BODY
IMAGE
Tripti Shrivastava | S1401114 | Sem 3 | M.Des Graphic Design
Design Project II: Context and Information Systems Tripti Shrivastava S1401114, Graphic Design M.Des 2014 Project Guide: Tarun Deep Girdher Senior Faculty, Graphic Design
Contents Initial Proposal /1 Understanding Body Image /2 Positive and Negative Body Image /3 Factors that affect Body Image /4 The Body Image issues /5 Images and Reactions /6 Body Image and Adolescence /8 Factors that influence Teenage Girls /9 Body Image and Self-Esteem /12 Body Image problems in 4-14 year old girls /13 McAfee’s ‘Secret lives of Teens’ survey 2014 /17 Primary Research: Survey and Personal Interview /18 Promoting positive Body Image /24 Prevention Programs /30 Content of Eating Disorder Prevention Programs /31 General recommendation for Body Image Curriculum /32 Inferences /33 Resources /34 References and Bibiography /35
INITIAL PROPOSAL
Introduction
Scope of Project
Proposed Methodology
Body Image is a person’s perception of the
Our perception of our bodies and how we see ourselves contributes to our self-esteem, because our bodies are a significant part of who we are. Being healthy is about having a positive state of body and mind but a negative body image can stop us from enjoying life. Feeling positive about one’s body improves not only a person’s own outlook but also how they interact with others, and gives them the confidence and freedom to take on new challenges and experiences in their life. Having a poor body image is strongly associated with
Phase 1 - 2 weeks Defining the project and project brief. Deciding the guide and the initial proposal.
aesthetics or physical attractiveness of their own body and the thoughts and feelings that result from that perception. Encouragement to focus on appearance is at an all-time high in this culture, and with it comes the potential for a significant increase in negative body image. According to the authors of The Adonis Complex, “There’s often a vicious circle here: the more a person focuses on his body, the worse he tends to feel about how he looks – obsession breeds discontent.”
poor self-esteem. Body image is a widespread preoccupation today. The project aims at understanding and bringing up the body image issuses faced by teenage girls and how their family, friends, schools and they themselves can help cope up with this and build a healthy body image.
Phase 2 - 2 weeks Understanding the concept of Body Image and its relevance in the present context. Understanding and finalizing the research methodologies to be used and defining the focus groups. Phase 3 - 3 weeks Freeze research and analysing the collected data. Understanding where there is a need of design intervention. Visualizations, explorations, iterations and mock-ups and testing it among the focus groups. Phase 4 - 1 weeks Self- evaluation, corrections and refinements. Phase 5 - 8 weeks Final prototype and evaluation. Finishing up with the final documentation.
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Understanding Body Image
Body image is how we see ourself when we look in the mirror or when we picture ourself in our mind. It encompasses: •
• •
What we believe about our own appearance (including our memories, assumptions, and generalizations). How we feel about our body, including our height, shape, and weight. How we sense and control our body as we move. How we feel in our body, not just about our body.
We all have a body image. We all have feelings about the way we look. And we have ideas and feelings about how others think about our looks. Our overall body image can range from very positive to very negative. We may feel good about certain parts of our body or the way we look and not as good about others — that’s totally normal. Body image is also how we feels in our body — if we feel strong, able, attractive, and in control. For many people, especially people in their early teens, body image can be closely linked to self-esteem.
Mind mapping: understanding the term ‘body image’ and the other terms associated with it.
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Positive and Negative Body Image
Positive Body Image People who accept the way they look and feel good about their bodies most of the time have a positive body image. Their appearance may not match their family’s ideals or the ideals in the media. But they have learned to be proud of the way they look. Having a positive body image also means that one sees themselves as who they really are. Many people with a positive body image know that certain parts of their body may not be the same as someone else’s, but they accept, appreciate, and even love the differences. People with a positive body image also understand that how they look does not determine their self-worth.
Negative Body Image A negative body image develops when someone feels her or his body does not measure up to family, social, or media ideals. Unlike people with positive body images who are satisfied with their body image, people with a negative body image are often very
dissatisfied. They may not even see themselves as they truly are. People who have a negative body image may look in the mirror and see themselves or their body parts as larger or smaller or otherwise different from the way they really are. If one has a negative body image, they may feel
self-conscious or awkward, and they may feel shameful about their body. We may all feel this way about our bodies and ourselves from time to time — that’s normal. But if one has negative thoughts about the way they look or the way they think other people see them, they may have a problem. 3
Factors that affect Body Image
Broadly, the factors that affect one’s body image can be put into two categories- developmental factors and sociocultural factors. These include• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Body image formation in early childhood Negative body comments and modeling by parents and family. Puberty and development Body Mass Index Medical standards and medical professionals Social comparison Friends, romantic partners and social groups Current physical ideals Size prejudice Racial differences Socio economic status and social mobility The visual diet Religious, cultural and ethnic diversity Gender differences Sensory experiences including pleasure, pain and illness The major factors that affect body image and result in negative body image.
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The Body Image issues
Having a long-lasting negative body image can affect both mental and physical health. People who have a long-lasting negative body image are more likely to• • • •
• •
have anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, shame, and trouble concentrating take risks with their sexual health cut themselves off from being with other people socially stop doing healthy activities that require them to show their bodies, such as exercising, having sex, going to the doctor, or swimming suffer from exercise dependence and steroid abuse suffer from serious eating disorders and mental health problems, such as anorexia, bulimia, over-exercising, or overeating.
