinic

SEEKING

REFUGE

E N V I R O N M E N TA L I M PA C T S M O U N TA I N WA S T E

THE ISSUES Environmental Impacts

0 4 . 1 4 W A S T E P O L L U T I O N Mountaineering as physically demanding and adventurous as it may sound, is renowned for its considerably harmful impacts on the environment. Over seven decades of mountain climbing and rising mountaineering tourism, natures peaks and valleys are recognized as a dumping zone, otherwise quoted by Barry Bishop (the father of Brent Bishop), in his 1963 hike to Mt Everest base camp as “The world’s highest junk yard” (Bishop 1963, 489). The accumulation of trash seen on the hiking routes and base camps come in the form of old tents, oxygen bottles, equipment, ropes, glass, plastic and aluminum as well as human feces has seen Barry’s words come true 31 years later, for the problem has worsened by years of environmental disregard (Bishop and Naumann 1996).

T Y P E S O F WA S T E O N R O U T E TO B A S E C A M P

“The only good part about the human waste situation above Base Camp is that shit freezes fast at 8,000 meters” (Brent Bishop 2015, 1).

Human Feces Oxy

gen

Bot

tle s

ro e st

ts Te n yed

cW ast

O rg

ani

inu

Figure 18. Tin Tu, Types of Waste on Route to Base Camp. 2022. Digital Collage: Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Environmental Impacts

0 4 .1 5

R E L AT I O N S H I P B E T W E E N M O U N TA I N S , P E O P L E A N D WA S T E The following map highlights the population and waste density within mountain regions.

Targeting the Himalayan regions The Himalayan region is heavily populated, however, as a consequence of being a popular tourist destination, more waste is produced. While the map highlights the challenges of waste across a global scale, this opens up opportunities to discuss and propose potential solutions to counteract the impacts of disregarded waste on mountains.

Population Density in Mountain Ranges (Number of people / km2)

100 - 200

5 - 25

200 - 350

25 - 50

350 - 500

50 - 100

500 - 1,000

Figure 19. Levi Westerveld, Mountains, People and Waste: A Map of Waste Density in Mountain Regions. 2019, Digital Image. Reproduced from: Flickr

SEEKING

REFUGE

Figure 20. Shradda Chowdhury, It will take more than a lifetime to clear the Himalayas of all trash. 2020, Photograph. Reproduced From: Conde Nast Traveller Figure 21. Kimberly Hickok, How much waste is on mount everest?. 2018, Photograph. Reproduced From: Livescience Figure 22. Jeff Clapp, Bottled Oxygen at Base Camp. 2010, Photograph. Reproduced From: Quora

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Environmental Impacts

0 4 . 1 6 O R I G I N O F T H E P R O B L E M Waste pollution throughout the mountaineering journey can be traced back centuries ago are generally caused by two primary forces: 1. 2.

The association of mountaineering and summiting without any significant emphasis on environmental impacts and concern. Sheer volume of rising global tourism sees limited methods to reduce environmental impact despite acknowledging the knowledge of its risks

As Brent Bishop states:

“The real problem lies not so much in that expeditions bring large amounts of supplies, but rather what they do with the supplies once they are on the mountains” (Bishop and Naumann 1996, 323).

T H E C H A L L E N G E S O F M O U N TA I N WA S T E A HIKING JOURNEY

2 1

Waste management schemes are limited in developing countries. There are no formal institutional systems in place within remote regions

Large amounts of supplies

Bringing large amounts of supplies are not the problem. It is what we do with the waste is the challenge.

Backpacks Oxygen Cannisters

Equipment Rope

Hiking Sticks

Food Bags

Figure 23. Tin Tu, The Challenges of Mountain Waste. 2022. Digital Collage: Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

Limited waste management schemes

04 0 4 . 1 7 I S I T R I G H T O R W R O N G M E N T A L I T Y ? A certain mentality that has gradually developed over the years of mountaineering is to dispose trash in crevasses and to relieve waste to the point they become empty (Bishop and Naumann 1996). In essence this has created a short-term solution, an “out of sight, out of mind” mentality, where trash is out of sight to hikers on mountains, it is not their problem to resolve it (Bishop and Naumann 1996). As trash accumulates on mountains, the issue raises ethical concerns whether it is worth it for climbers expressing special effort in risks of potentially endangering themselves for environmental sake. Unfortunately, in specific cases of mountaineering, trash collection is not deemed “essential” for expeditions that are considered high risk.

“Up to 140,000kg of solid waste is estimated to remain after 60 years of expeditions” (Fogle 2018, 1).

Is it right or wrong?

Where are the bins?

The limited bin resources on mountains are a problem. However, the issue that no one is wiling to collect and bring it down

Should I risk my own life to collect that rubbish by the edge of cliff?

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Environmental Impacts

0 4 . 1 8 P O T E N T I A L S O L U T I O N S T O P O L L U T I O N A number of proposed solutions have been put forth to address the issues of mountain waste. However, such proposals require significant amounts of efforts and high risks solely for the purpose of trash retrieval. For example during Brent Bishops expedition in the 90’s, a high risk – high reward scheme was set out where large money sums were implemented to encourage anyone capable of clearing trash from the mountains. Another retrieval scheme involved the use of helicopters that costs excess of $3,500,000 (Bishop and Naumann 1996). Many of the proposed schemes were highly dependent on advanced technology (high altitude helicopters), which in a remote and developing country was considerably difficult to acquire (Bishop and Naumann 1966). None of the proposed solutions were carried out as mountaineering journalists became more aware that mountain waste did not need advanced technology to carry out such simple tasks. What lacked was public knowledge regarding waste management, there are limited waste management schemes currently in practice and no formal institutions in regional areas. The limited waste management schemes mean that mountaineers have no formal knowledge regarding the effects of uncontrolled waste on mountains. As Brent Bishop states:

“Humans are generally lazy, and unless there are rules and enforcement, behavior will not change” (Bishop 2015, 1).

Community Based - Waste Collection

A on-going solution to mountain waste takes a community based approach, where locals of the region unite and retrieve waste together as a community

Ground Level

SEEKING

REFUGE

Waste Monitoring Program

This involves monitoring data on number of tourists arrivals, length of stays, activities participated in and observing local communities of the region.

Advanced Technology

Retrieval scheme involved the use of helicopters to retrieve waste. However these costs excess of $3,500,000, a drawback in developing regional countries

High Risk - High Reward

A reward scheme may be set out to encourage not only just mountaineers, but anyone who retrieves waste. Rewards may be in the form of money or valuable items.

Underground Recycling System

Automatic recycling system transports solid waste through underground pipes at high speeds. Pipe only needs to be just below surface level

Figure 24. Tin Tu, Potential Solutions to Mountain Pollution. 2022. Digital Sketch: Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

DIMINISHMENT OF TRADITIONAL DESIGN C U LT U R E

THE ISSUES Diminishment of Traditional Culture

0 4 . 1 9 A C K N O W L E D G I N G T R A D I T I O N A L I S M L I T E R AT U R E S T U D I E S There has been a growing diminishment for traditional architectural language over years of upcoming technological advancement. As the world often sees modern technology evolving, efficiency of building construction is accelerated causing a loss of cultural identity and vibrancy. The global advancement as referred by Paul Oliver as “a global pandemic of generic buildings” (Oliver 1996, 15) in his book Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World discusses the gradual diminishment of traditional design strategies as the introduction of modern aesthetic outweighs the classic style of traditional design.

Origin of Nepal’s Traditional Altitude Architecture The history of altitude architecture provides an insightful analysis into the significance of primordial altitude design, however there are little discussions regarding the progressive diminishment of traditional design culture. Upon analysis of the article Climate Responsive Building Design Strategies of Vernacular Architecture in Nepal, authors Susan Bodach, Werner Land and Johannes Hamhaber discusses the importance of acknowledging the diminishing Nepalese traditional design culture, iterating that the traditional forms of vernacular architecture residing in regions of Nepal have stood for centuries optimizing sheltered huts suitable for local residents and foreign tourists (Bodach, Land and Hamhaber 2014). The dwellings of these regions have effectively “acclimatised” as like humans and adapted to endure the climatic conditions long before the introduction of modern architecture proving success in responding to the elements of altitude.

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Diminishment of Traditional Culture

T H E E F F E C T S O F M O U N TA I N E E R I N G O N T R A D I T I O N A L A LT I T U D E A R C H I T E C T U R E

THE NEW

The need The rise in mountaineering requires improved facilities for mass tourism

RISE IN MOUNTAIN TOURISM

IMPROVED ALTITUDE ARCHITECTURE

The method There needs to be a method to bring back traditional altitude architecture that originated in the Himalayan regions of Nepal

The consequence As a consequence of improved facilities, there is minimal acknowledgment in traditional Nepalese mountain huts

THE OLD

DIMINISHMENT OF TRADITIONAL ALTITUDE ARCHITECTURE

? HOW CAN WE RETAIN ELEMENTS OF “OLD AND NEW” ?

THE RESPONSE Combining characteristics of traditional and contemporary altitude architecture

Figure 25. Tin Tu, The Effects of Mountaineering on Traditional Altitude Architecture. 2022. Digital Diagram: Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

4 The response A response to the diminishing traditional design is to integrate characteristics of both traditional and contemporary so that both styles collaborate in harmony

THE ISSUES Diminishment of Traditional Culture C R E AT I N G A B I V O U A C

G AT H E R FRAMING

S TA G E 2

The limited primitive construction resources meant that climbers utilized the natural environment as a means of creating temporary shelters known as bivouacs (Dini and Girodo 2018). The use of natural building resources was crucial in higher altitudes as creating basic shelters forced climbers to make effective use of their natural surroundings, essentially focusing on the concept of function over form, creating a shelter that encapsulates their safety and comfort rather than a visual appearance. Author of the article “Shelters in the Night. The Role of Architecture in the Process of Understanding High-Altitude Areas” Dini and Girodo state in their article that “The primordial architectural conception of the hut thus conforms to the most basic technical and distributive functionalism” (Dini and Girodo 2018, 4), asserting the adoption of simple materials will and shall not disrupt its functionality and comfortability of climbers for an aesthetic factor. The acknowledgment of traditional mountain refuge huts provides an overview on existing design strategies that can be adopted and evolved using modern approaches. Both Machedon and Dini and Girodo puts emphasis on the significance of traditional design and that the core element in sustaining life in HA is to harness existing principles of the most basic functional shelter

S TA G E 1

0 4 . 2 0 O R I G I N O F T R A D I T I O N A L S H E LT E R S

S H E LT E R

first minimal, self-contained structures up to today’s dazzling

REST

and time have been conceptualized and used over time; from the

S TA G E 3

“Bivouacs absorb and reflect the ways in which space, landscape

S TA G E 4

As quoted:

ones, which develop in stark tension with the region, establishing themselves as protagonists of the alpine landscape, and in continuous association with the needs of the user” (Dini and Girodo 2018, 2)

Figure 26. Tin Tu, Creating A Bivouac . 2022. Digital Collage: Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Diminishment of Traditional Culture

0 4 . 2 1 N E P A L E S E V E R N A C U L A R Catherine Forbes author of the article Rebuilding Nepal: Traditional and Modern Approaches, Building or Diminishing Resilience, explores the significance of vernacular architecture and the traditional knowledge pertaining to resilience forms of building construct in Nepal. She investigates the impact of current design considerations of resilience and responsive architecture in extreme climatic conditions of high altitude. Her methodology undertakes research involving the use of an action-based approach which included field observations and discussions within local Nepalese communities (Forbes 2018). She discovered that traditional building design within urban altitude environments are challenging due to the long-term impacts caused by weathering elements. Conversely, she further denotes that although employing traditional architecture in modern day is challenging, there is capacity for advancement with assistance of modern approaches that can be applied in conjunction with existing traditional design. Her investigation in traditional Nepalese shelters showed a common trend, utilizing wood and brick as primary building materials showed structural stability and integrity over the centuries of climatic endurance. Despite the usual signs of ‘wear and tear’ and minor damage, the shelter proved durable over many years of basic living without the necessities of advanced technology to maximize comfort. Her analysis reinforces the fundamental principle of function over form.

CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS OF A TRADITIONAL TRIBAL HUT

Timber used as structural framework

Brick also used as external structural pillars

Mud/Clay Roof tiling

Figure 27. Tin Tu, Traditional Nepalese Architecture . 2022. Digital Sketch. Adapted From: Plemenka Supic

SEEKING

REFUGE

Timber roof framework

External brick facade

THE ISSUES Diminishment of Traditional Culture

0 4 . 2 2 T H E D I M I N I S H M E N T O F N E P A L E S E G R O W T H Diminishment of Authentic Growth

TRADITIONAL TRIBAL HUT: BASIC & AUTHENTIC FUNCTIONAL DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS

PRINCIPLE OF DIMINISHMENT B A S I C D E S I G N O F A C H A I R

T R A D I T I O N A L S TA G E S

Society of the past have inherited the traditional way of building from their ancestors, transferring accumulated knowledge from one generation to the next (Marwa 2011). Nepalese vernacular constructions express the physical forms of values that tribal, peasant and popular cultures have coded in the different types of dwellings (Supic 1982, 43). The choices society has made today inscribes pressure in not only the built environment, but in other faculties preserving the values of traditionalism. In its simplest form, the term “function” expresses its true purpose defying of other factors, e.g. a finely crafted vintage chair does carry a person any better than a factory produced chair. The architectural design methods of the primordial era conveys precise functions satisfying to social, cultural and economical processes, however the inevitable evolution has progressively lead to the diminishment of its authentic growth.

Elevated footing foundation supports design on uneven topography

Internal timber beams used as core structural framework. Using local materials to its advantage.

C O N T E M P O R A R Y S TA G E S

Traditional high pitch roof style to withstand snow, ice, water and wind. Functions effectively in windy and cold altitude climates

External timber cladding and paneling

29 Figure 28. Tin Tu, Traditional Architecture Construction System . 2022. Digital Sketch. Adapted From: Plemenka Supic Figure 29. Tin Tu, Principle of Diminishment . 2022. Digital Sketch Reproduced From: Tin Tu

Although the aesthetic form has changed overtime, the functions of a chair remains the same. This principles can also applied to traditional design styles.

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Diminishment of Traditional Culture

0 4 . 2 3 G E O G R A P H I C Z O N E S O F N E P A L Nepal’s geographic territory expands 800km east - west and 200km north - south and contains significant variation in topographic landforms. Its climate varies throughout the different regions, which strongly influences traditional architecture forms. The different regions throughout Nepal contain their own ethnic groups as well as local culture, religious beliefs and traditions. The geographic diversity throughout the area has resulted in diverse socio-economic and settlement patterns, and thus, over many years of settlement has led to a shift in various architectural expressions (Bodach, Land and Hamhaber 2014). As a result of Nepal’s regional diversity, the local availability of building materials and construction techniques vary depending on the resources and geology of the location. Its location contains a high complexity of thrusting, faults and metamorphic resources due to its on-going geographic shift dividing the region into five geographical zones otherwise known as cultural groups. The five geographic zones (cultural groups) constitute of: 1. Terai Tectonic Zone 2. Churia Zone (Siwalik) 3. Lesser Himalayan Zone 4. Higher Himalayan Zone 5. Tibetan Tethyan Zone

Higher Himalayan Zone 4700 - 8848m Tibetan Tethyan Zone 2500 - 5000m

Middle Himalayan Zone 2500 - 4700m Lesser Himalayan Zone 200 - 2500m

Mahabharata Lekh Zone 2500m

Churia Zone 200 - 1000m

Terai Tectonic Zone 60 - 200m

TI BE T NEPA

Figure 30. Tin Tu, Distinct Altitude Zones of Nepal. 2022. Digital Illustration. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Diminishment of Traditional Culture

0 4 . 2 4 A V A I L A B L E T R A D I T I O N A L B U I L D I N G M A T E R I A L S O F N E P A L B U I L D I N G M AT E R I A L S L O C AT E D A M O N G S T T H E 5 D I V I D E D R E G I O N S Each of the five geographical zones establishing regional Nepal contains a diverse sense of culture and building traditions. Selecting three specific zones of Nepal, a resource analysis was extracted to understand the different types of soil, vegetation and materials available for construction.

Terai Zones

Geomorphic Unit

Churia Zones

Himalayan Zones

Northern edge of Gangeetic Plain

Mahabharat Range

Lesser - higher regions

20 - 50

10 - 35

Fore Himalaya

60 - 1000

1000 - 2500

2000 - 5000

Alluvium: coarse, gravel in the north becoming finer southwards

Schist, phyllite, gneiss, quartzite, granite, limestone, in valleys: also finger alluvial sediments

Gneisses, schists, marble, finer sediments, limestone, shale and sandstone

Soil Type

Rich fertile alluvial soil, gravelly and sandy soil

Fertile residual soil

Various regions of fertile residual soil and low fertile glacial soil

Typical Vegetation

Rich fertile alluvial soil, gravelly and sandy soil

Along middle slope: hill forest

• Along middle slope: hill forest • Evergreen coniferous forest up to 4000m • Alpine grassland up to 4000 - 5000m

Wood, thatch, daub, biogenic materials, mud, sand, gravel

Stone, slate, timber, thatch, clay for brick production, gravel, sand

Stone, rocks, mud, timber (2000 - 4000m), biogenic materials

Width (km)

Altitude (m)

Main Rock Type

Available Traditional Building Materials

Wood

Thatch

Stone

Slate

Clay

Sand

Typical altitude pine trees

Gravel

Mud

Figure 31: Available building materials located amongst the five divided regions Source: data adapted from Bodach, Susanne, Werner Lang, and Johannes Hamhaber (2014, 229)

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE ISSUES Diminishment of Traditional Culture

0 4 . 2 5 A L E S S O N O F T H E P A S T F O R T H E F U T U R E BUILDING BACK BET TER Building Back Better is an approach that is typically referred to post disaster recovery that reduces vulnerability to future disasters and builds community resilience to address climatic, social, environmental, and economical vulnerabilities of shock (Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery 2019). Built infrastructure within this approach focuses on growth and restoring local culture and environment. Recovery within a BBB framework provides impacted communities with an opportunity to reduce the risk not only from the immediate hazard but also from threating climate conditions as well. (Building Back Better in Post Disaster Recovery – GFGRR)

Building Back Better - Used in a Different Context In today’s modern society, the approach is widely used for other campaigns to formally build back what was previously lost. Some of which include “The Build Back Better Framework” formulated by the current US President Joe Biden, is an economic campaign aiming to rebuild the middle class from a post COVID-19 crisis (The White House 2021). Alternatively, the foundation of this approach can be used in a different context whereby New Zealand’s Prime Minister Jacinda Arden and the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) have used the phrase to aid in the environmental green recovery initiative, focused on reducing global carbon emissions and ‘greening’ the country (Erica Eller 2020)

Purpose of the Approach For the purpose of this thesis, the building back better approach will be used in the context of a cultural design movement, whereby the diminishing traditional (vernacular) characteristics of design that have proved effective in the past will be rebuilt and reused in conjunction with contemporary characters of today. Effectively treating traditional characteristics as a lesson of the past for design of the future.

SEEKING

REFUGE

04 BUILDING BACK BET TER ADAPTED PRINCIPLES HOW THE ‘BBB’ FRAMEWORK CAN BE UTILIZED TO REBUILD DIMINISHING TRADITIONAL DESIGN

2 RECOVERY Principle 1: Physiological Recovery

Principle 2: Recovery Through Facilities

Principle 3: Mental Recovery

U N D E R S TA N D T H E R I S K S

BUILD B A C K BET TER

Principle 1: Improving structural designs

Principle 2: Land-Use Planning

Principle 3: Educate the Risks

3 REBUILD

Principle 1: Local Materials

Principle 2: Recycle Materials

Principle 3: Advanced Technology Systems

Figure 32. Tin Tu, Building Back Better Adapted Principles. 2022. Digital Diagram. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

05 THE

EVOLUTION

“historical... “traditional... “contemporary..

the past” the old” the new “

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE EVOLUTION Design Framework: Evolution of the Mountain Hut

0 5 .1

T H E E V O L U T I O N O F M O U N TA I N H U T S Throughout the history of mountaineering, the design of mountain huts has shown a progressive evolution over centuries of expeditions and constant changes in mountaineering requirements. From small historical bivouacs to traditional built shelters leading to contemporary design of today, the purpose at which these shelters remain no different. As years progress technology has become a tool for convenience, a way in which tasks are accomplished with ease. The advancement has transferred into built environment, enabling a higher degree of construction complexity. As part of the design framework of this thesis, this chapter acknowledges the evolution of mountain huts, understanding the basic roots from which shelters originated will enhance understanding of characteristics that may strategically be applied into the design proposal. The traditional culture of Nepal is acknowledged as part of its architecture language. Materials, architectural style and construction knowledge of its origin place within high altitude contain fundamental principles that have been adapted into its geographic environment for centuries. Therefor, transferring existing technical skills employed by Nepalese locals to current contemporary practice brings forth learnings of the past for the future.

T H E E V O L U T I O N P H A S E S O F A M O U N TA I N H U T PRIMARY AREAS OF DISCUSSION

PHASE 1 HISTORICAL

2 PHASE 3

PHASE 2

CONTEMPORARY

TRADITIONAL

Figure 33. Tin Tu, The Evolution Phases of a Mountain Hut. 2022. Digital Diagram. Reproduced From: Tin Tu

SEEKING

REFUGE

05 T H E E V O L U T I O N O F M O U N TA I N H U T S

HISTORICAL PHASE 1 Bivouacs do not require any particular set of construction knowledge as it primary consists of utilizing surrounding natural elements to create a functional shelter. Location: Bivouacs can constructed anywhere at anytime without any equipment required. Material Composition: stone, rock, wood, natural vegetation, landscaping, portable tents

CONTEMPORARY

TRADITIONAL

PHASE 3

PHASE 2

These designs are unique as it is simple and modern to its time.

Generally constructed more complex with pitched roof.

