Counter Currents A journey down the River Don through six counter-cartographies
Many thanks to Cith Skelcher, Claudia Rojas Bernal and my family for your support and guidance throughout this study.
Counter Currents: A journey down the River Don through six c o u nte r-c a r to g ra ph ie s
Sh e ffie ld Sc h o o l o f A r c h i t e c t u r e 180164271 ARC322
To m M a tth e w s
i
Contents Introduction
......2
Methodology
......3
Mapping: a preliminary critique
......5
Countering through shifting perspective Countering through encompassing experience
......7
......9
Countering through expanding conventions
. . . . . . 11
Countering through encouraging action
. . . . . . 13
Countering through considering the ecological
. . . . . . 15
Countering through deepening time
. . . . . . 17
Conclusion
. . . . . . 19
List of figures
. . . . . . 21
Bibliography
. . . . . . 22
Figure 1 - Counter Currents I the author
ii
1
Introduction The practice of mapping, a process of interpretation, translation and representation, has developed modes of work understood today to be the reading of the land. However, by its very nature, the map is a manipulation of reality and a representation of the world the way the map maker sees it. Despite this inherent subjectivity in mapping, we have developed a culture of map reading that is not sufficiently critical of the maps we create. Representations of place, peoples and time continually portrayed through the visual, written and performed arts catalyse ongoing narratives of who and where we are. By contrast, the artefact of the map is not part of this discourse. Much of this apparent certainty is awarded by the scientific connotations of the term cartography, and the belief that map making is a process of neutral transcription rather than equivocal spatial expression. This study will align with the fundamental motivation of critical cartographers such as J.Harley (1989) in actively seeking to deconstruct the hegemony implicit in many forms of conventional mapping. However, its motivation goes beyond Harley’s in attempting to reconsider what a map may be, not restricting the search to the walls of the geography classroom or the pages of a world atlas. In this manner we can give space for expressions such as the feminist and the anti-colonial and explore the great potential for emancipatory mapping as those such as N.Awan (2017) promote. This study is intended as a provocation for reflection, rather than a How to... guide for alternative mapping. By interrogating the current conventions through six themes for exploration, I hope this document can become part of a dialogue that inspires a creative flexibility in future mapping.
Figure 2 - A Mapping practice I the author
2
Methodology
Figure 3 - Down the Don: Hillsborough to Attercliffe the author
Figure 4 - Pathways I the author
3
Figure 5 - Pathways II the author
Alongside
my written research and hypotheses around maps, I have embarked on my own explorations into mapping to achieve a more illustrative accessible study. However, it is important to state that these forays into counter mapping represent solely my own lived spatial experience, and reflecting on the ways in which I myself may be influenced by or implicit in hegemonic mapping is an important part of this process. In countering the conventional western practices, this study hopes to demonstrate the potential for mapping as a tool for wider collective spatial understanding. This more inclusive exploration and understanding of mapping has the capacity to contribute to a wider range of communal and shared narratives, making connections across divided societies. Initially, I had hoped to create participatory maps representing communal experience of public space in Sheffield. However, this soon became impossible due to the uncertainties and safety measures caused by the pandemic. My plans therefore had to change to the personal and the practical. Consequently, I chose to embark on a journey close to home, along the banks of the River Don through Sheffield, from Hillsborough to Attercliffe. The route was inspired by the notion of following a linear ecological feature through an urbanised geography that has an intriguing spatial heterogeneity, and was documented in writing as I travelled. This area then became the subject for my mapping explorations for the study and has developed into a structure of six different themes running through this essay, all illustrated with their own map of Sheffield’s Don. Each of these maps was created in a similar visual style of hand drawn simplicity in an attempt to distil and declutter the thematic ideas of each representation, whilst also presenting an approach to mapping that is sketched and process-based. My hope is that the maps represented here join together to form a diverse and enriched piece of spatial communication that will inspire bold and colourful future mapping projects for myself and others.