Every time we displace distress onto our bodies and then try to “fix” them, we not only enter into a process that has the potential to significantly disrupt our relationship with eating, activity, and body image; we also shut down any possibility of getting real perspective, mastery and peace in our wider lives.
The major factors that affect body image and result in negative body image.
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Images and Reactions
What people see and how they react to their reflection in a mirror will vary according to: species, sex, age, ethnic group, sexual orientation, mood, eating disorders, what they’ve been watching on TV, what magazines they read, whether they’re married or single, what kind of childhood they had, whether they take part in sports, what phase of the menstrual cycle they’re in, whether they are pregnant, where they’ve been shopping – and even what they had for lunch.
Naomi Woolf calls ‘The Official Body’. Constant exposure to idealised images of female beauty on TV, magazines and billboards makes exceptional good looks seem normal and anything short of ‘perfection’ seem abnormal and ugly.
•
Most women are trying to achieve the impossible: standards of female beauty have in fact become progressively more unrealistic during the 20th century. In 1917, the physically perfect woman was about 5ft 4in tall and weighed nearly 10 stone. Even 25 years ago, top models and beauty queens weighed only 8% less than the average woman, now they weigh 23% less. The current media ideal for women is achievable by less than 5% of the female population – and that’s just in terms of weight and size.
Young women now see more images of outstandingly beautiful women in one day than our mothers saw throughout their entire adolescence.
Sex: Women are much more critical of their appearance than men – much less likely to admire what they see in the mirror. Men looking in the mirror are more likely to be either pleased with what they see or indifferent. Men generally have a much more positive body-image than women – if anything, they may tend to over-estimate their attractiveness. Some men looking in the mirror may literally not see the flaws in their appearance. Women are judged on their appearance more than men, and standards of female beauty are considerably higher and more inflexible. • Women are continually bombarded with images of the ‘ideal’ face and figure – what
Age: Female dissatisfaction with appearance – poor body-image – begins at a very early age. Human infants begin to
recognise themselves in mirrors at about two years old. Female humans begin to dislike what they see only a few years later. Boys do go through a short phase of relative dissatisfaction with their appearance in early adolescence, but the physical changes associated with puberty soon bring them closer to the masculine ideal – i.e. they get taller, broader in the shoulders, more muscular etc. For girls, however, puberty only makes things worse. The normal physical changes – increase in weight and body fat, particularly on the hips and thighs, take them further from the cultural ideal of unnatural slimness. Among adults, when men are dissatisfied, the main focuses of concern are height, stomachs, chests and hair loss. We may see them surreptitiously drawing in their stomachs and walking ‘taller’ as they pass the mirror. Among women, many will not even be seeing an accurate reflection. Increasing numbers of normal, attractive women, with no weight problems or clinical psychological disorders, look at themselves in the mirror and see ugliness and fat.
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Images and Reactions
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Sexual orientation: Gay men are more likely than straight men to be unhappy with their reflection in the mirror. But lesbians are likely to be more satisfied with their mirrorimage than straight women. A Washington University study shows that homosexual men experience greater body-dissatisfaction than heterosexual men, while homosexual women have a more positive body-image than heterosexual women. This seems to be mainly due to the higher emphasis on appearance in gay male culture – although it is possible that stability of relationships may also be a factor.
in the mirror, and even more likely to see a distorted image. •
Lunch: Women with eating disorders judged their actual body size to have increased after consuming a bar of chocolate and a softdrink. Eating-disordered women may see an even larger person in the mirror if they have just had a high-calorie lunch or snack.
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Menstrual cycle: Women in the premenstrual phase of their cycle experience higher levels of body-dissatisfaction than at other times.
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Childhood: Teasing factor: If one was teased about flaws in their appearance (particularly size or weight) as a child or teenager, their body image may have become permanently disturbed. Touch-deprivation factor: People suffering from extreme body-image disturbance report a lack of holding and hugging as children.
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Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Also known as Dysmorphophobia and Imagined Ugliness Disorder) People suffering from BDD (an extreme level of body-image disturbance, body-dissatisfaction, self-consciousness and preoccupation with appearance) will experience the most negative reactions to the mirror.
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Eating disorders: Anorexics and bulimics suffer from greater body-dissatisfaction and greater body-image disturbance than other women: these women are even more likely to be unhappy with their reflection
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Obesity: Fat-phobia and prejudice against the overweight in our culture is such that obese people tend to have a very poor body-image – not to mention severe anxiety and depression. These problems are not
caused by obesity itself – in cultures without fat-phobia or where fat is admired, obese people show no signs of these effects – but by social pressure and the association of beauty with thinness. •
Acceptance of sociocultural standards: Most of us are aware of our society’s emphasis on the importance of appearance, and we know what the socially sanctioned standards of beauty are. But not all of us accept or ‘internalise’ these standards: strong-minded individuals who reject current standards are more likely to have a positive body image.