Location: Mountain Refuge of Mont Blanc - France

Location: Traditional Elements of Nepalese mountain huts - Nepal

Design: Contain higher amounts of amenities and utility services for tourists

Material Composition: modern materials such as steel, metal and aluminum paneling

Design: typically higher detail than contemporary and are complex in joinery Material Composition: timber frame, stone walls, straw, brick and masonry.

Figure 34. Tin Tu, Mountain Hut: The Evolution Cycle. 2022. Digital Tracing Collage: Reproduced From: Tin Tu Images traced for compilation into single diagram

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE EVOLUTION Design Framework: Evolution of the Mountain Hut

05. 2 PHASE 1 HISTORICAL: What is a mountain hut? A mountain hut is a purpose-built refuge situated at some strategically high place in the mountains so that one or more peaks are readily accessible from it. It may vary in size from a simple bivouac shelter to something resembling a small hotel in size and facilities. (Walt Unsworth 1992, 37) Phase 1 describes the historical built forms of typical mountain huts from 1890 to early 1900’s (Foreman 2015). The limitations of technology meant that local habitants created shelter from found materials primarily sourced from wood, ice, snow, and animal hides (Foreman 2015, 19). These structures were purely designed for the purposes of functionality than form. (Foreman 2015, 19). As the designs were simple, internal activities were designated to what is essential only. The purpose of such small shelters was primarily used for sleeping and eating. Cultural activities such as hunting, and rituals would be conducted outside within the external environment

“ T H E PA S T ”

Figure 35. Edward Curtis, Inuit Hut and Family. 1899, Photograph. Reproduced From: Library of Congress Figure 36. Chester Bloom, An Inuit Hut in Northwest Territories. 1921, Photograph. Reproduced From: Glenbow Archives Figure 37. Lomen Bros, Interior of Eskimo Hut. 1916, Photograph. Reproduced From: Library of Congress

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE EVOLUTION The Design Framework: Evolution of the Mountain Hut

05. 3 PHASE 2 TRADITIONAL: Phase 2 of the design evolution sees further design advancements, particularly throughout the huts structural form. Designers during this period continued using natural materials as the primary construction method with additional consideration in design complexity. As previously mentioned in phase 1, mountain huts during this period revolved around designing with purpose, with the perception for functionality rather than form. The limitation of technology and building knowledge restricted the creativity of designers. However, the many years of technological advancement has lead to improvements in the mountaineering experience, which meant that designers had to adapt to the changes and provide improved facilities that were appropriate to users. Furthermore, a designer’s knowledge in understanding the complexity of site as well as its terrain and topographic region had to be reconsidered, as utilizing newer construction systems and methods would bring about significant change to the sector of altitude architecture. Like vernacular architecture, structures within phase 2 are generally specific to its regions and period using locally sourced materials and knowledge to construct buildings and shaping them to geographically suit terrain of the site. This can be recognized in the Tegernseer Huette Hut in Germany (figure 41), where the design utilizes traditional building methods to construct a site-specific mountain hut. Embedded into the terrain, the building is a prime example that demonstrates success in uniting historical and traditional characteristics of mountain refuges. This phase of the traditional design culture foresees the advancements from phase 1, analyzing the way certain materials have transitioned from simple to larger and more complex uses.

“ THE OLD”

Figure 38. Mitch Barrie, Shelter at Camp Muir. 2009, Photograph. Reproduced From: Flickr Figure 39. Jean-Louis Pitteloud, The Gspaltenhorn Hut. 2014, Photograph. Reproduced From: CamptoCamp Figure 40. Harry Hunt, The Snowbird Hut. 2014, Photograph. Reproduced From: AmericanAlpineClub Figure 41. Rafa Bortte, Tegnersee Hutte Loop. 2017, Photograph. Reproduced From: Outdooractive

SEEKING

REFUGE

THE EVOLUTION Design Framework: Evolution of the Mountain Hut

05. 4 PHASE 3 CONTEMPORARY: The transition from Phase 2 to Phase 3 sees significant change in architectural styles, in particular the shift from traditional to contemporary design. The design of mountain refuges from the 21st century transitioned into a new paradigm, one that maximizes use modern technology to respond to the absence of refuge facilities in high altitude hiking regions. Over the many years, particularly during the 1970’s, the introduction of foreign knowledge, building practices and advanced technology pressured architects to look towards a newer future, a future that follows the principles of “Building Back Better” (Forbes 2018, 219), expanding on the idea of advancing from traditional design construction to implementing contemporary strategies that will improve the mountain refuge experience (Forbes 2018). This transition to contemporary design can be seen in Monte Rosa Hut by Bearth & Deplazes Architects (figure 42) which specifically focuses on integrating sustainable systems such as fully cladded solar panel as a way of improving building performance by converting sunlight into electricity, and metal cladding to melt and collect snow which is then recycled and purified through an underground purification system. This method of solar harnessing and underground purification is an effective way to producing electricity and creating a functional space that incorporates properties of sustainable architecture. Furthermore, the exterior of the contemporary mountain huts appears “futuristic” which raises questions whether traditional methods were incorporated. Upon analysis, the structural framework is in fact traditional at its core, using a timber joinery system that is extremely versatile, durable and can be cladded on almost any material. Further analysis of the Monte Rosa Hut is seen on figure 48 in precedent analysis.

“ THE NEW”

Figure 42. Franco Burgio, Monte Rosa Hutte. 2011. Photograph: Reproduced From: Wikipedia Figure 43. Ana Lisa, Refuge du Gouter. 2015. Photograph: Reproduced From: Inhabitat Figure 44. John Simpson, Pilatus. 2015. Photograph: Reproduced From: Swissfamilyfun Figure 45. Lucy Wang, Solar-Powered Alpine Hut in Switzerland. 2014. Photograph: Reproduced From: Inhabitat

SEEKING

REFUGE

06 PRECEDENT STUDIES

SEEKING

REFUGE

PRECEDENT STUDIES

0 6 .1

M O N T E R O S A H U T BY: BEARTH & DEPLAZES ARCHITECTS CONTEMPORARY Location: Gorner Glacier, Switzerland Area: 255m2 Year: 2009 The Monte Rosa Hut consists of 5 stories constructed out of timber frame through methods of prefabrication and modular design. The external is cladded with solar panels capturing solar radiation which radiates back internally for heating and cooling purposes.

Rationale This precedent was selected specifically for its effective use of contemporary technology systems (electrical heating and water cooling) in rural mountain regions

Site Conditions: Terrain • Steep and rocky, relatively dangerous conditions • Mostly snow all year round • Snow covered Glaciers • Entire massif mainly consisting of granite

Figure 46. Tin Tu, Monte Rosa Hut 3D . 2009. Digital Drawing. Adapted From: Archdaily

Ground Floor + Site Plan

Climate • Average Temperature: 8 °C • Average Wind Speeds: 10km / hr • Average Precipitation: 812.8mm / year Hiking / Accessibility • Easy walking trail at the beginning • Intermediate transition with multiple glacier cautions • 4 - 5 hour hike form base Design Characteristics: • Low surface to volume ratio so less heat can escape • Primarily prefabricated and modular systems • Lodging, cafe and social space for tourist interaction

Figure 47. Tin Tu, Monte Rosa Hut: Site Plan . 2022. Digital Drawing. Adapted From: Archdaily

SEEKING

REFUGE

06 M O N T E R O S A H U T S U S TA I N A B L E T E C H N O L O G Y S Y S T E M S : D E S I G N M A P

RAIN WATER HARVESTING & TREATMENT

RAIN WIND A

Rain Drops

Cold Water Storage

Hot Water Storage

Waste-water Storage

Grey-water Storage

Showers, Toilets, Kitchen, etc.

Radio Satellite Sky Roof

WIND BREEZE & VENTILATION B RO

SOLAR

L 1,

Mountain Range Breeze

Sky Roof Wind Collection

Wind Grill Collection

2,3

1 BUILDING LAYERS Escape Ladder Interior Cladding Timber Framework

Insulation (Mineral Fiber) Aluminum (Seam)

4 2

ND SOLAR POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

N ME

Solar Radiation

Solar Panels

Generator & Inverter

Plugs, Batteries, Lights

Figure 48. Tin Tu, Sustainable Systems Map . 2022. Digital Diagram. Reproduced From: Tin Tu Base 3D adapted from Bearth & Deplazes Architekten

SEEKING

REFUGE

PRECEDENT STUDIES

0 6 . 2 A H S A F A R M S T A Y B Y : C R E AT I V E C R E W S TRADITIONAL Location: Chiang Rai, Thailand Area: 565m2 Year: 2018 The AHSA Farmstay housing in Thailand are four vernacular style facilities inclusive of a central courtyard to facilitate a sense of cultural tourism. Rationale This precedent was selected specifically for its design brief addressing the diminishment of traditional styles through programs of cultural tourism and the conservation of vernacular architecture styles for future generations (Shuangyu 2021)

Site Conditions Terrain • Steep with some areas relatively smooth levels • Forest filled and grass regions • Farming regions with fruit farm and vegetables

Figure 49. Creative Crews, AHSA Farmstay Section. 2018. Digital Drawing. Reproduced 115.00 From: Creative Crews 120.00

110.00

Climate Tropical • • Average Temperature: 31 °C • Average Precipitation: 1600mm average / year • Average Humidity: 79.9%

115.00

110.00

Hiking / Accessibility • User friendly as there are already established routes for tourists. • Routes are predominantly bush, mud and rocky terrain, making hiking through forests more unpredictable.

HOMESTAY

110.00

Design Characteristics: • Traditional / Vernacular architectural style • Building techniques are crafted through fine wood working skills • Design of the 4 shelter spaces are primarily through timber and steel, with concrete as foundation.

110.00

105.00

Figure 50. Creative Crews, AHSA Farmstay Site Plan. 2018. Digital Drawing. Reproduced From: Creative Crews

SEEKING

REFUGE

06 A H S A F A R M S T A Y

Timber Joinery

DESIGN CONSTRUCTION MAP Outdoor Dining Ventilated outdoor dining for all hosts and visitors

Bathrooms

Timber Framework 1x Mens 1x Womens 1x Shared

Forest Context

Host Unit

Guest Unit

Activity Space

Guest Unit

Timber Planking

Rocky terrain

Resource Kitchen Timber Decking

Typical Structural Column

Timber Siding

Re-used Timber Columns

King Post

Water Tank System Figure 51. Tin Tu, Axonometric View Layout . 2022. Digital Drawing. Adapted From: Creative Crews

SEEKING

REFUGE

PRECEDENT STUDIES

06.3 COCO ART VILLAGES B Y : A R C H W E R K + F O R M A FATA L TRADITIONAL / CONTEMPORARY MIX Location: Costa Rica Area: 242m2 Year: 2020 Located on a steep 2.5 hectare tropic jungle are hidden Art Villas also used as a resort. The villas represents a unique example of glamping and sustainable tropical architecture, utilizing timber forms of construction through prefabrication and modularization (Archwerk + Formafatal 2018)

Rationale This precedent was selected for its unique design style, being primarily made of timber and located within rural area where the main target attraction are tourists. The design carefully considers materials from its local context, making it a suitable example for this thesis project. In addition to its structural component, it uses an effective foundation system suitable in highly topographic regions.

Figure 52. Tin Tu, Coco Art Villages Site Plan. 2020. Digital Drawing. Adapted From Archwerk + Formafatal

Site Conditions Terrain • Tropical Jungle • Relatively steep slope Climate • Warm all year round • Average temperatures around 26 - 32 °C Hiking / Accessibility • User friendly as there are already established routes for tourists. • Routes are surrounded by tropical trees, native plants and evergreen forestry

Figure 53. Tin Tu, Coco Art Villages Section Drawing. 2020. Digital Drawing. Adapted From Archwerk + Formafatal

SEEKING

REFUGE

06 COCO ART VILLAGES P O R TA B L E H U T S A N A LY S I S

Steel Rods Steel rods attached to timber laths to protrude and elevate the framework outwards Local Tropical Wood Timber laths as structural framework of pods

Entrance Open entrance freely ventilated - exposed to air

Timber Finish

Tent Canvas Lightweight canvas mesh for a free flowing enclosure

Open Vent Bathroom Ventilated Bathroom exposed to natural air enables free flow room

Structural Steel Steel used structural columns of pods Concrete Slab Slim concrete slab as floor surface overlaid by timber finish

Concrete Foundation Concrete foundation attached to steel pole, used throughout each pod

Concrete Base Concrete base situated below foundation used to ensure stability

Figure 54. Tin Tu, Coco Art Villages Section Drawing. 2020. Digital Drawing. Adapted Archwerk + Formafatal

SEEKING

REFUGE

PRECEDENT STUDIES

06.4 TUNGESTØLEN HIKING CABINS B Y : S N Ø H E T TA TRADITIONAL / CONTEMPORARY MIX Location: Mountain regions, Norway Area: 400m2 Year: 2019 Located in the Western part of Norway, on a small land field overlooking the Jostedalen glacier, Tungestølen are the irregular clusters of mountain cabins, designed for tourists and mountaineers trekking to and from their destination

Rationale This precedent was selected for its cluster typology, a series of mountain huts accommodating a central resource core provided for tourists and mountain hikers The core serves as the main attraction point as it provides the essentials for users. In addition, the huts serve as a refuge destination, being rebuilt due to the 2011 cyclone wiping out parts of Norway including the old cabins.

Figure 55. Snøhetta, Tungestolen Hiking Cabins. 2019. Digital Image. Reproduced From: Archdaily

Design Characteristics Form • Each hut suspended on columns to increase flexibility of designing on irregular topography. Accommodation • Each hut containing 5-7 beds, welcoming anyone who is apart of a tour group. • Medical, kitchen and general living services are provided and are located centrally for ease of access. Materials • Timber framework as well as timber external cladding. • Irregular angled huts and linear shape form to complement mountain characteristics Climate • Warm all year round • Average temperatures around 26 - 32 °C Hiking / Accessibility • Hiking cabins and are generally accessible by anyone trekking across the route. • Vehicle access is unavailable.

SEEKING

REFUGE

Figure 56. Snøhetta, Tungestolen Hiking Cabins Site Plan. 2019. Digital Drawing. Reproduced From: World Architecture News

06 TUNGESTØLEN HIKING CABINS C L U S T E R L AY O U T S A N A LY S I S Cluster Concept The concept of the designs are revolved around the cluster concept, centrally focusing on essential services in the center, followed by accommodation on the perimeter.

Seeking Refuge Surrounding the perimeter of the central core are the mountain huts, with only one sole purpose of providing safety shelter for users.

The Warehouse A warehouse utilized for stocking up on resources including food, water, equipment and medical supplies. The zone serves as the essential space any is regularly stocked up with mass supplies.

Mountain Huts The huts come in different shapes and forms, with most of the designs replicated across the site The “ Service” House A central core providing essential support services and basic necessities for refuge. This space is stocked up with supplies from the warehouse.

The “ Briefing” House A communal activation space where events, dining and briefs generally occur. This space is an extension to the service house where the purpose is to gather and retreat.

Figure 57. Tin Tu, Program Analysis. 2022. Digital Diagram. Adapted From: Snohetta

SEEKING

REFUGE

07 S I T E A N A LY S I S

SEEKING

REFUGE

T H E H I M A L AYA S TREKKING JOURNEY THROUGH REGIONAL CONTEXT

2 8 D AY S EXPEDITION

Mount Everest

Ama Dablam

Gokyo Ri Gokyo Lake

Day 9-25: Acclimatizing and climb Ama Dablam Summit

Cholatse

Everest Base Camp

Renjo La Pass

Machhermo Dole

Phortse Thanga Thame

Khumjung Village

Ama Dablam Base Camp

6 9

Kongde Peak

Phortse

Day 8: Trek to Ama Dablam Base Camp

Tengboche Day 7: Trek to Tenboche Monastery

Namche Bazaar

Day 5: Trek to Namche Bazaar Day 6: Day Hiking / Acclimatization Day and back to Namche Bazaar

Legend

Kongde Base Camp

Manjo

Trip Grade: Flight Route Driving Route Trekking Route Secondary Route

Day 5: Trek to Manjo

Kongde

Strenous

Pass

Phakding

Airport

Day 4: Trek to Phakding

Cultural Tradition

Refer to altitude chart for height analysis throughout ascending journey

2 13

Lukla

Mera B.C.

Day 4: Flight to Lukla

Kathmandu Phaplu

HEIGHT (m)

4576

2652

4989

ALT I T UDE CHART

1360

3445

3860 6

8 3970

3750

2835

2800

1360 13

Sea Level

DAYS

SITE SELECTION A MODULAR SYSTEM OF SITES Figure 58. Sam Chui, Lukla: The Worlds Most Dangerous Airport. 2016, Photograph. Reproduced From: Samchui Figure 59. Marek, Trekkers on the trail to Phakding village on the Everest base camp trek, Nepal. 2016, Photograph. Reproduced From: Adobestocks Figure 60. Dario Severi, Manjo Village. 2016, Photograph. Reproduced From: Wikipedia Figure 61. Elen Turner, Acclimatization Stop in Namche Bazaar. 2020, Photograph. Reproduced From: kimkim Figure 62. Daniel Prudek, Stupa in Thame Village. 2016, Photograph. Reproduced From: Shutterstock Figure 63. Ian Taylor, Ama Dablam Base Camp. 2018, Photograph. Reproduced From: Ian Taylor Trekking

Ama Dablam Day 9-25: Acclimatizing and climb Ama Dablam Summit

SITE C CHECKPOINT

Thame

SITE B

SITE A CHECKPOINT

10 6

Ama Dablam Base Camp

Khumjung Village

Tengboche

Day 8: Trek to Ama Dablam Base Camp

Day 7: Trek to Tenboche Monastery

Sherpa Culture Museum

Namche Bazaar

Day 5: Trek to Namche Bazaar Day 6: Day Hiking / Acclimatization Day and back to Namche Bazaar

Manjo Village Day 4: Trekking to Manjo VIllage 60

Height Categories

Phakding Village Day 4: Trekking to Phakding Village

Refer to figure (x - figure of categorization of mountain heights) for altitude analysis

Lukla Airport Day 4: Flight to Lukla and trek to Phakding Village

SITE JOURNEY E S TA B L I S H I N G T H E ‘ I N - B E T W E E N ’ C H E C K P O I N T S The three sites were selected carefully to propose refuge facilities. Site A and B are zones that have not been established and are referred to as “inbetween” spaces, meaning inbetween established destinations. The intention for these zones will be to propose small pass by hut with one purpose of providing short stay refuge. These will not be the focus for this thesis.

Analysis Criteria

Linking the Analysis Primary Cause of Death

Risk Analysis

AMS

Site B is an established base camp settlement and will be the primary site of analysis and design. This site will be the focus for this thesis The selected sites were chosen based on the altitude categories previously analyzed in chapter 04.10 Results of the prior analysis indicate that primary causes of injury is AMS, which generally occur at altitudes of 3000m or above, which according to the height categories in 04.10, is placed in category 2 and above. Therefor to reduce the risks of AMS, the site selected will propose refuge facilities at category 2 and higher. The site selected will be the Ama Dablam Base Camp.

Altitude of AMS

Categorizing AMS

AMS occurring at altitudes 3000m and above

AMS occurring at 3000m placed into altitude category 2

Responding to AMS by proposing refuge facilities situated at category 2 or higher

Oh boy, I’m feeling fatigue. I need a rest before reaching my next destination. However, there are no safe areas to rest.....

1 hr 5min Camp I 4000m Tengboche Monastery 3860m

DAY 7

Checkpoint A

DAY 7

TENGBOCHE

SITE A (CHECKPOINT A)

BUDDHIST MONASTERY

REFUGE FACILITIES PROPOSAL

Tengboche to Checkpoint A Hiking Distance: 3.8km (1 hour 5min)

Checkpoint A to Ama Dablam Base Camp Hiking Distance: 3.8km (1 hour 5min)

1 DAY TRIP

DAY 28

DAY 27

DAY 26

1 DAY

0.5 DAY TREK

KATHMANDU FLIGHT BACK HOME

LUKLA FLIGHT BACK TO KATHMANDU

PHAKDING VILLAGE TO LUKLA

Puja Ceremony Where the mountains are honored and pray for safe passage of upcoming expeditions. Local Sherpa refer to the mountain peaks as Gods.

This is the final trek to the top! The effects of AMS are really hitting me hard. Where can I stop and rest for a short while?

days se camp for Return to ba climatization ac e ud tit al rest and

4-6 6 hrs

Ama Dablam Summit 6453m

2 - 5 hrs 4 - 8 hrs

1 hr 5min

Camp II 6000m

hr s

Camp III 6277m

Camp I 5650m SITE B Ama Dablam Base Camp 4600m

PRIMARY SITE OF ANALYSIS

Checkpoint C

DAY 12 - 23 CRITICAL ACCLIMATIZATION REST DAYS

DAY 24

SITE B (AMA DABLAM BASE CAMP)

SITE C (CHECKPOINT C)

AMA DABLAM

IMPROVED FACILITIES PROPOSAL

REFUGE FACILITIES PROPOSAL

PEAK SUMMIT

Ama Dablam Base Camp - Checkpoint C (Camp I) Hiking Distance: 1km (4 -8 hours)

Checkpoint C - Ama Dablam Summit 1 DAY SUMMIT Hiking Distance (total): 1.2km (17 hours) Total of 11 days to reach summit. It will take several rest days to acclimatise to altitude

DAY 8-11

4 DAY ACCLIMATIZATION

11 DAY CLIMB TO SUMMIT

AT BASE CAMP

INCLUDING REST ACCLIMATIZING DAYS LAST 4 DAYS DESCEND

DAY 26

DAY 25

0.5 DAY TREK

1 DAY TREK

NAMCHE BAZAAR TO PHAKDING VILLAGE

AMA DAMBLAM BASE CAMP TO NAMCHE BAZAAR

P H Y S I O G R A P H I C R E G I O N S O F N E PA L M A C R O A N A LY S I S

6 THAKPARPHA

DHANGADHI

NEPAL

H NE

PA L

I M

L A

INDIA

80km

Physiographic Regions of Nepal Higher Himalayan Zone 4700 - 8848m

Scale 0

120

Middle Himalayan Zone 2500 - 4700m

Lesser Himalayan Zone 200 - 2500m

160km

Figure 64. Tin Tu, Physiographic Regions of Nepal . 2022. Digital Mapping. Reproduced From: Tin Tu Mapping contours were created using Google Earth and QGIS advanced mapping software.