4
Mapping: a preliminary critique
Figure 6 - A Mapping Practice II the author
Before
the process and practices of mapping are understood we must ask the fundamental question of why we need maps in the first place, and where the motivation to map stems from. While viewing the world through a lens of critical cartography, it is easy to dismiss the motivation to make maps as an act to own, divide and label. However, we must recognise, as Harley (1987, p.1) does, that the simple act of mapping is one of the most fundamental and primitive tools of human communication. It can sometimes be difficult to substantiate this notion if we conduct our search through the definitions of conventional western cartographic historians. For example, there are academics who regard the earliest map as the Bedolina map, engraved onto glaciated sandstone in the Italian Alps around 1500-2000 BCE (Thrower 2008, p.3). While this may represent an early example of a recognisable topographical map in European culture, it is important to question the outlook of sources that see it as the first instance of mapping. If we explore wider mapping cultures, we can begin to examine the definition of what constitutes a map.
5
When we throw off our preconceptions of what form a map can take, we can see spatial communication of all forms coming together under the label map. This is particularly important as an anti-colonialist expression. Pioneering critical-cartographers Harley and Woodward are vocal critics of the limited western view of what may be called a map, and furthermore it is important to recognise the role maps play in colonialist structures, and the role they still play in shaping global discourse. Often the maps we are shown today bare little difference from the Eurocentric projections, drawn up in the Renaissance and employed to mark out and stake a claim to new colonial territories. They can be used as a fundamental weapon in the arsenal of the powerful to own and restrict the powerless. If we were to imagine a map-less world, the resulting lack of borders and spatial dominance illuminates just how much power maps can wield. As conventional archetypes of the map seem less and less prevalent in our modern world, it would be natural to question the relevance of a world in maps. However, some would argue maps are as ever present as they have always been; they now exist in our phones and computer screens. The ease of accessibility to mapping platforms occupying digital realms is in some ways a democratisation of mapping, however the power held by applications such as GoogleMaps can hide their agenda and biases even further from view. This will be further explored under Countering through encouraging action The following six sections represent my explorations with mapping practices that try to offer a more varied perspective than that of the inherited western conventions referred to above.
6
Countering through shifting perspectives
Figure 7 - A Journey Downriver the author
Figure 8 - America Invertida Joaquin Torres
7
Figure 9 - The Mercator problem : Revealing spatial distortions
Often
the very first maps we encounter and absorb are global representations. These maps are used to place us in our worldwide context and connect us to our planet’s geographies. However, we often fail to interrogate their limited nature. By representing a globe through a 2D projection, sacrifices in size or shape must be made for a flattened form to be achieved. This therefore results in choices to prioritise certain states over others, and in the case of most of the global maps we see, western nations are given that prominence. Other characteristics of these global projections, such as central location, Greenwich Meridian and even north south orientation, are part of an inherited colonial legacy that still shapes western views on the world. One example of a counter cartography that disrupts these hegemonic mapping ideals is Joaquin Torres’ America Invertida, with its mantra, Nuestro Norte es el Sur, Our North is the South (Jiménez 2015). This map is a perfect example of explaining how even the nuts and bolts of conventional western cartography are complicit in constructing a Eurocentric world view. The very simple act of upending the South American land mass from the perspective of western viewers, is a simple, provoking statement, and is emphasised by the plain hand drawn aesthetic. A Journey Downriver, the first map I created as part of my study, seeks to embody the spirit of maps such as the America Invertida in asking who our maps speak for. Exhibited as a floating line, a contextless journey that could have any geographical location, the question is justified, is this really a map? As an expression of spatial experience, who does this communicate with? Although it endeavours to question attempts to universalise spatial realms and interpretations of geography, it could be argued that by taking away all context and referrable mapping language it fails to be a relatable gesture. Furthermore, it is reasonable to argue that, by removing all context and population from the map save the journey of the mapper, it becomes an uncomfortably inward representation of space, failing to see mapping as a tool for communicating the commons of collective knowledge. Despite these arguments, I feel that the map remains an intriguing act of mapping that allows for a variety of interpretations. As the map represents a journey downriver, perhaps its twists and deviations allow the viewer to muse on the disruptions that built landscapes can present when trying to connect with natural ecosystems. Or perhaps it represents a more cognitive expression, divorced as it is from all scale and situation. Whatever the reading, it is interesting to see an extreme opposite to the totalisation of global maps, allowing the boundaries of representation to be framed in an effort to find the middle ground. 8
