COUNTRIES VISITED Brazil

First discovered by Europeans in 1500, Brazil existed as a Portuguese colony for 300 years and thus its language is Portuguese and most of its institutions are of the Mother Country’s design. It must also be said that the country was inhabited thousands of years before Europeans “found” it, by many tribes of Indians who had migrated over the Bering Land Bridge and left North America via the land bridge of Central America. There are only remnants of those people today and most of them are now mixed in blood with the other newer settlers Deep in the Amazon Basin, there exist some very small tribes of these Indians living much the way they did hundreds of years ago. But they are part of Brazil’s past with not much influence on its future.

The country became independent in 1822 as a constitutional monarchy called the Empire of Brazil and it evolved into a republic in 1889. As an interesting sidelight, from 1808 to 1821, the King of Portugal actually removed his capital and government to Brazil to avoid further entanglements in the Napoleonic wars The nation has endured three periods of overt dictatorship in the 20th century (l930-34, l937-45 & l964- 85), but today the government is a federative republic with 26 states and a federal district There is compulsory voting from age 18.

When the Portuguese first became interested economically in their possession in South America, it was for importation of a tree, called the brazilwood (hence the country’s name), whose heart contained a red dye that was valuable in Europe When the tree was almost extinct, the Portuguese saw that the land could be used for sugar plantations. They tried at first to enslave the Amerindians but they proved to be most recalcitrant and unsuitable as agricultural labors. They then imported millions of black Africans who were gradually absorbed into the general population after slavery was abolished. Sugar plantations were unworkable without the slave economy, so the next major export for Brazil was coffee. Now the country is industrialized and modernized and it is the 9th largest economy in the world and the 5th most populous nation. Though Dutch and French pirates and agents of those governments often raided seacoast cities, they never established any kind of foothold in this huge land and there is little or no influence of their cultures in the country today.

French Guiana

French Guiana is an actual overseas department of France, having started out as a French territory during the 17th century. From the French Revolution on until 1946, the Isles d’Salut, which included Devil’s Island, functioned as a penal colony for the convenience of the Mother Country. Undesirables, criminals, and political dissidents could be shipped off to the torrid tropic locale from which most would never return. Its most famous inmates were, of course, the totally innocent Alfred Dreyfuss and the notable criminal Henri (Papillon) Charriere. After World War II, the penal colony was closed though a small regiment of the Foreign Legion still administers the grounds As its interest in the potential of space exploration developed, France took the colony on as an integral part of the French State and built the enormous and expensive Space Tracking Station there The citizens do enjoy many but not all the rights of the other natives of France and it is clearly the richest and most economically stable of the three former “guianas.” A border dispute between French Guiana and Brazil was resolved in the 19th century, largely in Brazil’s favor, through arbitration by the Swiss.

In addition to jobs at the space state, the people work at fishing, subsistence farming, mining, and some lumbering It is amazing that only 54% of the population was actually born in the state. Illegal immigration is a big problem for the French as poor people cross the borders of Brazil and Suriname in order to find work and enjoy the fruits of the French support of its overseas territory. The borders between the three countries are almost impossible to protect because of the jungles and the wide rivers lining them.

Suriname

The European history of Suriname began when Dutch sailors began to trade with the Amerindians already living there when contact was made The British tried to establish a colony for the production of tobacco in 1630, but it failed due largely to the intransigence of the native peoples against working in agriculture as slaves. They tried again in 1651 and succeeded to a certain extent with about 500 sugar plantations, worked by about 2000 black slaves imported from the Caribbean islands. Then the Dutch invaded the area in 1667 while in a struggle with Britain The Treaty of Breda ended their dispute by granting Dutch Guiana (present-day Suriname) to the Dutch while they gave up New Amsterdam (present-day New York) to the Brits The British retook Suriname during the Napoleonic Wars since The Netherlands had been conquered by Napoleon. After his defeat, the British returned the country to Dutch control.