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Body Image and Adolescence
Adolescents experience significant physical changes in their bodies during puberty and hence, they are likely to experience highly dynamic perceptions of body image. Body image is influenced strongly by self-esteem and self evaluation, more so than by external evaluation by others. Going through puberty can amplify body image concerns. Puberty for boys brings characteristics typically admired by society– height, speed, broadness, and strength. Puberty for girls brings with it characteristics often perceived as less laudable, as girls generally get rounder and have increased body fat. These changes can serve to further enhance dissatisfaction among girls. Going through puberty later or earlier than peers can have an impact on body image as well as psychological health. Generally, early development for girls and late development for boys present the greatest challenges to positive body image. Along with the physical, emotional and social changes adolescents’ experience, they also undergo changes in relationships. Adolescence can be a confusing time, as peer and family relationships contribute to how teens perceive themselves. During adolescence, there is a
possibility of heightened self-awareness and concerns of how an adolescent girl’s peers portray her (Davison & McCabe, 2006). Also, Feingold and Mazzella (cited in Davidson & McCabe, 2006) stated that “concerns about the body have been documented as widespread among female populations, with adolescence considered an especially vulnerable period for disturbances in female body image”. Physical changes also can be difficult because adolescents receive the most criticism regarding their physical appearance and the most efforts to change their appearance. Socializiation encourages males to strive to become stronger and more developed, while females are to make their bodies more beautiful. Social Psychology has shown the impact of an adolescent girl’s appearance on how others perceive and interact with her, with unattractive individuals receiving negative evaluations from their peers and reduced social contact from their peers as well (Davidson & McCabe, 2006). During adolescences, girls may also experience some sort of emotional disturbance, which can lead them to believe they are unattractive. For instance, “Parents tend to become less positive and more critical regarding their children’s
appearance, eating and physical activity as they move into and through adolescence” (Croll, 2005, p. 157). Their peers can also make them become emotionally unstable, especially if they are going through puberty and the related physical changes. These changes are an increase of hips and bone structure (Croll, 2005). From these physical changes due to puberty and adolescence, Dornbusch et a1. (cited in Marcotte et aI., 2002) found that “a growing percentage of girls desired to become thinner as they progressed toward a pubertal status”. [In India, body image-related studies are far and few, and are mostly limited to eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia among young women. There is a dearth of studies that attempt to study the prevalence of negative body image issues and body dysmorphic disorder in India. Indian academic research related to body image issues has so far been limited to eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia (Dixit, Agarwal, Singh, Kant and Singh,2011; Priya, Prasanna, Sucharitha and Vaz, 2010; Mishra and Mukhopadhyay, 2011), sexual neuroses like Koro (Chowdhury, 1989, 1991, 1993 and 1996), and body image issues arising due to medical complications, surgeries and invasive treatments (De Sousa, 2010; Khubalkar and Khubalkar, 1999; Ramkumar and Sangeetha, 2013). There is no research available about negative body image among males. However, there are a few studies related to Body Dysmorphic Disorder (For example: Jaisoorya, Reddy and Srinath, 2003).]
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Factors that influence Teenage Girls
Adolescence marks a time of rapid and intense emotional and physical changes. There is an increased value placed on peer acceptance and approval, and a heightened attention to external influences and social messages about cultural norms. Body image and related self-concept emerge as significant factors associated with health and well-being during this developmental phase, as the youth begins to focus more on their physical appearance. How adolescents formulate and define their body image ideals and subsequent self-comparisons is strongly influenced by personal, familial, and cultural factors. Social influences, however, which include the media and popular/mainstream culture, may promote specific images and standards of beauty and attractiveness that contradict good health practices and one’s ability to achieve a specific body type or image.
1. Visual Diet What we eat with our eyes. What we feed our conscience. Our visual diet is largely influenced by the media and the media has a strong influence on how an adolescent girl’s body should look. It is true that “the mass media are believed to encourage girls to form unrealistically thin body ideals, which is
unattainable”. Also, “it has been observed that there is a clear association between exposure to beauty and fashion magazines and higher levels of weight concerns or eating disorder symptoms in adolescent girls” (Field et ai., 2001, p. 54). The amount of media exposure an adolescent girl receives also can affect the way she perceives her body and can lead her to become dissatisfied and believe she needs to diet. The media portrays an image that if you fit the thin ideal, then you are more outgoing, successful, popular and satisfied, which are not attainable for those who do not fulfill the ideal of being thin (Green & Pritchard, 2003). So when adolescent girls look at these distorted images, they do not realize that a computer has helped create the thin, beautiful model who does not look that way in reality (Women’s Health, 2007). During puberty and adolescence, it is not realistic for one’s body to change the way the media stresses and to acquire the thin ideal body image (Green & Pritchard, 2003). The mass media is significantly and powerfully influential when it comes to shaping the young Indian culture. Pressure from the media to have the ideal thin body type can set off negative feelings towards an adolescent girl’s appearance, and self-esteem could be affected. 9
Factors that influence Teenage Girls
2. Family and society The family plays an important role in the influence of body image of adolescents, especially girls (Green & Pritchard, 2003). Parents or guardians have an important role in a child’s life in regards to how to eat, what to eat, and the portion size, which has the potential to influence a person’s life-long eating habit and nutritional understanding (Green & Pritchard, 2003). Family environment also could influence an adolescent girl’s self-esteem due to “weight, shape or appearance related criticism by family members or others” (Green & Pritchard, 2003, p. 217). The family members who criticize their adolescent daughter contribute significantly to body dissatisfaction (Green & Pritchard, 2003). As adolescent girls go through the changes that puberty brings, family members sometimes say negative things that can contribute to their adolescent daughter feeling sad, depressed or convinced they must lose weight or do something drastic to make their family love them. Within the family realm, children may feel the direct pressure to meet the demanding standards in their education, sports, and peer
relationships, which may result in poor body image and selfesteem (Green & Pritchard, 2003). Parents, palticularly mothers, who give parental feedback in terms of weight or appearance, may have a tremendous impact on their adolescent daughter’s overall development of body satisfaction (Green & Pritchard, 2003). A smart way to turn parents away from being critical would be to have “health professionals work with parents to help them encourage their children to be healthy in a manner that supports healthy body image development” (Croll, 2005, p. 157). Because of the beliefs adolescent girls learn from their mothers, it has been said that “girls whose mothers diet and are concerned with their weight and appearance are more likely than their peers to develop unhealthy weight control and practices” (Field et ai. , 2001, p. 55). Extreme criticism about weight and appearance by the family and society leads to body image dissatisfaction and the quest for ‘perfection’ can lead to feelings of failure, low self-esteem, unhealthy dieting and serious earing disorders. In India, body shape, weight and physical appearance is directly associated with their social life and future marriage life, especially for
girls. In urban areas, adolescents are involved in various dietary activities and they are more conscious about their body image than their rural counterparts. In big cities, fashion shows and beauty contests are the common trends during college events and cultural programs. In rural areas, adolescents are not that aware about their diet and lifestyle pattern. Other than ignorance, myths related to dietary play arole in development of malnutrition. Thinnes is more accepted in India than obesity and usually it is observed that female Indian adolescents are more conscious to control their weight by restricting diet than by doing physical exercise. One question that rises out of this is, why is weight loss always considered as an appropriate compliment? Also, there is a common quest among both urban and rural people, the quest for fairer skin. The obsession with fair skin has been there in the society for ages and it has been getting fueled by the rise of so many beauty products, fainess creams and their advertisements.