Countering through encompassing experience
Figure 10 - Iterative Rememberings the author
Figure 11 - Travelling Blind Helen Scalway
9
Figure 12 - Paticipatory sketch from Travelling Blind
As we see a gradual widening of the goalposts of modern cartography,
some influential modern mappers are developing mapping practices that embody feminist ideals, and many of these processes focus on representations of experience in mapping. As Awan (2017, p.34) states, a feminist approach to mapping needs to encompass embodied knowledge, as well as abstracted spatial knowledge. This is further supported by critical cartographic thinkers who put forward feminist mapping theories that allow for representation of lived experience to be shown under the same importance as quantitative data. The notion pedalled by many gatekeepers of the cartographic world that mapping projects exploring these themes exist outside what may be considered a map, is again a key criticism levelled at western mapping culture today, especially one championed by Harley (1989, p.2). A Journey Downriver hinted at readings of maps in more cognitive realms, and through this next example, Iterative Rememberings, I have allowed further exploration of this mapping narrative while considering feminist approaches to mapping experience. This work takes inspiration from Helen Scalway’s project, Travelling Blind, which presents mapping methodologies that allow for spatial experience to be discussed and shared (Pile & Thrift 2000, p.xvii). Her participatory project uses hand drawn maps by everyday users of the London Underground, merged to form an alternative Tube map prioritising the personal and cognitive experiences of those using the service. As commissioning a collective experiential map for Sheffield’s Don was sadly impractical, I devised a similar exercise that uses iterative conjurings of my memory of the route, overlaid to create one piece of spatial communication that ruminates on how past embodied experiences are digested over time. While this has none of the collective strength of Travelling Blind, it suggests ways of rendering personal mapping ideas into tools for mutual communication that recognize spatial experience as assimilated embodied knowledge, a theme that connects with much of Awan’s (2017) mapping.
10
Countering through expanding conventions
,
, ,
Figure 13 - Observations from the bank the author
Figure 14 - The Chaffinch Map of Scotland Edwin Morgan
Figure 15 - Kingfishers Chris Jones
The examples of mapping exhibited so far are removed from conventional
western mapping tropes, particularly in their lack of the visual clues often associated with maps. Indeed, often the biggest barriers to entry for what is commonly considered to be a map are these formulae for legibility. They exist as grid lines, scale bars and contours, and represent a cartographic language developed to allow for land to be formulaically mapped as well as to convey spatial meaning.
11
While this study is occupied with treating many mapping conventions with caution, it is important to recognise the value of this language as well as to question it. Does the vocabulary of conventional mapping exclude and exclusivise or does it create frameworks to articulate and share spatial experience? If we are to take maps as modes of spatial communication, the tools and rules in their inception are the grammar of that language. From this perspective, the role of critical cartographies seems better placed not in challenging the rules, but instead their application. To see this through an anti-colonial lens, as the editors of This Is Not an Atlas (Halder, Michel & Schweizer 2020, p.3) describe in a report analysing their own mapping projects, is it right to apply systems of cartesian coordinates to indigenous lands that may not be connected to these readings of geography? In shifting the focus away from the binaries of maps and non-maps we can explore how new mapping conventions can allow for new readings of space, for example choosing to represent space through linguistic channels. This can be seen in the poetic examinations of maps, such as in Elizabeth Bishops’ The Map which colourfully illuminates mapping as a reflection of anthropocentric culture rather than geographic reality, as Haft (2001, p.42) reviews. As this poem is powerfully illustrative of the objectified and commodified map, it also exists as a piece of geographic expression in itself. Another easy translation between poetry and mapping exists in maps that take on their own shape to further the spatial reading of the text. This is evidenced in work such as the transcribed walks of land artist Richard Long, or Edwin Morgan’s playful A Chaffinch