Dutch Guiana gained its independence in 1975 and renamed itself Suriname, but its history before and after independence has been quite turbulent Part of the volatility is based in the racial tensions between blacks and Asian Indians. After The Netherlands finally abolished slavery in 1863 (the last European country to do so), it invited Chinese and Asian Indians to immigrate to the colony to provide laborers for the agricultural and mining interests. These workers were usually indentured servants rather than true slaves and many elected to stay when their labor contracts were completed Blacks and Hindus have contended fiercely to gain control of the government and leadership has changed hands frequently Suriname is currently a constitutional democracy that maintains very close ties with The Netherlands and still obtains a considerable amount of monetary support from its former European Mother Country Since 1995, the democracy has functioned fairly well and the political fights have morphed into more cooperative stances with much greater progress for the good of all the country.

Guyana

The first European to visit the land that is now Guyana was Amerigo Vespucci, a very intrepid explorer who visited in 1499. Just a few years later, Sir Walter Raleigh visited when he was searching for the fabled City of Gold, El Dorado. Of course, he did not find it and later in the 16th century the area was visited again by the ubiquitous Dutch traders who dealt with the Amerindians in this area too. The British soon followed and saw the potential for agriculture there They began to set up riverside plantations for coffee, cotton and sugar, worked by black African slaves. Attempts to move further inland from the rivers was a total failure for many reasons, including diseases, extremely hard work to clear the fields, and extremely thin and poor topsoil.

Soon there were intermittent battles between the Dutch and English and the land would exchange hands accordingly. Finally, in 1814, this area became fully British and then became British Guiana in 1831 Slavery was abolished in 1834 and then, as in Dutch Guiana, Chinese and Asian Indians were encouraged to immigrate as indentured workers. Its history first as a Dutch settlement has contributed to its border problems with Suriname. The country gained its independence from Great Britain in l966 and has struggled with ethnic tensions due to the numbers of former slaves there who resent the Asian Indians imported as workers. Those tensions continue today because, though the Indians are the dominant ethnic group, the blacks have held on to governmental power. This “tangle” was made clear to us when we visited a small Amerindian village called Saxacalli. Whatever its tensions, the Guyanese government is intent on increasing tourism to obtain the hard currency that foreigners bring Some of the unhappy citizens, on both sides of the black/Asian Indian divide, have threatened to disrupt this effort through inconvenient uprisings, kidnappings, robberies and the like to demonstrate the instability of the government This instability would of course threaten tourism and defeat the government’s efforts. As our Zodiacs landed on the beach at Saxacalli, another boat arrived at the same time loaded with government policemen and women They spread out all over the village and along the shore to prevent any possible disruption during our visit with the gracious people of this village who may not really have a “dog in the fight” themselves but are definitely an asset to the goal of greater ecotourism. The country is a democracy with universal suffrage at age 18. Though a former British possession, the Guyanese refused membership in the British Commonwealth or any other special association with Great Britain.

Venezuela

The land that is now Venezuela was colonized by the Spanish in 1522 and the first settlement there was the first permanent one in all South America. Gold was the impetus for the colony and the Spanish very quickly began importing black Africans for slave labor in the mines Later livestock ranching became a viable enterprise for the Spanish landowners. These grandees would hire Amerindians who were more willing to work with livestock even though they were highly resistant to performing agricultural tasks or mining. Blacks also worked these ranches. Such was the beginning of the feudal-like system that obtained in Spanish America right into the 20th century This system has greatly impeded the growth of a middle class in many South American countries. Gran Columbia included the territories of current Columbia and Venezuela. In 1811, that area declared its independence from Spain and war ensued The colonies lost a third of their populations as people fled back to Spain. Then arose the national hero of South America, Simon Bolivar, who won independence from Spain in 1830, after several years of war At that time, Columbia and Venezuela became separate and independent nations.

Even after obtaining its freedom, the country suffered continued political instability, dictatorial warlords (caudillos), and revolutionary turbulence. This rich country has functioned as a democratic federal republic more recently, but the present day socialist regime is undermining many of the institutions and traditions of a democratic society. Venezuela is blessed in its natural resources, primarily petroleum but it also has extensive deposits of gold, bauxite, copper and iron ore. It has a cosmopolitan and educated citizenry with a proud history of development and economic growth Outside observers can only hope that Chavez’ desire to take the role of Fidel Castro in Latin America does not undo the progress and freedoms already achieved.