13m

Ch 20

CHINA TIBET

AUTONOMOUS REGION

BHUTAN BORDER MT EVEREST

80k m

AMA DABLAM BASE CAMP

THIMPHU

BANGLADESH BORDER

BIHAR STATE

huria Zone 0 - 1000m

BHUTAN

KATHMANDU

BANGLADESH

Terai Zone 60 - 200m

T O P O G R A P H Y A N A LY S I S MACRO DEGREE OF TOPOGRAPHY AND TERRAIN

6 THAKPARPHA

DHANGADHI

NEPAL

H NE

PA L

I M

INDIA

80km Degree of Topography (meters above sea level)

CATEGORY 3

Scale 0

120

13m

160km

1600m

Figure 65. Tin Tu, Topography Analysis . 2022. Digital Mapping. Reproduced From: Tin Tu Mapping contours were created using Google Earth and QGIS advanced mapping software.

CHINA TIBET

AUTONOMOUS REGION

BHUTAN BORDER MT EVEREST

BHUTAN

80k m

KATHMANDU

AMA DABLAM BASE CAMP

THIMPHU

BIHAR STATE BANGLADESH BORDER

CATEGORY 2

CATEGORY 1

3190m

BANGLADESH

4779m

6453m

HIKING ROUTES THE 8 ROUTES TO THE SUMMIT OF AMA DABLAM

TOBUCHE SUMMIT

PHERICHE SHOPPING CENTRE

DINGBO

MT EVEREST TREKKING ROUTE

THE HIMALAYAS

4600m

GURU PADHMASABHAWA BUDDHIST TEMPLE

SITE B AMA DABLAM BASE CAMP 1k m

4 SITE A CAMP I

SITE CAM

3 SOUTH WEST ROUTE TENGBOCHE MONASTERY

KATHMANDU

Figure 66. Tin Tu, Hiking Routes . 2022. Digital Mapping. Reproduced From: Tin Tu Mapping contours were created using Google Earth and QGIS advanced mapping software.

MT EVEREST

OCHE

6453m AMA DABLAM SUMMIT

SITE C CAMP III

EC MP I SITE C CAMP II

Legend

Scale 0

1000m

500

1000

1500m

South - West Route (Main Active Route) Mt Everest Trekking Route Lowe Route North Ridge Route East Ridge North - East Route Ariake - Sakashita Route Stane Belak Srauf Memorial Route North - West Ridge Route

T O P O G R A P H Y A N A LY S I S DEGREE OF TOPOGRAPHY AND TERRAIN

TOBUCHE SUMMIT

PHERICHE SHOPPING CENTRE

DINGBO

MT EVEREST TREKKING ROUTE

THE HIMALAYAS

4600m

GURU PADHMASABHAWA BUDDHIST TEMPLE

SITE B AMA DABLAM BASE CAMP

4 SITE A CAMP I

SITE CAM

3 SOUTH WEST ROUTE

TENGBOCHE MONASTERY

KATHMANDU

Degree of Topography (meters above sea level)

CATEGORY 2 3400m

4200m

Figure 67. Tin Tu, Topography Analysis . 2022. Digital Mapping. Reproduced From: Tin Tu Mapping contours were created using Google Earth and QGIS advanced mapping software.

4950m

MT EVEREST

OCHE

6856m AMA DABLAM SUMMIT

SITE C CAMP III

EC MP I SITE C CAMP II

Legend

CATEGORY 1

Scale

5700m

6453m

500

1000

1500m

THE LOCAL ENVIRONMENT AMA DABLAM BASE CAMP

SITE B BASE CAMP SETTLEMENT

7 ROCKY REGION

ROUTE TO SITE A CAMP I

KIN

“F

T HE

RIVE

FLOW”

BASE CAMP ENTRY

NAT ROCKY REGION

IN W

H DC

ROCKY REGION

1 LOCAL SHERPA VILLAGE

Figure 68. Tin Tu, The Local Environment . 2022. Digital Mapping. Reproduced From: Tin Tu Mapping contours were created using Google Earth and QGIS advanced mapping software.

CLIMATE 20°C 10°C

-4°C

-1°C

-4°C

0°C -10°C

-17°C

Jan

Feb

2°C

-2°C

-9°C

-14°C

12°C

8°C

2°C

13°C

5°C

11°C 3°C

150mm

6°C

1°C

-1°C

100mm

-4°C -11°C

-14°C

50mm

-20°C March

April

May

June

July

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

0mm

IN W

I ND

NE L

MT EVEREST

-30°C

SITE B BASE CAMP SET TLEMENT

25 0m

500

m ROUTE TO AMA DABLAM SUMMIT

TURAL RIVER

ROUTE TO SITE C CAMPS I, II, III

THE HIMALAYAS NATURAL RIVER

100

ROCKY REGION

200m

Legend

Scale (m) 100m

150

100

150

200m

South - West Route (Main Active Route) Natural River Base Camp Settlement Zone Sherpa Route Main Wind Channels Rocky Regions (Unbuildable Territory)

M I C R O A N A LY S I S CAMPING CONDITIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS A

GROUP CLUST ERS

E X I ST I NG CAMPS

CULT UR AL T R ADI T I ONS

Each expedition is made up of max 10 pe ople per group. Thus it is useful to consider developing clusters of refuge pods that will provide services for each tour group.

The existing campsites are currently in the form of tents. However, these t ent s s uff er climat ic weat her damage and are eventually thrown out. Some unfortunately up as mountain waste.

Before ascending to the summit , it is a tradition to perform a Puja Ceremony, where the mountains are honored and prayed for safe passage. The Puja Ceremony not only prays for safe passage but also forgiveness for climbing up holy regions.

Central Facility Climate Damage

Buddhist Monk

SI T E B : AMA DABL AM B A SE CAMPSI T E

B B E

D All Figures reproduced from the same author Figure 69. Jackson Groves, Puja Ceremony. 2021, Photograph. Reproduced From: Journey Era Figure 70. Jackson Groves, Site C: Camp I. 2021, Photograph. Reproduced From: Journey Era

Figure 71. Jackson Groves, Site C: Camp II. 2021, Photograph. Reproduced From: Journey Era Figure 72. Jackson Groves, Camp Destruction. 2021, Photograph. Reproduced From: Journey Era

NAT UR AL RESOURCES

LOCAL V I LL AGES

E VACUAT I ON ME T HODS

A natural river situated around the base camp is used for regular wash downs and cleaning. However a common risk is water pollution affecting the downstream reaching local villages.

Before reaching Ama Dablam Base Camp, there are local villages that climbers and tourists are able to visit. The villages will be able to assist foreign tourists in learning about traditional Nepalese culture as well as spiritual stories of the famous mountains

Each expedition undertaken has consequences that are unpredictable which in some cases, evacuation using helicopters were required due to avalanches, snow-blindness and acute mountain sickness (AMS).

Tree Berries

Lukla Village

Natural River

Sherpa Museum

FA ST FACT S AMA DABL AM BASE CAMP

PUJA CEREMONY

Location: Ama Dablam, Himalayan Region

Coordinates: 28°00’23’’ N / 86°51’438’’ E 69

SI T E C : CAMP I

Group Sizes: tour groups generally range from 01-10 people per group.

Best Season: (Autumn) September - December and (Spring) March - May

Transportation: 10% Flight, 10% Ground Vehicle, 80% Trekking

SI T E C : CAMP I I

Culture: Himalayan, Nepalese, Vernacular/Traditional

Mountain Grade: Moderate 71

Tour Duration: 28 Days CAMP DEST RUCT I ON

Accommodation: Villages, Cottages, Small hotels and Camping

Major Activity: Trekking

08 T H E S T R AT E G Y

SEEKING

REFUGE

105

S T R AT E G Y S Y N T H E S I S P R O J E C T C R I T E R I A E VA L U AT I O N

1. who?

2. what?

3. proposal

TARGET AUDIENCE

PROJECT RESPONSE

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN RESPONSE

Who will the project target?

What issues will the project respond to?

What will the project propose?

• • • • • •

The project seeks to respond to the following mountaineering issues:

The project intends to propose a system of refuge facilities with the core purpose of providing safety shelter and facilities for mountaineers, climbers, Sherpas and local/international mountain climbers.

Mountaineers Hikers Sherpas Local / International tourists Local Nepalese residents Regional travelers

1. Rising risks of injuries and death tolls in mountaineering journeys 2. Environmental rubbish waste and inconsiderate disposals 3. Diminishment of traditional Nepalese design strategies

DE S T I NAT I ON

SI T E B

SI T E A

SI T E C

SIGNIFICANT

SITE C

SITE B

DESTINATION

rest

BASE CAMP rest

volunteers STAGE 5 Bring in the volunteers Currently, there are international exchange programs and internships offered to anyone expressing interest in volunteer work involving building and crafting houses in Nepal. These internship groups will be exposed to new crafting skills and are given opportunities to work alongside builders, engineers and architects on building refuge facilities for habitants of Nepal.

Figure 73. Tin Tu, Mountaineering Design Methodology . 2022. Digital Collage. Reproduced From: Tin Tu Individual drawings were collected and compiled to form a collage

106

SEEKING

REFUGE

craft

4 4 STAGE Who will construct the refuge facilities? Not only will Nepalese Sherpas and local habitants lead the construction process but there will be opportunities for international tourists and students to engage in volunteer building work.

4. where?

5. how ?

6. significance

LOCATION OF DESIGN PROPOSAL

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN METHODOLOGY

PROJECT SIGNIFICANCE

Where will the design proposal be situated?

How will the project under take the design proposal?

What significance will this project have on the built environment?

resources

As mountain tourism rises, so does the ambition of climbers wanting to summit the peak. The consequences are catastrophic with rising death tolls each year mainly caused by the same effects of high altitude. The relevance of this thesis is to investigate the causes of these accidents and enlighten the public of the risks associated with mountaineering, and fundamentally educate future climbers to reconsider their options before deciding to journey into the mountains and potentially risking their lives.

The design proposal of refuge facilities will be situated across 3 locations •

Site A: A non - established site

•

Site B: Primary base camp containing refuge, services and resources

•

Site C: A non - established site

SI T E B

DE S

STAGE 1 What resources / materials will be used for building in high altitude regional areas? The project will use local traditional resources of Nepal as the predominate building method. Stone

T I NAT I ON

Wood

Gravel

SITE A

SIGNIFICANT

rest

DESTINATION Slate

Sand

transpor t

3 3 STAGE Who will transport the resources? The Nepalese Sherpas will be the main transport carrier for all sorts of local resources, building material, equipment as well as food and survival gear.

gather

Mud

2 2 STAGE Who will collect the resources? The project will utilize local Nepalese Sherpas and local habitants of the Himalayas as the primary gatherer of local building resources (stone, wood, mud, gravel, sand, etc..)

SEEKING

REFUGE

107

S I T E S T R AT E G Y

S I T E S T R AT E G Y A N A LY Z I N G E X I S T I N G S E T T L E M E N T S TAT U S

SI T E B : AMA DABL AM B A SE CAMPSI T E : Establish the journey

Rocky Regions

Existing camping tents

iver Na tu ra l R

Ama Dablam Base Camp Entrance

Low level river

110

SEEKING

REFUGE

08 Scale: 1:500

Rocky Regions

Puja Ceremony Space

Existing camping tents

Resource Hub

Ama Dablam Base Camp Exit

Existing camping tents Existing camping tents

Ri ver Flow D ire c tion

Rocky Regions

SEEKING

REFUGE

111

M O V E M E N T PAT T E R N S E X I S T I N G M O V E M E N T PAT T E R N S A R O U N D C A M P S I T E S

SI T E B : AMA DABL AM B A SE CAMPSI T E : Assess the journey

Rocky Regions

Sett lement Camp 1

Sett lemen

m ove

ent

n ter

iver Na tu ra l R

Ama Dablam Base Camp Entrance

Low level river

112

SEEKING

REFUGE

08 Scale: 1:500

Rocky Regions

Puja Ceremony Space

Sett lement Camp 3 Ama Dablam Base Camp Exit m o Su Rout e t

t Camp 2

Ri ver Flow D ire c tion

Rocky Regions

SEEKING

REFUGE

113

SETTING THE SYSTEM D E V E L O P I N G T H E S I T E S T R AT E G Y

SI T E B : AMA DABL AM B A SE CAMPSI T E : Harnessing the journey

Rocky Regions

Sett lement Camp 1

Sett lement Camp 2 Re s o u r c e Co r e

iver Na tu ra l R

Ama Dablam Base Camp Entrance

Low level river

114

SEEKING

REFUGE

08 Scale: 1:500

Rocky Regions

Sett lement Camp 3 Ama Dablam Base Camp Exit m o Su Rout e t

Ri ver Flow D ire c tion

Rocky Regions

SEEKING

REFUGE

115

09 DESIGN CRITERIA

SEEKING

REFUGE

117

DESIGN CRITERIA 0 9.1

TRANSITIONING FROM RESEARCH INTO DESIGN Full summary can be viewed in appendix section x

R CH RESEA

Risk A

KEY COMPONEN

R CH RESEA

n ta nalysis: Mou ineering Accident

Environm

Mountaineering tourism leading to:

KEY COMPONEN

ental Waste Impact s

Mountaineering tourism leading to increased mountain waste

Top 3 causes of injuries:

Types of mountain waste identified:

Acute mountain sickness (AMS)

Weather exposure

Falling

• • • • • • •

Top 3 causes of death 1.

Falling

Avalanches

Exceeding abilities

Organic Waste Hiking equipment Destroyed tents & campsites Human feces Oxygen bottles/cylinders Glassware Aluminum

Key challenges of mountain waste • •

Rising death tolls Falling as well as other causes of death lead to rising death tolls

•

Bringing large amounts of supplies isn’t the issue. It is what we do with it is the issue. The ethics of right or wrong - should we risk our own life to collect that rubbish by the edge of the cliff ? Limited waste management schemes

Solutions to mountain pollution Proposed solutions to mountain pollution come in the form of: • Community based - waste collection • Waste monitoring program • High risk - high reward scheme • Underground piping recycling system • Advanced technology retrieval scheme (helicopters)

Architectural design response Risk analysis suggest possible proposal of oxygen therapy spaces to ultimately reduce the top cause of injury (AMS) which as a result will reduce rising death tolls

CRITERIA

118

CRITERIA

Refuge Spaces

Environmental Mountain Waste

•

Provide functional spaces that will serve as resting destinations for not only tourist but local residents, Sherpas and regional trekkers

•

Respond to the challenges of mountain waste and propose possible solutions that will reduce and/or eliminate increasing mountain waste

•

Provide facilities that will enhance safeness and reduce and/or eliminate any possibility of injuries/ death

•

Test or demonstrate application of proposed solution against the challenges of mountain waste

SEEKING

REFUGE

R CH RESEA

KEY COMPONEN

RESEA

Traditional Design Culture

RCH KEY COMPONENTS

Precedent Studies

Mountaineering tourism leading to diminishment of traditional design culture

Monte Rosa Hut Bearth & Deplazes Architects • • •

Cold/Hot water storage system Water collection system - rivers and snow Electrical generators & power inverters

Stages of creating a traditional shelter 1.

Gathering - collect and gather materials

Framing - building the framework

Shelter - enclose and protect frame

Rest - shelter is ready for resting

AHSA Farmstay Creative Crews • • •

Central resource cluster with surrounding huts Traditional and local building materials used to enhance tourism cultural awareness Timber framework construction system

The evolution of mountain huts 1.

Phase 1 - Historical: creating a traditional shelter (bivouac) natural materials

Phase 2 - Traditional: creating structures larger in scale using natural materials

Coco Art Villages Archwerk & Formafatal •

timber boardwalks as main circulation around site

Phase 3 - Contemporary: constructing simple forms with advanced technology systems such as solar panels and steel

•

Structural foundation attached to steel pole and are used throughout each structural pad

Tungstolen Hiking Cabins Snohetta

Utilizing available local resources

•

The Himalayan zone available traditional building materials include: • Stone • Rocks • Mud & clay • Timber • Biogenic materials

CRITERIA

Villages use local timber construction with

• •

Layouts of cabins strategically laid out with a resource hub serving as the core primary camping zone A briefing space is provided for mountain expeditions An Resources serving as the resource stock piling space

CRITERIA

Acknowledging Local Traditions

Resources & Layout Strategy

•

Assess the physical environment and local culture of the site in developing a design that acknowledges the traditional setting of the region.

•

Develop a resource storage, collection and electrical strategy that will enhance user experience among the site

•

Identify and utilize local available materials, and use of appropriate methods of design construction

•

Develop a design layout strategy derived from the movement pattern analysis

SEEKING

REFUGE

119

DESIGN CRITERIA 0 9 . 2 A S P I R AT I O N A L D E S I G N M A P

An aspirational strategy map is developed based on research and site analysis findings. According to the site analysis, a local Sherpa village is based within proximity of the base camp, providing resources such as laundry, food and even Internet Wifi. The village is home to Sherpas in which they prohibit tourist settlement. Therefor, the strategy employed will be to utilize Sherpas as the main connection to tourists, carrying resources to the design location and drop off at the proposed resource facilities,

YG OX

EN C A N N I S T ER

D R E S OURC E S

S h e r p a t ra ns p o r

t ing re

RE s ourc

es fo

r tour

is t

S OU

R C E S PA

& TORY SERVIC EN E

C U LT U R A L V I L

G LA

F OO

120

SEEKING

REFUGE

KIN

G EQUIPM

T I V E C LOT

Design principles centered around Sherpas bringing stock to resource facility

S DE

I GN

P R I NC I P

SI G N B RI EF

RESTING BEDS

R E F UG E “ TH

EQUIPMENT STORAGE

E S A F E SPACE ”

LIVING SPACE

MEDICAL

DINING

G AT HE R I NG “A C

KITCHEN

OMMUNAL SPACE

STORAGE

BRIEFING

ELECTRICAL GENERATORS

R E S OUR C E S “ TH

E ES

S E N T I A L SU P P L

I ES

WASTE DISPOSAL SYSTEM ”

WATER TANKS

PREPARATION PLATFORM

SHER PA S D “A

ESI G

NATED REFU

”

EQUIPMENT STORAGE

RESTING BEDS

SEEKING

REFUGE

121

DESIGN CRITERIA 09.3 DESIGN BRIEF FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

SI G

N P R I NC I P L

R E F UG E “

R EF

The refuge space will be in the form mountain huts modularized around the site. They serve as an essential “safe” space for mountaineers and climbers

SAFE SPACE T HE ”

T HE GA

G AT HE R I NG “A C

OM M U

NAL SPA

R E S OUR C E S “T

S E N T I A L SU P P L

I ES

”

Essential water supply and electricity will be supplied in the form of portable generators and water tanks. These will be monitored by Sherpas and expedition leaders

SHER PA S

122

ESI G

NATED SPA

SEEKING

C K P I LI NG STO CAL & WA I R TE CT

LE A

D “A

R I NG C E N T

The support space will be the central point of the huts, providing the necessities, resources such as cooking and dining

CE ”

ES HE

UG E H U T S

e o p l e p e r hu t 5x p

”

REFUGE

A designated space for expedition leaders and Sherpas will be provided.

DER S HU T S

09 Each hut to contain 5 resting beds

RESTING BEDS

EQUIPMENT STORAGE

Each hut to contain storage space for hiking equipment, gear and clothing

Each hut to a shared dining space for basic gatherings

DINING SPACE

First aid facilities to treat wounded climbers

MEDICAL

A communal dining space is provided for all tour groups to unite and interact

DINING

KITCHEN

A communal kitchen is provided that will enable climbers and tourists to prepare food

EQUIPMENT STORAGE

PORTABLE ELECTRICAL GENERATOR

A portable electrical generator is provided to supply the support spaces with electricity and power

WASTE DISPOSAL

Further storage is provided for larger equipment oxygen cannisters.

EXPEDITION BRIEFING

A briefing space is provided for Sherpas and expedition leaders to brief tour groups in preparation for the summit ascend

Waste disposal rooms to collect mountain waste and are brought back down collectively

WATER TANKS

Water tanks provided adjacent to electrical generators and will also be able to collect snow run off CULTURAL PRAYER CEREMONIES

Revitalize and relocate the existing pray ceremony

EQUIPMENT STORAGE

An equipment storage is provided solely for Sherpas only

RESTING BEDS

Sleeping beds for Sherpas only

SEEKING

REFUGE

123

10 THE DESIGN PROPOSAL A d d itio n al d ra w in g s c a n b e vie w e d in the doc ume nt “ Proje c t D ra w ings ” a tta c h ed w ith th is s u b mis s i on

SEEKING

REFUGE

125

JOURNEY TO REFUGE REACHING THE BASE CAMP

SITE A “ Inbetween” space Uninhabited territory

RL: 3657m

Tengboche Day 7: Trek to Tenboche Monastery

Section 2

Section 1

RL: +4600m

Hi k

rai gT

RL: +4012m

RL: +3657m

Section views are not to scale and are used to enhance understanding of site location and topography

Section 1

126

SEEKING

REFUGE

Section 2

RL: 6856m

RL: 4600m Site B - Primary Design Site Ama Dablam Base Camp

Section 4

Ama Dablam Mountain Summit

Site C “ Inbetween” space Uninhabited territory

Section 3

RL: +6856m

RL: +5464m FLAT REGION BASE CAMP

Section 3

Section 4 SEEKING

REFUGE

127

MASTERPLAN MODULAR REFUGE SYSTEM PROPOSAL

MA ST ERPL AN: AMA DABLAM BASE CAMP

Rocky Regions

Sett lement Camp 1

Sett lement Camp 2 iver Na tu ra l R

Ama Dablam Base Camp Entrance

Low level river

128

SEEKING

REFUGE

10 Scale: 1:500

Rocky Regions

Ama Dablam Base Camp Exit Sett lement Camp 3

m o Su Rout e t

Ri ver Flow D ire c tion

Rocky Regions

SEEKING

REFUGE

129

SETTLEMENT ZONES AMA DABLAM BASE CAMP REFUGE PROPOSAL

Base Camp Entr y

Settlement Camp 1 Containing: • Refuge

T H E J O U R N E Y H A S O N LY JUST BEGUN Arriving at the base camp after a long hiking journey, it is now time to rest, relax and heal before ascending to the summit. The journey has only just begun from this stage onwards, and you will be camping here for a period of 15 days out of the entire 28 day expedition. Why 15 days? The reason for a lengthy rest is due to acclimatization. The body requires times to adapt to high altitude, climate and local environment variations. In turn, this will reduce the risks of Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS).