Map of Scotland to name two examples (Haft, 2000). Both present different insights into culture and experience than a conventional line map would be able to, yet they both still have topographic relativity. Inspired by semantic expressions of space, I have further developed my digestion of the Don journey by rendering my experience through poetry. Unlike the two referenced inspirations, which attempt to represent topographic outlines through the body of text, Observations from the bank sits far away from any aesthetic preconception of maps. Like the previous example, it represents a retrospective reflection on the journey, as it was written by picking out words and phrases from a live written account of the ride. By swapping scale for syntax and meridian for meter, this poem represents a countering of the cartographic conventions to allow for collective spatial expression in different forms. By placing my poem alongside the collection At The End of The Road, a River by the poet Chris Jones (2005), which describes the same section of river, we can see how this collective communication can work. 12
Countering
through
encouraging
action
Figure 16 - Mapping a community of buildings at risk from flooding the author
Figure 17 - WatchtheMed.net
Figure 18 - parallel.co.uk flood risk map
As the prevailing mapping world exists more and more in digital domains,
we see huge leaps in a capacity for interaction and fluidity, evidenced through our everyday encounters with online mapping platforms. Your GPS navigation will respond to live traffic to change your route direction, your city map will suggest shops informed by your recent browsing history. 13
This new reliance on maps, personalised and constantly mutating to fit our needs, is an immense reframing of cartographic culture, yet there are many who would argue that it increases the power of maps as tools for capitalistic manipulation. Rose-Redwood et al. (2020, p. 152) also demonstrate the socio-political leverage wielded by online cartographies, exemplified by the reversal by GoogleMaps of the updated location of the statue of the colonialist slave trader, Edward Colston, after it was plunged into the Bristol docks. Despite these new hegemonic guises, the response of critical cartographers in a digital mapping age reveals an increased potential for emancipatory reappropriation. The example of the Watch the Med project is particularly useful for this. It adopts a live GPS mapping platform to locate vessels crossing the Mediterranean and campaigns for their safe passage and for an upholding of the passenger’s human rights. Hailed by Stephan Liebscher (2018, p.63) as a powerful subversive venture, Watch the Med is representative of activist mapping that makes immediate action possible. Responding to live dangers and injustices faced by those attempting the crossing would be impossible without the use of an official online mapping platform, even if these programs are often designed to uphold authority. Approaches such as Watch the Med project are evidence of mapping existing as a direct tool for action and as part of a campaign for justice. Undoubtedly a provocation to consider, as J.Corner does in The Agency of Mapping (2011), is the importance of encouraging mapping over the map. That is to say losing our obsession with the finished cartographic plan and allowing maps to become sketches in a developing process. This is something I will touch on later in Countering through the ecological. Relating this to my mapping explorations of the River Don, I examined digital mapping responses to the considerable flood risk associated with this area of Sheffield and attempted to question what role these maps play in the developing social and environmental challenges. The colour coded heat map analyses the data gathered from Environment Agency mapping on the risk of flooding to individual buildings along the riverbank. Reacting against the ambiguity of the official maps, my interpretation seeks to question balances between sensitivity, usability and accountability in the dissemination of the online map’s information. Clarity of data origin is a fundamental aspect of analysing such maps, and we are led to muse on the relevance of government information from two years before, especially when it is bound up in ever worsening, polemical issues such as the climate crisis. 14
Countering through considering the ecological As well as responsive cartography that can further mapping’s role as a tool for
immediate social activism, mapping has huge relevance when we consider anthropogenic relationships to the land. The inescapable challenges presented by the dual crises of climate and biodiversity demand a recalibration and reassessment of conventional western relationships to the geographies that surround us. As maps can be seen as direct reflections of these relationships, they seem perfectly placed to promote new readings of the land in western extractivist mindsets. All the while this fractured link is plainly visible through the maps we use. Whether it is found through prioritising road infrastructure as a means of moving through a landscape, or more fundamentally as adopting totalising gestures in the mapping of natural spaces, it is difficult to escape a conditioned anthropocentric view of place.
