B U I L D I N G RESILIENCE TRICIA ARABIAN
BUILDING RESILIENCE Flood Disaster Mitigation for Vulnerable Coastal Communities by Tricia Arabian B.Arch.Sci., Ryerson University 2011 A design thesis project presented to Ryerson University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree in the Program of Architecture
Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2014 Š Tricia Arabian
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I hereby declare that I am the soul author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I authorize Ryerson University to lend this thesis project to other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research. I further authorize Ryerson University to reproduce this thesis project by photocopying or by other means, in total or in part, at the request of other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research. I understand that my thesis may be electronically available to the public.
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ABSTRACT Global sea levels are on the rise; among the most visible and immediate impacts is the increasing frequency and severity of storms and flooding. As urban density increases globally, the built environment, and consequently, millions of people in heavily populated coastal areas, will be directly affected. In the developing world, vulnerability to environmental hazards is exacerbated by conditions of poverty, inadequate infrastructure and a lack of technical, human and financial capacity. The preservation of life and protection of the built world from imminent flood risk is currently under engaged in architecture; rather, reliance is upon infrastructure and engineering to prevent flood events from occurring, or alternatively, on disaster response to mitigate the consequences. A more holistic, resilient approach can be achieved by placing emphasis upon architecture that is anticipatory, proactive and capable of facilitating disaster recovery. Enhancing the resilient capacities of the built environment can become a preventative and empowering vehicle in reducing vulnerability to natural hazards and creating more resilient communities.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Words are insufficient to express my profound gratitude to all those involved in this process. I would first like to thank my committee of advisors, Vincent Hui, Paul Floerke, Cheryl Atkinson and Arthur Wrigglesworth, whose critical intellect and challenging inquiries vastly enriched this thesis. I am especially grateful for the guidance of Professor Vincent Hui, whose unwillingness to settle for less than the best sparked in me a desire to realize my own potential. To my best friends and colleagues; I am grateful for the inspiration, encouragement, and good humour we shared over the last several years. I will always remember my time in architecture school as a rich experience thanks to the studio culture we created together. This work would not have been possible without the unconditional love and support of my parents, brothers, sisters, nephews, niece and extended family. I am forever grateful for the Friday nights that restored my sanity and motivation; thank you. Finally, a special thank you to John, for patiently supporting my determination to pursue this endeavor and providing the daily dose of comic relief necessary to survive it.
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To my parents; your resilience inspires.
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CONTENTS Author’s Declaration
iii
Abstract
v
Acknowledgements
vii
Dedication
ix
Table of Contents
x
List of Figures
xii
List of Appendices
xxi
INTRODUCTION
1
PART ONE CONDITION
1.0
Coastal Cities
4
1.1
Climate Change & Sea Level Rise
6
1.2 Flooding 1.2.1 Types of Flooding 1.2.2 Impacts 1.2.3 Disasters 1.2.4 Displacement 1.2.5 Recovery 1.2.6 Temporary Shelter
9
PART TWO ANALYSIS
2.0
Flood Control
22
2.1
Flood Accommodation
24
2.2 Architectural Approaches 2.2.1 Theoretical Discourse 2.2.2 Precautionary Measures 2.2.3 Innovative Methods 2.2.4 Reactive Solutions
27
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PART THREE RESPONSE
3.0
Building Resilience
42
PART FOUR CONTEXT 4.0
Jakarta, Indonesia 4.0.1 Urban Development
46
4.1 Flooding Banjir 4.1.1 Flood Evacuation 4.1.2 Flood Control 4.1.3 Impacts on Infrastructure
49
4.2
56
Project Site 4.2.1 Pluit, North Jakarta
PART FIVE PROJECT
5.0 Flood Refuge Centre
60
5.1 Design Strategies
66
5.1.1
Flood Accomodation
5.1.2
Building Adaptation
EPILOGUE
98
Appendix
102
References
144 xi
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 01 Source
Children Playing
Figure 02 Source
Urban Agglomerations in Coastal Zones http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/
Figure 03 Source
Crichton Risk Triangle http://www.ilankelman.org/crichton.html
http://nypost.com/2011/01/25day-in-photo-jan-24-2011/#5
Figure 04 Climate Change Vulnerability Map Source http://static2.businessinsider.com image/4ea87f7069beddfc4f000029/mapecroft-climate change-vulnerability.jpg Figure 05 Source
Sea Level Rise Projections
Figure 06 Source
Surface Runoff Image by Author
Figure 07 Source
Types of Flooding Image by Author
http-//grist.files.wordpress.com/2013/07/pnas-sea-level.png
Figure 08 Torrential Storm Source https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/-0R AeaYj374/TYEwyR-9Y5I/AAAAAAAATsE/Riu7NHHg-x4 s1600/Dark+clouds+hover+above+Jakarta.jpg Figure 09 Flash Flood Source http://globalcitizensam.files.wordpress.com/2013/01 jakartasmile1.jpg Figure 10 Source
Flood Impacts Image by Author
Figure 11 Source
Displaced Families, Jakarta http://www.abc.net.au/news/image/5261986-3x2-940x627.jpg
Figure 12 Tent Shelters, Jakarta Source http://www.thejakartapost.com/files/images/ p02-b-1.img_assist_custom.JPG Figure 13 Superdome following Hurricane Katrina Source http-//www-tc.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/assets/img/predicing katrina/image-02-large.jpg
xii
Figure 14 Poor conditions in Superdome Source http-//www.nerdylorrin.net/jerry/Katrina/photos/Katrina NewOrleansSuperdomeSat3SeptMoreTrash+StillWaiting 2BEvacd-Reuters-ShannonStapleton.jpg Figure 15 Source
Basic Necessities for Safe Refuge Image by Author
Figure 16 Local shop owner protecting goods Source http://www.gettyimages.ca/detail/news-photo man-walks-along-sandbags-as-flood-waters-rush through-a-news-photo/130724480?Language=en-GB Figure 17 Thames River Barrier Source http-//media.web.britannica.com/eb-media/11/99511 004-CBB31F64.jpg Figure 18 Maeslantkering Barriers Source http-//thefinanser.co.uk/.a/6a01053620481c970b0120a8 4079a970b-800wi.jpg Figure 19 Levee Breach Source Floodwater_from_the_Yazoo_river_creeps_across fields_of_crops-1.jpg Figure 20 Source
Levee Breach
http://www.fantasticalandrewfox.com/wp-content/u loads/2011/08/New_Orleans_17th_Street_Canal_filling.jpg
Figure 21 Rising Currents Source http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/2010/03/26 arts/26risingspan-1/26risingspan-1-articleLarge.jpg Figure 22 Source
LilyPad Floating City
Figure 23 Source
Fuller’s Triton City
http://www.inhabitat.com/wp-content/uploads/lilypad2.jpg
http://cup2013.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/fuller_triton.jpg
Figure 24 Dry-Proofing Source http-//www.sepa.org.uk/flooding/be_flood_pr pared/be_protected/idoc.ashx?docid=274d4e1e-ff66 462a-9a8c-4af9338e1a5b&version=-1.jpeg Figure 25 Wet-Proof Construction Source http://activerain.com/blogsview/1485387/immaculate elevated-home xiii
Figure 26 Source
Stilt House http://thisfacade.com/architecture/living-on-stilts.html
Figure 27 Extensive Stairs Source http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-utEKFbkb48g/TaVPIdyGvnI AAAAAAAAAGw/P8VMei3jN8Q/s1600/PANGGUNG.jpg Figure 28 House on Wood Piers Source http://www.americanpoleandtimber.com/prod_solid uniform-diameter-poles.shtml Figure 29 Rockaway Beach Pavilion Source http://inhabitat.com/nyc/wp-content/blogs.dir/2 files/2013/05/comfort-station-exterior-from-boardwalk closer.jpg Figure 30 Source
Watervila http://www.waterstudio.nl/projects/48#
Figure 31 Source
Floating Apartment Complex http://www.waterstudio.nl/projects/54#
Figure 32 Float House, Morphosis Source http://www.archdaily.com/259629/make-it-right-house morphosis-architects/ Figure 33 Source
Buoyant Foundation Project Elizabeth Fenuta, University of Waterloo
Figure 34 Source
LIFT House http://openarchitecturenetwork.org/projects/lift
Figure 35 Source
Maasbommel Floating Homes
Figure 36 Source
Flood “Proof” Building Approaches Image by Author
Figure 37 Source
Stages of Disaster Recovery Image by Author
http://inhabitat.com/dutch-floating-homes-by-duravermeer/
Figure 38 Residents help woman Source http://images.usatoday.com/news/_photos/2007/02/ 02/jakarta1.jpg
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Figure 39 Source
Residents in flooded streets
Figure 40 Source
Indonesia and Surrounding Countries Produced by Author
Figure 41 Source
Reclaimed Land, North Jakarta
Figure 42 Source
Regatta Development, Vision http-//www.regattajakarta.com/images/content/15.jpg
Figure 43 Source
Regatta Development, Realization
Figure 44 Source
History of Floods in Jakarta Table by Author, various sources
Figure 45 Source
Residents occupying upper floors
Figure 46 Source
Evacuation by boat
Figure 47 Source
Flood Response Image by Author
http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pitures/2013 /1/22/1358860202666/A-man-carries-his-son-as--007.jpg
http://farm5.static.flickr.com/4088/4956458306dba629bed1.jpg
http-//i195.photobucket.com/albums/z116/bozhart/40aaff46.jpg
http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/ 2013/1/22/1358860202666/A-man-carries-his-son-as--007.jpg
http://www.abc.net.au/news/image/5207588-3x2-940x627.jpg
Figure 48 Flood Evacuation Preparedness Initiative Source http://www.adpc.net/igo/category/ID226/doc/2013 c28Jbn-ADPC-Safer_Cities_27.pdf Figure 49 Flood Evaciation Physical Indicator Source http://www.adpc.net/igo/category/ID226/doc/2013 c28Jbn-ADPC-Safer_Cities_27.pdf Figure 50 Flood impacts on commuters Source http-//www.asianews.it/files/img/INDONESIA_-_jakarta alluvioni_ol.jpg Figure 51 Floods over major roads Source http://si.wsj.net/public/resources/images BNBC949_0116JA_M_20140116005928.jpg Figure 52 Source
Project Site Google Maps xv
Figure 53 Source
Pluit Map Map by Author
Figure 54 Source
Pluit Diagrammatic Section Drawing by Author
Figure 55 Source
Rescue boats arrive at Flood Refuge Center Image by Author
Figure 56 Source
Project Timeline Image by Author
Figure 57 Source
Existing and Proposed Conditions Maps by Author
Note: All Project Drawings, Diagrams and Renderings (Figures 56-95) Produced by Author Figure 58
Building Plan
Figure 59
Building Plan
Figure 60
Building Plan
Figure 61
Building Plan
Figure 62
Site Plan
Figure 63
Site Section
Figure 64
Landscape Rendering
Figure 65
Building Rendering
Figure 66
Building Rendering
Figure 67
Building Sections
Figure 68
Roof Plan
Figure 69
Entrance Ramp Rendering
Figure 70
Performance Space Rendering
Figure 71
Buoyant Classrooms
Figure 72
Buoyant Classrooms, Dry Condition xvi
Figure 73
Buoyant Classrooms, Wet Condition
Figure 74
Courtyard Rendering, Dry Condition
Figure 75
Courtyard Rendering, Wet Condition
Figure 76
Expandable Stair, Classroom Core
Figure 77
Expandable Stair, Connection at static building
Figure 78
Building Perspective
Figure 79
Building Conversion Plan
Figure 80
Site Plan
Figure 81
Building Section and Detail
Figure 82
Building Arrival Rendering
Figure 83
Medical Centre Plan
Figure 84
Student Centre Rendering
Figure 85
Medical Centre Rendering
Figure 86
Aid Distribution Centre Plan
Figure 87
Stage/Dock Rendering
Figure 88
Cafeteria Rendering
Figure 89
Aid Distribution Centre Rendering
Figure 90
Interior View of Classroom
Figure 91
Classroom
Figure 92
Shelter
Figure 93
Classroom Rendering
Figure 94
Shelter Rendering
Figure 95
View from Cafeteria
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LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURES Figure 96 Source
Flood “Proofing� comparative approaches Table by Author
Figure 97 Source
Amphibious Architecture Table by Author
Figure 98 Maasbommel Floating Home Diagram Source http-//im.ft-static.com/content/images/a01ee4d4-505f 11e0-9e89-00144feab49a Figure 99 Source
LIFT House Diagram Prithula Prosun, University of Waterloo
Figure 100 Source
Float House Diagram http-//www.arthurbadalian.com/files/gimgs/30_19_floathouseb
Figure 101 Buoyant Foundation Project Diagram Source http-//weburbanist.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04 floating-flood-disaster-design.jpg Figure 102 Source
Various Building Floatation Methods Image by Author
Figure 103 Source
World Map Produced by Author
Figure 104 Source
Map of Indonesia Produced by Author
Figure 105 Source
Map of Jakarta Produced by Author
Figure 106 Source
Jakarta Subdistricts Produced by Author, various sources
Figure 107 Source
Jakarta Land Elevation Produced by Author, various sources
Figure 108 Source
Jakarta Population Density Produced by Author, various sources
Figure 109 Source
Jakarta Flood Maps Produced by Author, various sources
Figure 110 Source
Java Bay Sea Level Rise Projections National Council on Climate Change, Indonesia, 2011
xviii
Figure 111 Source
Pluit Neighbourhood Map Produced by Author
Figure 112 Pluit Land Reclamation Source Designing for Hypercomplexity, Jakarta Joint Research Workshop Figure 113 Source
Pluit Land Use Produced by Author
Figure 114 Source
Pluit Images Google Maps
Figure 115 Source
Pluit Images Google Map screenshots, various contributors
Figure 116 Source
Jakarta Schools Various sources
xix
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A - Flood Proof Building Approaches Appendix B - Jakarta Maps Appendix C - Pluit Maps and Supplementary Information Appendix D - Program Requirements Appendix E - Design Development Appendix F - Early Concepts Appendix G - Final Models
xxi
INTRODUCTION Climate change is a global process and problem; warming atmospheric temperatures have accelerated glacier melting and caused thermal expansion in oceans, disrupting precipitation patterns and resulting in sea level rise. Among the most immediate and visible effects of this phenomenon will be the increasing rate and severity of storms. As the baseline of water increases, storms are more likely to lead to floods, posing disruptive and unpredictable threats to both natural and man-made systems. Natural hazards, combined with vulnerability, result in disasters. As urban populations increase globally, the built environment, and consequently, millions of people in densely populated coastal areas, face extreme risks. Intense storms will threaten infrastructures, ecosystems and communities, displacing millions of people that live in coastal zones. Of the many communities around the world threatened by rising seas, those living without fundamental necessities will be the most severely impacted. In the developing world, the impacts of climate change are exacerbated by conditions of poverty, inadequate infrastructure and a lack of technical, human and financial capacity. Extreme climatic events intensify pre-existing conditions of vulnerability, most often resulting in catastrophic destruction of the built environment and consequent loss of life.
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Architecture is of critical importance in developing coastal cities facing extreme environmental circumstances relating to climate change and subsequent conditions of flooding. Current architectural responses to these potentially disasters conditions, however, are reactive rather than anticipatory. In order to mitigate the negative outcomes of climate change, a proactive architectural approach to climate change adaptation, vulnerability reduction and disaster prevention is critical in protecting the livelihoods of millions of people. Holistic design strategies, which anticipate, prepare and respond to flood disasters, are integral to enhancing physical and social resilience. Imminent flooding over the next several decades necessitates that architecture serve as a vehicle in enhancing the resilient capacities of the both the built environment and those who inhabit it, in turn, reducing vulnerability to natural hazards, facilitating recovery and creating communities which are better able to respond to imminent disaster conditions.
