TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION
3
CLIMATE CONDITIONS
5
SOLAR
7
WIND
11
GEOTHERMAL
15
BIOFUELS
19
HYDROPOWER
23
OCEAN
27
31
SUMMARY
35
REFERENCES
36
PHILIP MERRILL ENVIRONMENTAL CENTER
1
HYDRO GEO POWER THERMAL
3
4 5
6 7
OCEAN BIOFUELS
WIND
SOLAR
INTRODUCTION
2
With our natural environment depleting and our non-renewable resources becoming scarcer, research has been done in search of the most efficient renewable resource and most appropriate measure to minimize the carbon footprint. Since ancient times, there have been mechanisms that use elements like the wind and water to generate energy in their mills and workshops. Of the six resources, large-scale wind power is the fastest-growing energy source due to its availability.1 The Chesapeake Bay headquarters, the Philip Merrill Environmental Center, in Annapolis, Maryland is Platinum LEED certified.2 Of the six resources, four are utilized by the building daily. The building is electrically powered by the sun, heated by the Earth’s heat, ventilated by the wind, and the sinks and irrigation systems are supplied by rainwater coming from the cisterns. 3
4
CLIMATE CONDITIONS
It is common knowledge that the Earth is warming, but what causes that to happen is not as known. Our carbon dioxide emissions insulate the Earth. The emissions we put into the air allows more heat in as let out, creating a warming effect. This warming effect has caused a global climate shift so severe that average temperatures have risen by 1.8째F in the last century.4 As part of natural process, plants intake carbon dioxide and release the oxygen we breathe in. The carbon dioxide emissions from human activity and fossil fuels, along with deforestation have been contributing factors to the global climate decline. Evidence of climate change is clear with the melting of the ice caps along with the droughts in Australia.5 On a global scale various countries have taken action to finding means of power with minimal carbon dioxide emissions through the use of renewable resources.
5
8
6
There are four types of solar power.6 These types include concentrated solar power, solar photovoltaic, solar hot water, and solar chimneys.7 Solar power systems are used in large open land, commonly in deserts, in even the cloudiest of climates.
CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER
9
Concentrated solar power consists of the use of parabolic-shaped panels, called troughs, which are reflective enough to vaporize a hot dog.8 The sunlight reflects off of the panels and onto a tube filled with an oil-like liquid heating up to around 750°F.9 As the fluid leaves the tube and moves to a heat-exchanger device, heat is drawn from the oil and used to convert water to steam, powering an electricity-generating turbine.10
9 1% of the surface of the Sahara Desert could supply the entire world’s electrical demands. 11
10
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC
Solar photovoltaic panels, or PV panels, are made out of silicon and other high-tech materials, important for its function. The photons from the sun disrupt the electrons in the panel. These disrupted electrons are then removed with an electromagnetic field that generates an electric current, providing electricity. Spark Solar of Australia has developed a solar photovoltaic system that utilizes over 40% of the incoming sunlight for electric conversion.12
11
SOLAR HOT WATER
In 2001 there was about 72 million square yards of such panels worldwide.13
SOLAR CHIMNEY
In 2007, solar PVs were installed on farms and houses throughout Germany to more than 1.2 million homes, funded by government “feed-in tarrifs”.12
Liquid is pumped through the solar black insulated panel facing the sun.14 As the sun warms the liquid, it returns into a heat exchanger in the hot water tank. These systems provide domestic hot water. In commercial systems such as hospitals and hotels, the solar panels are able to provide the facility with energy more cost effectively than natural gas.
12
A solar chimney is a tall metal tower with a greenhouse at the bottom.15 The greenhouse is heated followed by a thermal wind rise within the tower. This wind creates a turbine that creates energy.16 Heat is taken in during the day and then released at night.
13
Environmission, an Australian company, has plans to create a hollow chimney standing at 2,600 feet, making it the world’s tallest structure, with the ability to power 20,000 homes. 17
10
14 Wind turbine fields are placed on large plots of land of open air, free of high-rise buildings. Wind turbines are installed on land, in shallow water, in the deep sea, and in the sky.18 lk
OVERVIEW
Large-scale wind power is the fastest-growing energy source in the world.19 The wind blows and spins a turbine, which powers a generator producing electricity. When there is a dead period of time without wind, underground compressed air stores power and acts as a battery.20 The first windmills were made out of wood, while modern ones are made out of metal.