Figure 19 - A River’s Map: The Don the author
15
Views beyond our western norms often reward alternate ecological anthropologies, suggestive of different cultures of being in a landscape. However, we must be careful, as attested to by Turnbull (1998, p.17), not to become complicit in analytic habits that position non-western mapping practices as less valid expressions of space. Instead, we can see mapping practices, such as for example the aboriginal songlines, as considerations of landscape that are not grounded in a simple man versus nature attitude. In attempts to reconsider tropes of anthropogenic mapping, I carried out another mapping exploration, attempting to carry forward process-based approaches to depict my own spatial knowledge and interactions with the River Don as a threatened and damaged natural ecosystem. A River’s Map: The Don seeks to represent an inherited and ongoing history of extractivist practices, as well as ever tightening built boundaries formed by roads, bridges and walls encroaching on the river. The conscious decision to represent natural systems often reserved for considered scientific practice in a messily constructed drawing allows this map to take on more relatable and illustrative role. It could be argued that I took on an anthropomorphic lens to create the map, a style that continues to be a source of debate for many occupied with representations of the natural world. Unlike previous examples linked with direct action, this map may be neither a provocateur of immediate change nor a document of direct topographical transcription. However, it offers up alternatives for collective communication. Perhaps by freeing itself of scale and geometry, the map resists the tools so often used to measure extraction and construction, and allows a space for emotional connections to the threatened river.
16
Countering
through
deepening
time
Figure 20 - Don Future Meanders the author
Figure 21- Diana’s Map from Mapping Otherwise
Figure 22- Mississippi Meanders
As previously described, one symptom of a limiting mapping culture is an ob-
session and fetishization of the finished artefact of the map. As our mapping universe exists more and more in online realms, we find ourselves and others gravitating to the relics of physical map making as a relief from the immaterial nature of contemporary mapping. However, it is important to reflect on this trend and explore how it shapes narratives in and around mapping. 17
This study follows the thinking of Kitchin and Dodge (2007) in their questioning of the fixed ontological state of maps. They argue that there can be no such thing as a finalised map, and that every interaction with a map is relational and transient. Another academic focused on the thing-ness of maps, T.Rossetto (2019), explores this theme in Object-Orientated Cartography and suggests that the material nature of maps play a key role in their interpretation and in their cultural resonance. This can be seen in other contexts, such as Mapping Otherwise, where Awan (2017, p.36-41) commissions maps that exist as part of developing spatio-political discourses. Members of London’s Turkish and Kurdish diaspora were asked to visually depict their cognitive construction of Kurdistan. Awan embraced a fluidity in mapping control by setting this task, as her project was greeted with a multitude of outputs. These varied from maps of geographic dimensions to more cognitive expressions discussing hopes and fears connected with this conflicted territory. This final mapping exploration delves into our interest in this materiality of maps, and furthers ideas of ecocentricity investigated in the penultimate self-made map. Don Future Meanders appropriates the aesthetic of a vintage geological documentation, a mapping mode that is often romanticised for its visual beauty but rendered exclusive by its complexity of scientific knowledge. In their own way these maps allow a connection with a deeper time than our own, showing itself in the folds of hills and the sweep of rivers. This is most famously depicted in the Mississippi Meander Maps, a series of drawings that represent past water courses of the river by examining mineral and rock deposits around its banks. In contrast in this version of my River Don map, the projection of the geological past is turned around to represent future flood risk levels associated with the river. By employing a visual language of the carefully laid out and rarefied scientific artefact, this map distances the viewer from the urgent messy, dangerous realities of flooding news broadcasts. But it also asks when flooding will no longer be a risk to the communities of Sheffield, and which water level will become the norm. The map offers an ecocentric perspective: no signs of urban development are shown in the densely built-up area, save for the shape made by the river as it flows past flooded warehouses and riverside buildings - future islands in a flooded landscape.