At last, we have reached base camp with proper facilities! Care to rest here before the big ascension?

130

SEEKING

REFUGE

10 Base Camp Exit

THE CORE Settlement Camp 2

Settlement Camp 3

Containing: Leaders Suppor t Ser vices

Containing: • Refuge

• • •

Ama Dablam Summit

We are all set and ready to reach the sky, let’s do this!

SEEKING

REFUGE

131

USER EXPERIENCE BASE CAMP EXPERIENCE

Principle 01 Refuge

SETTLEMENT CAMP 1 & 2

Pa t

Towards the beginning of the base camp is settlement camp 1, where tour groups are able to settle in and relax in refuge huts before preparing for their journey to the summit. Settlement camp 2 is located in the central ‘core’ and is within close proximity to gathering resources.

K e y Ma p Camp 3

Camp 1 Camp 2

Principle 02 Gathering Principle 03 Resources

Principle 04 Sherpas

SETTLEMENT CAMP 2 & 3 Settlement camp 2 located in the central core provides essential resources such as food, dining, small kitchens and briefing spaces. Additionally, camp 2 contains storage space, electrical generators and water storage.

The Core Support space Providing resources

Towards the end is settlement camp 3, like camp contains refuge huts as well as a Puja Ceremony space, where mountains are honored and prayed for safe passage. Hikers are prayed for forgiveness for climbing up holy regions. 132

SEEKING

REFUGE

S e tt l e me nt Ca mp 2

10 S e tt l e me nt Ca mp 3

S e tt l e me nt Ca mp 1

S e tt l e me nt Ca mp 2

Principle 03 Resources

Principle 01 Refuge

Principle 02 Gathering Principle 04 Sherpas

Principle 01 Refuge

Principle 02 Cultural Gathering

The Core Support space providing resources Natural river used for washing and drinking

Na tu

tu Na

ive

ral

Ri v

Principle 01 Refuge Principle 02 Cultural Gathering

al R

Natural river used for washing and drinking

iver

Na tu

ral

Ri v

ur Na t

o it R

u oS

S e tt l e me nt Ca mp 3

SEEKING

REFUGE

133

SETTLEMENT CAMP 2 DESIGN EXTRACTION

SETTLEMENT CAMP 2

K e y Ma p

The design analysis will focus primarily on camp 2, illustrating infrastructure related to the project design principles: • • • •

Camp 3

Camp 1 Camp 2

01: Refuge (Section 10.01) 02: Gathering (Chapter 10.02) 03: Resources (Chapter 10.03) 04: Sherpas (Chapter 10.04)

Principle 01 Refuge

Principle 04 Sherpas Principle 02 Gathering Principle 03 Resources

134

SEEKING

REFUGE

SETTLEMENT CAMP 3

DESIGN EXTRACTION

SETTLEMENT CAMP 3 “01: Refuge” is the main design principle as it relates to seeking safety shelter from harsh and unforgiving altitude climates. Henceforth, design extraction will further take place at camp 3 illustrating just the refuge huts.

Principle 02 Cultural Gathering

K e y Ma p Camp 3

Camp 1 Camp 2

Principle 01 Refuge

SEEKING

REFUGE

135

10.01 D E S I G N A N A LY S I S SEEKING REFUGE “the safe space”

Design reflected against project principles

R E F UG E “ TH

E S A F E SPACE ”

SHER PA S D “A

R E S OUR C E S “ TH

G AT HE R I NG “A C

OMMUNAL SPACE

E ES

S E N T I A L SU P P L

I ES

”

ESI G

NATED REFU

”

R E F U G E L O C AT I O N S K e y Ma p

Ca mp 3 Ca mp 1

Ca mp 2

Circulation Boardwalk Constructed from timber and is the main circulation path site wide

Roof Lini

Internal Walls Internal walls made of treated wooden panels that are weaved and nailed to create an even force of public and privacy

1 2

Mezzanine Lining

Bed 1

+0m

Air Tight Oxygen Therapy Room Air tight rooms containing oxygen cylinders

Bed 2

Roof L in

Bed 5

Bed 3

Bed 4

Legend 1

Entrance

Equipment Shelves

Dining

Kitchenette Facilities

Oxygen Therapy Space

+1.47m

Staircase to Mezzanine

Scale ing

Ground Floor Plan: Refuge Hut RL’s are provisional and is shown to only indicate the height variation within the design, not between the design and topography

SEEKING

REFUGE

137

SEEKING REFUGE T H E “ S A F E ” S PA C E

Re f u g e Hu t Designated refuge hut for tourists. Contains beds, dining, oxygen therapy and storage

138

SEEKING

REFUGE

Re f u g e Hu t Designated refuge hut for tourists. Contains beds, dining, oxygen therapy and storage

Bo a r d wa l k c i r c u l at i o n pat h

Gat he r i ng Spa c e Traditional kneeling kitchen, dining, medical and firewood

SEEKING

REFUGE

139

SEEKING REFUGE T H E “ S A F E ” S PA C E

Ne i g hb o r i ng Re f u g e Hu t Designated refuge hut for tourists. Contains beds, dining, oxygen therapy and storage Re f u g e Hu t

Re f u g e Hu t

140

SEEKING

REFUGE

Re f u g e Hu t Designated refuge hut for tourists. Contains beds, dining, oxygen therapy and storage

She r pa / L e a d e r s Spa c e Designated hut for local Sherpas and expedition leaders

She r pas Hu t

SEEKING

REFUGE

141

R E F U G E D E S T I N AT I O N

MOM E N T S

Neighboring Huts Each hut are placed close to one another to maximize proximity of resources and fellow neighbor support

JO U R N E Y

C A P T U R I N G

The refuge destination provides essential safe spaces for anyone who is in need of refuge. The hut contains 5x single beds, oxygen therapy space, equipment storage and is situated around the camp site open to anyone that is involved with expedition tours and hiking journeys

Mountain Hut Entrance Entering the mountain hut, guests are introduced with a traditional antique experience, with mixed styles of timber and stone materials

142

SEEKING

REFUGE

Roof Traditional style roof accompanied by traditional terracotta tiles. Terracotta will be produced using local materials

Locally Available Materials The refuge destination provides essential safe spaces for anyone who is in need of refuge. The hut contains 5x single beds, oxygen therapy space, equipment storage. The hut will be situated around the camp site and is open to anyone that is involved with expedition tours and various hiking journeys

Clay Roof Tiles Constructed out of local clay and stone aggregates

Timber Beams System Structural floor joist and other structural components made from predominately local timber

Local Stone Feature stone wall at beginning of hut entrance

Structural Structural components of the hut are made of local timber. These make up the structural framework such ass the roof trusses, beams and columns

Internal Walls Internal walls made of treated wooden panels that are weaved and nailed to create an even force of public and privacy Facade System Wind barrier facades to block out south-westerly and north direction winds

Footing Foundation Pad footing foundation comprising of clay, sand and stone aggregates

Exterior Boardwalk The boardwalk serves as the primary method of walking around the site, being elevated up 1m allowing provides flexibility in terms of design against topography.

Mountain Hut Internals The hut serves as a compact resting station for visitors. It provides basic essentials such as beds, dining, storage, shelves as well as an oxygen therapy space

SEEKING

REFUGE

143

ENTERING THE HUT Situated at settlement camp 1 and camp 3, the hut accommodates 5 people and is entered via a timber board walk path. The hut contains 5 resting beds as well as typical dining facilities. A focus on equipment storage and shelving was key as hikers generally hike with large quantities of items and belongings.

Stone Entrance Walls Entrance walls constructed from locally collected stone which are also used on boardwalk walls

144

SEEKING

REFUGE

10 North - East Facade

North - West Facade

Neighbor Hut Sherpa Huts

Towards summit

Sherpa Huts

Neighbor Hut

Adjacent Huts (Opposite Side)

Towards camp 2 resource space

Towards summit

Clay Roof Tiles Constructed out of local clay and stone aggregates

Timber Facade Exterior walls of hut constructed from locally sourced timber

Stone Wall Stone wall at imprinter of circulation boardwalk. Also serving as a wind and structural barrier

Circulation Boardwalk Constructed from timber and is the main circulation path site wide

Entry Point

SEEKING

REFUGE

145

REFUGE FACI LI TI ES Facilities inside the refuge hut primarily consists of temporary comfort which include an air tight oxygen therapy room that will reduce acute mountain sickness (AMS) symptoms as well as thermal blanks and temperature sensitive sheet covers to reduce temperature loss while in use.

Oxygen Therapy Room Air tight rooms containing oxygen cylinders

Mezzanine Lounge

Permeable Walls Permeable internal walls constructed from timber panels to establish semi-privacy rooms

Staircase Staircase up to mezzanine. Underneath containing additional hiking equipment storage

Kitchenette

146

SEEKING

REFUGE

Mosquito Nets (Above Blanket) Situated under thermal blanket to reduce contact with pests

Thermal Blanket Special material used to effectively trap heat and prevent temperature drops in the body Resting Beds Beds surrounded by timber paneling walls and additional equipment storage underneath

Permeable Walls Constructed from timber panels to establish semi-privacy rooms

Screening Facade South - west facing facades block out altitude wind

Cultural Gathering Puja Ceremony Space (refer to section 10.02)

SEEKING

REFUGE

147

10.02 D E S I G N A N A LY S I S G AT H E R I N G “ A C O M M U N A L S PA C E ”

Design reflected against project principles

G AT HE R I NG “A C

OMMUNAL SPACE

SHER PA S D “A

R E S OUR C E S “ TH

R E F UG E “ TH

E S A F E SPACE ”

E ES

S E N T I A L SU P P L

I ES

”

ESI G

NATED REFU

”

G AT H E R I N G L O C AT I O N K e y Ma p

Ca mp 3 Ca mp 1

Ca mp 2

+0m

Stone Wall Stone wall surrounding perimeter of gathering and cirulcation walk

Ro of

L in ing

Briefing Lounge Generous lounge which can be used for discussions and expedition briefings

+0m

Medical Storage Medical storage protected and secured in cabinetry located under kitchen mezzanine

+0m 6

+1.15m

Legend

North Entrance

South Entrance

Fireplace

Briefing Lounge

Kitchen

Dining

+0m +0m

Scale 0

Ground Floor Plan: Gathering Space RL’s are provisional and is shown to only indicate the height variation within the design, not between the design and topography

SEEKING

REFUGE

149

G AT H E R I N G A C O M M U N A L S PA C E

She r pa / L e a d e r s Spa c e Designated hut for local Sherpas and expedition leaders

She r pas Hu t

150

SEEKING

REFUGE

Gat he r i ng Spa c e Traditional kneeling kitchen, dining, medical and firewood

Gat he r i ng Spa c e

Re s o u r c e Spa c e Essential stock, storage, water and electrical resources

Re s o u r c e s

SEEKING

REFUGE

151

G AT H E R I N G A C O M M U N A L S PA C E

Gat he r i ng Spa c e Traditional kneeling kitchen, dining, medical and firewood

Gat he r i ng Spa c e

152

SEEKING

REFUGE

10 Re s o u r c e Spa c e Essential stock, storage, water and electrical resources

Re f u g e Hu t Designated refuge hut for tourists. Contains beds, dining, oxygen therapy and storage

Re f u g e Hu t

Re s o u r c e s

SEEKING

REFUGE

153

G AT H E R I N G D E S T I N AT I O N The gathering space serves as a destination for dining, cooking, and kitchen preparing. The area can be also used as a communal dining hall and a briefing space to prep tourists for their journey.

Briefing Lounge and Fireplace A briefing lounge and fireplace is provided to allow Sherpas and expedition leaders to brief the journey before ascending to the mountains

3 Co nt i nu o us m o v e m e n t p a th to s e t tl e m e nt c a m p 1 a n d

Gathering Space The gathering space functions as a dining, briefing as well as kitchen / cooking area.

154

SEEKING

REFUGE

Medical Under storage Medical treatment and equipment stored underneath the storage cabinetry

Thach Roof Constructed out of local thatch as main roof covering texture Traditional Style Roof Rafters Roof rafters are constructed in a traditional style, acknowledging its structural functionality

Timber Siding Cladding Siding cladding around timber wall surfaces

Timber Beams System Structural floor joist and other structural components made from predominately local timber

Traditional Kitchen A traditional kneeling kitchen is provided, a form of cultural education for foreign tourists.

SEEKING

REFUGE

155

USER E XPERIENCE: TRADITIONAL METHODS The gathering space serves as a destination for dining, cooking, and kitchen preparing. The area can be also used as a communal dining hall and a briefing space to prep tourists for their journey.

Fireplace Locally constructed stone fireplace to enhance thermal heat comfort

Briefing Lounge Generous lounge which can be used for discussions and expedition briefings

Local Kitchen Low level kitchen constructed from clay and timber finish, acknowledging traditional methods of cooking

Medical Storage Compact and stored in an air tight enclosed room along with additional thermal sheets to protect from altitude wind

156

SEEKING

REFUGE

Fireplace Locally constructed stone fireplace to enhance thermal heat comfort

Entry Point

Briefing Lounge Generous lounge which can be used for discussions and expedition briefings

SEEKING

REFUGE

157

C U LT U R A L P U J A C E R E M O N Y

K e y Ma p Puja Ceremony

Nepalese culture contains rich history and is a special place for both Hindu and Buddhist traditions. It is the birthplace of Buddha and remains an important place for both religious beliefs of Hinduism and Buddhism. As a design acknowledgment, A Puja Ceremony space is provided for Sherpas, locals and tourists to give a prayer before ascending into the sacred mountains of the Himalayas, Nepal.

Timber Rafters Rafters constructed from timber used as structural element of the lightweight cultural canopy

Boardwalk Path

Ceremony Benches Timber benches enclosed by stone walls and centered around Buddha statue

Boardwalk Path

Refuge Huts

Sherpa Huts

158

SEEKING

REFUGE

Puja Ceremony

Puja Ceremony Entr y points

Ceremony Benches Protective Carpet

Entr y points

Refuge Huts

SEEKING

REFUGE

159

10.03 D E S I G N A N A LY S I S RESOURCES “ T H E E S S E N T I A L I N V E N T O RY A N D S E RV I C E S ”

Design reflected against project principles

R E S OUR C E S “ TH

E ES

S E N T I A L SU P P L

I ES

”

SHER PA S D “A

R E F UG E “ TH

E S A F E SPACE ”

G AT HE R I NG “A C

OMMUNAL SPACE

ESI G

NATED REFU

”

R E S O U R C E S L O C AT I O N K e y Ma p

Ca mp 3 Ca mp 1

Ca mp 2

Legend Services

Bridge

Inventory

Entry

Mezzanine

Electric Generator

Water Tanks

Waste Inlets

Connecting Platform

10 Platform Trolleys

Electric Generator

Storage

12 Stock Boxes

Entry Equipment Shelves

Scale 0

Ro o

f Li

nin

Ro o f

L inin

g 12

6 6 6

m +1 .9 5

Br i d

B lo c ic e s Ser v 5m +0 .9

+0 .

95m Inv

or y

Bl o +0 . 95m ck

e nt

10 8

+0 .

95m

Ground Floor Plan: Resource Space RL’s are provisional and is shown to only indicate the height variation within the design, not between the design and topography

SEEKING

REFUGE

161

RESOURCES T H E E S S E N T I A L M O U N TA I N E E R I N G I N V E N T O RY & S E RV I C E S

I nv e nt o r y Spa c e Essential stock, storage, water and electrical resources

Re f u g e Hu t Designated refuge hut for tourists. Contains beds, dining, oxygen therapy and storage

I nv e nt o r y St o r a g e

162

SEEKING

REFUGE

Gat he r i ng Spa c e ( Be hi nd ) Traditional kneeling kitchen, dining, medical and firewood

Co nne c t i ng Br i d g e

Ser vices Enclosed room containing water tanks, electrical generators, oxygen therapy and stock

Ser vices

SEEKING

REFUGE

163

RESOURCES T H E E S S E N T I A L M O U N TA I N E E R I N G I N V E N T O RY & S E RV I C E S

Ser vices Enclosed room containing water tanks, electrical generators, oxygen therapy and stock

Ser vices

164

SEEKING

REFUGE

Co nne c t i ng Br i d g e

I nv e nt o r y Essential stock, storage, water and electrical resources

I nv e nt o r y St o r a g e

Re f u g e Hu t ( Be hi nd ) Designated refuge hut for tourists. Contains beds, dining, oxygen therapy and storage

Re f u g e Hu t

SEEKING

REFUGE

165

RESOURCE SUPPLIES The Resources destination is the core space for all travelers and locals to survive. It is strategically situated in the center at settlement base camp 2 and provides stock supplies in the inventory block as well as servicing facilities such as waste management and water supply in the service space.

Resources

Gat he r i ng Spa c e Adjacent gathering space for collection of resources and food

Inventory Services

Services House The services hut contains essentials required for living. Products such as stock, food, water and hiking equipment are brought up by Sherpas and stored in this area

166

SEEKING

REFUGE

10 Clay Roof Tiles Constructed out of local clay and stone aggregates

Service Space The service block containing waste inlets, water tanks and electrical generators

Timber Beams System Structural floor joist and other structural components made from predominately local timber

Internal Inventory Space The hut contains a generous amount of space for essential stock. The space also contains water tanks, waste disposals and oxygen tanks

SEEKING

REFUGE

167

I N V E N T O R Y S PA C E The main inventory block contains essential supplies to assist hikers in their mountaineering journey. Essentials such hiking equipment, additional thermal ware, first aid, firewood and oxygen cannisters are provided.

Stock Shelving Provided shelving for resource stocking

168

SEEKING

REFUGE

10 Resources

Inventory Services

Gathering Space Base

Wood Fire Stock Provided firewood stock for campfires and kitchen cooking

Hiking Equipment Additional hiking equipment and gear to support climbers safe journey

Resource Transportation Provide platform trolleys to assist Sherpas and climbers to carry resources up mountains

SEEKING

REFUGE

169

S E R V I C E S S PA C E The services space connected to the inventory block through a bridge provides essential services in the form of water collection tanks, electrical generators and waste collection inlets. This area is a primary servicing area where mountain waste is collected, stored and distributed through a piping system into a waste collection station. Additionally, electrical generators will power the gathering and refuge huts.

Waste Inlets Waste machine inlets connected to underground pipes leading to waste collection location

Compact Storage Additional storage for hiking equipment, machines and food resources situated under the elevated floor.

Servicing Equipment Introducing contemporary methods into traditional design requires maintenance, therefor equipment tools are provided for the waste inlets

170

SEEKING

REFUGE

Water Tanks Duel water tanks used for cooking, cleaning, washing and drinking

Connecting Bridge Bridge connecting the main storage and services space together

Electrical Generators A contemporary strategy employing portable generators to produce and store energy functional uses

Connecting Platform A connecting platform providing additional servicing space for generators and Sherpas to cross through

SEEKING

REFUGE

171

M O U N TA I N WA S T E D I S P O S A L M E T H O D The environmental waste disposal method utilizes a contemporary collection system referred to as an Automated Waste Collection System (AWCS). The AWCS uses a network of underground pipes that transports generated waste at high speeds (60-70 km/hour) to a designated waste station/collection point (Penrith City Council 2021). A similar system to this has been tested and applied currently in New South Wales, Australia. The AWCS system is understood in three primary components: 1. 2. 3.

The user interface (bin inlets) The transportation method (pipe system) The waste disposal interface (waste collection station) More information on AWCS guidelines can be found on PenrithCity.nsw.gov.au

Waste Input

Typical Inlet Bin Constructed from contemporary aluminum - cold temperature resistant

Resources Infrastructure

Vacuum Su

172

SEEKING

REFUGE

ction speed

at 60-70 km

/hr

User Interface Waste Inlet Bins

Wa s t e Tr a ns p o To Re r t a t io c yclin n g Ce nt e r

em yst nS o i n t o lec t at i C o l tion S e t s lec Wa Col ste Wa

Tr a n s por t a t io Unde n Me rg ro u t hod nd P ipe N e t wo rk

Waste Collection Station

Vacuum Su

ction speed

at 60-70 km

/hr

SEEKING

REFUGE

173

10.04 D E S I G N A N A LY S I S T H E S H E R PA S “ A D E S I G N AT E D R E F U G E ”

Design reflected against project principles

SHER PA S “A

R E S OUR C E S “ TH

R E F UG E “ TH

E S A F E SPACE ”

G AT HE R I NG “A C

OMMUNAL SPACE

E ES

S E N T I A L SU P P L

I ES

”

IGNATED REFUG DE S E

”

S H E R PA S H U T L O C AT I O N K e y Ma p

Ca mp 3 Ca mp 1

Ca mp 2

Legend Services 1

Sherpa Hut 1

Water Collection Mesh / Shading

Sherpa Hut 2

Preparation Platform

The Lookout

Natural River

Altitude Pine Tree

Scale 0

1m 2m 3m

+2 . 2 m

+2 . 2 m 3

1 4

+2 . 2 m

m +1 .35 5

+0 .8 m +0 m

+0 .4 5

+0 m

Ground Floor Plan: Sherpas Hut and Lookout Platform RL’s are provisional and is shown to only indicate the height variation within the design, not between the design and topography

SEEKING

REFUGE

175

S H E R PA S

A D E S I G N AT E D R E F U G E

She r pa / L e a d e r s Spa c e Designated hut for local Sherpas and expedition leaders

Rain Water Collection Canopy mesh used for solar shading as well as water collection. Water travels down the pipe and into the water storage container

Natural River South facing natural river used as a natural resource for survival. Water may be collected and stored for future use

176

SEEKING

REFUGE

Re f u g e Hu t ( Be hi nd ) Designated refuge hut for tourists. Contains beds, dining, oxygen therapy and storage

She r pas Hu t

SEEKING

REFUGE

177

S H E R PA S

A D E S I G N AT E D R E F U G E

She r pa / L e a d e r s Spa c e Designated hut for local Sherpas and expedition leaders

She r pas Hu t

178

SEEKING

REFUGE

Gat he r i ng Spa c e ( Be hi nd ) Traditional kneeling kitchen, dining, medical and firewood

Gat he r i ng Spa c e

SEEKING

REFUGE

179

S H E R PA D E S T I N AT I O N Two designated huts are designed specifically for the needs of Sherpas and their lifestyle. The huts are strategically located adjacent to the river so that cooking, showering and preparation of resources are convenient. After a long journey of carrying supplies and resources, a well deserved hut within proximity of water is well earned

The Lookout Sherpa Hut 1

Sherpa Hut 2

S o u t h Fa ci n g Ri v e r S t r e a m

Resource Harvesting Situated in between the Sherpa houses are a series of platform used to reach into the campsite. The platform can be used to assist water collection, meal preparation and timber and stone collection.