13
First windmills are thought to be in Persia between 500 and 900 AD along with northern Europe starting in the 12th Century. 21
15
“Why do early-stage technologists become enamored with engineering and forget the aesthetics?” - Ian Garnder Helix Wind, CEO Aside from land bound wind turbines, water wind turbines and air turbines are being and have been developed. There are wind turbines that are used in shallow water. In shallow water a steel stake is driven into the seabed and attached to a turbine. Deep sea turbines are in the process of development, but they face the problem of stabilizing against the rigorous oceanic environment. Since 2013 a wind farm has been in the process of being created in the North Sea.23
16
Art has crept into the world of renewable energy, specfically wind energy. Wind energy technology has slowly begun to stray away from the traditional horizontal turbines and has moved onto a vertical helix turbine. The vertical helix had the intention to be visually pleasing, but it’s also capable of withstanding stronger gusts than the horizontal turbines. Helix, a company based in San Diego, developed a vertical helix wind turbine that was made out of an aluminum alloy material that gave the turbine a pleasant appearance, while at the same time giving it an aero-dynamic to sustain stronger winds. These vertical helix wind turbines are capable of operating on a wide range of velocities, regardless of direction. 22
“My calculations show that if we could just tap into 1% of the energy in high altitude winds, it would be enough to power all civilization”.
Various companies have conceptualized air turbines, as -Ken Caldeira it is seen to be the most benefitting form of wind energy. Atmospheric Scientist Ideally the prototype would be launched in the jet stream level of the atmosphere. The wind would turn the turbines and then channel all collected energy and transported down With every solution there are downsides. For wind energy, the downside is that through tether cables to where the energy can be utilized.24 wind energy has a greater potential than can be achieved. The problem with wind energy is that the source is often remote and far from a city and the wind is not always blowing. Therefore, in otder to power the city, a large grid has to be created. One way for an institution to be powered when there is no wind, is that when there is, the wind energy pumps water up a hill to a water reservoir. When the wind stops blowing, the water is used for hydroelectricity.25
17
14
Geothermal activity typically uses land, but can also make use of the heat by tapping into the aquifers that are close to the surface. Geothermal plants are not healthy for the environment since the water that is released is often contaminated by carbon dioxide.26
GEO-EXCHANGE
Geothermal power consists of the pumping of a glycol solution and heat absorbed from the Earth through an underground pipe. Heat is extracted from the solution and transported to the building. From there the solution returns back to its initial temperature and the process starts over again as the glycol solution returns to the Earth. With the geothermal resources powering the electrical grid there is a carbon-free renewable resource, as opposed to the carbon non-renewable resource that is natural gas.27
17
18 An average plant produces enough to power around 50,000 homes.28
19
The geo-exchange system provides sufficient energy for heating and cooling to homes throughout the year. The geo-exchange system has the capability of lowering the building’s energy use by up to 75%, making it the most effective heating and cooling system out there, not even the high-efficiency furnaces have that ability. Because the geo-exchange system is more for use on a residential level, cost is an important factor. Geoexchange is $10,000 more than a standard furnace and air-conditioner system, so it’s not a popular option.29
In North America, there are more than a million geothermal installations.30
20
ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
Enhanced geothermal systems, EGS, are the same as geo-exchange systems, but larger and deeper with more complicated pipes. The energe suplied by EGS can provide electricity. The ehanced geothermal system is more available than the geo-exchange system, as it is available at all times and almost anywhere due to its deeper geothermal extraction. EGS’ potential is limited due to the fact that there are not many hot water sources near the Earth’s crust.31
21
The hundreds of geothermal plants worldwide can power approximately 11 million homes. 32
With every solution there is a downside. For geothermal energy, the downside is the funding for the facilities. The problem with the funding is that since building developers do not benefit from the financial energy costs, no added expense is put into play. Homeowners benefit from cheaper heating bills. Other than that, there are not any downsides because geothermal energy cuts heating and cooling energy by between 50-75%. With geothermal energy, a large portion of city emissions is reduced. 33