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Factors that influence Teenage Girls
3. Peer influence During the developmental stage of adolescence, peer relationships play a significant role. Adolescents’ feelings of self-esteem may be positively or negatively affected through the influence of their peers. During the early stages of adolescence, adolescents may have a heightened self-awareness and apprehension of how their peers evaluate them (Davison & McCabe, 2006). As girls go through adolescence, the relationships they have with peers play an important role of comparing bodies and developing a negative view of their body. From that, they develop a low self-esteem and possibly an eating disorder. To gain acceptance by their peers, adolescents may resort to adopting the perceived beliefs and behaviors practiced by members of their peer group. Peer pressure is difficult during adolescence, and due to the pressures of others, it has been found to be a risk factor for developing bulimic behaviors and disordered eating (Field et ai., 2001). During the teen years, adolescents strive to belong, to have a connection with someone, and to be with others who may have the same general interests. Furthermore, there is argument that
during the adolescent stage, individuals can be preoccupied with their own appearance and assume that others are very aware of it as well, which can make them feed into it, or make them uncomfortable (Davidson & McCabe, 2006). Adolescent girls develop feelings of low selfesteem because one does not look like her peers. Also, if an adolescent girl develops at an earlier or faster rate than other girls, she could develop low self-esteem due to the overwhelming changes her body is going through while her friends are not (Davidson & McCabe, 2006). Simmons et al. (cited in Davidson & McCabe, 2006) stated that “developmental psychology has indicated the possibility that early adolescent girls are characterized by heightened self-consciousness and concerns about how peers evaluate them”. It has been said that “adolescents’ sense of self-worth and perceptions of social relations may therefore be closely linked to their body image” (Davidson & McCabe, 2006, p. 16). A poor body image can hamper adolescents’ development of social skills and positive relationships with other boys and girls (Davidson & McCabe, 2006). According to Levine (cited in Field et aI., 2001), adolescent
girls accept the behaviors and beliefs that are constructed within their peer group. Therefore, girls who observed body weight management practices from their peers, often engaged in the same behaviors to lose weight (Field et aI., 2001). Females with eating disorders tend to display patterns of interaction with their girlfriends, meaning they will model each other’s behavior to lose weight. Due to adolescent girls’ family members pressuring them to stay thin, “their fear results in overcompliance to their friends’ needs and reflects the great importance they place on their friends’ opinions, as they did with their families” (Griffiths & McCabe, 2000, p. 302). As hard as many parents try to teach their children to “be your own person,” the influences outlined above can be overwhelming for adolescents, but more often girls. Everywhere they turn the message is reinforced that being thin and attractive is a prerequisite for popularity, peer acceptance and overall happiness. Conversely, the inability to achieve that ideal body image relegates one to a lonely, unhappy existence. To avoid that possibility, some people go to extremes, which can result in haImful and sometimes fatal results. 11
Body Image and Self-Esteem
“Self-esteem is so intrinsically linked to thoughts about one’s body that physical appearance has consistently been found to be the number one predictor of self-esteem at many ages” (Ata, Ludden, & Lally, 2006, p. 1024). According to Rosenberg (1965) (cited in Clay, Vignoles, and Dittmar, 2005), “self esteem is defined as a “positive or negative attitude towards the self”. Another definition of body image is; evaluating one’s own body subjectively through linked feelings and attitudes (Duncan, Woodfield, O’Neill, & AI-Nakeeb, 2002). Frost and McKelvie (2005), define self-esteem as “the level of global regard one has for the self”. Self-esteem does contribute to poorer body image and eating disorder symptoms (Green & Pritchard, 2003).
skills and positive relations with other boys and girls”. For instance, “physical attractiveness has been found to impact on peer relationships all the way back from elementary school, with attractive girls engaging in more positive social interactions than less-attractive girls. Ricciardelli & McCabe (2001), (cited in Davidson & McCabe, 2006) addressed that “there is a relationship between body image and psychological functioning during adolescence”. Lastly, they found a strong association between body image concerns and low self-esteem among adolescent girls, which has lead to constructions of body image as an important aspect of female self-esteem (Davidson & McCabe, 2006).