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PART ONE CONDITION
1.0 COASTAL CITIES Figure 01: (previous page) Children play outside their flooded houses in Muara Baru, North Jakarta.
Water’s role is of critical importance to the viability of cities; historic links between major water bodies and societal prosperity has led to settlement patterns in coastal zones around the globe. As the world’s population increases from seven to nine billion in the next 30 years, the concentration of people and assets in flood prone zones will increase dramatically. (UN, Population Division, 2013) Ten of the world’s fifteen largest cities are in low-lying coastal zones, vulnerable to rising sea levels and coastal surges. (Watson & Adams, 2011) As a desirable location for economic development, these major cities continue to expand without consideration for climate hazards, leaving dense populations, associated buildings and infrastructures exposed to risk.
Figure 02: Urban
Agglomerations along Coastal Zones
Risk is amplified by growing populations. Population projections indicate that, by 2025, two thirds of the population will live in cities, 90% of which will be in developing countries. (UN, Popultion Division, 2013) Growing populations in developing countries have triggered rapid and unbridled urban development, leading to environmental deterioration and inadequate protective infrastructures. Pressing needs to improve economic conditions have led to haphazard development over long term balanced solutions. Poor land development planning and intensive developments in floodplains and coastal areas have compromised or eliminated entirely natural areas of coasts, wetlands and marshes intended to absorb flooding and storm impacts. (Jha, Bloch, & Lammond, 2012) The Crichton Risk Triangle indicates risk as a function of hazard, exposure and vulnerability. Hazard reflects the frequency and severity of rainfall
4
events and storms, exposure determines the density and value of property located in flood hazard areas and vulnerability refers to resilience of the properties as they relate to design and construction. (Lamond, Booth, Felix, & David, 2012) These factors are further determined by a number of social, environmental, economic, political and hydro-geological systems. Social resilience factors in the population residing close to the coastline, as well as their culture and their sense of awareness and preparedness. The environmental factor considers the population’s rate of growth, whether the land can accommodate that growth and what measures are being taken to protect natural systems. Economic vulnerability is measured by the concentration of businesses and assets exposed to risk, as well as the costs required to mitigate and restore damage following a disaster. Asian cities rank highest with China, India, Bangladesh, Vietnam and Indonesia topping the lists in terms of geographic location, exposed population and assets. (UN, Water and Climate Change, 2013) Risk is especially high in the developing countries with existing social, environmental and economic problems. The following map highlights coastal zones extremely susceptible to climatic disasters; each of the developing countries indicated lacks adequate infrastructure to protect the dense urban populations living in vulnerable geographic locations.
Figure 03: Crichton Risk Triangle
While extreme weather events are often described as “social equalizers� indifferent to issues of race or class, historic evidence indicates that these events further exasperate existing inequities. According to the UN, more than 90% of deaths from natural disasters are water related, 99% of which occur in low-income populations. Beyond intensifying pre-existing problems in developing countries, a lack of technical, human and financial capacity challenges the ability for these countries recover from natural disasters. (Leckie, Simperingham, & Bakker, 2012)
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Figure 04: Climate
Change Vulnerability Map (blue colour indicates extreme risk)
1.1 CLIMATE CHANGE & SEA LEVEL RISE Traditional coastal threats are exacerbated by climate change. The earth’s average temperature is on the rise due to an increase in greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere resulting from human activity, principally the burning of fossil fuel and clearing of forests. Climate change and associated risks will be accelerated if urban development continues as it has in the past century, with dangerous consequences for both built and natural systems. (McGregor, Roberts, & Cousins, 2013) Climate change can be attributed to both natural and anthropogenic causes; design and operation of the built environment have significantly contributed to greenhouse gas emissions and compounded climate risks. Emissions are associated with building systems, transportation, water, waste, and construction materials. Buildings are the single leading contributor to anthropogenic climate change. (McGregor, Roberts, & Cousins, 2013) Energy produced from the combustion of fossil fuels for building heating and various domestic purposes, such as water heating and cooking, is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions are also associated with refrigerants used for cooling buildings, natural gas supplies and the embodied energy of materials. Further, urbanization processes due to the world’s rapid demographic growth have brought on land use changes and large-scale development resulting in high carbon
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intensities. Deforestation, the impermeable surfaces of cities, density and congestion, sanitation and solid waste infrastructures have impinged upon and compromised natural systems and ecologies. Urban areas, which are 75-100% impervious, generate five times more runoff than naturally vegetated landscapes; roads, sidewalks, plazas and buildings not capable of absorbing water generate runoff, impacting global and local water balance. A lack of vegetation in cities causes microclimate and heat islands, modifying the hydrology of an area and creating higher temperatures over cities. Among the changes attributed to climate change, the increasing frequency of extreme climatic events and severity of storms will be the most apparent. Warmer temperatures increase moisture in the air, disrupting precipitation patterns, while low atmospheric pressure and high winds produce storm surges, with serious risks when combined with high tides. The noticeable effect of climate change in the form of natural disasters over the last decade has accelerated public awareness of this global issue. A direct consequence of climate change is global sea level rise. A UN study released in 2007 indicates that sea levels have been, and will continue to rise 3.2 millimeters annually, twice the average speed of the preceding 80 years, regardless of whether greenhouse gas reduction efforts are effective. (UN, Water and Climate Change, 2013) Due to the inertia of ecological systems, surface air temperatures will continue to rise for a century or more, impacting the thermal expansion of oceans, melting of ice sheets and consequently raising sea levels for centuries. (Watson & Adams, 2011) Observed and projects patterns indicate that sea level rise over the North Pacific ocean would be significantly greater than the global average due to exceptional thermal expansion near the entrance of the Kuroshio current, a north-flowing ocean current on the west side of the North Pacific Ocean. The specific impacts vary geographically, with water levels increasing from 1.5-4.4mm/yr along the East Asian coast. Regional variation is due to land surface and tectonic movement, thermal expansion, and land subsidence. (Pachauri & Reisinger, 2007) The slope of the land and costal erosion make Asian countries further susceptible; man-made coastal protection structures could be destroyed as shorelines retreat and coasts erode.
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Deltaic regions of Bangladesh, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Thailand and the low-lying areas of Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia face the highest risks. A 1-meter water level rise will flood half of Bangladesh’s rice land and permanently inundate parts of Vietnam, China, India, Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia. (Roaf, Crichton, & Nichol, 2009) The Philippines and Indonesia will face severe impacts given the concentration of people living in dense settlements. Even the most conservative projections of a 40 cm rise by 2100 will inundate enough land to impact 94 million people living in coastal zones. (Pachauri & Reisinger, 2007)
Figure 05: Sea Level Rise as global temperatures warm
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1.2 FLOODING The relatively predictable aspect of climate change, sea level rise, significantly influences a more variable aspect: torrential storms and flooding. With higher global and local water levels, floods are expected to become more frequent; a 100-year storm could recur every 19-68 years, while a 500-year storm every 120 years. (Nordenson, Seavitt, & Yarinsky, 2010) Higher temperatures are also expected to increase the chance of hurricanes, typhoons and extreme weather events. Flooding is a natural process; it is part of a hydrological cycle that brings sustenance to life on earth. (Watson & Adams, 2011) In the natural environment, frequent rainfall is absorbed by soil and vegetation, generating little runoff. When precipitation increases in intensity, a second tier of natural components, such as wetlands and floodplains, hold and buffer runoff that exceeds the absorption capacity of the systems. 30% evapotranspiration 55% runoff 40% evapotranspiration 10% runoff
25% shallow infiltration 25% deep infiltration
10% shallow infiltration 5% deep infiltration
Flooding only becomes disastrous because of damaging development upon susceptible land. Intensive land development practices impel stresses on land and water, removing natural resources and their function from the landscape. Unlike vegetated landscapes, impervious surfaces from land development generate a large amount of runoff. Areas that once served as protective buffer zones are now overtaken by expanding cities, impinging upon protective coastal ecologies and increasing susceptibility to hazard. Coastal forests, wetlands and marshes that developed over millennia to absorb flooding and storm impacts have been compromised or eliminated entirely as a result of intense urbanization and sprawling development. (Leckie, Simperingham, & Bakker, 2012) The loss of an absorptive landscape disrupts regional water balance, increasing runoff volume and risk of flooding. By disregarding the natural benefits of flooding through conventional models of land development, water becomes viewed as a threat and arrives with unwelcome and unanticipated intensity. (Watson & Adams, 2011)
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Figure 06: Surface Runoff
1.2.1. Types of flooding Floods can be caused by meteorological or hydrological extremes, such as precipitation and flows, or from human activity such as unplanned growth and development in floodplains. Understanding the type and source of flooding is an essential component to designing appropriate mitigation and reduction strategies. (Jha, Bloch, & Lammond, 2012) Floods can be broken down in to a number of categories based on the factors that cause them. Natural causes include severe rainfall, convective thunderstorms, coastal earthquakes and a high groundwater table. These natural phenomenon become disastrous when combined with human induced conditions: land use changes, destruction of protective natural ecologies, a lack of permeable landscape, and the saturation of drainage and sewage capacities. Floods can be categorized as the following: • Fluvial/River floods: when rivers bursts its banks • Pluvial/Surface/Flash floods: from intense rainfall on impermeable surfaces which overwhelms drains • Groundwater flooding: when ground is permeable and water comes from below • Tidal flooding: driven by tides and storm surges (Jha, Bloch, & Lammond, 2012) Potential hazards are determined based on the probability, magnitude and frequency of occurrence. The probability of a flood hazard is determined by a number of climatic and non-climatic factors. Historic data aids in forecasting possible events by analyzing past occurrences and determining recurrence intervals in order to extrapolate future probabilities. Recurrence intervals are commonly used to estimate future probabilities and are dependant on factors such as climate, width of floodplain and size of a catchment area. Given globally altered climate conditions and the abundance of human factors at play, however, predictions are hard to make with accuracy, especially for pluvial, groundwater and flash floods. (Jha, Bloch, & Lammond, 2012) When inadequately maintained infrastructure, intense urban development and naturally occurring processes are intertwined, the probability of flooding is intensified.
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protective embankment
FLUVIAL/RIVER FLOOD
PLUVIAL/SURFACE FLOOD
GROUNDWATER FLOOD
impermeable surface
permeable ground
water overtops or erodes embankments
high volume runoff
saturated ground
high water table
levee
TIDAL FLOOD
overwhelmed drainage systems
unprecedented surge
eroding coastal protection
Figure 07: Types of Flooding
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Figure 08: (left) Torrential Storm Figure 09: (right) Flash Flood
1.2.2. Flood Impacts Disaster statistics indicate that floods impact more people than any other single natural disaster. From 1976 to 2006, flooding was the direct cause of more than 200,000 deaths and the indirect cause of millions of illnessrelated deaths. In 2009 alone, 57.3 million people were victim to hydrological disasters, with 3500 fatalities attributed to flooding. (Lamond, Booth, Felix, & David, 2012) Short-term impacts of flooding include damage to built and natural environments, massive distress on livelihoods and tragic loss of life, while long term consequences often lead to financial distress, illness and mental health issues. Flooding has a wide scope of impact; beyond destruction to the physical environment, floods can distress water and food supplies, the economy and the physical and mental health of affected populations. (Lamond, Booth, Felix, & David, 2012) In extreme flood events, essential water and electricity sources are frequently shut off, leading to discomfort or damage to commercial and domestic environments. If the velocity of floodwaters is high, personal safety is threatened as the only escape option out of a building is via boats or helicopters. High demand on emergency services often leaves people stranded, getting swept away by waters or drowning before aid is able to reach them. The immediate necessity for evacuation and road closures is followed by consequent clean up operations including pumping, restoration of utilities and reinstatement of infrastructure, causing massive distress upon livelihoods. While physical destruction is immediately apparent after a flood, health related consequences are less visible and leave lasting impacts long after remediation and reconstruction. Immediate mortality, injury and infections are later followed by an increase in communicable vector-borne disease and water-borne disease, chemical hazards and mental health impacts. (Lamond, Booth, Felix, & David, 2012) 12
Floodwaters can severely damage or wash away buildings and entire communities. The form of construction and characteristics of the flood will determine the damage upon buildings. The physical impacts of flooding can be categorized as the following: • Hydrostatic (lateral pressure and capillary rise) • Hydrodynamic (velocity, waves, turbulence) • Erosion (scour under buildings, building fabric) • Buoyancy (lifting the building) • Debris (items in the water colliding with the building) (Jha, Bloch, & Lammond, 2012) Flash floods present a particularly high risk. High velocity floodwaters can exert lateral pressure on buildings, adding stress to areas that haven’t been designed for that type of impact. Hydrostatic head, the pressure caused by the weight of water held above the pressure point, places stress on walls and vertical elements, often driving water through walls. (Jha, Bloch, & Lammond, 2012) In addition, water may cause scour or erosion to the ground, undermining building foundations and possibly leading to collapse. Rushing floodwaters can also carry debris, leading to damaging collisions with the building. Flood related debris includes mud and rock from upstream erosion of land, household items such as furniture and possessions or even more potentially destructive items such as vehicles and construction materials. Along with flow velocity, the depth of water can determine the extent of damage. Static floodwaters can soak in to building materials, causing elements to deteriorate, especially if the floodwaters are contaminated. Prolonged pressure exerted by standing waters can cause elements to fail entirely, leading to building collapse. Water that reaches building foundations may partially lift them up, causing them to crack or float away. Water can also cause a failure of building systems, leading to a series of indirect damage. Flood damage is extremely apparent in the informal settlements of developing countries, which proceed without regard for land-use development plans or building codes, resulting in construction materials and techniques unable to withstand extreme weather conditions. When low quality construction, a lack of protective infrastructure and vulnerable populations are intertwined, the impacts of flooding are intensified.
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Flood Damage
HYDROSTATIC
HYDRODYNAMIC
BOUYANCY
EROSION
DEBRIS
Figure 10: Flood Impacts
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1.2.3. Flood Disaster A heightened awareness of climate change realities and the extreme impacts of water related hazards was brought to the world’s attention by the Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005; the two deadliest and most destructive flood events among the many annual climate induced natural disasters. The Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004, caused by a 9.0 magnitude earthquake in the ocean, was the most devastating natural disasters ever recorded. The tsunami, whose waves ranged form 4 to 39 meters high, impacted 18 Southeast Asian and Southern African countries, leaving 1.7 million people homeless and killing 250,000 people in a single day. Several million dollars of economic loss were attributed to destruction of fishing and tourist industries alone and environmental consequences included water pollution and the spread of endemic diseases, further heightening the death toll. (Cluff, 2007) Of the many nations affected, Indonesia suffered the greatest damage. Approximately 131,000 people were confirmed dead, with nearly 40,000 missing in Aceh, the Northern Province of Sumatra. Buildings, utilities, roads and bridges faced major damage and collapse, displacing over 500,000 people from their homes. (Cluff, 2007) Traditional construction in the coastal community had resisted shaking damage, but could not resist the impacts of the water forces. All that remained once the extensive piles of timber and building debris had been cleared were concrete floor slabs. The only buildings that were able to withstand both the tidal forces and impacts of debris were the few industrial buildings, constructed primarily of steel-reinforced concrete, as well as a mosque, whose arches and domes allowed waves to flow through and around the space without causing damage. (Cluff, 2007) One year later in 2005, yet another large-scale natural disaster shocked the world – Hurricane Katrina, the deadliest hurricane to ever hit the United States. Strong winds and heavy rainfall combined with levee failures inundated nearly 80% of New Orleans, leaving parts of the city under 20 feet of water. An estimated 1,800 people died, and millions were left homeless. Nearly 300,000 residential properties were completely destroyed or made uninhabitable, and an extraordinary amount of debris from damaged
15
buildings, forests and green spaces was left behind. (Christian, 2007) The necessity for evacuation and the number of people seeking refuge after the storm overwhelmed resources in the New Orleans Convention Center and the Superdome, further exacerbating the issues. (Christian, 2007) The loss of land, assets and populations from severe inundation underscores the built world’s fragile relationship with its environment.