18
22 Biofuels are the least productive efficiencywise than the other renewable resources since they yield the same amount of energy as the energy put in to create the biofuel.34
BIOGAS
If captured, the methane gas can be used to produce heat or electricity. Wastes decompose into methane. Trash that has been buried for years at landfills leak methane. Animal waste is also used as a biogas. Decomposition of the waste can be accelerated by adding water and controlling the temperature.35
21
There’s enough animal waste in the UK to power 400,000 homes, less than 1% of capacity, minimal impact.36
23
ETHANOL AND METHANOL
Corn was used as a source of ethanol, but it was it was not viewed as an appropriate resource because it is a necessary food staple. Ethanol is also not efficient as the energy put in to produce it is equivalent to the energy that it yields.37
24
Brazil’s PRO-ALCOOL program, the biggest commercial biofuel project in the world, is estimated to save $40 billion in energy with using sugar cane for ethanol.38
BIODIESEL
Biodiesels include soy products. Like corn, soy conflicts with the food supply. With all soy production used, than less than 5% of US diesel can be replaced along with a shortage in food production. The solution for the biodiesel issue conflicting with the food supply is solved with the use of next-generation sources such as cellulose, algae, and halophytes.39
25
Waste grease in the US could be used as a biofuel, but it would only replace less than 1% of diesel use.40
With every solution there is a downside. For biofuels, the downside is that the biofuels compete with our food supply. In order to get rid of the need for petroleum, biofuels must come from algae and halophytes. Biofuels will only truly benefit the sustainable world if the same amount of money is spent on bioreactors and irrigating deserts as finding sources of oil. 41
22
Hydropower has been alive for thousands of years for powered irrigation systems and industrial processes, such as milling in various countries and regions such as the ancient Middle East, the Roman Empire, ancient China, and ancient Greece.42
HYDROELECTRIC DAMS
25
Hydroelectric dams block the water, so it that can be taken in and used to produce electricity. The weight of a column of water from the bottom builds up and is exerted on a turbine blade. The turbine blade spins a generator and produces electricity. The power plants have reservoirs. The reservoirs pump water uphill when the power demand is low so that when the water demand is high it is released.43
26 90% of the worldwide renewable energy production comes from hydropower.44
27
RUN-OF-RIVER SYSTEM
There are two methods for a run-of-river system. In the first method the dam forces the water through turbines at slow speeds. In the second method, a pipe diverts the river’s water downstream beside the river to a turbine. Being blocked at the bottom, the water moves with the same pressure as it does for a vertical dam, into the turbine.45
28
Run of river systems are best suited for rivers with consistent and steady flow. Rivers with seasonal fluctuations need a reservoir to moderate the time without a steady flow. 46
RIVER AND SEA Where the river and sea meet there is a semipermeable membrane that is placed in between the two water types. From one side seawater is taken in through a water filter. From the other side of the membrane freshwater is taken in through a water filter. The freshwater will flow into saltwater if there is a membrane between the two. Once the freshwater flows into the seawater pressure ensues. This pressure causes the turbines to spin generating power.47
29
Statkraft, a Norweigan company, has a pilot project in Oslo that is set to build a 25-megawatt power plant to power 2,500 homes by 2015.48
With every solution there are downsides. For hydropower, the downside is that they alter the natural flow of the water while simultaneously disturbing wildlife, and possibly changing precipitation patterns. Since hydropower emits far less carbon than coal power, it is used as an alternative. In fact, hydropower consumption is expected to double, harnessing one-sixth of what is technically attainable.49
26
Wave power is used for energy. The harsh environment of the waves makes wave energy difficult. Near modern-day London, the Romans were the first to make use of tidal currents with a mill that continued to be used throughout the Middle Ages.50
WAVE ENERGY
29
Tubes of 650 feet in length and 65 feet in diameter run from the surface to the bottom with a one-way valve at the lower end. The tubes move up and down with the movement of the waves, as that happens the nutrient-rich water at the ocean floor rises to the surface. The sun hits the water and algae grows, taking in the carbon dioxide of the air. When the algae dies some of it will drop to the bottom creating a carbon supply in the ocean. 51
30 The only commercial-scale project is the Agucadoura Wave Park, located off of Portugal’s coast.52