Trinidad

Columbus discovered this island on his 3rd voyage in 1498 and reputedly named it for the Holy Trinity because he had promised to call the next new area he discovered by that name. The island was occupied by Amerindians, but it remained a Spanish possession from the time of European discovery until the British takeover in 1797 Strangely enough, it was mostly French people who settled Trinidad under Spanish rule. In 1888 Trinidad was joined with Tobago and became a British Crown Colony. It was granted full independence in 1962 and became a republic in 1976, remaining a member of the British Commonwealth.

Like its brethren on the South American north coast, Trinidad has been plagued with strife between its former black slaves and its indentured Asian Indian workers who were imported after slavery was abolished by Britain. Both groups have been stubborn about sharing power and have often failed to cooperate even for the good of the entire country. Oil was discovered in 1857 and began to be utilized in 1907 New wealth created more division and governments came and fell with some regularity and sometimes with violence The rise of militant Islam in recent years has provided more unity between the blacks and the Asian Indians and elections tend to be more fair and representative of the population as a whole.

Trinidad is definitely the most prosperous of the Caribbean islands and maintains close ties with the Caribbean and with its close neighbors in South America, particularly the Venezuelans The country has oil and an oil refining industry as well as a “pitch” lake, which is beginning to be exploited. Tourism has also boomed in Trinidad and accounts for a significant portion of its wealth as well as a huge impetus to keep itself politically stable.

Compare And Contrast

Country Size and Population

 Brazil is the largest South American country in both physical size and in its population. Brazil is only slightly smaller than the USA though its population is much smaller than ours at 190,000,000 compared to our 300,000,000.

 French Guiana is slightly smaller than Indiana but its population is only 199,500.

 Guyana is a bit smaller than Idaho and contains 770,000 people

 Suriname is a little larger than Georgia but only 470,800 people live there.

 Venezuela is twice as big as California and 26,000,000 people live there

 Trinidad is really a Caribbean country rather than part of Amazonia, but there are strong connections between Trinidad and Venezuela, especially centered on the reason for our visit to this island nation. Trinidad is slightly smaller than Delaware and has a population of more than 1,056,000.

Ethnicities and Life Expectancy

Though the median ages for these countries are relatively young, the cause is not the same as the very low median ages for so many African countries the devastation of HIV/AIDs These South American countries report very low incidences of the disease.

 Brazil is composed of 54% Caucasian peoples, mostly of Portuguese heritage, 38% mulattos (mixed race black and white), 6% black, and less than 1% other, including Japanese, Arab, and Amerindians Life expectancy there averages 73 years and the median age is 29.

 French Guineans are 66% black, 12% white, and 12% Amerindians, Chinese and Asian Indians. Their life expectancy averages 77 years and their median age is 29.

 The Guyanese population is 50% Asian Indians, 36% black, Amerindians 7%, white 7% and Chinese 7% with an average life expectancy of 67 and a median age of 28.

 Suriname citizens number 37% Asian Indians, 31% mulattos (black and white), 15% Javanese, Amerindians 2%, Chinese 2% and white, 1% while life expectancy among these people is 73

 Venezuela declines to list percentages of their population but state that the nation includes people of Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Arabic, German and black heritage, combining into a life expectancy of 73 with their median age being 25.

 Trinidad is composed of 40% Asian Indians, 38% blacks, mixed race 21% and 2% other, altogether with a life expectancy of 67 years.

Religious Affiliations Reflect Their Colonial Histories

 Brazil: 74% Roman Catholic and 15% Protestant

 French Guiana: 86% Roman Catholic and 12% Hindu

 Guyana: Protestant 30.5% (Pentecostal 16.9%, Anglican 6.9%, SeventhDay Adventist 5%, Methodist 1.7%), Hindu 28.4%, Roman Catholic 8.1%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.1%, Muslim 7.2%, other Christian 17.7%, other 4.3%, none 4.3%

 Suriname: 27% Hindu, 25% Protestant, 23% Roman Catholic and 20% Muslim

 Venezuela: 96% Roman Catholic. An interesting religious sidelight occurred while we were in Venezuela. Though it is true that 96% of the population claims to be Roman Catholic, the country is admittedly becoming increasingly secular However, when Hugo Chavez decided to abolish the traditional 4-day weekend Easter holiday and celebrations around the country, the population protested much more vehemently to that betrayal than to his constant assault on their other freedoms, such as speech and assembly.