18
Conclusion To begin this study, I outlined my ambitions to champion alternative map-
ping as a way of looking critically at our mainstream cartographies as well as to allow me to explore the potential for deeper spatial communication. Furthermore, I emphasised the importance of critiquing my own mapping exploits as a fundamental stage in the learning process. Reflecting on my mapping journey since starting the study reveals how widely I have broadened my mapping perspectives. From initial forays into understanding the fundamentals of mapping, I constructed myself a binary evaluation of those maps considered to be complicit in hegemony and those fighting against it, often concluding that all western mapping conventions needed to be cast aside in the pursuit of emancipatory mapping. However, as I delved deeper into my own cartographic research, and discovered the maps of others, I began to acknowledge the role of a communal mapping language in collective discourse, even if this language has problematic currents. This is evident in the Watch the Med project, with its repurposing of authoritarian mapping software. Each of my mapping endeavours therefore represent a further shift in my outlook on mapping, developing into a more nuanced understanding. I am also cognisant of the fact that each mapping exploration was insular in nature and restricted to guessing how similar maps could exist as participatory projects. In this way I paid less attention to the mode of cartographic language used in each map as it did not require to be understood to permit participation. While this study engages with dialogues around the ontological state of maps, it could be argued that most of the maps I created are still anchored in western mapping archetypes created as physical drawings with an emphasis on the aesthetic. These are all important and relevant reflections on my mapping, however I conclude by reflecting on this study as a grounding and inspiration for future more ambitious mapping endeavours.
19
Figure 23 - Counter Currents II the author
20
Figures
21
COVER
The Author, (2021). Don Future Meanders extract [Ink on tracing paper].
1
The Author, (2021). Counter Currents I [Digital collage].
2
The Author, (2021). A Mapping Practice I [Digital photograph].
3
The Author, (2021). Down the Don: Hillsborough to Attercliffe [Digital collage].
4
The Author, (2021). Pathways I [Digital photograph].
5
The Author, (2021). Pathways I I [Digital photograph].
6
The Author, (2021). A Mapping Practice I I [Digital photograph].
7
The Author, (2021). A Journey Downriver [Ink on tracing paper].
8
Torres-García, J., (1943). America Invertida [Digital image]. [Viewed 5 Feb 2021]. Available from: https://universes.art/en/specials/2016/space-to-dream/torres-garcia-zoom
9 10
Flerlage, K., (2017). The Mercator Problem [Digital image]. [Viewed 10 March 2021]. Availa ble from: https://www.flerlagetwins.com/2017/06/the-mercator-problem-16.html
11 & 12
Scalway, H., (1996). Travelling Blind. [Digital image]. [Viewed 17 March 2021]. Available from: https://helenscalway.com/travelling-blind/
13
The Author, (2020). Observations from the bank [Digital image].
14
Morgan, E., (1965). Chaffinch Map of Scotland. [Digital image]. [Viewed 26 March 2021]. Available from: https://bigthink.com/strange-maps/329-chaffinch-map-of-scotland
15
Jones, C., (2005). Kingfishers. [Digital image]. [Viewed 8 March 2021]. Available from: http://www.chris-jones.org.uk/don-poems/don.html#
16
The Author, (2021). Mapping a community of buildings at risk from flooding [Ink and pencil on tracing paper].
17
Sontowski, S., (2015). Watch the Med Homepage. [Digital image]. [Viewed 15 April 2021]. Available from: https://movements-journal.org/issues/01.grenzregime/13.sontowski,wtm-- alarmphone-watch-the-med.html
18
Parallel, (2020). Risk of Flooding From Rivers and Sea. [Digital image]. [Viewed 4 April 2021]. Available from: https://parallel.co.uk/rofrs/#10/51.1537/-2.8233
19
The Author, (2021). A River’s Map: The Don [Ink on tracing paper].
20
The Author, (2021). Don Future Meanders [Digital collage].