31
OTEC SYSTEM
Heat from the warm waters in oceans is used to evaporate ammonia. The expanding liquid spins the turbine. Pipes that lead downward to colder water brings up the cold water that then condenses the ammonia back to a liquid. With that, the cycle repeats. This OTEC cold water system is used in southern oceans.53
The same heat pumps used for geothermal energy can also be used for OTEC system.54
32
OCEAN POWER CAPABILITY The main problem with ocean power is the machine withstanding of rigorous waters and saltwater. The saltwater and rough waters pose a maintenance hardship for the machinery. Water being 800 times denser than air has more kinetic energy than air at the same speed. Tidal power has the same power potential as geothermal energy.55
33
UK’s Lunar Energy and South Korea’s Midland Power are teaming up to develop the world’s largest tidal power project, located off the coast of South Korea. By 2015, 300 turbines are expected to provide 300 megawatts of energy.56
With every solution there are downsides. For ocean, the downsides are the costs for such projects and ocean availability. Since tidal patterns are not consistent with the 24-hour clock, as they in sync with the lunar cycle, power is generated at different times from day to day.57
30
PHILIP MERRILL ENVIRONMENTAL CENTER
30% of the building’s energy comes from renewable energy58 34
The Philip Merrill Environmental Center uses various renewable resources. The Philip Merrill Environmental Center, located on a 31-acre site in Annapolis, Maryland, serves as the headquarters for The Chesapeake Bay Foundation. The 31,000 ft2 center was awarded the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Platinum certification from the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), and is the first to be awarded that under version 1.0 of the LEED program of the USGBC 2003. The center utilizes various elements to power the building such as wind, sun, and the Earth’s heat. 59
35 32
G S W
There is a geothermal system on the north side of the building that helps heat and cool the building.60 Penetrating the ground are forty-eight 300-foot deep geothermal wells. In the summer the building’s heat sinks into the wells. In the winter, the system provides the building with the heat. Photovoltaic panels line a shaded porch on the south side of the building facing the Chesapeake Bay. The panels are connected to inverters that feed to the building’s electrical panels. On top of the building there are two separate solar power systems for water heating. 61
Rainwater is collected from run-off from the room in three 6,500-gallon rain cisterns on the north side of the building, the entrance side. Before filling the cisterns the water flows through a filtration system that separates the water from organic matter. This rainwater is used for the restroom sinks, fire extinguishers, and landscape.62
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W
The center is positioned on the site in such a way that allows for natural wind ventilation of the building. The wind coming off of the bay comes into the interior through the south side of the building. The south side of the building has a mixture of operable windows and system-operated windows, which are controlled by sensor measurements of the interior temperature, interior humidity levels, and outdoor temperatures. When it’s raining, these system-operated windows shut and the sign turns on telling the occupants to close the manually operated windows.63
39
34
SUMMARY
Use of renewable resources to generate power is not new technology, as windmills and watermills from various time periods and locations had been discovered. First windmills are thought to be in Persia between 500 and 900 AD along with northern Europe starting in the 12th Century. Hydropower has been alive for thousands of years for powered irrigation systems and industrial processes, such as milling in various countries and regions such as the ancient Middle East, the Roman Empire, ancient China, and ancient Greece. Today, with a larger understanding of our environment, power can be generated from not only wind and water, but also from the sun, the Earth’s heat, and biofuels. Solar power systems are used in large open land, commonly in deserts, in even the cloudiest of climates. Wind turbine fields are placed on large plots of land of open air, free of high-rise buildings. Geothermal activity typically uses land, but can also make use of the heat by tapping into the aquifers that are close to the surface. Biofuels are the least productive efficiency-wise than the other renewable resources since they yield the same amount of energy as the energy put in to create the biofuel. 90% of the worldwide renewable energy production comes from hydropower. The harsh environment of the waves makes wave energy difficult. Philip Merrill Environmental Center, Platinum LEED certified, uses various renewable resources such as geothermal, solar, water, and wind. 35
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