Figure 11: (left) Flood
displaced families, Jakarta
Figure 12: (right) Tent Shelters, Jakarta
1.2.4. Flood Displacement In contrast to the large-scale, rapid-onset events that garner international attention, disruptive and catastrophic floods are an annual occurrence in many parts of the world, particularly in South-East Asia. Floods occur so frequently that they rarely warrant any serious response, yet they bring disruption to normalcy and cause displacement of residents annually. Temporary mass displacement, a consequence of wide spread flood inundation, necessitates response strategies that ensure shelter, adequate resources and livelihood solutions. Given the existing inadequacies of basic necessities in developing parts of the world, however, few strategies are implemented to adequately mitigate flood impacts and facilitate smooth recovery. Without proper prevention and response strategies in place, the full scope of potential flood impacts, from destruction to disease, becomes apparent. As storms increase in frequency and severity, flood events are likely to occur at less predictable intervals, displacing more persons and necessitating more proactive response.
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1.2.5. Flood Relief Flood events are likely to cause widespread destruction and displacement. Relief at an urban scale can be enhanced by the preparedness of smaller communities. The effectiveness of relief efforts, the step before recovery, can enhance or weaken the social resilience of a community. Resilience places emphasis upon strategies that permit communities to effectively respond and adapt to disturbances to normalcy. Inherent to the idea of resilience is that shocks and stresses are likely to occur and bring change, yet communities should continue to function without facing complete chaos or breakdown. (da Silva, 2012) Time is an important factor in measuring social resilience; negative impacts of flooding can be alleviated if response if quick, effective and coordinated. Communities which are prepared, self-reliant and capable of mobilizing their own resources, rather than waiting for assistance from others, are better able to adapt and recover from disasters with fewer complications. (Hutton, 2001) As defined by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies, safe and resilient communities should aspire to the following characteristics: • They understand the disaster risks that they face, they can assess and monitor these risks and can protect and make themselves safe to minimize losses and damage when a disaster strikes. • They are able to do much for themselves and can sustain their basic community functions and structures despite the impact of disasters. • They can build back after a disaster and work towards ensuring that vulnerabilities continue to be reduced for the future. More safety and resilience means less vulnerability. • They understand that building safety and resilience is a long-term, continuous process that requires ongoing commitment. In the face of such unknown factors as the effects of climate change, or the degree of urban growth or environmental degradation, they understand that there is much that can be done to adapt to future problems and challenges by building on their current knowledge. (A Framework for Community Safety and Resilience, 2012) Anticipatory initiatives that foster self-organization and collaboration permit the maintenance of social order in the aftermath of a disaster event and allow for social, domestic and economic functions to be restored more rapidly. Emphasizing rapid recovery minimizes the negative social and psychological effects of a disaster event, permitting residents to resume their regular and necessary activities as soon as possible. (Hutton, 2001)
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Severe flood events lead to disruption, chaos, and disorganization, separating families and communities. Evacuation is often necessary regardless of the physical impact of the flood; whether homes are completely demolished or temporarily inundated, flood victims will require a safe shelter for the duration and aftermath of an event. Given the economic and social impacts of mass migration away from a flood-hit area, identifying designated safe zones within a neighborhood creates a meeting point for families to reunite, reduces chaos and confusion and provides a platform for effective aid distribution. (Hutton, 2001) Anticipatory action and preparedness prior to a disaster event is an important step towards building awareness of a potential risk and facilitating rapid recovery following a disaster event. Strengthening response capacities by creating opportunities for local recovery and encouraging self-organization within community-based networks is critical to enhancing long-term community resilience.
1.2.6. Temporary Shelter When floods hit, the provision of temporary shelters is necessary for protection and recovery from the devastating events. Adequate water supply, sanitation facilities and a solid, robust roof are the 3 absolutely essential components to flood relief evacuation facilities. Identification of a water source and access to toilets, showers and waste disposal units are necessary for preventing the spread of diseases and for the creation of healthy, hygienic environments. The close proximity of hospitals is also a valuable asset. Beyond providing protection for people and their possessions from climate conditions, the provision of temporary shelters must ensure dignity, privacy and safety of individuals and families. Communal centers such as places of worship, schools, community halls and arenas are often used for evacuation and temporary shelter in natural disasters. During Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, the Superdome, a sports and exhibition venue, was used as a temporary shelter. Though the structure was neither designed as an emergency shelter, nor tested to determine the amount of wind it could withstand, residents of New Orleans took refuge in the dome, as the situation was desperate. The conditions inside the Superdome were disastrous in themselves. A lack of running water, inadequate sanitary facilities and no antibiotics or medical supplies meant that people were falling ill, and with no established ‘sick zones’ 18
or designated medical staff, illness spread and conditions deteriorated. Generators failed, and without lighting or air conditioning, conditions in the dome became uncomfortable and dangerous. High levels of stress, limited food supplies and inadequate facilities raised tensions and lead to crime, violence and death. In the days following the storm, the roofing membrane of the Superdome began to peel off as a result of strong winds and rain poured in. With no power, no water and deteriorating conditions, thousands of evacuees were forced to move out of the Superdome and in an alternate shelter in Texas. (Christian, 2007) Though temporary shelters are expected to provide relief for up to 3 weeks, the Superdome proved inadequate and had to be evacuated in less than a week.
Figure 13: (left)
Superdome following Hurricane Katrina
Figure 14: (right) Poor conditions inside the Superdome
Given that schools, churches, sporting venues and various public building already serve as refuge centers in disaster conditions, adequate planning and design provisions of these spaces prior to a disaster event can ensure that short-term post-disaster occupancy can be adequately accommodated. Beyond ensuring adequate thermal conditions, water supply and access to sanitary facilities, consideration for the appropriate organization of spaces must be given. In the case of a large number of people staying in one evacuation centre, stresses and social tensions are high; the spatial configuration of the evacuation centre must facilitate safe occupation and protection from further social and medical vulnerability. Disasters and displacement bring on distress, which can be worsened by crowded situations and inappropriate living conditions. Certain activities, such as the maintenance of personal hygiene or medical care, require greater privacy and become difficult to facilitate in large open spaces typical of evacuation centers. While zoning off areas for specific uses is effective in providing privacy, unmonitored support spaces such as hallways and corridors may pose risk, especially for women, children and the elderly.
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At a minimum, temporary shelters must fulfill safety and health requirements. Buildings adequately designed for refuge, however, also have the potential to empower communities in their recovery by ensuring the aftermath of the disaster doesn’t lead to further health, financial, social distress. With proper design considerations, architecture can serve as a platform for the effective distribution of aid, as well as a space for social support and collaboration in recovery. If flood preparation and relief initiatives are reliant upon and effectively able to support local involvement, communities are more likely to remain invested in their own renewal and ensure that people remain or return. (Jha, Bloch, & Lammond, 2012) Often international agencies, governments or other organizations initiate large-scale flood preparedness or relief measures, yet such initiatives become neglected once aid comes to an end due to the lack of active participation or local ownership. Alternatively, community engagement can ensure that initiatives are equitable, effective and empowering. Local communities understand local problems and priorities better but often lack the resources to realize solutions; community based measures can benefit from local impetus, capacities and past experiences dealing with disasters. (Jha, Bloch, & Lammond, 2012) Strengthening community institutions and emphasizing recovery at a local scale has the potential to increase resilience in the long term.
Figure 15: Basic Necessities for Safe Refuge
SHELTER
POTABLE WATER
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MEDICAL CARE
SOCIAL SUPPORT
PART TWO ANALYSIS
2.0 FLOOD CONTROL
Historically, natural disasters were viewed as ‘acts of God’, arriving with unanticipated intensity and disrupting normality for vulnerable and unprepared societies. (Lamond, Booth, Felix, & David, 2012) In turn, responses to these events were massive in scale; the construction of coastal infrastructure, giant seawalls, gates and levees in order to control the environment through hard engineering. Our understanding and capacity to deal with floods in the past century, however, has changed significantly. Coastal protection strategies are often understood as structural versus non-structural; engineered versus natural, hard versus soft. (Watson & Adams, 2011) Non-structural measures include shoreline stabilization through landscape features intended to restore ecosystem services that can absorb, filter and diffuse storms. While landscape features can slow the extent or velocity of flooding, they are less likely to uphold against severe weather events, necessitating the application of structural measures. Structural lines of defense include defined edges to separate land from water through heightened land barriers, known as levees or dikes, and engineered concrete walls. These efforts are intended to reflect, reduce or diffuse coastal inundation. As indicated by numerous coastal construction policies, building construction in these zones is required to be of a certain scale and materiality to ensure structural resilience in severe storms. (Lamond, Booth, Felix, & David, 2012) A number of coastal cities have been actively combating water for decades, with globally adapted protection schemes to shield against sea levels ranging from soft engineering to hard infrastructure. Damage to buildings and livelihoods in flooded areas is largely dependant on the costal protection levels; while the Netherlands and Japan are geographically vulnerable, they are highly protected, unlike South East Asian countries, where few measures are in place to mitigate risk.
Figure 16: (previous page) Residents brace against rising flood waters.
While London is almost entirely dependant on structural flood barriers along the River Thames for protection, alternative approaches have been utilized in two European nations known for their relationship with water; Venice, Italy and the Netherlands. The Netherlands, a small European country on the North Sea, is well known for pioneering innovative strategies for water adaptation and protection. Beyond the system of canals and dikes, which have been famous for centuries, the country is also
22
protected by a series of infrastructural projects known as the Delta Works. Gates and dams, including a nine-kilometer long storm surge barrier, the Oosterscheldekering, shorten coastlines and keep the sea out. The Maeslantkering gates in the Rotterdam Harbor, among the largest of the projects, are an ambitious feat of engineering. The gates, each the size of a football field, swing shut to form a barrier, sinking all the way to the ocean floor to block out all sea water. (Deltawerken Online, 2004) Accommodating water is not exclusively Dutch; Venice, which was developed in similar conditions of marshes and wetlands, has been combating water for centuries. Most recently, the country began work on the MOSE system, a massive project that includes 78 inflatable gates that rise and fall with sea levels to protect from high waters. In North America, New York and New Orleans face the greatest threats, with primary provisions being made in the form of revised building codes and strengthened structural barriers.
Figure 17: (right) Thames River Barriers, London
Figure 18: (left)
Maeslantkering gates, Rotterdam
Few large-scale measures are being made along the North Pacific coast, despite projections indicating that countries in this region face the greatest threats. Parts of Japan and China are equipped with water discharge tunnels that collect and channel water through massive underground systems. Further east, Singapore’s Marina Barrages, designed to keep water out from low lying areas, are among the few large-scale flood protection infrastructures in South East Asian cities. Land and financial constraints along with misplaced priorities have delayed or prohibited proper flood mitigation measures in countries like India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines. (Jha, Bloch, & Lammond, 2012) Recent widespread flooding in many parts of South East Asia highlights the need for more effective flood measures. Ambitious flood mitigation projects, most of which are funded by the World Bank, necessitate the dredging and rehabilitation of floodways, construction of canals, retention basins and protective flood barriers to ensure a first line of defense against inundation in these vulnerable countries.
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2.1 FLOOD ACCOMODATION
Climate change and the uncertainties of sea level rise have necessitated a paradigm shift from eliminating risk all together towards reducing and managing it. Rather than defensive systems for ‘total control’, dynamic systems that accommodate water create new spatial opportunities for the harmonious coexistence of land and water within coastal landscapes. The Netherlands has recognized that their current structural systems for flood protection will be inadequate given the changing nature of sea levels. In 2006, the country launched the “Room for the River” project, in order to increase their defenses against floods. Working with water, rather than against it, the program aims to allow for flexibility and water accommodation in extreme conditions rather building ever-higher impermeable defenses. While the height of dikes is being raised, temporary ‘rivers’ are also being constructed in flood zones for use in extreme events, and rivers are being widened where they meet the sea. (Watson & Adams, 2011) The impact of storms and extreme events has become harder to predict with accuracy, rendering engineering measures largely ineffective. Endlessly multiplying the number and capacity of technical facilities or the height and length of structural flood barriers to cope with greater amounts of water has proven ineffective as events increase in intensity and unpredictability. Sole reliance on infrastructural measures for protection has resulted in an artificial sense of security. Often the construction of defenses allows for development in what is regarded as ‘safe areas’, but extreme floods have been known to exhaust or overtop structural defenses, impacting seemingly protected properties. (Lamond, Booth, Felix, & David, 2012)
Figure 19: (left) Levee Breach, Mississippi
Figure 20: (right) Levee Breach, New Orleans
Recent failures of structural flood-control have irrevocably shifted perceptions of land and water. Seawalls, levees, massive gates and other monuments to protection have proven to be unreliable defenses
24
against extreme events. Hurricane Katrina, one of the deadliest and most destructive natural disasters in recent history, made evident the dangers of reliance on artificial systems of control. A significant number of deaths in New Orleans were attributed to a catastrophic levee failure, which permitted the flow of water to inundate nearly 80% of the city. (Watson & Adams, 2011) The levee failures are considered the worst civil engineering disaster in US history. Evidently, reliance on elaborate defenses has proven to be a dangerous illusion, proving only limited protection against nature’s capabilities. Alternatively, dynamic approaches that accept and accommodate water are key to designing for resilience. In contrast to traditional values of stability and permanence, integrating fluidity and adaptability permits a more harmonious relationship between physical environments and unpredictable environmental circumstances. (Berman, 2010) Rather than battling water through hard edges and static methods of flood control, accommodating water in urban environments ensures that the built world is better able to withstand the realities of climate change. Given the uncertainty of climatic events over the next century, design of the built world must strive to achieve resilience over control.
Figure 21: Rising Currents: Projects for New York’s Waterfront
A shift toward flood accommodation has been realized in proposals for New York City’s edge as part Guy Nordensen’s research for “On the Water: Palisade Bay”, followed by the Museum of Modern Art’s “Rising Currents” exhibition. The core premise of the research and proposals was the transformation of hard engineering practices into soft infrastructural
25
development. The key hypothesis, which can be applied globally, is that softened shorelines with gradual transitions from land and water are better able to content with both sea level rise and increased flooding. (Nordenson, Seavitt, & Yarinsky, 2010) The transformation of New York City’s edge from engineered sea walls to widths of tidal wetlands and protective archipelagos as buffer zones are central to many of the proposals presented. Key considerations for flood protection expand beyond infrastructural and landscape solutions. Enhancing the flood performance of shorelines cannot be considered a technical fix in isolation from other factors; rather it needs to be supplemented with architectural design. While the aforementioned projects begin to engage with new realities and a shift towards alternate modes of operation, the scope thus far has been limited to landscape and infrastructural solutions. As such, the preservation of life and protection of urban inhabitants becomes reliant upon infrastructure, undermining architecture’s role and potential. While buildings are intended to shelter and protect, improper design or poor consideration for environmental conditions leads to damage, failure or collapse, seriously injuring or leading to death of inhabitants. Buildings with enhanced flood performance play a key role in protecting populations; static architectural components must be designed to suit a dynamic and unpredictable environment. Architecture that is designed to proactively address conditions of flooding enhances the resilient capacity of cities and inhabitants. This paradigm presents opportunities for buildings to restore and improve relationships with water mitigating threats of climate change and consequently reducing risk. (Watson & Adams, 2011) The following section will address theoretical, precautionary and innovative architectural responses to water in the built world.
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2.2 ARCHITECTURAL RESPONSES
A prime purpose of architecture is to mitigate the effects of weather. Ironically, however, buildings and urban environments have contributed significantly to the causes and impacts of climate change. Building emissions contribute to atmospheric warming, land development practices remove natural wetlands and buffer zones and urban environments increase susceptibility to flooding. Scientific evidence indicates that sea levels will continue to rise even if greenhouse gas reduction efforts are effective, further emphasizing on the necessity for the built environment to adapt and respond to imminent conditions. (Roaf, Crichton, & Nichol, 2009) The impacts of climate and water can be effectively mitigated through design.