180

SEEKING

REFUGE

10 Sherpa Hut 2

Clay Roof Tiles Constructed out of local clay and stone aggregates

Sherpa Hut 1

Timber Beams System Structural floor joist and other structural components made from predominately local timber The - Lookout

Internal Walls Internal walls made of treated wooden panels that are weaved and nailed to create an even force of public and privacy

Footing Foundation Pad footing foundation comprising of clay, sand and stone aggregates

Internal Sherpa Space The hut contains a generous and comfortably compact circulation zone for briefing, eating and sleeping.

SEEKING

REFUGE

181

T H E L O O K O U T P L AT F O R M The lookout platform as it states, provides a platform to overlook the mountain ranges. In addition to its functionality, the space provides a resource preparation dock, rain water collection system which simultaneously functions as a shading device. The area gives priority to Sherpas being an in between-space designed to suit the needs of their designated huts.

Sherpa Hut 1 Entry Point From camp 1 Entry Point Gathering Space

Entry Point From camp 3 Sherpa Hut 2 Base

Courtyard Resting seats

Natural River Preparation Platform

Rain Water Collection / Shading Canopy mesh used for solar shading as well as water collection. Water travels down the pipe and into the water storage container

Preparation Platform A platform provided for multipurpose functions including preparing food, water and camp fires

Natural River South facing natural river used as a natural resource for survival. Water may be collected and stored for future use

182

SEEKING

REFUGE

Altitude Pine Trees Traditional altitude pine trees used in altitude approximately 4000 - 5000m RL (Refer to chapter 04.24 for further info regarding desirable tree heights)

SEEKING

REFUGE

183

OVERLOOKING VIEWS The two huts are placed south facing to capture journey arrivals into the base camp. This gives them the ability to overlook at what is happening, who is coming and where they are trekking to.

Overlooking Views Sherpas able to overlook tourist entering the base camp

Sherpa Hut 1

Sherpa Hut 2

Gathering Space

Boa

Sherpa Hut 2

a r dw

t Pa

Staircase Down Staircase are also used as seating platforms to overlook mountain ranges

Sherpa Hut 1

Structural Retaining Wall

184

SEEKING

REFUGE

Sherpa Hut 1

Resting Sherpas hut containing resting beds as like the general refuge huts

Dining Dining space direct view onto lookout platform

Rainwater Collection Additional rainwater collection canopies provided at the platform to assist preparation of resources

Resting Rooms Sherpas room overlooking mountain range and natural river 2.8m Elevated hut

Water to Platform Connection Point Connective joint between river and preparation platform

Communal Bench Resting benches on each step. These are situated next to a rainwater collection tank which can be recycled

Cone of Vision Sherpa taking advantage of downhill landscape views

Natural River The Sherpa will be able to use the river for different purposes

Overlooking Sherpa able to see who comes into the base camp

SEEKING

REFUGE

185

P R E S E N TAT I O N PA N E L S A i m : To il l u s t r a t e t h e m o u ntaineer ing jour ney to seeking r ef uge

R E F UG E

REACHING BASE CAMP

“T

THE JOURNEY TO

PRINCIPLE 01

SEEKING REFUGE

N PRINCIPL SIG ES DE

”

“ TH

RESOURCES

Mountaineering - The Journey

Refuge Destination

Inventory Space “Essential Stock”

With increased mountaineering expeditions becoming more apparent in high altitude (HA) re-

The refuge destination provides essential safe spaces for anyone who is in need of refuge. The hut contains 5x single beds, oxygen therapy space, equipment storage. The hut will be situated around the camp site and is open to anyone that is involved with expedition tours and various hiking journeys

The inventory destination is the core space for all travelers and locals to survive. It is strategically

“ TH

Core Facilities

Locally Available Materials

Facilities inside the refuge hut primarily consists of temporary comfort which include an air tight oxygen therapy room that will reduce accute mountain sickness (AMS) symptoms as well as thermal blanks and temperature sensitive sheet covers to reduce temperature loss while in use.

Principle 01 Sherpas

ing basic forms of sheltered accommodation and essential support services for mountaineers and climbers who are at risk from the negative effects of mountaineering. The facilities will essentially serve as a shelter space offering protection from not all, but most of the risks of high altitude.

OMMUNAL SPACE

Roof

Circulation Boardwalk The boardwalk serves as the primary method of walking around the site, being elevated up 1m allowing provides flexibility in terms of design against topography.

Principle 04 Gathering

Clay Roof Tiles

Traditional style roof accompanied by traditional terracotta tiles. Terracotta will be produced using local materials

7 Principle 03 Sherpas

The outcome of this thesis will be a design proposal of a series of refuge facilities on the Ama Dablam Base Camp, situated along the hiking routes of the Himalayan Mountain regions – provid-

Constructed out of local clay and stone aggregates

Principle 02 Resources

Timber Beams System Structural floor joist and other structural components made from predominately local timber

RESOURCES SENTIAL SUPPL IES

”

Structural

Local Stone

Structural components of the hut are made of local timber. These make up the structural framework such ass the roof trusses, beams and columns

Feature stone wall at beginning of hut entrance

Internal Walls Internal walls made of treated wooden panels that are weaved and nailed to create an even force of public and privacy

SHERPAS NATED REFU

SENTIAL SUPPL IES

situated in the center at settlement base camp 2 and provides supplies including water, food,

prompting the emergence of architecture as a design response to the absence of safety refuge.

IG DES “A

E ES

equipment, electrical generators as well as waste management inlets

eering is directly associated with high rates of adverse health effects due to extreme cold, oxygen deprivation and perilous climate that so often result in unfortunate casualties.

GATHERING

E ES

“ TH

ambitions of conquering the highest peaks. As a consequence, increased tourism of mountain-

E SAFE SPACE ”

for climbers and mountaineers do not contain sufficient standards, resorting to use of portable tents and temporary shelters that endure climatic and weathering damage. It is known that climbers utilize portable shelters for the fact of convenience, however the absence of structurally built shelters and minimal facilities along hiking trails and base camps triggers potential danger,

“ TH

SEN T I

PRINCIPLE 02 “THE ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES & SERVICES”

“ T H E S A F E S PA C E ”

In exploring these issues through architectural design, it is evident that existing refuge provided

“A C

E ES

RESOURCES

REFUGE E SAFE SPACE ”

Ama Dablam Base Camp

gions, there is a rising need for basic refuge to respond to the absence of refuge facilities in harsh and unforgiving climates. The need for temporary refuge accommodation is statistically linked to the fast-growing rate of mountaineering tourism, with a number of tourists heightening their

REFUGE “ TH

R E S OU

A F E SPAC E HE S

”

Facade System Wind barrier facades to block out south-westerly and north direction winds

Footing Foundation

Pad footing foundation comprising of clay, sand and stone aggregates

Mountain Hut Entrance Entering the mountain hut, guests are introduced with a traditional experience, with mixed styles of timber and stone materials.

Supplies & Storage

JO U R N E Y

The supplies hut contains essentials required for living. Products such as stock, food, water and hiking equipment are brought up by Sherpas and stored in this area.

Oxygen Therapy Room

C A P T U R I N G MO M E N T S

Mountain Hut Internal Thermal Blankets

The hut serves as a compact resting station for visitors. It provides basic essentials such as beds, dining, storage, shelves as well as an oxygen therapy space

Base Camp Entry This is only the beginning of the journey. When entering the base camp, you will arrive at the 4 designated buildings that collectively make up the project design principles

Tour Group Leaders These are the leaders that will lead each tour group Members These are the members of the tour group or are general locals of the region

Sherpa (expert local, resource provider, super human) The Sherpa will guide tourists during their hiking journey and will carry most resources

Neighboring Hut

Air-tight Oxygen Therapy Room

Permeable Timber Partition Walls Inventory Stocking Stock and resources brought up by Sherpas

”

UR C E

I A L SU P P

G AT HE R I NG

SHER PA S LI E

“A

S”

IGNATED REFUG DE S E

“A C

”

PRINCIPLE 03

PRINCIPLE 04 “A C

S H E R PA S

G AT H E R I N G

SHERPAS

“ A D E S I G N AT E D R E F U G E ”

IG DES “A

NATED REFU GE

The Sherpas Space

“A C

OMMUNAL SPACE

The Gathering Space

Sherpa House 2

Two designated huts are designed specifically for the needs of Sherpas and their lifestyle. The huts are strategically

The resource space serves as a destination for dining, cooking, and kitchen

located adjacent to the river so that cooking, showering and preparation of resources are convenient. After a long journey of carrying supplies and resources, a well deserved hut within proximity of water is well earnt and rewarded

OMMUNAL SPACE

GATHERING

“ A C O M M U N A L S PA C E ”

”

preparing. The area can be also used as a communal dining hall and a briefClay Roof Tiles

Sherpa House 1

ing space to prep tourists for their journey.

Constructed out of local clay and stone aggregates

Thach Roof

Inventory

Constructed out of local thatch as main roof covering texture

Clay Roof Tiles Constructed out of local clay and stone aggregates

Internal Resource Space The hut contains a generous amount of space for essential stock. The space also contains water tanks, waste disposals and oxygen tanks

OMMUNAL SPACE

+6856m Timber Beams System

Structural floor joist and other structural components made from predominately local timber

Services The Lookout Sherpa House 1

Sherpa House 2

In-between space

Traditional Style Roof Rafters Internal Walls Internal walls made of treated wooden panels that are weaved and nailed to create an even force of public and privacy

Briefing Lounge and Fireplace

Medical Under storage

A briefing lounge and fireplace is provided to allow Sherpas and expedition leaders to brief the journey before ascending to the mountains

Medical treatment and equipment stored underneath the storage cabinetry

Roof rafters are constructed in a traditional Nepalese style

Timber Siding Cladding

Timber Beams System

Siding Cladding around timber wall surfaces

Structural floor joist and other structural components made from predominately local timber

Footing Foundation Pad footing foundation comprising of clay, sand and stone aggregates

Continuous mov e me

d3 nt path to settlement camp 1 an

10 South Facing River Stream

15 11

16 Resource Harvesting

Gathering Space

Situated in between the Sherpa huts are a series of platform used to reach into the campsite. The platform can be used to assist water collection, meal preparation and timber and stone collection.

The gathering space functions as a dining, briefing as well as kitchen / cooking area.

8 Puja Ceremony Traditional Kitchen

The Lookout

A traditional kneeling kitchen is provided, a form of cultural education for foreign tourists.

The lookout space as it states, provides a platform to overlook the mountain ranges. In addition to its functionality, the space provides a resource preparation dock, rain water collection system which simultaneously functions as a shading device.

Automatic Waste Collection System Underground pipes that transports generated waste at high speeds to a designated waste station/collection point

Service Space The service block containing waste inlets, water tanks and electrical generators

+4600m

Compact Under Storage Medical equipment safely stored under mezzanine Structural Stone Aggregate Footing

Water Tanks

Electric Generators

Automatic Waste Collection System Waste bin inlets that collects and transport waste through underground pipes to a waste collection location.

Preparation Platform (Decking)

Structural Stone Aggregate Footing

Traditional Kneeling Kitchen Kitchen constructed from local fire formed clay

THE JOURNEY TO

PRINCIPLE 01

SEEKING REFUGE

N PRINCIPL SIG ES

“ T H E S A F E S PA C E ”

Mountaineering - The Journey

Refuge Destination

With increased mountaineering expeditions becoming more apparent in high altitude (HA) regions, there is a rising need for basic refuge to respond to the absence of refuge facilities in harsh

and unforgiving climates. The need for temporary refuge accommodation is statistically linked to the fast-growing rate of mountaineering tourism, with a number of tourists heightening their ambitions of conquering the highest peaks. As a consequence, increased tourism of mountain-

REFUGE “ TH

E SAFE SPACE ”

REFUGE

Ama Dablam Base Camp

“ TH

E SAFE SPACE ”

eering is directly associated with high rates of adverse health effects due to extreme cold, oxygen deprivation and perilous climate that so often result in unfortunate casualties. In exploring these issues through architectural design, it is evident that existing refuge provided for climbers and mountaineers do not contain sufficient standards, resorting to use of portable tents and temporary shelters that endure climatic and weathering damage. It is known that climbers utilize portable shelters for the fact of convenience, however the absence of structurally built shelters and minimal facilities along hiking trails and base camps triggers potential danger, prompting the emergence of architecture as a design response to the absence of safety refuge. The outcome of this thesis will be a design proposal of a series of refuge facilities on the Ama Dablam Base Camp, situated along the hiking routes of the Himalayan Mountain regions – providing basic forms of sheltered accommodation and essential support services for mountaineers and

GATHERING “A C

climbers who are at risk from the negative effects of mountaineering. The facilities will essentially serve as a shelter space offering protection from not all, but most of the risks of high altitude.

OMMUNAL SPACE

RESOURCES “ TH

E ES

SENTIAL SUPPL IES

”

SHERPAS D “A

ESIG

NATED REFU

”

Mountain Hut Entrance Entering the mountain hut, guests are introduced with a traditional experience, with mixed styles of timber and stone materials.

C A P T U R I N G J O U R N E Y

M O M E N T S

Base Camp Entry This is only the beginning of the journey. When entering the base camp, you will arrive at the 4 designated buildings that collectively make up the project design principles

Tour Group Leaders These are the leaders that will lead each tour group Members These are the members of the tour group or are general locals of the region

Sherpa (expert local, resource provider, super human) The Sherpa will guide tourists during their hiking journey and will carry most resources

Neighboring Hut

Core Facilities

Locally Available Materials

Roof

Circulation Boardwalk The boardwalk serves as the primary method of walking around the site, being elevated up 1m allowing provides flexibility in terms of design against topography.

Clay Roof Tiles

Traditional style roof accompanied by traditional terracotta tiles. Terracotta will be produced using local materials

Constructed out of local clay and stone aggregates

Timber Beams System Structural floor joist and other structural components made from predominately local timber

Structural

Local Stone

Structural components of the hut are made of local timber. These make up the structural framework such ass the roof trusses, beams and columns

Feature stone wall at beginning of hut entrance

Internal Walls Internal walls made of treated wooden panels that are weaved and nailed to create an even force of public and privacy

Facade System Wind barrier facades to block out south-westerly and north direction winds

Footing Foundation

Pad footing foundation comprising of clay, sand and stone aggregates

Oxygen Therapy Room

Mountain Hut Internal Thermal Blankets

Air-tight Oxygen Therapy Room

Permeable Timber Partition Walls

The hut serves as a compact resting station for visitors. It provides basic essentials such as beds, dining, storage, shelves as well as an oxygen therapy space

PRINCIPLE 02 RESOURCES

RESOURCES

“THE ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES & SERVICES”

“ TH

E ES

SENTIAL SUPPL IES

”

Inventory Space “Essential Stock” The inventory destination is the core space for all travelers and locals to survive. It is strategically situated in the center at settlement base camp 2 and provides supplies including water, food, equipment, electrical generators as well as waste management inlets

Inventory Clay Roof Tiles Principle 01 Sherpas

Constructed out of local clay and stone aggregates

Internal Resource Space The hut contains a generous amount of space for essential stock. The space also contains water tanks, waste disposals and oxygen tanks

Services Principle 03 Sherpas Principle 04 Gathering

Principle 02 Resources

Automatic Waste Collection System

Supplies & Storage

Underground pipes that transports generated waste at high speeds to a designated waste station/collection point

The supplies hut contains essentials required for living. Products such as stock, food, water and hiking equipment are brought up by Sherpas and stored in this area.

Service Space The service block containing waste inlets, water tanks and electrical generators

190

SEEKING

REFUGE

Inventory Stocking Stock and resources brought up by Sherpas

Water Tanks

Electric Generators

Automatic Waste Collection System Waste bin inlets that collects and transport waste through underground pipes to a waste collection location.

PRINCIPLE 03 S H E R PA S

SHERPAS

“ A D E S I G N AT E D R E F U G E ”

IGNATED REFUG DES E” “A

The Sherpas Space

Sherpa House 2

Two designated huts are designed specifically for the needs of Sherpas and their lifestyle. The huts are strategically located adjacent to the river so that cooking, showering and preparation of resources are convenient. After a long journey of carrying supplies and resources, a well deserved hut within proximity of water is well earnt and rewarded

Clay Roof Tiles

Sherpa House 1

Constructed out of local clay and stone aggregates

Timber Beams System Structural floor joist and other structural components made from predominately local timber

The Lookout Sherpa House 1

Sherpa House 2

In-between space Internal Walls Internal walls made of treated wooden panels that are weaved and nailed to create an even force of public and privacy

Footing Foundation Pad footing foundation comprising of clay, sand and stone aggregates

10 South Facing River Stream

Resource Harvesting Situated in between the Sherpa huts are a series of platform used to reach into the campsite. The platform can be used to assist water collection, meal preparation and timber and stone collection.

The Lookout The lookout space as it states, provides a platform to overlook the mountain ranges. In addition to its functionality, the space provides a resource preparation dock, rain water collection system which simultaneously functions as a shading device.

Preparation Platform (Decking)

Structural Stone Aggregate Footing

SEEKING

REFUGE

191

PRINCIPLE 04 “A C

G AT H E R I N G

OMMUNAL SPACE

GATHERING

“ A C O M M U N A L S PA C E ”

“A C

OMMUNAL SPACE

The Gathering Space The resource space serves as a destination for dining, cooking, and kitchen preparing. The area can be also used as a communal dining hall and a briefing space to prep tourists for their journey.

Thach Roof Constructed out of local thatch as main roof covering texture

+6856m

Traditional Style Roof Rafters Briefing Lounge and Fireplace

Medical Under storage

A briefing lounge and fireplace is provided to allow Sherpas and expedition leaders to brief the journey before ascending to the mountains

Medical treatment and equipment stored underneath the storage cabinetry

Roof rafters are constructed in a traditional Nepalese style

Timber Siding Cladding

Timber Beams System

Siding Cladding around timber wall surfaces

Structural floor joist and other structural components made from predominately local timber

3 Continuous mov ement path to settlement camp 1 and

16 Gathering Space The gathering space functions as a dining, briefing as well as kitchen / cooking area.

Puja Ceremony Traditional Kitchen A traditional kneeling kitchen is provided, a form of cultural education for foreign tourists.

+4600m

Compact Under Storage Medical equipment safely stored under mezzanine Structural Stone Aggregate Footing

Traditional Kneeling Kitchen Kitchen constructed from local fire formed clay

11 CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION

This thesis captures the significance of mountaineering and the difficulties mountaineers experience during their journey to the summit. Mountaineering tourism, specifically within the Himalayas has seen a significant rise over the last 40 years and will be expected to rise again post COVID-19, 2023 onwards according to OECD’s prediction (OECD 2020). As a consequence of rising mountain tourism levels, a climbers physiologic and physical health are negatively impacted from the effects of high altitude. The results of the risk analysis (chapter 04.6 & 04.7) concluded with acute mountain sickness (AMS) being the primary cause of injury that leads to falling being the primary cause of death. This thesis aims to respond to the injuries and death tolls by proposing refuge facilities that serve as a resting checkpoint providing support services that will aid climbers in continuing with their journey. It is convenient to say that “to reduce the risks of injuries and deaths from mountaineering, people should not participate in the first place”. However, one cannot stop the passion of a mountaineer and simply halt their ambitions. Mountaineering is inevitable and, in some people, may truly bring wonders upon reaching the summit, as if it were like to accomplish a long term goal and achieving personal satisfaction. Therefor this thesis not only captures the difficulties of the mountaineering journey, but also communicates the entailed risks so that the public are aware and acknowledge before deciding to commit to a physically demanding mountaineering journey.