 Trinidadians are 26% Roman Catholic, 22% Hindu, 8% Anglican, and 6% Muslim.

 An interesting sidelight occurs in Suriname because in this small and diverse population different religions do not cause tensions no religious “tangles” exist here. A Muslim mosque stands right next door to the oldest Jewish synagogue and congregation in South America. Just down the street are the Hindu temple, the Roman Catholic oldest wooden cathedral in South America, and the Protestant Moravian Brothers Church.

Literacy Rates

 Brazilians boast an 87% literacy rate, French Guiana: 83%, Guyana: 92%,

 Venezuela: 93%., Trinidad: 99%., and

 Suriname: a combined literacy rate of 88% The educational system has bridged any potential religion tangles by offering education to all students in their own neighborhoods in whichever parochial school is there For instance, we visited the large Hindu temple with its adjacent school and learned that all the children in the neighborhood are educated there in the Hindu school, whatever the student’s own religion A state sponsored curriculum is used in all the schools whatever the religious affiliation. This program seems to have worked well in a small and poor country as the major cost of education is borne by the various churches rather than the state (recall that 88% literacy rate).

Official Languages

 Brazil: Portuguese

 French Guinea: French

 Guyana: English

 Suriname: Dutch (Official) English widely spoken

 Trinidad: English

Politics

Who would ever have thought that there are still significant border disputes in South America, most of them centered in the very area we were exploring. Suriname claims a fairly large area of French Guiana.

In addition, both Suriname and Venezuela claim huge portions of Guyana (formerly British Guiana), probably the weakest of these countries. Because it spurned British protection when it obtained independence, many folks are just waiting for the “land grab” to happen and wondering how the Guyanese will be able to prevent the inevitable or counter it The histories of these countries are closely bound up and there are many appeals for arbitration, judgment, and settlement finality in various international arenas such as the United Nations and the World Court Jungle tangles indeed much of the disputed areas are pretty much uninhabited but are rich in various mineral deposits (bauxite, gold, copper, iron particularly) and natural resources such as forests and water for hydroelectric power Actually, however, other than learning about these possible sources of conflict, we were not troubled by them. The countries do not cause difficulties for travelers wishing to visit them serially (as do some African countries) It is amusing to see maps of the area as drawn by the claimant countries; they usually are pictured as though the disputes have been settled and so Venezuela, as an example, pictures itself as a whole containing the claimed portions of Guyana without any reference to the fact that Guyana has not given up those land bits.

Many of these claims and counterclaims date from earlier political tangles. In the Age of Exploration, the European countries divided up the “new world” by a line of demarcation which was to signify where Portugal had the right to explore and claim and where Spain had similar rights the Treaty of Tordesilla, brokered by Pope Alexander VI on April 22, 1529, between the two most powerful countries at the time, both Catholic. One might have thought that this Treaty would have prevented disputes that continue to our day, but such was not the case Other countries began to be interested in this new world; the Dutch and English (non-Catholic countries) and France (Catholic) refused to abide by the Treaty and did some exploring and claiming of their own Hence, the border disputes arose and continue.

Further complicating the situation is the fact that so much of Amazonia is sparsely populated so it is difficult to assert land claims based on actual possession of the lands. The three “guianas” have very small populations and a great deal of relatively unexplored territory within their claimed borders. Only French Guiana seems secure since it is highly unlikely that Suriname would want to challenge seriously France’s claim to its “Guiana”, undoubtedly the richest of the three since the establishment of the European Space Station on the site of the former French penal colony on the mainland. However, Venezuela is much stronger in every way than little Guyana and it seems to be promoting “leakage” of its citizens over the borders claimed by Guyana so that its people are in actual physical possession of some areas in the disputed territory.