Self-esteem relates to how much one likes themself, and how they recognize or appreciate their individual character, qualities, skills, and accomplishments. People who have low self esteem may not always feel confident about themselves or how they look. It is often hard for them to see that they are an important and capable person. People with good self-esteem often have a positive and confident attitude about their body and mind, and can recognize their strengths as well as personal value and worth. Teens with positive self-esteem tend to have better relationships with peers and adults, find it easier to deal with mistakes or disappointments, and are more likely to stick with a task until they succeed.
Adolescent girls can also have low self-esteem through family and media influence (Green & Pritchard, 2003). A person’s body image is influenced by their beliefs and attitudes. One’s body image does not remain the same, but changes in response to lifestyle events (Women’s Health, 2007). According to Davidson & McCabe (2006), “a poor body image may hamper adolescents’development of interpersonal
Conceptual model showing proposed mediators of age trends in body satisfaction and self-esteem among adolescent girls. [Daniel Clay, Vivian L. Vignoles, and Helga Dittmar for Journal of Reserach on Adolescence, 15(4), 451–477]
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Body Image problems in 4-14 year old Girls
Developmental Factors Body image formation in childhood A child’s physical self-concept begins to emerge around age 4, as this is the age when children first demonstrate a preference for dolls whose bodies most closely resemble their own (Frankova and Chudobova, 2000). Researchers have also found that girls as young as 5 years old prefer thin figures to obese ones when asked to select from illustrations of female silhouettes (Ambrosi-Randic, 2000). These negative attitudes about large body types have been consistently found in children as young as 6 years of age, as children begin to internalize the cultural criteria used by adults to judge physical attractiveness (Frankova and Chudobova, 2000; Gabel and Kearney, 1998; Irving, 2000; Staffieri, 1967). By age 6, children also associate negative personality characteristics such as laziness and stupidity with obesity (Smolak, Levine and Schermer, 1998; Staffieri, 1967). This ability to distinguish physical difference can apply to gender, facial differences, skin colour, and visible physical disabilities. Children with physical disabilities do not assign negative/ positive values to their physical difference until the age of 5 or 6, after they have been exposed
to social stereotypes and the attitudes of others (Mulderij, 1996; Rousso, 1984). Physically disabled children do not view their disabilities as “defects” until they begin to internalize societal prejudices (Rice, 2001). Toddlers and pre-school kids with facial differences seem to be aware of their differences; however, negative evaluation of appearance does not occur until they are exposed to environments where they are subjected to the stares, questions, fear and withdrawal of unfamiliar peers. Interestingly, research suggests children become aware of others’ body differences before they develop awareness of facial ones (Campis, 1991). As antifat attitudes solidify with age, children, particularly girls, demonstrate a growing fear of becoming fat themselves. Girls’ concern with their own weight, fear of becoming fat and desire to be thinner emerges between the ages of 8 and 11 (Irving, 2000; Shapiro et al., 1997). In their study comparing 2nd, 4th and 6th graders, Thelan et al. (1992) found that for girls, a desire for thinness emerged sometime between 2nd and 4th grade. The authors note that this age corresponds with the age at which kids begin to evaluate themselves in relation to others. Although both boys and girls demonstrate
awareness of the sociocultural preference for thinness, girls are concerned with becoming fat, whereas boys show no such concerns. This suggests that girls internalize this pressure, whereas boys are aware of the pressure, while avoiding an internalization of it. Although both boys and girls endorse thin body ideals and negative stereotypes about fat people (Ricciardelli and McCabe, 2001), by grade 3 (ages 8-10) girls demonstrate significantly higher levels of body dissatisfaction than boys (Wood et al., 1996). Recommendation: Because children notice bodily differences years before they attach values to them, prevention programs aimed at children as young as four years old must attempt to challenge social norms that dictate what is considered attractive/acceptable. At these young ages, children must be taught that all differences in size, colour, characteristics, ability, and overall appearance are “normal”. [Source: Mainstreaming Body Equity, Carla, June, Maura, 2001]
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Body Image problems in 4-14 year old Girls
Developmental Factors Parents: Negative body comments and modeling The role of parents in girls’ weight-related body image problems in two distinct ways: direct weight and shape-related comments that parents make to their daughters and parents’ own food- and weight-related behaviours that daughters observe and model. As children approach school age, it is commonplace for parents to comment on their children’s weight, often actively encouraging weight-loss attempts in their children (Smolak and Levine, 2001). Girls are more affected than boys by parental comments, despite when parents comment equally to their sons and daughters. Vincent and McCabe (2000) found that parental discussion and encouragement of weight-loss predicted disordered eating behaviours in 1117 year old girls. Mothers more than fathers relay negative messages to their daughters may be attributed to the fact that mothers and daughters are subjected to similar pressures to control their weight. Further to that, daughters’ more extreme weight-loss attempts were associated with both their mothers’ body
dissatisfaction and extreme weight-loss attempts (Benedikt et al., 1998). Fisher and Birch (2001) warn that parents efforts to control and restrict very young children’s food intake may have unintended and paradoxical effects on children’s eating behaviours. Preschool-aged children are already modeling parental food and weight behaviours. Parental comments and attitudes can also have far-reaching implications for the developing body images, especially of physically disabled children (Mulderij, 1996; Rousso, 1984). Parents’ attempts to “normalize” their child’s physical disability can drastically affect the child’s comfort with her/his body. Parents who attempt to force their physically disabled child to walk normally, hide or alter their disability, or “pass as normal” are sending messages to their child that her/his body is unacceptable in its naturally functioning form (Mulderji, 1996; Rousso, 1984). By encouraging their children to explore how their body naturally functions, parents of physically disabled children can foster autonomy in their children and promote positive body images by stretching the boundaries of what is considered normal (Mulderji, 1996; Rousso, 1984).