2.2.1. Theoretical Discourse Water has always had a place in architecture, with uses varying in function and complexity. Historically, water has been used as a means of defense and protection, for isolation in spiritual places, for symbolic links to the environment or as an aesthetic design device to enhance iconic aspect of buildings. More recently, consideration for water in design is a reflection of changing environmental conditions. Visionaries such as Buckminster Fuller, Archigram, and Metabolists such as Kenzo Tange expressed their approaches to designing with water with floating utopian concepts. In the 1960’s, Kenzo Tange and Buckminster Fuller each developed megastructures for Tokyo Bay in Japan. Tange’s plans imagined the buoyant expansion of the city in to the water, an idea further developed, but never constructed, for 250,000 people in Boston’s harbour. (Olthius & Keuning, 2010) Fuller’s vision, Triton City, was a similarly intended floating city for up to 5000 residents. The design was to be resistant to tsunamis, desalinate the very water that it would float on for consumption and provide high standards of living for residents. Warren Chalk, a member of Archigram, published ‘Underwater City Project of 1964.’ The project, which never made it past the drawing boards, would have relied on a closed-system environment as it was made up of spheres and diagonal tubes entirely submerged underwater. Though these projects were never constructed, they have considerable influence on contemporary visions for designing with water. Floating cities are the focus of Koen Olthuis’s Dutch firm, Waterstudio.NL. The firm’s work suggests that floating cities will be the solution to the challenges and limitations of urbanization and climate change. Similar to Fuller’s utopian visions, Waterstudio’s proposals are 27
for self-contained, self-sustaining cities capable of revolutionizing our relationship with water. Though these outlandish “hydrocity� projects attract a great deal of attention as solutions to combat rising seas, the projects represent a tendency to envision water cities without solving any water related issues, or worse, creating harmful impacts on water systems and ocean ecologies. While the proposals have been criticized for not being detailed enough to fall in to the realm of the achievable, the greater weakness is their inability to engage the issues at hand. Simply, floating cities deal with pending conditions by escaping them. The proposals imply either the abandonment of existing, established human settlements, which will imminently face climatic destruction, or that only a limited portion of the population fortunate enough to score a ticket on board will be protected. As such, these projects do not effectively address or ameliorate the issues but only add to the theoretical discourse.
Figure 23: (left)
Fuller’s Triton City
Figure 22: (right)
Lillypad Floating City
2.2.2. Precautionary Measures At a more practical, micro-scale, architectural responses to flooding are mundane; wet or dry proofing and elevated construction on piles. These precautionary measures are the most widely adopted flood protection measures globally, though the implications on design are restrictive. Buildings situated in floodplains or coastal zones face risk of flooding, regardless of whether they are protected by structural flood defenses. Adapting buildings to withstand future flood risk poses considerable challenges but can be achieved with the use of appropriate materials and flood resilient measures. Careful design considerations can reduce risk and enable occupation in floodplain areas. Design solutions to flooding 28
are typically aimed at reducing the damage that occurs to building fabric, fixtures and fitting from the impacts of flooding. The main approaches include: • Dry Proofing: keeping water out (shielding and sealing openings) • Wet Proofing: allowing water in to a building (protecting interior elements ie. elevating sockets) • Flood avoidance: vertically removing the building from risk (i.e. elevated on stilts) Dry-proof and wet-proof construction methods are precautionary measures intended to provide protection from flood events without altering a buildings traditional appearance. Dry proofing primarily concerns the exterior of the building, necessitating consideration for building materials and the strategic placement of doors, windows and protective barriers to prevent water ingress. (Watson & Adams, 2011) Dry-proofing is achieved with products, material selection and construction detailing with minimal architectural implications. Wet-proof construction requires that the lowest habitable floor is elevated above a regionally established flood elevation. Construction is typically extended to the ground, though floors below flood lines are used as car parking or recreational space. Water is able to pass through the lower levels of the building in a controlled manner in order to neutralize hydraulic pressures and reduce damage to the building foundations. (Watson & Adams, 2011) The lower floors of the wet-proof building in are used for car parking; contents are susceptible to damage in extreme floods but are able to contend with water in smaller flood events. The drying characteristics of specific building materials are also necessary to take in to consideration, such that the building is able to dry out quickly and water is able to drain away. While masonry is generally able to withstand the impacts of floodwaters, the porosity of the material allows it to absorb large amounts of volume and requires considerable drying time. As an alternative, timber construction is relatively waterproof but less robust against floodwaters. Adobe and soil based construction are among the least ideal, as they are vulnerable to scour and erosion. The appropriate building adaptations are dependant on specific contextual and environmental conditions and well as the level of risk. Though dry and wet-proofing measures may fulfill broadly defined guidelines and building code minimums, they are merely product applications or precautionary provisions with a limited scope of protection, rather than integral components to the architecture. As storm events are trending
29
towards greater intensity, meeting minimum precautionary requirements are inadequate in ensuring safety.
Figure 24: (left) DryProofing
Figure 25: (right) Wet Proof Construction
Elevating a building decreases potential damage and increases protection against flooding when compared to wet and dry proof methods. Unlike wet-proof construction, which permits construction to be extended to the ground, elevated construction suggests that the entire structure is raised up on pillars, leaving the ground space uninhabited. Raising the building above an established flood datum reduces the necessity for evacuation in a flood event and eliminates potential damage that may have otherwise occurred on a ground floor. In doing so, obstructions are removed from the flow path and water is able to move freely with minimal impact on the building. The safety and stability of raised buildings is achieved through columns designed to resist hydraulic pressures on the structure and bracing to stabilize foundation in case of high velocity waters. (Watson & Adams, 2011) Raised constructed is vernacular to many coastal regions and has been utilized as a primary means of flood protection for centuries. A variety of raised homes, also known as stilt homes, can be found in coastal zones globally.
Figure 26: Stilt House Figure 27: Extensive Stairs for access to elevated building
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A greater awareness of the impacts of flooding, especially in post-Katrina United States, has resulted in a unique typology of elevated structures. While raised structures are vernacular to some regions of the world, in the United States, elevated building standards are determined and enforced by government agencies. Given the destructive impacts of recent storm events, such as Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Sandy, standard elevation requirements are as high as 20 feet in some flood-prone zones. (Watson & Adams, 2011) In order to comply with government dictated safety standards, ordinary homes are raised in to the air on sturdy wooden and concrete piers, but few concessions to the fact that they’re not built on grade. The result is a visibly incoherent architecture that neither adds functional value nor guarantees safety.
Figure 28: Suburban House on Wood Piers
Despite being a globally adapted approach to flood protection, permanent static elevation presents a number of problems. Elevated buildings are often viewed as less efficient due to the necessity for more materials and the loss of habitable ground space. Elevating buildings is not always done with structural engineering in mind, especially in less formal settlements, thus increasing vulnerability to wind damage in the event of strong winds or hurricanes. In some communities, such as those up for reconstruction in post-Katrina New Orleans, elevating buildings results in loss of neighborhood character, as buildings lose their relationship to the land and to each other. (English, 2009) Finally, extensive stairs required to access permanently elevated buildings compromises universal accessibility, especially for the elderly and disabled.
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The design of the Rockaway beach pavilions, by Garrison Architects, is successful in resolving issues of universal access, despite elevated construction for flood protection. The durable steel beach pavilions, which house lifeguard stations, public restrooms and offices, are elevated above the ground but remain accessible to all users through a series of ramps and bridges. These solutions are challenging to apply universally, however, as this specific project site affords the building an abundance of space for the construction of ramps. (Yondeda, 2013)
Figure 29: Rockaway Beach Pavilions, Garrison Architects
Achieving protection through elevation, while maintaining access, site connection and cultural appropriateness remains a challenge for the construction of flood-proof structures. Without adequate design consideration, the benefits of elevation may compromise the social and architectural value of the structure.
2.2.3. Innovative Methods As made evident in the aforementioned examples, the presence of water is often under-engaged in design, except by infrastructures and precautionary measures intended to control and protect from it. In some instances, however, the dynamic potential of water is harnessed for architectural interventions. Rather than measures intended to block out or rise above, water is central to the design and conception of amphibious architecture.
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Amphibious buildings are equipped with buoyant foundations, vertically rising and descending with various flood levels. Not surprisingly, a number of notable projects can be found in the Netherlands, a country whose geography has necessitated expertise in amphibious occupancies. While sophisticated control mechanisms have allowed for the artificial creation of the Dutch landscape despite water, the same innovative thinking has allowed for a return to water. Beyond simply elevating buildings, amphibious buildings offer resilience through adaptability, balancing design parameters of both land and water. Floating docks and houseboats, found in the Netherlands and abroad, suggest that there may be an alternative approach to construction – one that would permit buoyancy for buildings as the ground it sits on becomes flooded.
Figure 30: Watervilla, Waterstudio.NL
Amphibious architecture takes inspiration from floating docks and houseboats, common in parts of Asia and Europe. Houseboats offer the “luxury� of permanently living on water, while remaining moored in place with anchoring systems to allow connection to utilities from the land. Flexible rubber utility connections ensure safe and reliable access to energy and potable water. (Olthius & Keuning, 2010) Waterstudio.NL specializes in floating developments in the Netherlands, advocating for occupation on water as a solution to the future conditions of sea level rise. (Olthius & Keuning, 2010) The firm has designed and constructed a number of single-family water dwellings as experiments for their greater ambitions, which include proposals for high-density apartment complexes, floating communities and floating cities. Houseboats and similar buildings designed to permanently float on water are better able to contend with changing water levels, but are not necessarily equipped to withstand strong winds or heavy storms. While amphibious buildings are anchored to
33
move only up or down, houseboats are able to move laterally and are not typically stable in extreme storms, increasing danger and discomfort for inhabitants.
Figure 31: Floating
Apartment Complex, Waterstudio.NL
Buoyancy is facilitated in amphibious buildings through the use of floating foundations. Foundation blocks, which are often made of extruded polystyrene or similar low density materials, are attached to the underside of the house and placed atop a hull or excavated pit. While similarly constructed docks and houseboats can withstand the changes of water levels, they cannot withstand high winds and may be carried away by floating waters. As a common solution, many amphibious buildings utilize telescoping vertical guidance or mooring posts, dug deep in to the ground to prevent lateral movement and guide buildings vertically with rising and falling waters. Provisions for plumbing and electrical utilities must either be flexible enough to accommodate various building elevations or break away and self-seal to prevent damage. Alternatively, buildings must harness alternative sources of water and energy to eliminate reliance on the grid entirely. The Float House, designed by Morphosis in response to Hurricane Katrina, is among the first amphibious homes in the United States. The home sits atop a “chassis�, made up of expanded polystyrene foam coated in glass fiber reinforced concrete, which facilitates floating in a flood event. The chassis also integrates all mechanical, electrical, and plumbing to ensure that vital building systems remain protected. Steel masts anchor the home to the ground and ensure stable vertical movement as waters rise. The home also integrates water collection and energy generation systems in order to sustain the user’s needs for up to 3 days. (Watson & Adams, 2011) Though the home is not intended for occupied during an extreme event, buoyancy protects the structure from water damage and allows for return of residents in the aftermath of a storm.
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Figure 32: Float House, Morphosis
Similarly intended initiatives in post-Katrina New Orleans include renovation to homes that remained relatively undamaged in the hurricane, ensuring safety in the face of future events. The Buoyant Foundation Project, initiated by Elizabeth English, is a low-cost, low-impact flood protection strategy that aims to enhance flood resilience for existing New Orleans’ homes. Floatation blocks are attached to the underside of the house to facilitate buoyancy, while vertical guidance posts limit lateral movement from high winds or moving waters. This initiative aims to resolve issues of permanently elevated homes and preserve the neighbourhood character of traditional New Orleans communities while still ensuring the safety of residents living in vulnerable flood plains.
Figure 33: Buoyant Foundation Project
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The aforementioned projects have inspired the utilization of buoyancy in architecture internationally. Though unique in materiality and construction, buoyant foundations have also been tested in Dhaka, Bangladesh, a city extremely vulnerable to rising sea levels. The LIFT House, by Prithula Prosun, floats upward with water levels and returns to the ground as water recedes. Instead of restricting the passage of water, the amphibious structure works with nature to achieve protection from floods. (Prosun, 2011) Buoyancy is achieved in a unique way for each of the two homes, which are connected by a static service spine that also facilitates vertical movement. A hallow ferrocement foundation is used on one home, and a bamboo frame filled with floating water bottles on the other home. The homes are also self-sufficient, collecting and filtering rainwater and generating electricity for lighting and fans through two 60W solar panels. (Prosun, 2011)
Figure 34: LIFT House, Prithula Prosun
The most ambitious of these projects is in the Netherlands; a development of 26 amphibious and floating homes, constructed along a lake in the Dutch town of Maasbommel, rise and recede with water levels. The amphibious component of the project consists of two-storey, wood frame homes constructed over a 70-ton concrete box, similar to the hull of a ship, forming the basement of the home. Large steel pillars, buried deep
36
in to the ground, vertically guide a pair of homes, allowing the buildings to rise up to 5.5 meters. The homes are designed directly on or along the water, in contrast to many Dutch homes protected by dykes, and create opportunities for construction on land otherwise deemed unsuitable for development due to flooding. (Watson & Adams, 2011)
Figure 35: Maasbommel Floating Homes
Rather than simply elevating or “flood-proofing� buildings, each of the discussed amphibious projects incorporate water in to their design parameters, addressing the restrictive conditions posed by conventional flood design solutions and encouraging a more harmonious relationship with built world and natural environments. While innovative, amphibious projects are limited in their scope and have only been realized on smallscale domestic projects thus far. With further development, amphibious buildings can become more widely accepted solution to flooding, satisfying both the safety and cultural components of design. Though embracing new realities and adopting new modes of practice to enhance protection requires a shift in thinking and practice, historic evidence indicates that, as a whole, progress has been linked to adaptation rather than inflexible tradition.
See Appendix A for a comparative analysis of the various flood-proofing building approaches and a comparison of various amphibious precedents.
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DRY-PROOF
WET-PROOF
AMPHIBIOUS
ELEVATED
FLOATING
Figure 36: Flood “Proof” Building Approaches
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2.2.4. Reactive Solutions Where consideration is not given for floodwater, architectural responses are reactive rather than anticipatory. With interventions limited to disaster relief and reconstruction efforts, architecture’s role in protecting and enhancing the livelihoods of vulnerable populations is undermined. Disaster relief typically follows a transitional recovery model, involving 3 phases: emergency relief, transitional housing, and permanent reconstruction. Emergency relief is limited to the mass distribution of tents or temporary refuge in public buildings. The following phase, transitional housing, leads to redundant construction, the wasteful use of resources and prolongs the settlement process for recently traumatized populations seeking stability. Populations also have to be relocated in these instances, isolating them from their communities and often their place of work and source of income. Efforts to reduce transition time and provide rapid permanent housing have led to standardized, manufactured housing prototypes. These proposals address a technical solution, responding to a hierarchy of needs, but are often culturally inappropriate and ultimately unsuitable for the users. Finally, local involvement in redevelopment is often neglected, despite evidence indicating that community led initiatives and cultural knowledge is key to successful reconstruction. Alternatively, a recovery model that embraces the value of empowering people in their own recovery has the potential to enhance subsequent quality of community life and lays the foundations for future resilience. Ineffective and unsustainable models of disaster recovery illustrate why advanced planning is critical for communities, especially those already stretched by development needs. (Jha, Bloch, & Lammond, 2012) Building in anticipation of future disasters is integral to protecting vulnerable communities and ensuring adequate response and recovery.