194

SEEKING

REFUGE

12 REFERENCES

SEEKING

REFUGE

195

RESEARCH REFERENCES

2) 3) 4)

10) 11)

12)

13)

14) 15) 16) 17)

Beedie, Paul and Simon Hudson. 2003. “Emergence of Mountain-based Adventure Tourism” Annals of Tourism Research 30 (3): 625-643 0.1016/S0160-7383(03)00043-4 Bishop, Brent. 2015. Peak Poop: The Feces Problem on Everest Needs a Solution https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/climbing/peak-poop-feces-problem-everest-needs-solution/ Bishop, Barry. 1963. “How we climbed Everest”. National Geographic 124 (4): 477-508 Doi unable to be located Bishop, Brent and Chris Naumann. 1996. “Mount Everest: Reclamation of the World’s Highest Junk Yard”. Mountain Research and Development 16 (3): 323-327 https://doi.org/3673958 Bodach, Susanne, Werner Lang, and Johannes Hamhaber. 2014. "Climate responsive building design strategies of vernacular architecture in Nepal." Energy and Buildings 81(1): 227-242. 10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.06.022 Dini, Roberto, and Stefano Girodo. 2018. “Shelters in the Night. The Role of Architecture in the Process of Understanding High-Altitude Areas." Journal of Alpine Research| Revue de géographie alpine 106 (1). 10.4000/rga.3919 Eller, Erica. “The Policy Slogan “Build Back Better” Has an Interesting Backstory”. Climate Conscious. https://medium.com/climate-conscious/the-policy-slogan-build-back-better-has-an-interesting-backstoryc41731e8282 Enserink, Martin. 2019. “Hypoxia City”. American Association for the Advancement of Science 365 (6458): 1098 – 1103 10.1126/science.365.6458.1098 Ewet, Alan and Steve Hollenhorts. 1989. “Testing the adventure model: empirical support for a model of risk recreation participation”. Journal of Leisure Research 21 (2): 124-139 https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1989.11969794 Fogle, Ben. 2018. UN Environment Patron Ben Fogle Reaches Everest Summit. https://www.unep.org/es/node/21688 Forbes, Catherine. 2018. "Rebuilding Nepal: traditional and modern approaches, building or diminishing resilience?" International Journal of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment 9 (3): 218-229 10.1108/IJDRBE-01-2017-0001 Foreman, Marisol. 2015. “Mt. Baker Base Camp and Research Facility: An American Typology Standard for the European Mountain Hut” Master’s thesis, University of Washington. http://hdl.handle.net/1773/35070 Garrigos-Simon, F.K, Yeamduan Narangajavana-Kaosiri and Yeamdao Narangajavana. 2019. “Quality in Tourism Literature: A bibliometric review” Sustainability 11(14): p3859 10.3390/su11143859 Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. 2019. Building Back Better in Post-Disaster Recovery. https://www.gfdrr.org/sites/default/files/2017-09/Building%20Back%20Better%20Guidance%20Note_0.pdf Hales, Robert. 2006. “Mountaineering”. Adventure tourism, CAB International 260-285 10.10799/9781845931223.0260 Harvey, David. 2010. The Enigma of Capital. London: Profile Books. 10.11120/elss.2010.03010006 Heathcote, Edwin. 2015. “High-altitude Architecture”. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/31f62d88-71ec-11e5-ad6d-f4ed76f0900a

18) Imray, Chris., Alex Wright, Andrew Subudhi, and Robert Roach. 2010. "Acute Mountain Sickness: Pathophysiology, Prevention, and Treatment." Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases 52 (6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2010.02.003 19) Kelliher, Kristen. 2014. An Examination of Governmental and Nongovernmental Organizations in Nepal: A Partnership in Managing and Eliminating Waste in Solukhumbu: Independent Study Project Collection https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2987&context=isp_collection 20) Kent, Phoebe. ““Alpine Architecture”: An Utopian City by Bruno Taut 1917”. Wordpress (blog), November 7, 2017. 21) Machedon, Ana-Maria. 2016. “High Altitude Architecture: A Link Between Primitive and Global Architecture” PhD diss., Ion Mincu University of Architecture and Urbanism. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333652971_HIGH_ALTITUDE_ARCHITECTURE_A LINK_BETWEEN_PRIMITIVE_AND_GLOBAL_ARCHITECTURE 22) Machedon, Ana-Maria. 2019. "High Altitude Architecture–An Unconventional Marker for the Anthropocene." In Geophysical Research Abstracts 21 (1). https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU2019/EGU2019-10599-1.pdf & https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/51/105/51105466.pdf 23) Marwa, Dabaieh. 2011. “A Future for the Past of Desert Architecture”. Masters Thesis, Lund University https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/files/5906883/2224661.pdf 25

196

SEEKING

REFUGE

12 24) Medline Plus. 2022. Acute Mountain Sickness. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000133.htm 25) Miller, Tyrus. 2017. “Expressionist Utopia: Bruno Taut, Glass Architecture and the Dissolution of Cities.” Filozofski vestnik 38 (1). https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/filozofski-vestnik/article/download/6537/6173 26) Mowforth, Martin, and Munt Ian. 2008. Tourism and Sustainability: Development, Globalisation and New Tourism in the Third World. Florence: Taylor and Francis 10.4324/9780203891056 27) Musa, Ghazali, James Higham and Anna Thompson-Carr. 2015. Mountaineering Tourism. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge https://api.taylorfrancis.com/content/books/mono/download?identifierName=doi&identifierValue=10.4324/9 781315769202&type=googlepdf 28) Neves, Katiga. 2004. “Revisiting the tragedy of the commons: Whale watching in the Azores and its ecological dilemmas” Human Organization 63 (3): 289-300 10.17730/humo.63.3.tae1vdl7573hrbt7 29) Neves, Katiga. 2010. “Critical business uncritical conservation: The invisibility of dissent in the world of marine ecotourism”. Current Conservation 3 (3): 18-21 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00303.x 30) OECD. 2020. Rebuilding Tourism for the Future: COVID-19 policy responses and recovery. https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/rebuilding-tourism-for-the-future-covid-19-policy-responsesand-recovery-bced9859/ 31) Oliver, Paul. 1997. Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press http://link.library.curtin.edu.au/p?pid=CUR_ALMA2194989500001951 32) Peacock, Andrew. 1998. “Oxygen at High Altitude”. BMJ 317(7165):1063-1066 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.317.7165.1063 33) Penrith City Council. 2021. Automated Waste Collection Systems Waste Management Guidelines. https://www.penrithcity.nsw.gov.au/images/documents/building-development/planning-zoning/planningcontrols/Waste_Management_Guidelines_Waste_Collection_Systems.pdf 34) Pomfret, Gill. 2006. “Mountaineering adventure tourists: A conceptual framework for research”. Tourism Management 27 (3): 113-123 10.1016/j.tourman.2004.08.003 35) Pomfret, Gill. 2011. “ Package mountaineer tourists holidaying in the French Alps: An evaluation of key influences encouraging their participation” Tourism Management: 32( (3): 501-510 10.1016/j.tourman.2010.04.001 36) Pomfret, Gill. 2006. “Mountaineering adventure tourist: a conceptual framework of research”. Tourism Management 27 (1): 113-123 http://phoebekentblog.wordpress.com/2017/11/07/alpine-architecture-an-utopian-city-by-bruni-taut-1917/ 37) Robinson, David. 1992. “A Descriptive Model of Enduring Risks Recreation Involvement”. Journal of Leisure Research 24 (1): 52-63 https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1992.11969871 38) Schirren, Matthias. 2004. Bruno Taut: Alpine Architektur: A utopia – Eine Utopie. Munich, London: Prestel. http://link.library.curtin.edu.au/p?pid=CUR_ALMA2189045640001951 39) Shuangyu, Han. 2021. “AHSA Farmstay.” Archdaily https://www.archdaily.com/909384/ahsa-farmstay-creative-crews 40) Stephan, Leslie. 1871. The Playground of Europe. London: Longmans Green and Co. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=zSAqAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR14&dq=the+playground+of +europe&ots=Z9BXuevwxN&sig=80EL65KG_DcXyl7u2LS8dzRsBBI 41) Supic, Plemenka. 1982. “Vernacular Architecture: A Lesson of the Past for the Future”. Energy and Buildings 5 (1): 43-54 10.1016/0378-7788(82)90027-5 42) Taut, Bruno. 1917. “Alpine Architecture: Utopian City. http://link.library.curtin.edu.au/p?pid=CUR ALMA2189045640001951 43) The White House. 2021. The Build Back Better Framework: President Biden’s Plan to Rebuild The Middle Class. https://www.whitehouse.gov/build-back-better/ 44) United Nation: World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO). 2020. International Tourism Highlights 2020. https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284422456 45) Unsworth, Walt. 1992. Encyclopedia of Mountaineering. Pennsylvania: Hodder & Stoughton https://books.google.com/books/about/Encyclopaedia_of_Mountaineering.html?id=_-hiQgAACAAJ 46) Weed, Mike. 2005. “Sports Tourism Theory and Method-Concepts, Issues and Epistemologies” European Sport Management Quarterly 5 (3): 229-242 10.1080/16184740500190587 47) Weed, Mike and Chris Bull. 2004. Sports Tourism: Participants, Policy and Providers. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Butterworth Heinemann http://link.library.curtin.edu.au/p?pid=CUR_ALMA51168283870001951 26

SEEKING

REFUGE

197

IMAGE REFERENCES

4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)

10) 11) 12) 13)

14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 23) 24) 25) 26) 27) 28)

Ambrosetti, Tonatiuh. 2009.”Monte Rosa Hut”. Archdaily https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/5863/7c19/e58e/ce2d/7200/01b0/large_jpg/Monte_Rosa_Hut_8.jpg? 1482914824 Archwerk + Formafatal. 2018. “Coco Art Villages Section Drawing” https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/5fda/98d2/63c0/1798/5900/00cd/slideshow/05-coco-m-master-sideinterior-elevation.jpg?1608161458 Archwerk + Formafatal. 2018. “Coco Art Villages Site Plan” https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/5fda/984e/63c0/1783/2e00/00e6/slideshow/01-coco-houses-siteplan.jpg?1608161327 Archwerk + Formafatal. 2018. Coco Art Villages Costa Rica. https://www.archdaily.com/953529/coco-art-villas-costa-rica-archwerk-plus-formafatal Barrie, Mitch. 2009. “Shelter at Camp Muir”. Flickr https://www.flickr.com/people/26209464@N00 Bearth & Deplazes Architekten. 2009. “Site Plan” https://www.archdaily.com/802453/monte-rosa-hut-bearth-and-deplazes-architekten Bearth & Deplazes Architekten. 2009. “Monte Rosa Hut 3D” https://www.archdaily.com/802453/monte-rosa-hut-bearth-and-deplazes-architekten Bloom, Chester. 1921. “An Inuit Eskimo Hut in Northern Territories”. Glenbow Museum Archives: http://ww2.glenbow.org/dbimages/arcg/1/g-1-1712-4.jpg Bortte, Rafa. 2017. “Tegnersee Hutte Loop”. Outdoor active https://www.outdooractive.com/en/route/hiking-route/tegernsee-schliersee/tegernsee-huetteloop/109837780/#dmdtab=oax-tab3 Bros, Lomen. 1916. “Interior of Eskimo Hut”. Library of Congress https://www.loc.gov/item/99615172/ Buck, Deanne. 2015. Statistical Tables: American Alpine Club. Colorado: AAC Publications http://aac-publications.s3.amazonaws.com/articles/anam-13201213443-1441899273.pdf Burgio, Franco. 2011. “Monte Rosa Hutte”. Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monte_Rosa_Hutte.JPG Chowdhury, Shradda. 2020. “It Will Take More Than a Lifetime to Clear the Himalayas of all Trash”. Conde Nast Traveller https://assets.cntraveller.in/photos/60c07f2de047c5af13902bfd/master/w_1600,c_limit/healing-himalayas4866x1155.jpg Chui, Sam. 2016. “Lukla: Worlds Most Dangerous Airport” https://samchui.com/2016/08/03/lukla-nepal-worlds-dangerous-airport/#.Yoyk2KhBw2w Clapp, Jeff. 2010. “Bottled Oxygen at Base Camp”. Quora https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-ba3a4614a172ee02d2221a55ff567980-lq Creative Crews. 2018. “AHSA Farmstay Site Plan” https://www.archdaily.com/909384/ahsa-farmstay-creative-crews Creative Crews. 2018. “AHSA Farmstay Section” https://www.archdaily.com/909384/ahsa-farmstay-creative-crews Creative Crews. 2018. “Axonometric View Layout” https://www.archdaily.com/909384/ahsa-farmstay-creative-crews Curtis, Edward. 1899. “An Inuit Eskimo Hut and Family”. Library of Congress: https://www.loc.gov/resource/ppmsca.40919/ Groves, Jackson. 2021. “Puja Ceramony”. Journey Era https://www.journeyera.com/ama-dablam-mountain-climb/ Hickok, Kimberly. 2018. “How Much Waste is on Mount Everest?”. Livescience https://www.livescience.com/63061-how-much-trash-mount-everest.html Hunt, Harry. 2014. “The Snowbird Hut”. American Alpine Club https://americanalpineclub.org/snowbird-faq Levi, Westerveld. 2019. “Mountains, People and Waste: A Map of Waste Density in Mountain Regions. Flickr https://www.flickr.com/photos/gridarendal/30949571963 Lisa, Ana. 2015. “Refuge du Gouter”. Inhabitat https://inhabitat.com/spaced-mount-blancs-refuge-du-gouter-is-self-sufficient-and-frances-highest-building/ Marek. 2016. “Trekkers on the Trail to Phakding Village on the Everest Base Camp Trek, Nepal” https://as2.ftcdn.net/v2/jpg/02/73/05/13/1000_F_273051348_xjXPTiP8uNJmJL2dPF6uWE9708kpnIVb.jpg Mayo Clinic. 2022. “Challenges of Mountaineering” https://advancingthescience.mayo.edu/2012/04/30/physical-challenges-on-everest/ Pak Peaks. 2017. K2 vs Everest. http://www.pakpeaks.com/2017/05/20/k2-vs-everest-the-clash-of-the-titans/ Pitteloud, Jean-Louis. 2014. “The Gspaltenhorn Hut”. Camp to Camp https://www.camptocamp.org/profiles/8378/fr/jean-louis-pitteloud 27

198

SEEKING

REFUGE

12 29) Prudek, Daniel. 2016. “Stupa in Thame Village” https://image.shutterstock.com/image-photo/stupa-thame-village-mount-thamserku-600w-1721410411.jpg 30) Reuters Graphics. 2019. “Dangerous Heights” http://graphics.reuters.com/NEPAL-EVEREST/0100B4S22JR/index.html 31) Salisbury, Richard, Elizabeth Hawley and Billi Bierling. 2019. The Himalayas by the Numbers. Michigan: The Himalayan Database http://www.himalayandatabase.com/hbn2019.html and https://communities.sas.com/t5/SAS-VisualAnalytics-Gallery/Himalaya-Expeditions-death-statistics-in-SAS-Visual-Analytics/ta-p/536652 32) Severi, Dario. 2016. “Manjo Village” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monjovillagenepal.jpg 33) Simpson John. 2015. “Pilatus”. Swiss Family Fun https://swissfamilyfun.com/browse-hikes/ 34) Snohetta. 2019. Tungestolen Hiking Cabins Site Plan https://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/article/1515794/snohetta-creates-spiral-mountains 35) Snohetta. 2019. Tungestolen Hiking Cabins https://www.archdaily.com/942033/tungestolen-hiking-cabin-snohetta/5eecda32b357654bde000155tungestolen-hiking-cabin-snohetta-photo?next_project=no 36) Taylor, Ian. 2018. “Ama Dablam Base Camp” https://iantaylortrekking.com/wpcontent/uploads/2022/01/60640770_2326518827669510_6405184642349006848_n-scaled.jpg 37) Tu, Tin. 2022. Building Back Better Adapted Principles: Digital Diagram 38) Tu, Tin. 2022. Causes of Injury and Death Statistics Map. Digital Diagram 39) Tu, Tin. 2022. Creating a Bivouac: Digital Collage 40) Tu, Tin. 2022. Digital Mapping: QGIS Advance Mapping Software 41) Tu, Tin. 2022. Distinct Altitude Zones of Nepal. 2022: Digital Diagram 42) Tu, Tin. 2022. History of Mountaineering: Digital Collage 43) Tu, Tin. 2022. Identifying Common Trends: Trends Map: Digital Diagram 44) Tu, Tin. 2022. Levels of Altitude: Placing Acute Mountain Sickness: Digital Diagram 45) Tu, Tin. 2022. Mountain Hut: The Evolution Cycle: Digital Tracing Collage 46) Tu, Tin. 2022. Mountaineering Design Methodology: Digital Collage 47) Tu, Tin. 2022. Mountaineering Journey: Digital Collage 48) Tu, Tin. 2022. Mountaineering Participation Model: Digital Diagram 49) Tu, Tin. 2022. Mountaineering Risk Categories: Digital Diagram 50) Tu, Tin. 2022. Mountaineering: Activity, People and Place: Digital Sketch 51) Tu, Tin. 2022. Mountaineering: Exploration Collage: Digital Illustration 52) Tu, Tin. 2022. Potential Solutions to Mountain Pollution: Digital Sketch 53) Tu, Tin. 2022. Principle of Diminishment: Digital Collage 54) Tu, Tin. 2022. Relationship of Mountaineering with Economy, Social Wellbeing and Environment: Digital Diagram 55) Tu, Tin. 2022. Risk of Mountaineering. Digital Sketch 56) Tu, Tin. 2022. Sustainable Systems Map: Digital Diagram 57) Tu, Tin. 2022. The Challenges of Mountain Waste: Digital Collage 58) Tu, Tin. 2022. The Effects of Mountaineering on Traditional Altitude Architecture: Digital Diagram 59) Tu, Tin. 2022. The Evolution Phases of a Mountain Hut: Digital Diagram 60) Tu, Tin. 2022. Types of Waste on Route to Base Camp: Digital Collage 61) Turner, Elen. 2020. “Acclimizatation Stop in Namche Bazaar” 62) Turner, Elen. 2020. “Acclimizatation Stop in Namche Bazaar” 63) Wang, Lucy. 2014. “Solar-Power Alpine Hut”. Inhabitat https://inhabitat.com/solar-powered-alpine-hut-boasts-spectacular-mountain-views-in-switzerland-2/tracuithut-savioz-fabrizzi-architectes/ 64) World Architecture. 2015. Mountain Hut: The Himalayas Shelter. http://worldarchitecture.org/architecture-projects/hzecf/mountain-hut-the-himlayas-shelter-project-pages.html

SEEKING

REFUGE

199

13 APPENDIX

SEEKING

REFUGE

201

S I T E S T R AT E G Y A N A LY S I S

M O V E M E N T PAT T E R N S

SET TLEMENT ZONES

202

SEEKING

REFUGE

50m

E S TA B L I S H I N G B O U N D A R I E S

SEEKING

REFUGE

203

CONCEPT 1

S E T T L E M E N T S T R AT E G Y

MASSING

0 204

SEEKING

REFUGE

50m

CONCEPT 2

S E T T L E M E N T S T R AT E G Y

MASSING

50m

SEEKING

REFUGE

205

CONCEPT 3

S E T T L E M E N T S T R AT E G Y

MASSING

206

SEEKING

REFUGE

50m

L AY O U T T E S T I N G - U N U S E D C O N C E P T S

I T E R AT I O N 1

I T E R AT I O N 2

SEEKING

REFUGE

207

L AY O U T T E S T I N G - U N U S E D C O N C E P T S

I T E R AT I O N 1

I T E R AT I O N 2

208

SEEKING

REFUGE

DESIGN CONCEPTS

M A S S I N G I T E R AT I O N S

SEEKING

REFUGE

209

F O R M E X P L O R AT I O N S

CONCEPT 1

CONCEPT 4

CONCEPT 2

C O N C E P T 4 - D E TA I L

CONCEPT 3

210

SEEKING

REFUGE

S PAT I A L P L A N N I N G

L AY O U T S T R AT E G Y

SEEKING

REFUGE

211

FACADE ST UDI ES - LOOK AND FEEL

212

SEEKING

REFUGE

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

REFUGE HUTS S PAT I A L P L A N N I N G

FA C A D E S T U D I E S

SEEKING

REFUGE

213

FACADE ST UDI ES

ROOF STUDIES

214

SEEKING

REFUGE

G AT H E R I N G S PA C E

L AY O U T S T R AT E G Y

B R I E F I N G S PA C E

TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

SEEKING

REFUGE

215

R E S O U R C E S : S PAT I A L P L A N N I N G

INVENTORY & SERVICES

S H E R PA S H U T - O V E R L O O K I N G

216

SEEKING

REFUGE

RESEARCH BACKGROUND

K E Y W O R D S A N A LY S I S As part of the preliminary framework of mountain tourism, it is crucial to investigate the key factors and quality issues revolved around the word tourism itself. The importance of a key word analysis provides background issues and critical terminology that will contextualize this thesis. The purpose of the analysis is to understand what makes up tourism and what factors are to be kept into consideration when viewing this thesis. The Keywords analysis performed by Fernando Garrigos-Simon, Yeamduan Narangajavana-Kaosiri and Yeamdao Narangajavana is used to “visualize the state of the art and the trends of main research topics in the area of tourism quality” (Simon, Narangajavana-Kaosiri and Narangajavana 2019, 9). The specific study focused on assessing author key words from 4625 tourism quality articles and using a VOS viewer software found 16,004 key words that are then visualized to show the common trends (Simon, Narangajavana-Kaosiri and Narangajavana 2019, 19). The larger the word indicates a more frequent appearance from the articles. Extracting data from their research, the following keywords are used most frequently: 1. Tourism occurring 540 times 2. Satisfaction occurring 194 times 3. Service Quality occurring 151 times 4. Medical Tourism occurring 112 times 5. Quality of life occurring 99 times

SEEKING

REFUGE

217

N E E D S A N A LY S I S

Researc

How can traditional and contemporary methods of design be intertwined within the

Needs Analysis ‐ Why do we nee HEALTH Health and Safety ‐ Shelters provide basic human necessities for survival in case of natural hazards or conflict ‐ reduces the risks of hypothermia Increase in Death Tolls ‐ Statistically speaking that there are rising death tolls within climbing seasons due to the lack of shelters Limited number of shelters ‐ There are minimial amounts of safety shelters in hiking trails resulting to use of portable camping tents that endure climatic weathering. Survival ‐ A shelter is essential element for survival, especially in physically demanding activities like hiking and climbing. ‐

ECONOMICAL Global Increase in Tourism ‐ Increase in global tourism rates due to providing safer and m

Increase in local economy ‐ the increase in global tourism will increase the local economy consumpsion climbing accessories