COLUMBUS’ TANGLED HISTORY

One of the speakers for this trip was a historian by profession and he made many of us aware of the several controversies (“tangles”) surrounding “The Admiral of the Ocean Sea” whose epic voyages opened this part of the world to European exploration and exploitation The very first unsettled question about Columbus is his birthplace and nationality. Italy claims him as does Spain and there is further mystery regarding his ethnicity: there is considerable support for the assertion of some historians that he was a Spanish Jew whose family became putative Christians (conversos) during the Inquisition

Italy’s assertion that he is a native of Italy is supported by the fact that his father owned a home in Genoa wherein it can be inferred he was born Even the year of his birth is a mystery; both 1451 & 1452 are considered possibilities. These strange uncertainties are counterbalanced by the fact that we know absolutely the identities of 87of the 92 mariners who sailed with him on the 1st voyage in 1492! Maybe it’s all explained by fame once Columbus achieved his 15 minutes, only then did facts about his activities begin to accrue and be archived.

Old Chris was evidently a very contradictory character not a good administrator nor a very good leader of his seamen. On the first voyage, he had to keep two separate logs in order to keep his men convinced that they were never very far from land Maybe their confidence in his seamanship wasn’t so great or maybe those Spanish sailors were convinced he was really Italian? He wasn’t very obedient to his benefactors Ferdinand and Isabella either On the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th voyages he absolutely flouted their directives and did as he pleased, even though some civil servants had been sent along in the crew to spy upon him for the crown On voyage 1, he left some 39 crewmembers behind on what is now known as the island of Dominica because the Santa Maria had been wrecked and he had no room for these sailors on the Pinta and Nina When he returned in 1493 (Voyage 2), he was met by the Carib Indians and learned that his 39 sailors had disappeared. He then went to what is now the Dominican Republic and left more folks (this time, his 17 ships held 1000 people who were being sent to establish a colony) He left his brother in charge of the colony. By the time he returned in 1498 (Voyage 3), the settlers led by the civil servant spies had revolted against his brother’s leadership and put him in jail. Christopher was clapped in irons and put in jail along with him as soon as he landed The settlers were not happy even though he had brought 30 women with him this time so that the settlers could marry. Ferdinand and Isabella were displeased with him because he had left his brother in charge rather than the civil servants they had sent with him.

When he returned to Spain, even with the testimony of the spies, Columbus was able to talk his way back into Ferdinand and Isabella’s confidence. He must have been better at “sucking up” to nobility than to inspiring his men His 4th voyage (1502) reveals Columbus at his disobedient best. He had been sent back to find the presumed strait that existed between the land of China which Columbus thought he had reached and the new land he had touched on (against orders) in the 3rd voyage (actually Venezuela). He was specifically ordered not to return to the Dominican Republic settlement since he had already caused enough trouble. However, he did precisely that in addition to exploring the areas now called Yucatan, Nicaragua, and Panama. Therefore, in many ways, this 4th Voyage is considered his most successful by most historians even though he failed to identify the sought after strait.

Christopher Columbus is acknowledged to be a superb sailor with amazing courage and independence. However, he never realized the enormity of his own discoveries. He persisted until his dying day in believing that he had found the way to the East and China. He never believed that he had found a new continent and the New World! Ferdinand and particularly Isabella however were convinced that he had and were very aware of the potential his discoveries represented. Even though he was only in his early 50s when he returned from the 4th Voyage, he felt old and spent, settled in Valladolid, Spain, to enjoy a quiet life until his death on May 20, 1506.

Yet another tangle in the history of Columbus is the puzzle of where he is actually buried. Several places claim to have his bones: the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Spain herself. At present, DNA analysis is ongoing with the relics the different countries have proffered as the last remains of Christopher Columbus. So science may unravel this tangle at long last.

Ferdinand and Isabella rewarded him fairly well monetarily in addition to conferring on him the magnificent title “Admiral of the Ocean Sea.” Most historians today conclude that he was a terrible administrator, but a true visionary who could see beyond the horizon viewed by ordinary dreamers, a completely tactless and inflexible man, one who had achieved great things but never knew what they were. Columbus was like a more modern explorer, Ernest Shackleton: a man you would not trust with your wife or your checkbook, but you would trust him with your life!