RELIEF: TEMPORARY SHELTERS (DURATION: 1 DAY - 3 WEEKS)
RECOVERY: TRANSITIONAL SETTLEMENT
RECONSTRUCTION: PERMANENT REBUILDING
(DURATION: 3 WEEKS-3 YEARS)
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Figure 37: Stages of Disaster Recovery
Conclusion Though flood responses are extensive and diverse, urban flooding is first and foremost approached through engineering, landscape and urban design resolutions. As such, the mitigation of weather and preservation of life is surrendered to infrastructure, undermining architecture’s potential. While infrastructural approaches are often necessary as a first line of defense, unpredictable conditions cannot be mitigated through one means alone. Anticipatory flood resilient design, if implemented at both an urban and building scale, can have significant value, not only in mitigating the impact of flood disasters, but in protecting livelihoods and improving the quality of recovery. Current building scale responses, however, are merely focused on theoretical discourse or rather lean towards industrial design; the range of solutions that deeply engage the issues is limited. While amphibious projects are innovative and realizable, they are typically restricted in scale as defined by buoyancy loads, limiting the potential application to small buildings or individual dwellings. The range of projects that exceed the capacity of a small building are not as easily achieved as truly amphibious (as opposed to floating) structures. As such, larger projects, such as public buildings, rely on elevated construction or precautionary measures to ensure building and occupant safety. Rather than serving as a limiting factor, flood protection measures should be an integral and highly considered components to the creation of the architecture. In doing so, both architectural value and protective strength are enhanced, all the while increasing resilient capacities of the built environment as a whole.
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PART THREE RESPONSE
3.0 BUILDING RESILIENCE Hazard is identified by the potential for an event to occur; flood hazards are a global condition. Risk, however, is related to the consequences of an event. Given conditions if climate change and sea level rise, the reality and severity of flood hazards has been identified as a global problem and risk is being addressed through innovative infrastructural and unconventional architectural ways. Many of the forward-thinking proposals, however, are pioneered and implemented in developed nations, such as the United States or the Netherlands, while in developing countries, which face the greatest threats, fewer concessions are being made. Hazards are imminent in many of these countries, and risks are amplified by a lack of awareness and preparedness. Flood risk reduction methods along with disaster response strategies are of critical importance. At a building scale, architecture, which can address both physical and social factors related to risk, should serve as a vehicle to protect and empower vulnerable populations from imminent hazards. Conventional methods intended to prevent disaster events from occurring (such as the aforementioned infrastructural systems) or projects that aim to mitigate disaster consequences (disaster relief) can be combined architecturally for a more holistic, resilient model of protection. Resilience is achieved by incorporating anticipation, preparedness and recovery in to a projects design parameters. Accepting that disturbances are inevitable and implementing strategies that allow for a building to accommodate and adapt to change enhances resilience both physically and socially, and plays a key role in aiding flood hit communities to return to normalcy more rapidly. Resilient design solutions enable buildings and communities to better adapt and cope in the face of imminent flood disasters. By anticipating interruptions due to the unpredictable conditions of climate change and consequent flood hazards, and applying strategies at a range of scales – individual buildings and larger regions, immediate and long term – the challenges posed by imminent disasters can be mitigated. (Resilient Design Institute, 2013)
Figure 38: (previous page)
Residents carry elderly woman through flood waters.
Physical resilience can be achieved by integrating components of landscape and architecture in a combination that allows natural and man-made systems to support, rather than compete, with one another. Successful flood mitigation measures extracted from the discussed precedents and
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can serve as guidelines from which design responses begin to emerge. Strategies include flood absorption through landscape, flood avoidance through elevation, and flood accommodation through amphibious features. Further, buildings equipped with simple, passive systems are more resilient and capable of adapting to changing conditions. Finally, reliance should be placed upon locally available and renewable resources rather than dependence on inaccessible or unavailable materials, supplies or sources of energy. While strategies for physical impact mitigation can enhance the ability for a building to withstand flood events, the potential for occupation of suitable buildings during and after a flood event can play an integral role in a disaster scenario. A critical analysis of traditional models of disaster recovery indicates a number of inadequacies as it relates to social considerations as well as human comfort and dignity. In heavily flood-hit areas, residents are forced to seek refuge in far away locations or in shelters which will lack the conditions necessary for dignified, healthy and safe recovery. As such, buildings that would potentially be used for shelter should be designed with short-term post-disaster occupancy in mind. In order for these buildings to adapt to a change in use, consideration must be given to the potential convertibility of space to ensure dignified occupation and livable conditions. Buildings should be capable of providing basic human needs and adequate services to ensure occupant comfort, health and hygiene; water, light, air, energy, and sanitation are essential components. Displacement from homes, especially in less formal settlements, is inevitable; localizing temporary relief can play a key role in enhancing social resilience. Communities that are aware of potential hazards and have pre-defined, organized response strategies will fare better during times of disturbance. Equipping each neighbourhood with a temporary refuge centre defines a community anchor, minimizing chaos and confusion in the aftermath of disaster event and providing a platform for aid distribution and social support.
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As summarized by the Resilient Design Institute: • Resilience transcends scales. • Resilience anticipates interruptions and a dynamic future. • Durability strengthens resilience. • Locally available, renewable, or reclaimed resources are more resilient. • Simple, passive, and flexible systems are more resilient. • Resilient systems provide for basic human needs. • Social equity and community contribute to resilience. (Resilient Design Institute, 2013) While physical responses are understood as necessary, social aspects are also an integral component to achieving resilience. Proactive, localized architectural solutions, which integrate strategies for flood accommodation and adaptation to support recovery, are key to enhancing community resilience, which in turn better prepares cities for inevitable disasters. The proposed project is further discussed in Part Five.
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PART FOUR CONTEXT
4.0 JAKARTA, INDONESIA While sea level rise has global implications, its impacts are specified based on the history of a city, its resources, practices, population patterns and environmental issues. Megacities in coastal areas are especially prone to extreme environmental risks due to their low-lying geography and high urban density. About 40 percent of the world’s population lives in tropical climate nations, a vast majority of which are developing countries. Growing populations, rapid urban growth, economic inequalities, a lack of basic services and increasing environmental problems contribute to developing nations’ vulnerability to climate change. Disastrous climatic events tend to expose underlying dysfunctions in environmental, economic, social and political systems. The impacts could have tragic and extremely damaging consequences due to high populations exposed to risk. Impending disasters from flooding are an issue central to Southeast Asian coastal cities. Of the 33 densest metropolises projected for 2025, 19 will be located in Asia. (UN, Popultion Division, 2013) While economic development has brought prosperity to South East Asian cities, varying trends of population growth and urbanization have increased vulnerability to climate hazards. Observed and projected assessments of climate change indicate that deltas and island states are particularly vulnerable to sea level rise. (UN, Water and Climate Change, 2013) Indonesia, an archipelago of islands located in between the Indian and Pacific oceans, is a primary site for investigation due to its geographic location and urban environmental conditions. Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia, epitomizes many of the risk scenarios that arise. The city’s vulnerability to climate change is measured both by the potential magnitude of the impacts but also by the population density. As the world’s fourth largest metropolitan area, Jakarta represents an exceptional concentration of 10 million people located close to the sea’s edge. (The World Bank, 2011)
Figure 39: (previous page)
Residents navigate through flooded streets.
Floods are a recurrent problem, as 40 percent of the city sits below sea level. Mountains and dormant volcanoes surrounding the city are the origin point for many of the city’s 13 major rivers, which are channelized, directed, redirected and fused together countless times until they reach the Java Sea along the city’s northern edge. (Turpin, Miller, & Bobbette, 2013) In addition to the rivers, a system of canals, established by Dutch colonials, is intended to manage runoff from both the city and the mountains, though only fragments of the system remain today. 46
The escalating number of migrants in to the city has led to rapid and uncontrolled expansion along the sea’s edge. As 250,000 new residents move to the city annually, unbridled expansion has resulted in the spread of slums and simultaneously the construction of luxury apartments, shrinking green spaces, waste and pollution, and urban poverty. (Helmond, Michiels, & Esche, 2007) The city’s rich tropical wetlands and mangrove forests are degrading faster than any other nation on earth, as rapid urban development eradicates 100,000 hectares of protective ecologies each year. (Turpin, Miller, & Bobbette, 2013) The development of city infrastructure, buildings and houses along riverbanks and critical catchment areas, along with sediment build up and lack of waste management have resulted in the reduction of waterways and seriously contributed to the cities risks of flooding. As the city develops rapidly, urbanization and industrialization create an ecological imbalance, increasing susceptibility to hazards. Threats of storm surges and sea level rise are intensified by conditions of inadequate protective infrastructure and poor waste and water management leading to extreme river pollution and flooding. Climate change impacts coupled with urban environmental problems situate Jakarta at the centre of hazard, exposure and vulnerability. Preparedness and mitigation through design will be necessary in protecting the livelihoods of millions of residents and the sustainability of the city as the capital of Indonesia.
See Appendix B for Jakarta maps.
Figure 40: Indonesia and surrounding countries
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4.0.1. Urban Development Despite a relatively large informal sector in Jakarta, the city’s urban form has taken shape from a desire to create a first class city for financial capitalism. Profit oriented development has proceeded with little ecological consideration. (Kusno, Cosmopolitan Temporalities: An Interview with Abidin Kusno, 2013) Though the realities of climate change are acknowledged in part, the belief is that economic growth can proceed with minimal impact on the environment, and the rest can be resolved with ‘technology.’
Figure 41: Reclaimed Land, North Jakarta
The North coast of Jakarta was abandoned in the 19th century when the Dutch colonial government and European populations migrated inland to avoid the constant threat of flooding. The waterfront was treated as the city’s backyard and became the site for informal developments, fishing communities, garbage dumps and swampy forests. Urban transformation of Jakarta’s North coast begun in 1995 when the area was formally declared as the site to represent Jakarta’s international image. (Kusno, Runaway City: Jakarta Bay, the Pioneer and the Last Frontier, 2011) The waterfront is now once again embraced as an opportunity for a gateway in to Jakarta as a global city. Visionary technical solutions promise to resolve the infrastructural problems that lead to the regions frequent flooding, permitting development in what is otherwise considered unsuitable real estate. Reclaimed land, originally designated for wetlands and marshes,
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is part of a long-term strategic plan for the development of shopping malls, business centers, hotels, marinas, entertainment complexes and upscale accommodations intended to become the forefront of a capital city. Deteriorating and informal conditions along the waterfront exist simultaneously with high-end residential complexes, which aim to rebrand the city to upper-middle-class consumers and international investors. A series of devastating and record-breaking floods that recently inundated North Jakarta, however, have raised a number of environmental questions regarding the reclamation of the waterfront. (Kusno, Runaway City: Jakarta Bay, the Pioneer and the Last Frontier, 2011) The proposed and constructed projects have been received with criticism due to the negative effects of flooding and environmental degradation it has brought to the whole of the city.
Figure 42: (left) Regatta Development, Vision
Figure 43: (right) Regatta Development, Realization
4.1 FLOODING BANJIR
Annual flooding is evidence that Jakarta has been unable to sustain its rapid growth. The city is inundated so frequently that, in the past, it had not warranted any serious response. The annual occurrence was simply accepted as part of urban life, causing a short period of inconvenience and then resuming normalcy. “Banjir comes, and banjir goes.� (Turpin, Miller, & Bobbette, 2013) The scale of flood disasters in Jakarta was measured based on which neighbourhoods became flooded, only creating major news if areas of elite housing or the presidential palace, as oppose to the informal settlements, were flooded. (Kusno, Cosmopolitan Temporalities: An Interview with Abidin Kusno, 2013) More recently, however, floods have been increasing in severity, shifting from slow, low frequency natural processes to high velocity floods resulting in major damage. Water levels
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may rise an average of 1 meter for a duration of 3-7 days in heavy storms, but has been known to rise up to 4m in some areas. (Turpin, Miller, & Bobbette, 2013) A major flood in February 2007 affected more than 2.6 million people; 340,000 people were forced to evacuate their homes, 70 deaths were reported and 200,000 people were affected by disease outbreak. (The World Bank, 2011) Severe flooding hit Jakarta again in January 2013 due to a combination of heavy storms and the collapse of a flood canal dike. The storm, which lasted several days, forced the evacuation of 20,000 people and resulted in several deaths and injuries. (The World Bank, 2011) While heavy rains and severe flooding previously occurred in 5-year intervals (2002, 2007, 2013), the city was inundated again in January 2014. Two consecutive years of severe flooding are indicative of the growing problem and intensity of flood risk in Jakarta. With the combined impacts of mean sea level in Jakarta Bay (rising 0.57 centimeters annually), land subsidence (declining 0.8 centimeters per year,) and increased precipitation, among other factors, Jakarta’s annual floods are expected to become more frequent in the next decade. (Turpin, Miller, & Bobbette, 2013) Though it has been accepted that the floods will not go away, it is necessary to mitigate the scale of the effects.
Figure 44: Table -
History of Floods in Jakarta
Victims of flooding are primarily the lower-middle class, whose neighbhourhoods are poorly maintained, homes unable to withstand flood impacts, and whose jobs are reliant on industries, such as fisheries, who are severely impacted by flooding. The lower class (or urban poor) are considered to be perpetrators of flooding, as informal settlements along
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water bodies and the unauthorized dumping of garbage in rivers is believed to further exasperate infrastructural inadequacies. The causes for flood, however, are multiple. While blame is directed at the informal sector, developers contribute by constructing villas and high-end developments in place of green spaces and in catchment areas, increasing impervious surfaces in the city exponentially. Though the causes of flooding cannot be traced precisely, it is evident that all sectors lack the environmental consciousness necessary to mitigate them. That, paired with the realities of climate change, put the city at extreme risk.
Figure 45: Residents
occupying upper floors
Figure 46: Evacuation Boats
4.1.1. Flood Evacuations Inundation across Jakarta’s districts vary, though evacuations become necessary as soon as water levels reach upwards of 50 centimeters. Generally, people resist leaving their homes, choosing to occupy only the upper floors for as long as possible. If water levels reach over 2 meters, the government enforces evacuation to ensure safety and reduce preventable drowning or electrocution. If residents are forced to evacuate, public buildings may be used for temporary refuge, or alternatively, tent shelters are set up in campsites 30-50km south of the city. Tent shelters create undignified living conditions, leaving flood victims hopeless and helpless, while buildings used for shelter, such as schools, are often inadequate for refuge. Living conditions in temporary shelters quickly deteriorate as comfort and privacy is limited, resources are low, diseases can spread quickly and converting between uses in problematic. Further, this current condition necessitates that residents are displaced from their communities.
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Figure 47: Flood Response
OCCUPY UPPER FLOORS
EVACUATE BY BOAT
SHELTER IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS
SHELTER IN TENTS
FLOOD EVACUATION SYSTEM RED 300 CM evacuate all residents
BLUE evacuate all people living on 200 CM second and third storey
Figure 48: (left)
Flood Evacuation Preparedness Initiative
Figure 49: (right) Flood Evacuation Physical Indicator
ORANGE evacuate all people living at 100 CM ground level YELLOW evacuate children, pregnant 50 CM women, elderly and ill GREEN 0 CM secure valuables to higher places
4.1.2 Flood Control The cities of Amsterdam and Batavia (present-day Jakarta) owe their development to mercantile activities, which relied primarily on waterways for travel, transportation of goods, drainage and sewage. As such, canalized rivers are the backbones of both Amsterdam and Jakarta’s water accommodation. Jakarta’s canals, built by Dutch colonialists to channel water away from the city, however, have fallen to disrepair as inadequate city services has led to the dumping of refuse and waste in to waterways.