21
Awan, N., (2012) . Kurdistan in London. [digital image]. [Viewed 2 April 2021]. Availble from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280735751-Kurdistan-in-London
22
Fisk, H., (1944). Mississippi Meander Map. [Digital image]. [Viewed 15 Jan 2021]. Available from: https://publicdomainreview.org/collection/maps-of-the-lower-mississippi-harold-fisk
23
The Author, (2021). Counter Currents I I [Digital collage].
The Author, (2021). Iterative Rememberings [Ink on tracing paper].
Bibliography Awan, N. (2017). Mapping Otherwise: Imagining Other Possibilities and Other Futures, in: Feminist Futures of Spatial Practice, (pp. 33–43). Baunach: AADR. Retrieved February 14, 2021, from https://www.re searchgate.net/publication/319178118-Mapping-Otherwise-Imagining-other-possibilities-and other-futures Corner, J. (2011). Agency of Mapping: Speculation, Critique and Invention. In: M.Dodge, R.Kitchin, C.Perkins, eds. The Map Reader: Theories of Mapping Practice and Cartographic Representation [online] Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Ltd. Haft, A. J. (2000). Poems Shaped Like Maps: (Di)Versifying the Teaching of Geography, II. Car-tographic Perspectives, (36), 66–91. Retrieved April 25, 2021, from https://cartographicperspec tives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/cp36-haft Haft, A. J. (2001). The Poet As Map-Maker: The Cartographic Inspiration and Influence of Elizabeth Bishop’s “The Map”. Cartographic Perspectives, (38), 37–65. Halder, S., Michel, B. & Schweizer, P. (2020). Is This Is Not an Atlas an Atlas? On the Pitfalls of Edit ing a Global Collection of Counter-Cartographies. Cartographica, 55(3), 207–214. Harley, J. B. (1987). The Map and the Development of the History of Cartography, in: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Harley, J. B. (1989). Deconstructing the Map. Cartographica, 26(2), 1–20. Harley, J. B. & Woodward, D. (1987). Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Retrieved April 25, 2021, from https://press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOCV1/Volume1.html
Jiménez, M. Torres García, Inverted America . Retrieved April 4, 2021, from https://www.khanaca demy.org/ humanities/art-1010/latin-america-modernism/constructivism/a/torres-garca-inverted-america Jones, C. (2005). A Map of ‘At the End of the Road, a River’ by Chris Jones. Retrieved April 25, 2021, from http://www.chris-jones.org.uk/donpoems/don.html Kitchin, R. & Dodge, M. (2007). Rethinking Maps. Human Geography, 31(3), 331–344. Retrieved April 6, 2021, from chrome-extension://dagcmkpagjlhakfdhnbomgmjdpkdklff/enhanced-reader.htm l?pdf=https%3A%2F%2Fbrxt.mendeley.com%2Fdocument%2Fcontent%2Fb0610e11-6c95-39d2-8 c7f-57af345042d9 Liebscher, S. & Fischer, I. (2018). Mapping Safe Passages , in: This Is Not An Atlas, (pp. 60–66). Bielefeld: transcript. Retrieved April 25, 2021, from https://notanatlas.org/maps/mapping-safe-passages/ Pile, S. & Thrift, N. (2000). City A-Z. New York: Routledge. Rose-Redwood, R., Barnd, N. B., Lucchesi, A. H., Dias, S. & Patrick, W. (2020). Decolonizing the Map: Recen tering Indigenous Mappings. Cartographica, 55(3), 151–162. Rossetto, T. (2019). Object-Oriented Cartography: Maps as Things. Retrieved April 6, 2021, from https:// books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8OuYDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT11&dq=object+orient ed+ontology+cartography&ots=IRolbgOFUn&sig=ylAaPKcQV6ccv5jFr62jnXGSD8#v=onep age&q=object oriented ontology cartography&f=false Thrower, N. J. W. (2008). Maps and Civilization : Cartography in Culture and Society. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press Turnbull, D. (1998). Mapping Encounters and (En) Countering Maps: A Critical Examination of Cartographic Resistance. Knowledge and Society, 11, 15–44. Retrieved April 19, 2021, from https://scholar.google. com/scholar?cluster=3768042989826103302&hl=en&oi=scholarr
22