Recommendation: Because the research to date has demonstrated negative effects of parental criticism and modeling on children’s body images, body image prevention programs must address parental influences. This component of school-based programming must attempt to educate parents about the power wielded by their body-related words, attitudes and actions. Parents must be encouraged to challenge their own weightist, racist, colourist, and ableist attitudes in order to address the effects of these attitudes on their children’s body images. Parents should also be encouraged to trust children’s internal hunger and satiety cues, understanding that children will naturally eat appropriate amounts and varieties of foods if given the opportunity. [Source: Mainstreaming Body Equity, Carla, June, Maura, 2001]
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Body Image problems in 4-14 year old Girls
Developmental Factors Influence of pubertal status Although body image dissatisfaction has been observed in girls as young as 5 years old (Abramovitz and Birch, 2000), pubertal development has been implicated in the onset of negative body image in females. When girls reach puberty their bodies change, increasing in fat and deviating from the “bias toward female thinness” (Lauer, 1990; Williams and Currie, 2000). At each successive stage of pubertal development, girls display increasingly negative body images, and greater desire for thinness (Graber et al., 1994; Keel et al., 1997; Killen et al., 1994; Leon et al., 1993). Rauste-von Wright (1989) found that “late maturers” were more satisfied with their bodies than “early maturers”. Early puberty has been linked to body image dissatisfaction in many studies (Abraham and O’Dea, 2000; Graber et al., 1994; Gralen et al., 1990; Lauer, 1990; Petersen et al., 1994; Rodriguez-Tome et al., 1993; Williams and Currie, 2000). 11 year old “early maturers” had higher levels of body dissatisfaction and lower levels of selfesteem than their non-pubertal age-matched
counterparts. However, 13 year old “late maturers” had similarly high levels of body dissatisfaction and lower levels of self-esteem in comparison with their pubertal counterparts (Williams and Currie, 2000).
acceptable pubertal age can result in negative body esteem and self-esteem. This is evidence that prevention programs must focus on the erosion of such “norms”. [Source: Mainstreaming Body Equity, Carla, June,
There is also evidence that early pubertal maturation interacts with teasing to produce higher levels of body dissatisfaction in girls (Williams and Currie, 2000). In one study of 6th8th grade girls (Levine et al., 1994), those who had begun dating and menstruating within the same year displayed significantly more weight management behaviours than girls who had only undergone one of these changes. In another study, researchers found that both early and late maturers were subject to harassing messages, which resulted in body dissatisfaction (Rice and Larkin, 2000).
Maura, 2001]
Recommendation: Because most of the research to date implicates biological changes occurring during puberty in body dissatisfaction, prevention programs should encourage the acceptance of all menarcheal ages as normal as well as provide information and opportunities for discussion about pubertal changes and their effects on girls’ bodies and body images. Evidently, any deviation from a perceived 15
Body Image problems in 4-14 year old Girls
Sociocultural Factors Harassment 1. Weight-related harassment: Harassment, often referred to by researchers as “teasing” has consistently been linked to body image dissatisfaction in girls, beginning in elementary school and continuing throughout the teenage years (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Larkin, Rice and Russell, 1996; Lunner et al., 2000; Muir et al., 1999; Rickert et al., 1996). Negative weightrelated feedback mediated the relationship between BMI and body dissatisfaction in 12-14 year-old girls. In another study of 10-15 year old girls, weight-related harassment was positively correlated with girls overestimating the size of various body parts. 2. Disability-related harassment: Children with physical disabilities often experience increased rates of harassment from their peers (Matter and Matter, 1989; Mulderji, 1996; Rousso, 1984). Apart from teasing, children with physical/facial differences also are subject to staring, intrusive questions, and even physical violence (Renooy, Rice and Beveridge, 1999). Though children often develop intricate means of responding to others’ reactions to their
physical/facial difference/disability, promoting acceptance of difference through education is the most important means of responding to such harassment. They argue that children with physical disabilities cannot be expected to educate their peers about their physical difference. Rather, this topic should be addressed in the classroom (Cooke Macgregor, 1990; Matter and Matter, 1989; Mulderji, 1996; Rousso, 1984). 3. Racial harassment: Racial harassment targets skin colour, eye shape, height and general facial features, making these characteristics important aspects of the body images of ethnicminority girls. A failure to consider the racist body comments experienced by racialized girls has contributed to the notion that body image and eating problems are the province of white, middle-class females (Larkin, Rice and Bennett, 2000; Rice, 2001).