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The city’s rapid economic growth has also led to the reclaiming of canals as land for development. Clogged or reclaimed canals have significantly reduced the City’s capacity to moderate the presence of water. Due to population pressures in the expanding city of Jakarta, land use conversion and reduction of the city’s small lakes (waduk) have decreased the capacity for water retention. In response, a system of canals and polders and two major floodways, the Western floodway and the Eastern Floodway, were designed to protect the main city areas of Jakarta from 100 year floods. The systems operate by intercepting flood flows from rivers and discharging water flows directly to the sea. A complicated process of land acquisitions, however, construction of the floodways has only been partially completed. In addition, limited financial resources have resulted in the insufficient maintenance and improper operation of existing flood control systems, resulting in high sediment build up and reducing the capacity of floodways and drains. The capacity of waterways and quality of the water is further impacted by a lack of solid waste collection services, resulting in about 1000 tons of waste discarded in to the city’s canals daily. Embankment improvements and pumping stations were also designed to improve the capacity of drainage networks, though improper maintenance has compromised their performance. Though canals and floodgate systems play a role in protecting the city from flooding, their effectiveness has been compromised by ad hoc development of the city, which has proceeded with neglect for the city’s ecosystems. (Turpin, Miller, & Bobbette, 2013) The purpose of floodways and protective gate systems has been further undermined by decentralized infrastructure management between central and local governments, resulting in a lack of clarity over the operation of the floodgate systems. Regardless of the management of the floodgates, however, the infrastructure that supports the gates is deteriorating, embankments are collapsing and pumps need maintenance. While the systems are not widely understood, evidence suggests that areas prone to flooding do not follow the contours of the city and thus must be attributed in part to infrastructure failures. (Turpin, Miller, & Bobbette, 2013) The severity of recent floods in Jakarta is largely a result of failed embankments and pumps, which haven’t been properly maintained for a number of years. Weak enforcement of urban plans and building regulations has also affected flood systems. The load of structures in improperly planned
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coastal areas, combined with the increased extraction of groundwater, has resulted in land subsidence of 5-10 centimeters per year. In terms of building regulations, few provisions are made to ensure protection. Unlike its South East Asian counterparts, stilt homes or elevated construction for flood avoidance are not vernacular to Jakarta’s architecture. Because consideration is not given for floodwater, hasty provisions need to be made, lifting belonging to upper stories and sandbagging or creating barricades where possible. If flooding reaches unprecedented levels, often beyond the second story of homes, the effects are destructive and often beyond repair. The World Bank has initiated the Jakarta Urgent Flood Management program with the intention of improving the operation and maintenance of the city’s flood control systems. The first component of the project is dedicated to dredging and rehabilitating existing canals, waterways and flood basins. The waterways have been under maintained for decades and are in urgent need of rehabilitation to improve flow capacities. The second component of the project is aimed at assisting the city with technical management of the flood control systems, creating social resilience through awareness and education and promoting safe construction. This component supports the flood policy framework, and provides technical assistance through engineering design reviews, contract management, and construction supervision. (The World Bank, 2014) The program, which began implementation in 2012 and is expected for completion by 2017, addresses infrastructural, engineering and policy issues. As previously defined, however, flood impact mitigation and disaster preparedness cannot be achieved through one means alone; a wider scale of design solutions, including building scale responses, must supplement infrastructural measures to ensure resilience.
4.1.3. Flood Impacts on City infrastructure Water in Jakarta is a perpetual issue. Though clean, potable water is a basic human right, it is among the most expensive and hard to obtain resources in Jakarta. While basic rights such as water, health and education are typically provided by the state, water systems in Jakarta are upheld by the private sector. The World Bank initiated the process of water privatization in Indonesia in 1992 as part of a greater plan intended to improve infrastructure and access to safe water in the country. By privatizing the control and distribution of water, however, public goods 54
became private possessions, denying a basic human right to a large portion of the population without the economic means to purchase water. Demands for water resources to be managed democratically, with public interest in mind, and the elimination of laws legitimizing the privatization of water in Indonesia are currently being reconsidered. (Turpin, Miller, & Bobbette, 2013) Despite positive infrastructure improvements resulting from privatization, most residents of Jakarta still have limited access to safe sources of potable water. Bogor, a city south of Jakarta, provides much of the city’s drinking water. Water is trucked in and distributed to purification centers weekly, but given the long travel distance and traffic conditions of Jakarta, water from Bogor isn’t reliable or consistent. When water is available, it is put through a cleaning process in Jakarta before it’s distributed via 5 gallon jugs. While this is a safe and cheaper alternative to municipal water or bottled water, the system is easily destabilized. The existing water stresses and shortages that the city currently faces will only be aggravated by climate change. Floodwaters may carry contaminants and rising seas can cause salt-water intrusion into available freshwater resources. (Pachauri & Reisinger, 2007) If the city is reliant on potable water being trucked in from inland sources, flooded roads and damaged infrastructures from extreme flood events could cut off access to water resources all together. Maintaining the security of water is a key priority, especially in disaster conditions, thus it becomes necessary to seek alternate, perhaps localized, opportunities of water collection and purification. Jakarta’s main highways and thoroughfares are impacted by floods, exacerbating existing transportation inadequacies. Given a lack of public transit, vehicles are the primary mode of transportation for millions of city inhabitants. When the main roads and highways become flooded, rendering them unusable, many neighbourhoods become reliant on boat for rescue and evacuation. If water levels are not severe, travel by foot is possible but inconvenient and challenging given that many evacuation centers or tent sites are up to 50km inland. Heavily polluted waterways contribute to flood problems and have contaminated waters that were once used for drinking, cooking and washing. Jakarta’s most significant river, the Cilliwung, has been described as one of the most polluted rivers in the world; when the river
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floods, it pollutes water in nearby communities and has significant impacts on health. (Turpin, Miller, & Bobbette, 2013) As waters rise from seasonal rains, rivers and canals pick up additional refuse from nearby land until rivers become so concentrated with waste that they are no longer recognizable as water bodies.
Figure 50: (left) Flood
Impacts on commuters
Figure 51: (right)
Flooding over major roads
4.2 PROJECT SITE North Jakarta is the site of the Jakarta’s original settlements, with many historic and modern settlements that capture the essence of the city. The dynamism of Jakarta’s water systems is apparent along the shoreline of the Java Sea, which has been molded over decades to accommodate contrasting purposes; first, creating space for drainage across the delta and second, creating land for new development along the sea. An irregular combination of ports, industrial complexes, shops, parks and residential developments create an area bustling with activities from commercial, industrial and domestic life.
4.2.1. Pluit, North Jakarta The localized effects of flooding and its ecological, social and spatial consequences can be more deeply understood through investigating the Pluit neighbourhood. The area was initially designed to be a polder and reservoir, though its functions have been compromised over the last several decades. The site contains one of the city’s largest reservoirs, intended to balance and hold water overflowing from the rivers. 56
Figure 52: Project Site Most of the Pluit area is below sea level, thus water cannot naturally flow through the Pluit to the sea. The reservoir is a temporary holding area for floodwaters overflowing from the city’s rivers, but due to the Pluit’s elevation, a natural flow back to the sea is not possible in the same way it would be through the city’s other canals. As such, water is constantly being pumped out. While the reservoir collects and pumps out water, sea walls prevent ocean water from taking over Northern Jakarta. Only 50 hectares of the original 80-hectare reservoir remains due to land reclaimed for development and the occupation of informal housing settlements along the eastern edge. In addition to the compromised reservoir, the surrounding area, which used to be a protective marsh and mangrove forest, was converted to housing developments. The capacity for the system to handle water has been reduced over the years due to sediment buildup and trash accumulation. As overcrowding increases and city infrastructure fails, water becomes heavily polluted with garbage from improper maintenance, and the reservoir itself becomes a common source of flooding. The major floods which occurred in the Pluit area in January 2013 were primarily a result of damaged infrastructure and the reduced capacity of the reservoir. Recent government initiatives have called for the Pluit reservoir to be cleared of its residents as a measure towards reducing the heavy flooding which initiates there. Facing pressure exerted by both the rivers inland to the south and coastal surges to the north, along with the potential and inevitable infrastructural failures of the reservoir, the neighbourhood surrounding the Pluit reservoir is a key site for engaging architecture as a vehicle for protection and empowerment.
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JAVA BAY
WADUK PLUIT (RESERVOIR)
PROJECT SITE nts
Figure 53: Pluit Map
PUMP HOUSE
SEA WALL
PUMP HOUSE
WADUK PLUIT (RESERVOIR)
JAVA BAY
INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS
EXTREME FLOOD LEVEL (4M)
RESERVOIR DEPTH - 10M
AVERAGE FLOOD LEVEL (1.5M)
WATER FROM RIVERS
DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION
Figure 54: Pluit Section Diagram
See Appendix C for Pluit maps and supplementary information. 58
PART FIVE PROJECT
5.0 FLOOD REFUGE CENTER Generating resilient architectural solutions and demonstrating the impacts at various scales is necessary in dealing with imminent flood conditions. While preventing construction in areas susceptible to flooding would allow for floodplains to serve their function, in developing countries, such as Jakarta, rapid urbanization has already compromised the function of natural landscapes and water systems. Developing strategies for inhabiting vulnerable flood-prone areas and restoring natural buffers is necessary given that development is likely to continue upon susceptible land. In conjunction with infrastructural and landscape systems, architecture can serve as a mediator between human need and environmental circumstances. Architectural interventions can provide a point of relief for vulnerable communities in cities otherwise incapable of managing flood risks. Managing and moderating floods at a micro scale contributes to risk reduction and increases the resilience of individual communities, each of which contribute to the enhancement of overall urban resilience. The proposed project looks beyond the possibility of a single flood resilient dwelling, common among the investigated precedents, but at the potential for larger public and institutional buildings capable of serving a greater portion of the population. Sitting between anticipatory and remedial, the proposed school will serve both as a permanent social infrastructure and a safe refuge in a flood event. Though a modest solution to a large-scale problem, the project suggests that all public and institutional buildings can become designated spaces to serve communities not only before, both during and after a flood disaster. At a minimum, these buildings must fulfill the requirements of ‘passive survivability;’ environments capable of providing vital life support systems – shelter, light, air, water and energy – in times of crisis. Building in anticipation of future disasters is key to enhancing the safety and vibrancy of communities, preserving natural systems and improving the lives of residents both before and through the process of recovery. Figure 55: (previous page) Rescue boats arrive at the Flood Refuge Center.
Figure 56: Project Timeline
DAY 1 FLOOD
DAY 1-3 EVACUATION
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DAY 1-21 TEMPORARY SHELTER
DAY 21 RETURN HOME
Set within the aforementioned Pluit neighbourhood, the resilient capacity of the school is realized annually in a flood scenario, which brings disruption to the community and the city as a whole. The project proposes an alternative, more proactive and effective solution to the current method of flood response. Given that evacuation from individual dwellings is inevitable, the prototypical project suggests that each neighbourhood is equipped with a flood refuge centre, permitting relief to be localized rather than necessitating mass migration inland. The school serves as a neighbourhood anchor and designated gathering point intended to reunite separated families, distribute aid and medical care and provide the shelter and resources necessary to ensure safe, healthy and dignified response and recovery. Localizing relief reduces chaos and disorganization in a disaster scenario, allows communities to remain united for social support and facilitates a more rapid return to normalcy following a flood. Enhanced resilience at a building and community scale necessitates that the physical impacts of flooding are mitigated and that recovery for residents is facilitated. The physical impacts of flooding must be accommodated to ensure the building is capable of withstanding environmental conditions. In doing so, the building will remain inhabitable throughout and after a flood to facilitate recovery. The two major strategies implemented to achieve these goals are flood accommodation and building adaptation. In designing a building capable of tolerating environmental impacts as well as a sudden change of activity, consideration must be given to the physical form as well as the functional use and organization of interior spaces, the provision of necessary life-supporting services and accessibility in flood conditions. The necessary programs spaces for a flood refuge center have been outlined in Part One, but can be summarized as the following: • A large, common gathering space to serve as a platform for registration, information sharing, aid distribution and social support • Private spaces for individuals and families to sleep and store personal belongings • Isolated space to administer medical care • Hygiene facilities to adequately suit number of people occupying the center
A breakdown of necessary spaces and design considerations, as well as a chart outlining common spatial parameters for a school and refuge centre can be found in Appendix D. 61
This prototypical building aims to showcase the multiple needs of a community in a projected disaster scenario. Focusing design efforts on one specific program parameter – shelter, medical care, resource distribution or hygiene facilities – could produce adequate results at a micro scale, but would ultimately replicate existing conditions of temporary shelters, which often provide a protective roof but no further provisions to protect from social and medical vulnerability. Rather than designing for specific needs in isolation from one another, addressing a wider scope highlights the reality and complexity of relief efforts necessary for flood victims each year.
CURRENT CONDITION
RESIDENTS DISPLACED
Figure 57: Existing and Proposed Conditions
PROPOSED CONDITION
RELIEF LOCALIZED
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7
GROUN D F L OOR PL A N n ts
MAIN EN T RAN C E SEC O N DARY EN T RAN C E C HAN G ERO O MS ST O RAG E P ERFO RMAN C E SP AC E C O URT Y ARD C LASSRO O MS
Figure 58: Building Plan
8 ST UDEN T C EN T RE 9 N URSE 10 ADMIN O FFIC E 11 MAIN ARRIVAL 12 C AFET ERIA 13 K IT C HEN 1 4 C LASSRO O MS
SECOND F L OOR PL A N (4M) n ts
Figure 59: Building Plan 63
1 5 ST AFF O FFIC E S 1 6 LIBRARY TH I R D F L OOR PL A N (7M) nt s
Figure 60: Building Plan
1 7 MEC H + W AT ER STO RA G E 1 8 C LASSRO O MS F OU R TH F L OOR PL A N (1OM) nt s
Figure 61: Building Plan 64
SITE PLAN nts
Figure 62: Site Plan
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5.1 DESIGN STRATEGIES 5.1.1 Flood Accommodation Tactic: Landscape The imminent presence of water necessitates that the design is capable of accommodating or harnessing waters powerful impacts. Protective qualities of the landscape are used as a first line of defense. Protective landscaping, building placement and orientation in relation to water can reduce flood impacts. • Topography: elevate land, permit controlled water flow • Vegetation: Protective native plantings for ground stabilization and water retention/absorption • Surfaces: Absorptive/Permeable surfaces to permit absorption In heavy or extreme rainfall events, the capacity of any system, natural or man-made, will be exceeded. Water, however, can be buffered and stored in wetlands channeled through topographic conditions. The proposed landscape absorbs and slows the flow of water, while providing an elevated platform upon which parts of the building can be situated. Manufactured topography, enhanced with geotextiles to ensure stability, provides a natural sponge for varying water flows, temporarily storing water to decrease storm velocity. Grading and topography can allow for short periods of ponding, preventing erosion and reducing demands on drainage systems. Areas between buildings are graded suitably to allow for temporary holding of surface waters, channeling water away from structures. The rate at which water moves through the landscape before reaching buildings is slowed and moderated, thus reducing damage. Breakers along the water, native plantings and vegetation allow water to spread horizontally and move more slowly.
SEC T IO N B- B NTS
L a nd sc a p e De ta i l Vegetation Compact Fill Geotextile Fill Pile Foundation
Figure 63: Site Section 66
Native plantings are able to thrive, requiring little or no maintenance as they have adapted to local conditions. Jakarta is rich with tropical plants, trees and coastal ecologies, a combination of which can be utilized throughout the project site. Dense roots from thriving plants are able to stabilize soils, preventing potential damage from erosion. Where plants and vegetated surfaces are not appropriate, porous pavements are utilized. In small rainfall events, porous pavements can capture and retain water, reducing the amount of runoff. In larger storm events, the surface treatment can slow the movement of water to prevent damage the buildings. Combining vegetation, retentive grading and porous pavements reduces runoff volume, slows the flow of water and ultimately protects buildings from water damage. Utilizing landscape enhances resilience for the community at a macro scale. Given that the Pluit neighbourhood was once a protected wetland and floodplain, re-introducing vegetation allows the regions natural functions to be restored and maintained. Stabilizing the water’s edge and providing green spaces to absorb and retain water moderates the threats posed by environmental conditions to life safety, infrastructure and properties.