Product Consumption ‐ Rising increase in climbing products purchased by tourists

Protection from the elements ‐ Provides shade from sweltering sun ‐ Shielding from ice, cold winds and low temperatures ‐ Protection from predators, insects and animals Social Well being ‐ mountaineering to increase social well being providing increased 'feel good' hormones that will stimulate happiness

Target Audience Mountaineers

Climbers Tourists

Sherpas 218

SEEKING

REFUGE

Primary Risk Factors of Mountaineering (refer to figure x (the issues)) Psychological Body Functions AMS, Hypothermia, hypoxia, hyperventilation, polycycthermia, Pulmonary edema (HAPE) Envronmental Weather Exposure Wind, cold, temperature, sun, snow, rain Natural Disasters Avalanches, rockfalls, icefall, landslides, glacial shifts

The Nee

in an att analysis ultimate Sherpas

ch Question

e design of a mountain refuge to provide safer facilities for climbers and mountaineers?

ed a refuge sheltor in Base Camps?

more facilities

y through

ENVIRONMENTAL Reduction in Envinrmental Footprint ‐ Less physical impacts on urban environment ‐ Reduces littering rates by providing a physical area for waste disposal Reduction in Urban Footprint

Environmental Waste Systems ‐ Self harnessing waste systems that are decompositable ‐ Non‐Grandular Design ‐ Prefabricated design that does not involve fixed forms ‐ Lightweight, modular and locally developed huts that encorporate materials and resources from local environment

ed (Proposal to reduce mountaineering risks)

SOCIAL/CULTURAL Cultural Respect ‐ Design of shelter facilties will acknowledge traditional history Cultural Materials ‐ Each location containing different geology and resources ‐ The difference in locations meant the signifiant variation in the types of resources Geographic Location ‐ The distinct regions contain different culture and settlement pattern The Sherpa ‐ The sherpa remains as a significant cultural belief, harnessing power from the gods to provide power and safetiness in climbing

Design Method

tempt to respond to the risk factors of mountaineering, the needs Local/Traditional Materials reinforcing s will inform the design proposal of what could be introduced to nepalese architecture ely reduce the risk factors in mountain regions s are situated nearby and may be utilised to assist mountaineers journey Modular / prefabricated designed BY Sherpas/Nepalese locals FOR mountaineers, climbers and tourists

SEEKING

REFUGE

219

DESIGN CRITERIA

Core Thesis Research

13 Key Research Takings

Risk Analysis (Mountaineering Accidents) ‐Rise in mountaineering tourism leading to:

• Significant rise in tourism levels over 4 • Gradual rise from 1980 ‐ 2000 • Significant rise from 2000 ‐ 2020 •2019 COVID ‐ 19 pandemic affects tou

‐ Rising causes of injuries

Top three causes injuries: 1: Acute mountain sickness (AMS) 2: Weather Exposure 3: Falling

‐ Rising causes of deaths

Top three causes of deaths: 1: Falling 2: Avalanches 3: Exceeding Abilities

Environmental Waste Impacts

220

SEEKING

‐ Rise in mountaineering tourism leading to Increased mountain waste

Various types of mountain waste ident • Organic waste (Solid food and liquid fo • Hiking equipment (rope, shoes, clothin • Destroyed tents & campsites • Human feces • Oxygen bottles /cylinders • Glassware • Aluminum

‐ The challenges of mountain waste

Key challenges of mountain waste • Large amounts of supplies ‐ bringing s with it is the issue. • Limited waste management schemes • The ethics of right or wrong ‐ should I by the edge of the cliff? • Where are the bins? There are limited is willing to collect and bring it down

‐ Potential sollutions to mountain pollution

Possible sollutions to mountain polluti • Community based ‐ waste collection • Waste monitoring program • High risk ‐ high reward scheme • Underground piping recycle system • Advanced technology retrieveal schem

Traditional Nepalese Design Culture

REFUGE

Basic stages of creating a bivouac

13 Developing Design Strategy

Developing Critera

40 year

urism

Results: Linking The Data Findings Suggested Design pathway Top cause of injury (AMS) leading to top cause of deaths (Falling) resulting in rising death tolls How can architecture make an impact? Results suggest possible proposal of air tight oxygen therapy space

tified: orms) ng, gear)

supplies isnt the issue, it's what we do

risk my own life to collect that rubbish

• Utilsiing a contemporary strategy of testing

and proposing an underground piping recycling system that will reduce and respond to the challenges of mountain waste

d bin resources. The issues is that no one

ion

me (helicopters & expensive devices)

SEEKING

REFUGE

221

‐ Potential sollutions to mountain pollution DESIGN CRITERIA

Traditional Nepalese Design Culture

‐ Origin of traditional shelters

Basic stages of creating a bivouac • Gather ‐ collect and gather materials • Framing ‐ begin building the framewo • Shelter ‐ proceed to enclose and prote • Rest ‐ the shelter is finished and you a

‐ Evolution of mountain huts sees the diminishment of traditional vernacular strategies

The evolution of mountain huts • Phase 1: Historical . This stages looks a shelters created anywhere and anytime journey • Phase 2: Traditional . This stages rema the advancement in building scale const • Phase 3: Contemporary: This stages lo forms and advanced technology materia panels

‐ Utilising available materials situated within its local georgaphic zone

Available traditional building materials • Terai Zone ‐ Available traditional build biogenic materials, mud, sand & gravel. • Chura Hills ‐ Available taditional build timber,thatch, clay for brick production • Himalayan Zones ‐ Available tradition timber (2000 ‐ 4000m) and various biog

Precedent Studies

‐ Monte Rosa Hut ‐ Bearth & Deplazes Architects

‐ AHSA Farmstay ‐ Creative Crews

222

‐ Coco Art Villages ‐ Archwerk & Formafatal

SEEKING

REFUGE

Sustainable technology systems • Cold/Hot water storage • Water collection system ‐ utilsing sno • Electrical generators & power inverter

Design systems • Central resource cluster with surround • Traditional and local building material awareness • Timber framework construction system

Individual pod system • Villages utilise local timber constructio circulation around site • Structural foundation attached to stee structural pad

ion

me (helicopters & expensive devices)

ork of the bivouac ect the frame using solid materials are ready to rest inside

at bivouacs which are temporary e during any external camping/hiking

• Acknowledge traditional nepalese design techniques through analysing the origin of traditional shelters

ains looking at traditional materials with truction ooks into a modern apprach with simple als such as steel, solar and aluminum

• Developing a strategy through utilization of available materials situated within its local geographic zone, specifically the Himalayan zone

s of Nepal ding materials: wood, thatch, daub, . ding materials: stone, slate, n, gravel and sand. nal building materials: Stone, rocks, mud, genic materials

•

ow and natural rivers rs

dining huts ls used to enhance tourism cultural

on with timber boardwalks as main

el pole and are used throughout each

• Develop water storage and collection system • Provide contemporary electrical generators for heating purposes • Develop a cluster layout strategy with a SEEKING REFUGE central core providing survival resources and

223

‐ Utilising available materials situated within its local georgaphic zone DESIGN CRITERIA

biogenic materials, mud, sand & gravel. • Chura Hills ‐ Available taditional build timber,thatch, clay for brick production • Himalayan Zones ‐ Available tradition timber (2000 ‐ 4000m) and various biog

Precedent Studies

‐ Monte Rosa Hut ‐ Bearth & Deplazes Architects

‐ AHSA Farmstay ‐ Creative Crews

‐ Coco Art Villages ‐ Archwerk & Formafatal

‐ Tungstolen Hiking Cabins ‐ Snohetta

224

SEEKING

REFUGE

Sustainable technology systems • Cold/Hot water storage • Water collection system ‐ utilsing sno • Electrical generators & power inverter

Design systems • Central resource cluster with surround • Traditional and local building material awareness • Timber framework construction system

Individual pod system • Villages utilise local timber constructio circulation around site • Structural foundation attached to stee structural pad

Cluster Layouts • Layout of cabins are strategically layed serving as the primary camping zone • A briefing space is provided for mount • A warehouse serves as the resource st furture expeditions

. ding materials: stone, slate, n, gravel and sand. nal building materials: Stone, rocks, mud, genic materials

ow and natural rivers rs

dining huts ls used to enhance tourism cultural

on with timber boardwalks as main

el pole and are used throughout each

• Develop water storage and collection system • Provide contemporary electrical generators for heating purposes • Develop a cluster layout strategy with a central core providing survival resources and stocktake inventory

d out with a resource hub in the center

tain expeditions tockpiling space, holding stock for

SEEKING

REFUGE

225

979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988

989

33 35 39 47 48 40 54 T42A T 58 50 75

18 21 17 40 16 35 36 S37T 37 23 53

6 6 4 7 6 3 4 S6 6 6

- R

2 2 3 2 1 3 1 A W3 2 1

Illness (Non‐Ams) 1980 Avalanche 1981 Fall 1982 Falling Rock/Ice 1983 Disappearence 1984 Exhaustion 1985 Exceeding Abilities 1986 Failure A T AEquipment1987 Unknown 1988 1989

35 39 47 48 40 54 42 58 50

5.38% 21 6 33.56% 17 4 31% 40 7 2% 16 6 4.42% 35 3 3.50% 36 4 13% 37 6 2.50% 37 6 1% 23 6

2 3 2 1 3 1 3 2 1

5% 6.00% 39.40% 2% 4.50% 5.00% 7% 3.50% 1%

Avalanche Fall Falling Rock/Ice Disappearence Exhaustion Exceeding Abilities Equipment Failure Unknown

4.50% 22% 33% 2.00% 5% 8.00% 15.00% 2.30% 1%

33.56% 31% 2% 4.42% 3.50% 13% 2.50% 1%

Number of Expeditions

TERMINATION REASON 1990 60 5 2 TERMINATION REASON26 CAUSE OF INJURY ‐ US 990 60 26 5 2 1991 INJURIY 92 33 5‐ HIMALAYAN 2 Reason Percentage EXPEDITIONS REACHING THETHE SUMMIT EXPEDITIONS REACHING INJURIY TYPE TYPE (CAUSES) (CAUSES) ‐ HIMALAYAN DEATH DEATH REASON REASON ‐ HIMALAY ‐ HIMA 991 92 33 5 2 SUMMITReason Percentage Reason Percentage 1992 85 57 6 2 Bad Weather (Storms, High wind) 30.10% 992 85 57 6 2 Bad Weather (Storms, High wind) 30.10% Climbing Unroped 16.90% YearYear Autumn Autumn Spring SpringSummer Summer Winter Winter Injuries Type80 Type Percentage Reason Reason Percen Pe 25% 1993 Injuries 39 4 Percentage 2 Bad Conditions (Deep snow, rocky 993 80 1950 39 Bad1Conditions snow, rocky 25% Exceeding Abilities 15.10% 1950 2 24 1 1 22 2 1 1994(Deep Exposure/Frostbite Exposure/Frostbite 34.54% 34.54% Avalanche Avalanche 87 44 3 2 Illness, AMS, Exhaustion 10.50% 994 87 1951 44 Illness, Exhaustion 10.50% Inadequate Protection 12.00% (Acute Mtn Mtn Sickness) 24.47% Fall 1951 2 23 2 2 12 1 1 AMS, 1 1995 AMSAMS (Acute Sickness) 24.47% 97 44 3 3 Route Technically tooFall difficult 9.80% 995 97 1952 44 Route tooIllness difficult Weather 7.90% 1952 3 33 3 3 23 2 1 Technically 1 1996 Illness (Non‐AMS) 24 9.80% 4 15.25% AMS (Acute Sickness) (Non‐AMS) 15.25% (Acute Mtn Mtn Sickness) 6.60% 110 4 Accident (Death AMS or serious Injury) 6.60% Climbing Alone Illness 6.60% 996 110 1953 24 Accident or serious Injury) Avalance 6.87% Illness (non‐AMS) 1953 4 44 3 3 34 3 1 1(Death 6.87% (non‐AMS) 1997 Avalance 75 49 5 4 Other 6.10% 997 75 1954 49 Other 6.10% Inadequate RopeDisappearance Skills 3% 1954 5 55 10 10 34 3 1 1 1998 Fall Fall 6.63% 6.63% Disappearance (Unexplained) (Unexplained) 5.10% 90 91 6 2 Lack (or loss) of supplies 998 90 91 6 2 Lack (or loss) of supplies 5.10% Separation from Party 2.00% Rock101 / Ice / Ice 35 5% 15% Exposure / Frostbite 19551955 7 7 13 13 4 4 2 2 1999 Falling Falling Rock Exposure / Frostbite 3 Success (Subpeak) 4.40% 999 101 1956 35 Success 4.40% Visibility 2.00% 1956 4 43 14 14 31 3 3 3(Subpeak) Disappearance (Unexplained) Exhaustion 2% 32% Exhaustion 2000 Disappearance 28 (Unexplained) 20 4 Lack of Time 3.90% 000 28 1957 20 Lack3 of Time 3.90% Illness 1.80% 1957 4 44 16 16 33 3 3 2001 Exhaustion Exhaustion 1.95% 1.95% Other Other 101 68 5 2 Did not attempt to Climb 2% 001 101 68 5 2 Did not attempt to Climb 2% Equipment Failure 1.50% Crevasse 19581958 3 3 5 5 2 2 3 3 2002 Crevasse 101 110 1 1 Unknown 1.70% 002 101 110 1 1 Unknown 1.70% Inability to Follow Directions 1.50% Unknown Falling 19591959 4 4 2 2 1 1 1 1 2003 Unknown Falling RockRock / Ice / Ice 88 116 6 3 Attempt rumored 1.50% 003 88 1960 116 Attempt 1.50% Unknown 1.00% 1960 4 46 12 12 73 7 2 2rumored Icefall Collapse Icefall Collapse 2004 108 119 2 2 Did not reach Base Camp 1.50% 004 108 1961 119 Did2not reach Base Camp 1.50% 1961 8 82 4 4 42 4 Unknown 2 2005 Unknown 136 145 3 2 005 136 1962 145 1962 5 53 6 6 62 6 1 1 2006 99 160 3 3 006 99 1963 160 1963 6 63 15 15 43 4 2 2 CAUSES OF INJURY HIMALAYAN MIDDLE EASTERN US US CAUSES OF INJURY HIMALAYAN MIDDLE EASTERN CAUSE OF ‐DEATH ‐ US 2007 160 ‐ US171 4 1 OF DEATH CAUSE OF MIDDLE EASTERN 007 INJURIY 160TYPE 171 4 10 10 1964 5 ‐ 5HIMALAYAN 61 6 2 2 CAUSE Weather Exposure 34.54% 17%INJURY 7.90% 1964 (CAUSES) Weather Exposure 34.54% 17% 7.90% DEATH REASON ‐ HIMALAYAN TERMIN 2008 133 206 5 2 Reason Percentage 008 133 206 5 2 Reason Percentage Reason Percentage 19651965 8 8 4 4 4 4 3 3 2009 AMSAMS (Acute Mountain Sickness) 32.00% 22% 23% (Acute Mountain Sickness) 32.00% 22% 23% 193 4 3 Fall 39.40% Percentage Reason 193 Percentage Reason 009 Injuries Type 193 1966 193 Fall2 2 Climbing Unroped 16.90% 1966 9 94 4 4 43 4 Illness (Non‐Ams) 15.25% 16% 1.80% Illness (Non‐Ams) 56 39.40% 5 15.25% 16% 1.80% 2010 200 1 Slip on snow or ice 16.30% 34.54% 1 Avalanche 33.56% Bad Weather (Storms, High wi 010 Exposure/Frostbite 200 1967 56 10 105 Slip1on snow or ice 16.30% Exceeding Abilities 15.10% 1967 5 5 2 2 Avalanche 6.87% 22.34% 6% 6% 1 2011 Avalanche 6.87% 22.34% Abilities 6.10% 49 187 3 Exceeding Sickness) 24.47% 2 Fall 30.58% 2 Bad Conditions (Deep snow, ro 6.10% Inadequate Protection 12.00% 011 AMS (Acute 49Mtn Exceeding 1968 5 5 2 2 3 3 Abilities Fall 12% 18.30% 13% 1968 187 11 113 Fall 12% 18.30% 13% 2012 AMS (Acute 176 191 1 Avalanches 6.00% 15.25% 2 Mtn Sickness) 8.85% 2 Illness, AMS, Exhaustion 012 Illness (Non‐AMS) 176 1969 191 14 141 Avalanches Weather 7.90% 1969 8 8 3 3 2 2 2013 Falling Falling Rock/Ice Rock/Ice 68 6.00% 2 5% 25% 3% 3% 3.50% 3.50% 3.10% 158 Exposure / Frostbite (non‐AMS) 5.38% Route Technically too difficult Avalance 6.87% Illness 013 158 1970 68 10 102 14 14 Exposure Frostbite 3.10% Climbing Alone 6.60% 1970 12 1 1 1 /2014 Disappearence Disappearence 2.00% 2.00% 3%4%3% 183 (Unexplained) 203 3 Ascending2.20% too2.20% fast 4.42% 1 or serious Inju Disappearance 014 Fall 183 1971 203 14 143 15 156.63%31 3 Ascending too fast 4% Inadequate Rope Skills Accident (Death 2.50% 3% 1971 1 1 2015 Exhaustion Exhaustion 1.95% 1.95% 1.60% 1.60% 2.50% Failure 3.50% 199 132 5 1 Equipment / Ice 5% 1 Exposure / Frostbite 4% Other 3.50% Separation from Party 2.00% 015 Falling Rock 199 132 5 Equipment Failure 19721972 13 13 13 13 2 2 1 1 2016 Exceeding Exceeding Abilities Abilities 8% 8% 5% 5% 15.10% 15.10% 155 6 Crevasse 3.00% (Unexplained) Exhaustion210 3.50% 2 Lack (or loss) of supplies 2.00% 016 Disappearance 210 1973 155 18 186 12 12 2%62 6 Crevasse Visibility 1.20% 1.50% 1.50% 1.20% 1.30% 1.30% 1973 2 2 2017 Equipment Equipment Failure Failure177 3.00% 3 Directions 2.80% 243 Inability to Follow 1.95% 2 Other 3.20% 2 Success (Subpeak)1.80% 2.80% Illness 017 Exhaustion 243 177 3 Inability to Follow Directions 19741974 15 15 22 22 1 1 2 2 2018 Unknown Unknown 1% 31% 1% 1% 1% 1% Rock / Ice 1.80% 260 188 3 Falling 2.70% Lack of Time 1.50% 018 260 1975 188 17 173 23 23 Falling / Ice Crevasse 1.80% Equipment Failure 2 2019 1975 13 1 2 Rock 271 202 4 Lightning 1.50% Falling Rock / Ice 2.20% 3 Did not attempt to1.50% Climb 019 Unknown1976 271 1976 202 23 234 16 16 Lightning 1.50% HIMALAYAN Inability to Follow Directions 13 1 1 1 CAUSES OF DEATH MIDDLE EASTERN US CAUSES OF DEATH HIMALAYAN MIDDLE EASTERN US Unknown 1.00% Icefall Collapse 2.10% Unknown Unknown 1.00% Unknown 1.00% 19771977 26 26 10 10 4 4 1 1 Weather Exposure 4.00% 3% 3% 5.50% Weather Exposure 4.00% 5.50% Unknown 1.60% Attempt rumored 19781978 26 26 7 7 3 3 1 1 AMSAMS (Acute Mountain Sickness) 8.85% 8% 8% 9% 9% (Acute Mountain Sickness) 8.85% Did not reach Base Camp 19791979 33 33 18 18 6 6 2 2 Illness (Non‐Ams) 5.38% 5% 5% 4.50% Illness (Non‐Ams) 5.38% 4.50% CAUSES OF INJURY HIMALAYAN MIDDLE EASTERN US 19801980 35 35 21 21 6 6 2 2 Avalanche 33.56% 6.00% 22% 22% Avalanche 33.56% 6.00% Weather Exposure 34.54% 17% 7.90% 19811981 39 39 17 17 4 4 3 3 Fall Fall 31% 31% 39.40% 33% 33% 39.40% CAUSE OF DEA AMS (Acute Mountain Sickness) 32.00%7 7 23% DEATH REASON REASON 1982 47 47 40 40 2 2 22%Falling Rock/Ice 2% 2% 2% 2% 2.00% 1982‐ HIMALAYAN Falling Rock/Ice TERMINATION 2.00% Illness (Non‐Ams) 15.25%6 6 1.80% Reason 19831983 48 48 16 16 1 1 16%Disappearence 4.42% 4.50% 5% 5% Disappearence 4.42% 4.50% ason Avalanche Percentage Reason Percentage 6% Fall 19841984 40 40 35 356.87%3 3 3 322.34%Exhaustion 3.50% 5.00% 8.00% Exhaustion 3.50% 5.00% 8.00% 30.10% alanche 33.56% Bad Weather (Storms, High wind) Fall 12% 18.30% 13% Slip on snow or15.00% ice 15.00% 19851985 54 54 36 36 4 4 1 1 Exceeding Abilities Exceeding Abilities 13% 13% 7% 7% ll 30.58% Bad Conditions (Deep snow, rocky terrain) 25% Falling Rock/Ice 3%Equipment 3.50% Exceeding Abilities 19861986 42 42 37 37 5%6 6 3 3 Equipment Failure Failure 2.50% 2.50% 3.50% 3.50% 2.30% 2.30% MS (Acute Mtn Sickness) 8.85% 2.00% Illness, AMS, Exhaustion 10.50% Disappearence 3% Avalanches 19871987 58 58 37 37 6 6 2 2 2.20%Unknown Unknown 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% ness (non‐AMS) 5.38% 1.95% Route Technically too difficult 9.80% Exhaustion 2.50% Exposure / Frostbite 19881988 50 50 23 23 6 6 1 1 1.60% sappearance (Unexplained) 4.42% Injury) 6.60% Exceeding Abilities 8% 5% Accident (Death or serious 15.10% Ascending too fast 19891989 75 75 53 53 4 4 3 3 posureEquipment / Frostbite 4% 6.10% 1.50% 1.20% Other 1.30% Equipment Failure Failure TERMINATION TERMINATION REASON CAUSE CAUSE OF INJURY OF INJURY ‐ US‐ 60 60 3.50% 26 26 1%5 5 2 2 of supplies 5.10% haustion Unknown19901990 1% Lack (or loss) 1% REASON Crevasse 19911991 92 92 3.20% 33 33 5 5 2 2 Reason Percentage Reason Percen Reason Percentage Reason Pe her Success (Subpeak) 4.40% Inability to Follow Directions 19921992 57 57 6 6 MIDDLE EASTERN 2 2 Bad (Storms, High High wind)wind) Bad Weather 30.10% 30.10% Climbing Climbing Unroped Unroped evasse LackWeather of Time 3.90% CAUSES OF DEATH 85 85 2.70% HIMALAYAN US(Storms, Falling Rock / Ice 25% 25% Exceeding Exceeding Abilities Abilities 19931993 80 80 2.20% 39 394.00%4 4 2 2 Bad Conditions (Deep (Deep snow, snow, rockyrocky 2% lling Rock / Ice Exposure DidConditions not attempt to Climb Weather 3%Bad 5.50% Lightning 1994 1994 Sickness) 87 87 2.10% 44 448.85%3 3 2 2 Illness, AMS,AMS, Exhaustion Exhaustion 9% 10.50% 10.50% Inadequate Inadequate Protection Protection efall Collapse Unknown 1.70% AMS (Acute Mountain 8%Illness, Unknown 19951995 97 97 1.60% 44 445.38%3 3 3 3 Route Technically Technically too difficult too difficult 9.80% 9.80% Weather Weather rumored 1.50% nknownIllness (Non‐Ams) Attempt 5%Route 4.50% 6.60% 6.60% Climbing Climbing AloneAlone 110 110 24 24 4 4 6.00%Accident (Death (Death or serious or serious Injury) Injury) Did Accident not reach Base Camp 1.50% Avalanche19961996 33.56%4 4 22% 75 75 49 49 31%5 5 4 439.40%OtherOther 6.10% 6.10% Inadequate Inadequate RopeRope SkillsSkills Fall US 19971997 33% 5.10% 5.10% Separation Separation fromfrom PartyParty 19981998 90 90 91 91 2%6 6 2 2 (or loss) (or loss) of supplies of supplies 7.90% Falling Rock/Ice 2%Lack Lack 2.00% 19991999 23% 101 101 35 354.42%3 3 1 1 4.50%Success Success (Subpeak) (Subpeak)OF DEATH 4.40% 4.40% Visibility Visibility CAUSE EASTERN Disappearence 5% ‐ MIDDLE 20002000 28 28 20 203.50%4 4 3 3 5.00%Lack Lack of Time of Time 3.90% 3.90% Illness Illness Exhaustion 8.00% 1.80% Reason Percentage 2001 6% 101 101 68 68 13%5 5 2 2 Didattempt not attempt to Climb to Climb 2% 2% Equipment Equipment Failure Failure Exceeding2001 Abilities 7%Did 15.00% Fallnot 39.40% 2002 2002 13% 101 101 110 1102.50%1 1 1 1 3.50%Unknown 1.70% 1.70% Inability Inability to Follow to Follow Directions Directions Equipment Failure 2.30% Slip Unknown on snow or ice 16.30% 88 88 116 116 1%6 6 3 3 Attempt rumored rumored 1.50% 1.50% Unknown Unknown Unknown20032003 1%Attempt 1% 6.10% 3.50% Exceeding Abilities 20042004 3% 108 108 119 119 2 2 2 2 Did not Didreach not reach BaseBase CampCamp 1.50% 1.50% Avalanches N U M B E R O F E X P E D I T I O N S R E 6.00% ACHING THE SUMMIT 20052005 3 3 2 2 2.50% 136 136 145 145 Exposure / Frostbite 3.10% 20062006 99 99 160 160 3 3 3 3 15.10% Ascending too fast 4% TERMINATION REASON CAUSE OF INJURY ‐ US Legend CAUSE OF DEATH OF DEATH ‐ US‐ US CAUSE CAUSE OF INJURY OF INJURY ‐ MIDDLE ‐ MIDDL EA 20072007 4 4 1 1 1.30% 160 160 171 171 EquipmentCAUSE Failure 3.50% Reason Percentage Reason Percentage Autumn 20082008 1% 133 133 206 206 5 5 2 2 Reason Percentage Reason Percen Reason Percentage Reason Pe Crevasse 3.00% Bad Weather (Storms, High wind) 30.10% Climbing Unroped 16.90% 20092009 193 193 193 193 4 4 3 3 Fall 39.40% Climbing Unroped Fall to Follow Directions Spring 39.40% Climbing Unroped Inability 2.80% 6 Nepalese Sherpas die from 25% Exceeding Abilities 15.10% Bad Conditions (Deep snow, rocky 200 200 56 56 5 5 1 1 Slip on or iceor ice Slipsnow on snow 16.30% 16.30% Exceeding Exceeding Abilities Abilities US 20102010 Falling Rock / Ice 1.80% ice-fall avalanches Summer Illness, AMS, Exhaustion 10.50% Inadequate Protection 12.00% 6.10% 6.10% Inadequate Inadequate Protection Protection 20112011 49 49 187 187 3 3 2 2 Exceeding Exceeding Abilities Abilities 5.50% Lightning 1.50% Winter 9.80% Weather 7.90% Route Technically too difficult 20122012 9% 176 176 191 191 1 1 2 2 Avalanches Avalanches 6.00% 6.00% Weather Weather Unknown 1.00% Accident (Death or serious Injury) 6.60% Climbing Alone 6.60% Ris 20132013 68 68 2 2 2 2 Exposure Exposure / Frostbite / Frostbite 3.10% 3.10% Climbing Climbing AloneAlone 4.50% 158 158 3% Other 6.10% Inadequate Rope Skills 20142014 22% 183 183 203 203 3 3 1 1 Ascending Ascending too fast too fast 4% 4% Inadequate Inadequate RopeRope SkillsSkills 5.10% Separation from Party 2.00% Lack (or loss) of supplies 3.50% 3.50% Separation Separation fromfrom PartyParty 20152015 33% 199 199 132 132 5 5 1 1 Equipment Equipment Failure Failure 2.00% Success (Subpeak) 4.40% Visibility 20162016 6 6 2 2 Crevasse Crevasse 3.00% 3.00% Visibility Visibility 2.00% 210 210 155 155 Lack of Time 3.90% Illness 1.80% 2.80% 2.80% Illness Illness 20172017 5% 243 243 177 177 3 3 2 2 Inability Inability to Follow to Follow Directions Directions Did not attempt to Climb 2% Equipment Failure 1.50% 20182018 3 3 3 3 Falling Falling RockRock / Ice / Ice 1.80% 1.80% Equipment Equipment Failure Failure 8.00% 260 260 188 188 1.50% Unknown 1.70% Inability to Follow Directions in Himalayan 20192019 4 4 3 3 Lightning Lightning Number of Expeditions reaching the Summit 1.50% 1.50% Regions (years 1950 - 2017) Inability Inability to Follow to Follow Directions Directions 15.00% 271 271 202 202 Attempt rumored 1.50% Unknown 1.00% Database (2019) Unknown Unknown Source: Figure adapted from The Himalayan 1.00% 1.00% Unknown Unknown 2.30% Did not reach Base Camp 1.50% 1% S E E KOF I NDEATH G R E‐ FUS UGE 226 CAUSE