account for the body dissatisfaction in girls (Frederickson and Roberts, 1997; Murnen and Smolak, 2001). Recommendation: Prevention programs must adopt concepts of body image that include and go beyond weight in order to target sexual, racial and disability-related harassment. Programs must challenge societal concepts of acceptable physical appearances so that children include the entire appearance-spectrum in their concepts of “normal”. Researchers note that school-based body image programs must educate children about racial, sexual, physical and facial differences so that students understand and accept all bodies as “normal” (Cooke Macgregor, 1990; Matter and Matter, 1989; Mulderji, 1996; Rousso, 1984). [Source: Mainstreaming Body Equity, Carla, June, Maura, 2001]
4. Sexual harassment: Early experiences of sexual harassment and objectification trigger shame, body monitoring, dissatisfaction and general anxiety about body image, as girls begin to internalize this objectification. It has been hypothesized that the silencing induced by sexual harassment and objectification may 16
McAfee’s ‘Secret Lives of Teens’ survey 2014
Understanding the role of social media: Indian teens spend 86 per cent of their time daily on Facebook followed by 54 per cent on Twitter. They are growing up as digital natives, with increasingly active online lives but lack of parental assistance (McAfee’s ‘Secret Lives of Teens’ survey 2014). Keeping up to the social pressure: 72% feel popular/important when they receive a lot of likes and 58% feel depressed when they don’t. Seeking attention contributes to risky behavior: 92% posted or have done something risky online and 49% believe that they can eventually delete any content they have shared New age parenting challenge: Only 46% say their parents have had a conversation with them about online safety. Others say their parents simply don’t care (52%) Taking risks online: 71% have admitted interacting with people online they don’t know in person because it makes them create a personnna of their choice and they feel safe.
66%
61%
30%
52%
have created fake profiles to reinvent their image
say their parents don’t care about their online activities
say their parents cannot keep up with the technology
72%
58%
49%
64%
wished they receive more likes. They feel more important and popular when they receive more likes
feel upset of depressed when they don’t receive likes as compared to their friends and peers
alarmingly, half believe that they can eventually deleted any content that they choose to share
say they how to hide what they do from their parents
youth say they feel more accepted on social media than that in person
92%
have posted or have done something risky online to seek attention and acceptance of others
[The findings of the report were based on Indian online tweens aged 8-12 years old and teens aged 13-17 years old; comprising 711 male and 711 female respondents from Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Pune.]
52% of India’s youth even access their social media accounts while at school; 57% being 8-12 years old v/s 47% 13-17 year old 17
“70% of online youth in India spend more than 5 hours on the internet in a normal week,” (McAfee’s ‘Secret Lives of Teens’ survey 2014 report)
18
Primary research: Survey and personal interviews
In order to understand the current scenario and the current state of mind of the youth, a survey was conducted (both online and offline). Sample space (n= 83) Age groups (12-15), (16-19), (20-24), (25-29)
Survey questions-
10. Have you ever disliked your body?
1. Are you concerned about your weight (or shape or physical appearance)?
11. If you could change one thing about yourself, what would it be?
2. Do you think that your friends are concerned about their weight (or shape or physical appearance)?
12. Do you avoid wearing certain clothes because they make you look/feel too fat or thin?
3. How often do you think or talk about that?
13. Have you ever felt discriminated because of your physical appearance?
4. How often do you compare yourself to other people in terms of physical appearance?
14. Are you happy with the way you look?
5. Are you beautiful?
15. Have you ever gone on a diet or do you plan to go one in the near future?
6. What is being beautiful to you?
16. How often do you exercise?
7. Have you ever felt that you’re not beautiful enough?
17. Do you think the media’s representation of teenagers encourages to have a positive self esteem?
8. Are you on any of the social media platforms? 9. Do you feel conscious about your body around other people?
18. Does happiness depend on physical appearance? 19. Are you happy?
19
Primary research: Survey and personal interviews
20
QUESTIONS
(12-15 yrs) FEMALE
(16-19 yrs)
MALE
FEMALE
(20-24 yrs)
MALE
FEMALE
(25-29 yrs)
MALE
FEMALE
MALE
1. Are you concerned about your
Yes
1
Yes
1
Yes
7
Yes
1
Yes
7
Yes
3
Yes
4
Yes
2
weight (or shape or physical
No
5
No
8
No
1
No
2
No
2
No
1
No
0
No
1
0
Maybe
9
Maybe
6
Maybe
Maybe
5
Maybe
2
Maybe
2
2
Yes
10
Yes
2
Yes
8
Yes
4
Yes
5
Yes
2
0
No
1
No
0
No
0
Maybe
3
Maybe
1
Maybe
2
1
Don’t know
1
Don’t know
0
Don’t know
1
2
Always
1
Always
2
Always
0
Sometimes
5
Sometimes
4
Sometimes
3
3
Never
0
Never
2
appearance)?
Maybe
3
Maybe
2. Do you think that your friends are
Yes
6
Yes
concerned about their weight (or
No
0
No
1
No
1
No
1
No
shape or physical appearance)?
Maybe
2
Maybe
2
Maybe
4
Maybe
1
Maybe
Don’t know
1
Don’t know
4
Don’t know
2
Don’t know
5
Don’t know
3. How often do you think or talk
Always
4
Always
1
Always
4
Always
3
Always
about your weight, shape or physical
Sometimes
3
Sometimes
3
Sometimes
Sometimes
2
Sometimes
appearance?
Never
2
Never
5
Never
2
Never
4
Never
1
Never
4. How often do you compare yourself
Always
3
Always
3
Always
3
Always
2
Always
6
Always
2
Always
2
Always
0
to other people in terms of physical
Sometimes
4
Sometimes
5
Sometimes
9
Sometimes
4
Sometimes 10
Sometimes
4
Sometimes
4
Sometimes
4
appearance?
Never
2
Never
1
Never
5
Never
3
Never
Never
3
Never
0
Never
1
5. Are you beautiful?
Yes
11
10
10
16
3
2
Yes
4
Yes
5
Yes
6
Yes
18
Yes
4
Yes
6
Yes
4
No
7
No
5
No
12
No
3
No
1
No
5
No
0
No
1
6. Have you ever felt that you’re not
Yes
3
Yes
4
Yes
11
Yes
5
Yes
19
Yes
6
Yes
5
Yes
2
beautiful enough?