Tactic: Regional Materials Strategies that harness regional practices enhance resilience. Similar to utilizing vegetation native to the region, the use of locally available materials and construction technologies is a necessary project parameter. Given the specific project context and conditions, the use of local materials
67
Figure 64: Landscape Rendering
ensures that the architecture is vernacular to region and has the potential to be adapted to a range of scales. Though highly complex engineering practices and material technologies could be implemented to maximize flood protection for this specific project, dependence on imported technologies would not permit for building strategies to be extracted and replicated elsewhere in the region. Utilizing local methods ensures a sense of familiarity and understanding, demonstrating that resilience can be achieved through simple, effective methods using the technologies and materials vernacular to the region. Given Jakarta’s tropical climate and wet seasonal conditions, concrete is among the most common building material. With its high loading capacity and low absorptive qualities, concrete is able to sustain heavy winds and rain, yet dries out rapidly after a flood event. Light steel members, metal cladding and bamboo products are also common building materials. As such, the buildings are constructed primarily of reinforced concrete, with foundations are of sufficient depth given the close proximity of the water. The buildings are clad in stucco, while openings are protected with operable bamboo louvers or metal fins. Smaller components of the project are constructed of lightweight steel and clad with metal, similar to many of the small dwellings found in the region.
Figure 65: Building Rendering 68
Tactic: Elevation While the landscape is utilized to diffuse flood effects, water is accommodated at an architectural scale in two ways: elevation and buoyancy. Parts of the school are elevated above an established maximum flood datum of 4 meters, partly upon the manufactured landscape and partly upon columns. Elevation permits the flow of floodwater at the ground level while allowing the building to remain occupied. The spaces that are elevated, as oppose to buoyant, are selected based on program size, volume and practicality. Program requirements that necessitate larger volumes, such as the cafeteria, library and student centre, as well as spaces that require access to utilities and plumbing, are better suited for elevation. Based on the studied precedents, amphibious architecture is achievable but must adhere to a certain building footprint and height to ensure buoyancy. While advanced engineering practices and flexible utilities permit buoyancy for larger building volumes, such as ships and massive floating developments, the use of those technologies would be contextually foreign and not unlike the “Hydrocities� projects criticized earlier. As such, a combination of elevation and buoyancy creates a hybrid condition, combining regional practices with innovative methods in a way that is both appropriate and achievable.
The roof of each building component is designed shed water in multiple locations away from the structure. A roof configuration that distributes the load in multiple directions performs best in heavy rain and wind conditions.
69
Figure 66: Building Entrance Rendering
SE CT I ON A- A: DR Y COND ITION nts
SE CT I ON A- A: WE T CON D ITION nts
Figure 67: Building Sections
ROOF PLAN nts
Figure 68: Roof Plan 70
Figure 69: Entrance Ramp Rendering
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Figure 70: Informal Performance Space Rendering
Unlike many elevated building that require extensive stairs, access to this building is permitted via a ramp from the west, or via the gently sloping landscape to the east. In order to optimize the otherwise unused space below the elevated building, an informal seating and performance space acts as an extension of the cafeteria down toward the courtyard and classrooms. The seating and stage platform are designed to elevate and collapse with rising waters, creating a platform on which boats can dock.
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DRY CONDITION
WET CONDITION
Figure 71: Buoyant Classrooms
Tactic: Buoyancy Classrooms sit low the ground, maintaining a relationship to the site and surrounding context, while benefitting from easy access and views to and from the central courtyard. The two-storey classroom buildings are constructed of lightweight steel and equipped with buoyant foundations, rising and falling with water levels in a flood. This hybrid, amphibious condition ensures that access between the classrooms and the site is not compromised, yet permits he classroom spaces remain inhabitable and undamaged during a flood scenario. The buildings are held in place and guided vertically by a static concrete core, which contains washrooms and water storage facilities. Access between the changing classroom levels and static core is facilitated through two sets of stairs, which expand and contract to suit varying building levels. Expandable stairs are also used to maintain access between the static, elevated building and the changing levels of the classroom buildings.
See Appendix G for images of physical building models.
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Figure 72: Buoyant Classrooms, Dry Condition
Figure 73: Buoyant Classrooms, Wet Condition
74
Figure 74: Courtyard Rendering, Dry Condition
75
Figure 75: Courtyard Rendering, Wet Condition
76
DRY LEV EL ON E P L A N nts
LEV EL T W O P L A N nts
WATER: 2M
W AT E R : 4 M
WATER: 2M
W AT E R : 4 M
S EC TI O N A- A
DRY S EC TI O N B - B
Figure 76: Expandable Stair,
Section through Classroom Core
77
Figure 77: Expandable Stair, Access between static and buyant buildings
See Appendix G for images of physical building models.
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Figure 78: Building Perspective
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5.1.2 Building Adaptation The spatial configuration of the refuge centre must facilitate safe occupation and protection from further social and medical vulnerability. The three programmatic requirements are clearly defined spatially: • Student centre becomes medical aid centre • Cafeteria becomes the central gathering point for resources and support • Classrooms become private sleeping space The building can be accessed in a flood three ways, depending on the level of water: • on foot, via the ramp • on foot or by boat via the landscape to the east • or from the stage, which becomes a dock
MEDICAL CARE RESOURCE DISTRIBUTIO N PRIV ATE/SLEEPING SPACE
B U I LD I NG C ONVE RSION A ND A CCESS nt s
Figure 79: Building Conversion Plan
80
S U M M ER SUN
W AT ER O VERFLO W
PR EVAILIN G WIN DS ( SW > N E)
WI N T ER SUN ( F L OOD S E ASO N : J AN - FEB)
SUN / WIND / WATER nts
Figure 80: Site Plan with environmental forces
Tactic: Passive Ventilation/Water Collection Given the likelihood of blackouts and shortages during a disaster, consideration for adequate light and air, as well as alternative sources of water and energy are necessary, especially given the hot tropical climate. The buildings are designed as narrow volumes and oriented to maximize daylight and ventilation potential, ensuring comfortable conditions in a disaster scenario and otherwise. Runoff from rooftops, which is cleaner than pavements or ground surfaces, has the potential to be detained and reused. Water is channeled from the roof, collected and stored at the highest level of the building for gravityfacilitated release. Rainwater can be used for secondary needs, such as washing and in toilets, preserving freshwater use for drinking. The water can also be purified as a temporary stock of fresh water.
81
WC WC FILTERED FOR SINKS AND SHOWERS
PUMPED FOR USE IN TOILETS
FILTERED AND GRAVITY FED FOR USE IN KITCHEN
Water Collection Detail
SEC T IO N C -C nts
Figure 81: Building Section & Detail
82
Figure 82: Main arrival
Tactic: Volumetric Rrganization
Point Rendering
The building volumes are organized to facilitate ease of division and conversion of spaces. A central arrival point, connected to both the north and south building, creates an organization point from which flood victims arriving at the shelter can be directed. Those seeking medical care are brought to the north building, and those seeking food, water, information or shelter are directed to the south building.
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Tactic: Spatial Conversion The north building, housing the student and staff centre, is isolated from the remainder of the refuge centre. In doing so, it is able to convert to a medical centre with its own designated sanitary facilities and medical staff accommodation. Isolation of the medical centre ensures that injured victims and diseased persons are properly cared for and do not spread their illness. The medical centre is intended to provide rapid treatment for low severity injuries or illnesses. The operable partitions are used to organize and divide the space, creating semi-private areas where patients can receive care in a dignified manner. By equipping refuge centre’s with opportunities for medical aid, the load can be taken off existing hospitals.
STU DENT C ENTR E / M EDIC AL AID C ENTRE nts
Figure 83: Medical Centre Plan
84
Figure 84: Student Centre Rendering
85
Figure 85: Medical Care Centre Rendering Note: partition walls adjusted for desired space division
86
CA FE T E R IA / AID D IST R IBUT ION nts
E
Figure 86: Aid Distribution The southern volume is the main gathering point. The cafeteria, connected to the kitchen, becomes the main area for gathering, registration, resource distribution (food, water, etc.) and social support. The tiered seats and ground floor platform, which create a performance space when the building operates as a school, become elevated in a flood condition and act as a dock for flood victims arriving by boat. While the static building is organized volumetrically to optimize rapid programmatic conversion, physical aspects of the building change in response to environmental forces and changes in activity. As previously discussed, the classroom buildings rise and fall with rising flood levels, expandable and collapsable steps adjust height to suit various building levels and the performances spaces floats to create a secondary access for boats. Finally, screens and building cladding elements respond to environmental forces by opening or closing for added protection from winds and rain.
87
Centre Plan
Figure 87: Stage/Dock Rendering
88
Figure 88: Cafeteria Rendering
89
Figure 89: Cafeteria converted to Aid Distrbution Centre
Note: Exterior cladding fins in closed position for protection from wind and rain
90
Each classroom building cluster contains 2 buoyant buildings, totaling 4 rooms. The two-storey buildings are connected to a static core, which contains 4 washrooms and water storage. The classes are designed for around 25 students (~80 m2) and are converted to provide sleeping and personal space for 12-20 people (~3.5m2/person.) A total of ~65 people would share the 4 washroom facilities, abiding by the international building code, which indicates 1 WC/15 persons. Desks in the classrooms are designed to convert in to beds, eliminating the need for additional furnishing to be stored unnecessarily. The classrooms are also equipped with woven partition walls, which can be let down to divide the space up for individuals and families. Dual-use furnishings and operable fixtures permit for rapid and efficient conversion from classroom to shelter.
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Figure 90: Interior View of Classroom
DRY CONDITION 14 M 12 M
8M
10 M
8M 10 M
L E VE L O NE PLAN nts
LEVEL TWO PLAN nts
Figure 91: Classroom Plan
WET CONDITION
LEVEL ONE PLAN nts
L EV EL T W O P L A N nts
Figure 92: Classroom as Shelter 92
Figure 93: Classroom Rendering Note: Dual-Use Desks
93
Figure 94: Classroom as Shelter Note: Woven partition walls hung from trusses
94
Figure 95: View From Cafeteria
Conclusion Residents seeking aid and shelter in a flood event can find refuge in this building for the duration of the flood, which typically lasts 2-3 weeks. In contrast to the conditions typical of temporary shelters, the building is designed to minimize chaos, ensure protection and comfort, and provide necessary life support systems – light, air, food, water. Most importantly, however, the center is designed to protect the dignity of those seeking refuge. Hygiene facilities that exceed the minimum requirements, as well as compartmentalized spaces for sleeping, as oppose to the large open spaces typical of evacuation centers in stadiums, ensure that private activities are not compromised and conditions remain dignified. Once floodwaters recede and homes can be occupied again, the building converts back to a school. Classrooms naturally lower with receding floodwaters, operable louvers and cladding fins can be manually opened and furniture is returned to its original function. This proactive method of flood response ensures that the physical and social infrastructure is in place prior to each annual flood occurrence, reducing stress and empowering communities with the potential for self-organization and more rapid recovery, rather than necessitating reliance on external agencies and organizations. Building in anticipation of floods creates awareness and preparedness within communities and enhances long-term resilience in the face of imminent disasters.
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EPILOGUE Disasters are too often understood as the large-scale, rapid onset events that garner worldwide attention, necessitating international aid and sparking public activism. Less discussed, however, are disasters that take place gradually, slowly escalating in severity with each coming year. Flooding is an annual occurrence in many vulnerable coastal cities, causing disruption to the livelihoods of urban residents and necessitating temporary mass migration away from a flood hit area. Given that this occurrence is so frequent, however, it is readily ignored, rarely warranting attention from anyone other than those impacted. The issue of flooding has begun to demand more attention, as climate change and sea level rise amplify the severity of each occurrence and existing vulnerabilities become exacerbated. Though the future is increasingly complex and the impacts of flooding are not wholly predictable, designing for resilience better equips communities for imminent hazards. Proactive and anticipatory architecture that integrates flood preparedness in to its design parameters has the potential to enhance resilience for vulnerable communities facing slow onset environmental disasters. The research and discussion throughout this thesis, preceding the specific context and project, covers a broad spectrum of water-related hazards and disaster conditions. Ultimately, however, the chosen context necessitates that the project response is specific to the conditions presented. While there is sufficient evidence that flooding is a major issue in Jakarta, the type of flooding, which results from a combination of natural and humaninduced factors, presents disaster conditions unlike those following a typhoon or tsunami. Rather, the rise of floodwater is gradual, but the impacts upon the population are significant and long lasting. Given the relatively slow-rise of water typical of surface flooding, the scenario lent itself well for the utilization of buoyancy throughout the project. The projects amphibious features present new possibilities for the future of architecture in flood-prone zones, freeing buildings from the restrictive precautionary measures currently in use. Though the existing amphibious building precedents are limited to individual dwellings, this project aimed to apply similar principles to a different building type and scale. Ultimately, however, a desire to utilize regional materials and construction methods resulted in a hybrid condition of both static and buoyant building components. While the potential for a fully buoyant building project is realizable in a different context with fewer material
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or construction limitations, the implementation of numerous methods of flood accommodation is intentional. Simply relying on buoyancy as the primary and only design solution would produce a project that succumbs to the same criticism as the “hydrocity” projects discussed as part of the design analysis; existing in isolation from the surrounding context and failing to engage the complexity of flooding in a realistic and meaningful manner. Rather, the proposed hybrid condition incorporates traditional architectural values of stability and permanence, is sensitive to regional materials and technologies, and enhances the relationship of building and landscape to ensure that the architecture doesn’t exist in isolation from the realities of the condition. Similarly, taking on a medium scale building project - rather than focusing efforts on an individual dwelling, a small medical centre or even, perhaps, merely focusing on the design of hygiene facilities - allowed for a broader range of issues and realities to be addressed, encompassing the multiple demands placed upon a population in a flood disaster. Finally, working in an international context like Jakarta, rather than a more familiar North American setting, necessitated that the realties of flooding for extremely vulnerable populations be confronted, creating a more coherent and challenging set of design parameters. It is recognized that this project’s relevance is temporal, in more than one sense. Given the likelihood of permanent coastal inundation due to sea level rise, projections indicate that by 2050, parts of the Pluit neighbourhood will be permanently inundated. While these long-term conditions are imminent, this specific project operates in the immediate and foreseeable future. Recognizing that floods will continue to impact Jakarta’s residents, the foreseeable conditions have been designed for, with the intention that projects of this nature will hold relevance for a minimum of 30-40 years in to the future. Though this project response is modest in scale, and specific to a certain context, disaster type and time frame, the thesis can be applied universally. Strengthening local responses, empowering communities with the potential for self-organized relief and ensuring that the adequate provisions are in place enhances preparedness and ultimately contributes to the cultivation of long-term resilience in the face of climate change and environmental variability. The two over-arching resilient design strategies,
99
flood accommodation and building adaptation, and the specific tactics, notably the use of landscape, elevation, buoyancy and proactive space planning, can be realized at a building scale in a variety of ways. Given that this project deals with a very specific type of disaster, however, the design parameters could be modified to suit a broader scope of water hazards, ranging from coastal inundation, storm surges, typhoons and tsunamis. For example, high velocity water and winds from tidal flooding (typhoons, storm surges) would necessitate building designs catered specifically to the hydrodynamic forces present in order to minimize impact. While the strategies presented in this thesis project are universal, specifying the tactics to suit a greater variety of environmental hazards would produce a design project applicable to a wider range of coastal conditions. Changing climatic conditions and an unpredictable future call for resilient design. Mitigating flood impacts through formal design considerations and landscape features, in combination with proactive planning which permits for effective disaster recovery, enhances the resilient capacities of vulnerable communities. Given imminent disaster conditions, not only for Jakarta, but also for much of the world’s coastal populations, anticipatory action which responds to changing and unpredictable environmental conditions is a necessary step toward building resilient communities.