CAUSE OF INJURY ‐ US Percentage Reason ason Fall Percentage 39.40%

CAUSE OF INJURY ‐ MIDDLE EASTERN

Reason Climbing Unroped

Percentage 16.90%

Climbing Alone pearance (Unexplained) 4.42% 6.00% Inadequate sure / Frostbite 4% 39.40%Rope Skills Separation ustion 2%from Party 3.50% Visibility r 3.20% 4.50% Illness5.00% asse 2.70% g Rock / Ice Equipment 2.20% 7%Failure Inability to Follow Directions l Collapse 2.10% 3.50% Unknown1% own 1.60% US

22%6.60% 33% 3% 2.00%2.00% 5%2.00% 8.00%1.80% 15.00%1.50% 2.30%1.50% 1%1.00%

Accident (Death or serious Injury) Other Lack (or loss) of supplies Success (Subpeak) Lack of Time Did not attempt to Climb Unknown Attempt rumored Did not reach Base Camp

INJURIY TYPE (CAUSES) ‐ HIMALAYAN 7.90% OF INJURY ‐ US INJURIY TYPECAUSE ‐ HIMALAYAN OF INJURY ‐(CAUSES) MIDDLE EASTERN CAUSE23%

Injuries Type Percentage Reason Percentage Reason1.80% Percentage Climbing Unroped 16.90% Injuries Type Percentage Exposure/Frostbite 34.54% Climbing Unroped 16.90% 6% Exceeding Abilities 15.10% Exposure/Frostbite 34.54% AMS (Acute Mtn Sickness) 24.47% Exceeding Abilities 15.10% 13% Inadequate Protection 12.00% Inadequate Protection 12.00% 3.50% AMS (Acute Mtn Sickness) 24.47% Illness (Non‐AMS) 15.25% Weather 7.90% Weather 3% 7.90% Illness (Non‐AMS) 15.25% Avalance 6.87% Climbing Alone 6.60% Alone 6.60% Climbing 2.50% Inadequate Rope Skills 3% Avalance 6.87% Fall 6.63% Inadequate Rope Skills 3% 15.10% Separation from Party 2.00% Fall 6.63% Falling Rock Ice 5% Separation from /Party 2.00% 1.30% 2.00% Visibility Visibility 2.00% 1% / Ice Falling Rock 5% Disappearance (Unexplained) 2% Illness 1.80% Illness 1.80% Disappearance (Unexplained) 2% Equipment Failure 1.50% Exhaustion 1.95% 1.50% US Equipment Failure 1.50% Inability to Follow Directions Exhaustion 1.95% Inability to Follow Directions 1.50% 5.50% Unknown 1.00% Unknown 1.00% Unknown 9% 4.50% Unknown 22% 33% 2.00% CAUSE OF INJURY ‐ MIDDLE EASTERN Percentage 5%ReasonOF INJURY CAUSES HIMALAYAN Climbing Unroped 16.90% 8.00% CAUSES OF INJURY HIMALAYAN Weather Exposure 34.54% 15.10% 15.00%Exceeding Abilities Weather Exposure 34.54% Inadequate Protection 12.00% AMS (Acute Mountain Sickness) 32.00% 2.30% 7.90% 1%Weather AMS (Acute Mountain Sickness) 32.00% Illness (Non‐Ams) 15.25% Climbing Alone 6.60% Illness (Non‐Ams) 15.25% Avalanche 6.87% Inadequate Rope Skills 3% AvalancheSeparation from Party 6.87% Fall 12% 2.00% CAUSE Falling OF INJURY ‐ US 2.00% Visibility Fall 12% Rock/Ice 5% on Percentage Illness 1.80% Falling Rock/Ice 5% Disappearence 2.00% bing Unroped 1.50% Equipment 16.90% Failure 2.00% Exhaustion 1.95% eding Abilities Disappearence 15.10% Inability to Follow Directions 1.50% quate Protection Exhaustion 1.95% Abilities12.00% 8% ExceedingUnknown 1.00% her 8% Exceeding Abilities Failure 7.90% 1.50% Equipment bing Alone 6.60% 1.50% Equipment Failure Unknown 1% quate Rope Skills 3% Unknown 1% ration from Party 2.00% 2.00% lity CAUSES OF DEATH HIMALAYAN s 1.80% CAUSES OF DEATH HIMALAYAN Weather Exposure 4.00% ment Failure 1.50% Exposure 4.00% Weather AMS (Acute Mountain Sickness) 8.85% 1.50% ity to Follow Directions Mountain Sickness) 8.85% AMS Illness(Acute (Non‐Ams) 5.38% own 1.00%

(Non‐Ams) Illness Avalanche Avalanche Fall Fall Rock/Ice Falling USE OF INJURY ‐ MIDDLE EASTERN Falling Rock/Ice Disappearence on Percentage Disappearence 16.90% bing Unroped Exhaustion eding Abilities Exceeding ExhaustionAbilities15.10% quate Protection Exceeding Abilities Equipment Failure 12.00% her 7.90% Equipment Failure Unknown bing Alone 6.60% Unknown quate Rope Skills 3%

5.38% 33.56% 33.56% 31% 31% 2% 2% 4.42% 4.42% 3.50% 3.50% 13% 13% 2.50% 2.50% 1% 1%

ration from Party 2.00% 2.00% lity s 1.80% TERMINATION REASON 1.50% ment Failure REASON Reason TERMINATION Percentage ity to Follow Directions 1.50% Reason Percentage 30.10% Bad Weather (Storms, High wind) own 1.00%

Weather (Storms, High wind) Bad Conditions (Deep snow, rocky Bad Conditions (Deep snow, rocky Illness, AMS, Exhaustion Illness, AMS, Exhaustion Route Technically too difficult Route Technically difficult Accident (Death ortoo serious Injury) Accident Other (Death or serious Injury) Other(or loss) of supplies Lack Lack (or (Subpeak) loss) of supplies Success Success (Subpeak) Lack of Time ism not urLack of Time attempt to Climb se in Global To Did Did not attempt to Climb Unknown Unknown Attempt rumored Attempt rumored Did not reach Base Camp Did not reach Base Camp

CAUSE OF DEATH ‐ US

CAUSE OF DEATHPercentage ‐ US Reason Reason Percentage Fall 39.40% Fall 39.40% 16.30% Slip on snow or ice 16.30% Slip on snow or ice 6.10% Exceeding Abilities

DEATH REASON ‐ HIMALAYAN DEATH REASON ‐ HIMALAYAN CAUSE OF DEATH ‐ MIDDLE EASTERN

Reason Percentage Percentage Reason Avalanche 33.56% 39.40% Percentage Avalanche 33.56% Fall 30.58% 16.30% Fall (Acute Mtn Sickness)6.10% 30.58% AMS 8.85% AMS Mtn Sickness)6.00% 8.85% Illness(Acute (non‐AMS) 5.38% 3.10% Illness (non‐AMS) 5.38% Disappearance (Unexplained)4% 4.42% Disappearance (Unexplained) 4.42% Exposure / Frostbite 4% 3.50% 3.00% Exposure / Frostbite 4% Exhaustion 3.50% 2.80% Exhaustion 3.50% Other 3.20% 1.80% Other 3.20% Crevasse 2.70% 1.50% Crevasse 2.70% Falling Rock / Ice 2.20% 1.00% FallingCollapse Rock / Ice 2.20% Icefall 2.10% Icefall Collapse 2.10% Unknown 1.60% Unknown 1.60% MIDDLE EASTERN US MIDDLE EASTERN 17% US 7.90% 17% 7.90% 22% 23% 22% 23% 16% 1.80% 16% 1.80% 22.34% 6% 22.34% 6% 18.30% 13% 18.30% 13% 3% 3.50% 3% 3.50% 2.20% 3% 2.20% 3% 1.60% 2.50% 1.60% 2.50% 5% 15.10% 5% 15.10% 1.20% 1.30% 1.20% 1.30% 1% 1% 1% 1% MIDDLE EASTERN US MIDDLE EASTERN 3% US 5.50% 3% 5.50% 8% 9% 8% 9% 5% 4.50% 5% 4.50% 6.00% 22% 6.00% 22% 39.40% 33% 39.40% 33% 2% 2.00% 2% 2.00% 4.50% 5% 4.50% 5% 5.00% 8.00% 5.00% 8.00% 7% 15.00% 7% 15.00% 3.50% 2.30% 3.50% 2.30% 1% 1% 1% 1%

Reason Fall Slip on snow or ice Exceeding Abilities Avalanches Exposure / Frostbite Ascending too fast Equipment Failure Crevasse Inability to Follow Directions Falling Rock / Ice Lightning Unknown

30.10% 25% 25% 10.50% 10.50% 9.80% 9.80% 6.60% 6.60% 6.10% 42 Nepalese Sherpas die in avalanches 6.10% 5.10% 5.10% 4.40% 4.40% 3.90% 3.90% 2% 2% 1.70% 1.70% 1.50% 1.50% 1.50%

Year (1950 - 2017)

6.60% 6.10% 5.10% 4.40% 3.90% 2% 1.70% 1.50% 1.50%

CAUSE OF INJURY ‐ US

‐ US Reason CAUSE OF INJURYPercentage Reason Unroped Percentage Climbing 16.90% Climbing 16.90% ExceedingUnroped Abilities 15.10% Exceeding Abilities 15.10% Inadequate Protection 12.00% (2000 - 2017) Inadequate ProtectionRISE IN GLOBAL TOURISM ZONE 12.00% Weather SIGNIFICANT 7.90% 20 Nepalese Sherpas 6.60% die Weather 7.90% Climbing Alone in avalanches Climbing Alone 6.60% 3% Inadequate Rope Skills m Touris Inadequateifrom Rope 3% Separation 2.00% lSkills aParty b o l G n Rise Separation from Party 2.00% Visibility 2.00% Visibility Illness 1.80% Illness 1.80% Equipment Failure 1.50% Equipment Failure Directions 1.50% Inability to Follow 1.50% Inability to Follow Directions Unknown 1.00% Unknown 1.00%

CAUSE OF INJURY ‐ MIDDLE EASTERN

CAUSE OF INJURY ‐ MIDDLE EASTERN Reason Percentage Reason Percentage Climbing Unroped 16.90% SEEKING REFUGE Climbing Unroped 16.90% Exceeding Abilities 15.10% Exceeding 15.10% InadequateAbilities Protection 12.00%

227

I N J U R Y A N D D E AT H S TAT I S T I C S

CAUSE OF INJURY H I M A L AYA N M O U N TA I N E E R I N G In assisting the risk analysis to provide accurate data, this initial stage requires preliminary data investigation to understand the causes of injuries and death. Mountaineering is a global activity, therefor to increase accuracy and range of the investigation, information is extracted from two different locations, the Himalayas (The Himalayan Database) and the U.S (The American Alpine Club Association). The following questions are asked prior to data findings and analysis. It is these questions that will form the basis of the proceeding risk analysis. • •

What are the main causes of climbing injury? What are the main causes of climbing deaths?

Reading the Data Data are categorized into either human or natural causes which will then be compared against one another to understand what the main causes of injury and deaths are in Himalayan and U.S mountains. Human Cause vs Natural Cause It is recognized that out of the 12 possible causes of injury in the Himalayan mountains:

• • •

42% of injuries are due to human causes (5/12) 33% of injuries are due to natural causes (4/12) 25% of injury are left unknown (3/12)

Legend Natural Cause Human Cause

Causes of Injury in Himalayan Mountains

Uncategorized

Percentage (%) Figure x. Cause of Injury and Death in Himalayan Mountain Regions Source: Figure adapted from The Himalayan Database (2019)

228

SEEKING

REFUGE

13 CAUSE OF INJURY U. S M O U N TA I N E E R I N G The data provided below as mentioned previously are extracted from the American Alpine Club Association, and looks into the possible causes of injury as a result of mountaineering within U.S regions. The idea is to keep the analysis controlled, thus providing data from a different location will enhance understanding of risks from alternative locations. General Findings • The top three causes of injury from mountaineering in the U.S regions are due human causes. Generally portraying insufficient climbing skills and inadequate equipment.

•

Most injuries are caused by human error and are generally categorized under lack of non-technical skills (non-physical) There are less natural causes of injury compared to natural causes in Himalayan mountains.

•

Human Cause vs Natural Cause It is recognized that out of the 12 possible causes of injury in the U.S mountains:

75% of injuries are due to human causes (9/12) 17% of injuries are due to natural causes (2/12) 8% of injury are left unknown (1/12)

• • •

Legend Natural Cause Human Cause

Causes of Injury in U.S Mountains

Uncategorized

Percentage (%) Figure x. Cause of Injury and Death in U.S Mountain Regions Source: Figure adapted from The American Alpine Club Association (2015)

SEEKING

REFUGE

229

I N J U R Y A N D D E AT H S TAT I S T I C S

C A U S E O F D E AT H H I M A L AYA N M O U N TA I N E E R I N G The following data extracted below for mountaineering within Himalayan regions represents the primary causes that lead to death. Most of the causes are associated with common injuries (figure x relate to Himalayan death)that eventually lead to death. General Findings • Though avalanches being the top cause of death in Himalayan regions, it does not occur as frequent or consistent as falling deaths • Most causes of death are simply due to human cause/error.

Human Cause vs Natural Cause It is recognized that out of the 12 possible causes of injury in the Himalayan mountains:

• • •

42% 33% 25%

of injuries are due to human causes (5/12) of injuries are due to natural causes (4/12) of injuries are left unknown (3/12)

Furthermore, taking the top three causes of death, the highest factor contributing to the top cause of death in the Himalayan mountains are due to avalanches.

Legend Natural Cause Human Cause

Causes of Death in Himalayan Mountains

Uncategorized

Percentage (%)

230

SEEKING

REFUGE

13 C A U S E O F D E AT H U. S M O U N TA I N E E R I N G Likewise as figure x (graph above relating to u.s cause of death), the data is also extracted from the American Alpine Club Association and looks into the possible causes of death as a result of mountaineering in U.S mountains. General Findings • The top three causes of death from mountaineering in the U.S regions are due human causes. Generally portraying insufficient climbing skills and accidental falls from. •

There are more human cause deaths than natural cause deaths in the U.S mountains compared to Himalayan mountains.

•

The potential of avalanches occurring in U.S mountains are far less that Himalayan mountains.

Human Cause vs Natural Cause It is recognized that out of the 12 possible causes of injury in the Himalayan mountains:

• • •

59% of injuries are due to human causes (7/12) 33% of injuries are due to natural causes (4/12) 8% of injuries are left unknown (1/12)

Legend Natural Cause Human Cause

Causes of Death in U.S Mountains

Uncategorized

Percentage (%)

SEEKING

REFUGE

231