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APPENDIX
102
103
Floating
Buoyant
Elevated
Wet Proof
Dry Proof
Category
Example
buoyant foundation, bouyant foundation, non-porous anchoring materials
bouyant foundation bouyant (extruded polystyrene or and vertical guidance systems similar) foundation
wood or concrete piers, deep pile foundations, wind resistant materials
raised above established flood elevation
Not able to withstand large flood events
Ground floor becomes unusable, does not gaurantee protection of contents on lower levels
No compromise to home, flood-proofing may be added after construction Limits use of ground floor, but may provide added structural strength and allows home to appear grounded
Allows home to maintain traditional appearance, reduces inconveniences
Allows home to maintain traditional appearance
Can withstand light flooding (>50mm), damage will occur in heavy flooding
Can withstand moderate flooding, damage may occur to lower floor contents
Coastal
Can withstand changing water levels but unable to withstand strong winds
Not achievable in all contexts, may not be desirable living conditions for many
Can securly withstand Inland or heavy flood events up Hesitation due to lack of precedent Near Water to a pre-determined height
Able to contend with moderate change in water level
Maintains both relationship with site and protection from rising waters
Size is restrictive, home not stable in wavy or windy conditions
Size is restrictive due to buoyancy limitations, access in and out is difficult in a flood
Difficult to access, requires more home remains materials + more habitable in flood event cost for less living space
Challenges
Benefits
Social/Cultural Factors
Safety Implications
Can withstand flooding May be contextually up to an established Near water/ foreign, restricts flood elevation, may Coastal relationship to site pose risk in strong winds or hurricanes
Inland
flood-resistant materials
flood vents, solid foundations
Typical Siting
Inland
Material Provisions
non-porous perimeter barriers, construction door & window materials, exterior guards membranes
Technical Requirements
TABLE: FLOOD PROOF BUILDING APPROACHES
APPENDIX A : FLOOD “PROOF” BUILDING APPROACHES
Figure 96: Flood “Proof”
Building Approaches Comparison
Architecture
104 2010
2009
2011Ongoing
Dhaka, Bangledesh
New Orleans, Louisiana
New Orleans, Louisiana
LIFT House
Float House
Buoyant Foundation Project
Year of Completion
2006
Location
Maas River, The Netherlands
Image
Maasbommel Floating Homes
Project
TABLE: AMPHIBIOUS ARCHITECTURE
Figure 97: Amphibious 1.5 Meters
3.7 Meters
7.5 Meters
steel and concrete base, wood structure
steel and concrete base, wood structure
"chassis" created from polystyrene foam steel posts coated in glass fiber reinforced concrete
telescoping steel Coated EPS foam, steel posts (in superstructure development)
Max. Buoyant Height
System 1: hallow Concrete base, ferrocement foundation steel posts + a System 2: bamboo central concrete and bamboo frame filled with budles brick service spine structure of empty plastic bottles
Primary Materials
5.5 Meters
2 steel posts per pair of homes
Vertical Guidance
concrete base, wood structure
70-tonne hollow concrete box below main structure
Buoyancy
75-100m 2
100m 2
50m 2
150m 2
Area
n/a (1 Storey)
n/a (1 Storey)
Approx. 5m x 3m (2 storeys)
11m x 6m (2 storeys)
Approx. Dimensions
APPENDIX A : FLOOD “PROOF” BUILDING APPROACHES
Figure 98: Maasbommel Floating Home Diagram
Figure 99: LIFT House
105
Figure 100: Float House Diagram
Figure 101: Buoyant Foundation Project Diagram
VARIOUS BUOYANCY SYSTEMS
hillside
Maasbommel Floating Homes
LIFT House
Buoyant Foundation Project
FLOAT House
Various Floating Homes
Hallow Concrete Base
Empty bundled bottles in bamboo frame
EPS Foam Blocks
Steel structure, EPS Foam Blocks
Air-filled Steel or Plastic drums
Figure 102: Various Building Floatation Methods 106
APPENDIX B : JAKARTA MAPS
WORLD MAP
INDONESIA
Figure 103: World Map
INDONESIA
JAKARTA
Figure 104: Map of Indonesia
107
JAKARTA
JAVA SEA
Legend Jakarta Catchment area Ciliwung River Major rivers River networks Figure 105: Map of Jakarta 108
APPENDIX B : JAKARTA MAPS
JAKARTA DISTRICTS
Figure 106: Jakarta Subdistricts
109
LAND ELEVATION (M)
Legend (M) <0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 >40 SOURCE: BPS 2010
Figure 107: Jakarta Land Elevation
POPULATION DENSITY (2010)
Legend (Person/Ha) 0-150 150-300 300-450 450-600 SOURCE: BPS 2010
Figure 108: Population Density 110
APPENDIX C : JAKARTA MAPS
FLOODED AREAS - 2002
FLOODED AREAS - 2007
FLOODED AREAS - 2013
FLOODED AREAS - 2014
Legend Flooded area
Figure 109: Jakarta Flood Maps 111
PROJECTED PERMANENT INUNDATION AREA FROM SEA LEVEL RISE (NORTH JAKARTA) 2015
Pluit
N
2025
Pluit
N
2035
Pluit
N Source: Bandung of Technology Figure 110:Original Java Bay Sea LevelInstitute Rise Projections National Council on Climate Change, Indonesia, 2007
112
APPENDIX C : PLUIT MAPS AND SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
JAKARTA
Legend Pluit Neighbourhood Waduk Pluit (Reservoir) Ciliwung River Major rivers Figure 111: Pluit Neighbourhood in context of Greater Jakarta
113
CREATION OF THE PLUIT RESERVOIR
1959
1967
1969
1971
1972
1975
1985
1989
1996
reclaimed land for development
ORIGINAL SOURCE: DESIGNING FOR HYPERCOMPLEXITY: JAKARTA JOINT RESEARCH WORKSHOP
Figure 112: Pluit Land Reclamation
114
APPENDIX C : PLUIT MAPS AND SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
Waduk Pluit (NTS)
High Income Residential Lower-Middle Class Residential Informal Residential Commercial Industrial Retail Water Project Site
Figure 113: Pluit Land Use
115
Pluit neighbourhood and reservoir
Mixed-Use development along reservoir
Figure 114: Waduk Pluit Images
Image Sources: Google Maps
116
APPENDIX C : PLUIT MAPS AND SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
Pluit Homes - Reservoir and Java Bay Beyond
Pluit Homes
High Income Residential Development toward Java Bay
Along Java Bay
Pluit Village Retail Mall above retention pond feeding in to reservoir
Mixed-Use development in Pluit
Figure 115: Various Pluit Images
Image Sources: Google Maps
117
Jakarta Public Schools
Typical Classrooms
Outdoor recreation spaces
Figure 116: Various Jakarta School Images
118
APPENDIX D : PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS SHELTER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Shelters must, as a minimum: - provide protection from the climate conditions - provide a space to live and store personal belongings - ensure dignity, privacy and safety and emotional security - emergency plan should identify alternative water supplies, preferably gravity fed to avoid the need for pumping - provisions that would be required during a flood; preserved food, water, blankets, first aid kits, drugs for diarrhea and dysentery Necessary Provisions: - 3.5sq m/person living space (Sphere Project Standards) - water requirements per day: 7.5-11litres per person (Sphere Project Standards) - 1 toilet + 1 shower per 15 people (International Building Code) - hand washing stations Other considerations: - provide space for the following: - sleeping, washing and dressing - care of infants, children and the ill - storage of food, water and household possessions - cooking and eating space - common gathering space of household members - families should be accommodated together: utilize materials to screen personal space and opportunities for internal subdivision - separate eating and sleeping area to keep bugs and flies away Design Considerations: - separate entrance zones â&#x20AC;&#x201C; everyone comes in same way and gets screened before entering appropriate area - well planned circulation routes to reduce chaos - wide and uncluttered corridors with easy orientation, rooms that are quickly accessible from the main entrance - doors and shutters should allow for the building to be closed up - permit sacrificial elements of the building, which can be removed or replaced Medical Centre considerations: - isolated from the other activities to ensure that disease does not spread and medical patients are kept adequately cared for - beds in medical area should be separated by 2m and screened - accommodation for medical staff - secure space for medical equipment and storage of medicine
119
TABLE: SPATIAL REQUIREMENT COMPARISON SCHOOL Entrance Lobby Admin Office (incl. offices) Health Office (Nurse) Cafeteria/Auditorium Kitchen Student Centre
COMMON REQUIREMENT
EMERGENCY REFUGE CENTRE Sorting Area Registration Area Disinfection Area
Adjacent to Entrance, Efficient Flow Adjacent to Admin Large Open Space (~600m3 ), Central Hub/Easy Access+Way Finding Adjacent to Cafeteria Large Space, Isolated, divided to suit individual or group needs
Common Gathering/ Resource Distribution Kitchen + Food Storage Clinic
(+ 10 long- term beds)
Library
Social Space
Comparmentalized Classrooms
Private Individual + Family Space
<80m3/30 students
3.5m 3 /person >
Speciality Classrooms (with equipment; ie. music, science)
Temporary Storage (for school
Staff Room & Offices Outdoor Recreation Space Changerooms/Lockers
Staff Room & Sleeping Space Outdoor Recovery Space
Showers/Toilets
equipment)
< 1 Toilet/50 Persons + 0 Showers 1 Toilet/15 Persons + 1 Shower/ 15 Persons (IBC) >
Storage Room Service/Mechanical
Showers/Toilets -
120
APPENDIX E : DESIGN DEVELOPMENT - SKETCH MODELS
Exapandable/Collapsable Ramps - Sketch Models All images by Author
121
Bouyant classrooms and ramps - Test Model buoyancy achieved with foam blocks attached to underside of building model
Flood simulation for buoyancy testing All Images by Author
122
APPENDIX E : DESIGN DEVELOPMENT - INTERIM PRESENTATION
LANDSCAPE
FORM
ROOF
All Images by Author 123
BOUYANCY
BOUYANCY
BOUYANCY
All Images by Author 124
APPENDIX E : DESIGN DEVELOPMENT -INTERIM PRESENTATION
OUTDOOR EQUIP
LOCKER ROOM
LOCKER ROOM STORAGE
PERMEABLE PAVEMENT
LEVEL ONE NTS
WATER MECH.
STORAGE
STAFF ROOM+ OFFICES JANITOR
MUSIC
ART
ART
STUDENT CENTRE
ADMIN.
ENTRANCE
HEALTH OFFICE
LEVEL TWO NTS
COMPUTERS
SCIENCE
COMPUTERS
JANITOR
SCIENCE
KITCHEN PANTRY
CAFETERIA/ AUDITORIUM
LEVEL THREE NTS
125
All Drawings by Author
WATER MECH.
STORAGE
COMPUTERS
STAFF ROOM+ OFFICES
SCIENCE
COMPUTERS
JANITOR
SCIENCE
MUSIC
ART KITCHEN PANTRY
ART CAFETERIA/ AUDITORIUM
STUDENT CENTRE
ADMIN
ENTRANCE LOBBY HEALTH OFFICE
STUDENT CENTRE > MEDICAL AID CAFETERIA> AID DISTRIBUTION CENTER CLASSROOMS > PRIVATE SLEEPING SPACES
MUSIC
STORAGE
ART
OVERNIGHT WARD
ART
OPERABLE WALLS
MED/DOCTOR ROOM
STUDENT CENTRE
STUDENT CENTRE
OUTPATIENT UNIT STUDENT CENTRE
WAITING AREA
HEALTH OFFICE
PHYSCHOLOGICAL SUPPORT MEDICAL AID CENTRE
CLASSROOM TO PRIVATE SPACE
Storage
curtains hung from trusses
SHELTER 3.5m3/person 16 persons
SCHOOL 800m3 Classroom 30 students
DESK
BED
126
All Drawings by Author
APPENDIX E : DESIGN DEVELOPMENT -INTERIM PRESENTATION
6M 4M 2M
CLASSROOMS - STATIC
CLASSROOMS - BOUYANT SUN WIND
BOUYANCY
CORRUGATED METAL ROOF STEEL TRUSS METAL CLADDING HSS POST STEEL DECK/ PONTOON FLOATATION BLOCKS
TRACKING POST
CLASSROOM CONSTRUCTION AXONOMETRIC NTS
BOUYANCY
All Images by Author 127
All Images by Author 128
APPENDIX E : DESIGN DEVELOPMENT -INTERIM PRESENTATION
All Images by Author 129
All Images by Author 130
APPENDIX E : DESIGN DEVELOPMENT -INTERIM PRESENTATION
Interim Building Model Images by Author
131
Interim Building Model Images by Author
132
APPENDIX F : EARLY CONCEPTS
SITE PLAN
Tactic: ADAPTABILITY
All images by Author 133
Tactic: ACCESS
STORAGE
mech
WASHROOMS WASHROOMS
WATER PROCESSING
STAIR & ELEVATORS
ELEVATORS STAIR STAIR&& ELEVATORS
food storage
TORS & ELEVA
CLASSROOMS
STAIR
n walls partitio
OUTDOOR GATHERING SPACE PROTECTED FROM WINDS
1 ASSEMBLY/ MULTIPURPOSE SPACE 2 STORAGE 3 FOOD STORAGE 4 KITCHEN 5 MECH 6 WC’S 7 WATER TREATMENT 8 CLASSROOMS 9 LIBRARY
SECOND FLOOR
THIRD FLOOR
Tactic: ZONING
1 PUBLIC SPACE/AID DISTRIBUTION 2 ISOLATED MEDICAL WING 3 STORAGE 4 PRIVATE SPACES
SECOND FLOOR
THIRD FLOOR
Tactic: ZONING
All images by Author 134
APPENDIX F : EARLY CONCEPTS
REINFORCED CONCRETE POROUS SCREENS
Tactic: MATERIALITY
Tactic: ADAPTABILITY
All images by Author 135
Tactic: FORM
Tactic: WATER COLLECTION
All images by Author 136
APPENDIX G : FINAL MODELS
Stair model - Test Model (MDF) & Final (Acrylic)
Site Model - CNC routed acrylic & plywood
Model assembly
All images by Author 137
Buoyant Classroom - Assembly
Waterproof Base - Assembly
Buoyancy Testing (Base filled with water) All images by Author 138
APPENDIX G : FINAL MODELS
Site Model - Scale 1:500
Stair Detail Model - Scale 1:10
All images by Author 139
Buoyant Classrooms Model - Scale 1:50 All images by Author 140
APPENDIX G : FINAL MODELS
Final Presentation - Model Setup Images by Author
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International Federation of Red Cross and Red Cresent Societies. (2011). The Long Road to Resilience. Geneva: IFRC. Jha, A. K., Bloch, R., & Lammond, J. (2012). Cities and Flooding: A Guide to Integrated Urban Flood Risk Management for the 21st Century. Washington: The World Bank. Kusno, A. (2013, 05 03). Cosmopolitan Temporalities: An Interview with Abidin Kusno. (E. Turpin, Interviewer) Kusno, A. (2011). Runaway City: Jakarta Bay, the Pioneer and the Last Frontier. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies , 12 (4), 513-531. Kusno, A. (2011). The green governmentality in an Indonesian metropolis. Signapore Journal of Tropical Geography , 314-331. Lamond, J., Booth, C., Felix, H., & David, P. (2012). Flood Hazards: Impacts and Responses for the Built Environment. New York: CRC Press. Leckie, S., Simperingham, E., & Bakker, J. (2012). Climate Change and Displacement Reader. New York: Routledge. McGregor, A., Roberts, C., & Cousins, F. (2013). Two Degrees: The Built Environment and Our Changing Climate. New York: Routledge. Nixon, R. (2011). Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Nordenson, G., Seavitt, C., & Yarinsky, A. (2010). On the Water: Palisade Bay. New York: Museum of Modern Art. Olthius, K., & Keuning, D. (2010). Float! Building on Water to Combat Urban Congestion and Climate Change. Amsterdam: Frame Publishers. Pachauri, R., & Reisinger, A. (2007). IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva: IPCC. Prosun, P. (2011). LIFT House. University of Waterloo, Waterloo.
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MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE THESIS PROJECT 2014