No
6
No
5
No
6
No
4
No
0
No
3
No
1
No
3
8. Are you on any of these social media
7
9
17
8
19
9
6
5
platforms?
2
3
4
1
7
2
4
5
21
QUESTIONS
(12-15 yrs) FEMALE
(16-19 yrs)
MALE
FEMALE
9. Do you feel conscious about your
Always
3
Always
1
Always
body around other people?
Sometimes
4
Sometimes
5
Never
2
Never
Yes
3
No
10. Have you ever disliked your body?
(20-24 yrs)
MALE
FEMALE
Always
2
Always
Sometimes 10
Sometimes
3
Sometimes
3
Never
Never
4
Never
Yes
0
Yes
12
Yes
3
Yes
4
No
9
No
5
No
6
No
5 2
(25-29 yrs)
MALE
FEMALE
MALE
Always
1
Always
1
Always
1
Sometimes
4
Sometimes
3
Sometimes
0
Never
4
Never
2
Never
4
14
Yes
6
Yes
4
Yes
2
5
No
3
No
2
No
3
5 11 3
12. Do you avoid wearing certain
Always
1
Always
0
Always
9
Always
1
Always
9
Always
1
Always
5
Always
0
clothes because they make you look/
Sometimes
5
Sometimes
2
Sometimes
5
Sometimes
5
Sometimes
3
Sometimes
2
Sometimes
1
Sometimes
5
feel too fat or thin?
Never
3
Never
7
Never
2
Never
3
Never
7
Never
6
Never
0
Never
0
13. Have you ever felt discriminated
Yes
1
Yes
0
Yes
8
Yes
1
Yes
5
Yes
1
Yes
2
Yes
0
because of your physical appearance?
No
8
No
9
No
9
No
8
No
14
No
8
No
4
No
5
14. Are you happy with the way you
Yes
9
Yes
8
Yes
7
Yes
1
Yes
14
Yes
7
Yes
5
Yes
5
look?
No
0
No
1
No
10
No
8
No
5
No
2
No
1
No
0
15. Have you ever gone on a diet or do
Yes
0
Yes
0
Yes
3
Yes
0
Yes
9
Yes
1
Yes
4
Yes
0
you plan to go one in the near future?
No
8
No
9
No
8
No
8
No
6
No
5
No
2
No
3
Maybe
1
Maybe
0
Maybe
6
Maybe
1
Maybe
4
Maybe
3
Maybe
0
Maybe
2
Daily
0
Daily
6
Daily
3
Daily
5
Daily
3
Daily
0
Daily
0
Daily
2
3-4 D/W
5
3-4 D/W
3
3-4 D/W
3
3-4 D/W
4
3-4 D/W
4
3-4 D/W
1
3-4 D/W
2
3-4 D/W
3
Weekly
3
Weekly
0
Weekly
4
Weekly
0
Weekly
2
Weekly
5
Weekly
1
Weekly
0
Very rare
0
Very rare
0
Very rare
Very rare
0
Very rare
Very rare
3
Very rare
3
Very rare
0
16. How often do you exercise?
11
10
22
QUESTIONS
(12-15 yrs) FEMALE
(16-19 yrs)
MALE
FEMALE
(20-24 yrs)
MALE
FEMALE
(25-29 yrs)
MALE
FEMALE
MALE
17. Do you think the media’s
Yes
8
Yes
6
Yes
3
Yes
1
Yes
5
Yes
1
Yes
0
Yes
1
representation of teenagers
Sometimes
1
Sometimes
1
Sometimes
4
Sometimes
5
Sometimes
3
Sometimes
5
Sometimes
2
Sometimes
4
encourages to have a positive self
Very rare
0
Very rare
2
Very rare
1
Very rare
2
Very rare
7
Very rare
2
Very rare
3
Very rare
0
esteem?
No
0
No
0
No
8
No
1
No
4
No
1
No
1
No
0
18. Does happiness depend on
Yes
1
Yes
0
Yes
8
Yes
0
Yes
6
Yes
2
Yes
0
Yes
0
physical appearance?
Partly
2
Partly
1
Partly
5
Partly
6
Partly
6
Partly
6
Partly
5
Partly
3
No
6
No
8
No
4
No
3
No
7
No
1
No
1
No
2
Yes
9
Yes
9
Yes
14
Yes
9
Yes
15
Yes
7
Yes
6
Yes
5
No
0
No
0
No
3
No
0
No
4
No
2
No
0
No
0
19. Are you happy?
[Based on the survey by Croll J. (2005). Body Image and adolescents. Guidelines for Adolescent Nutrition Services, 158-161]
23
Promoting Positive Body Image
To cultivate a positive body image, they need to develop skills to help them navigate through all the messages they hear and see related to body image, appearance, and eating. Since for adolescents, body image and self esteem go together, it is essential to have a positive body image for a high self esteem and vice versa. Selfesteem is made up of the thoughts, feelings, and opinions we have about ourselves. Over time, habits of negative thinking about ourselves can lower self-esteem.
the things that you don’t like. Focus on what goes well for you. •
Manage your inner critic. Notice the critical things you say to yourself. A harsh inner voice just tears us down. If you’re in the habit of thinking self-critically, re-train yourself by rewording these negative unkind thoughts into more helpful feedback.
•
Aim for effort rather than perfection. Some people get held back by their own pressure to be perfect. They lose out because they don’t try. Set challenging, yet realistic goals for yourself. Having something to look forward to can give a sense of pride and help work through different challenges. Then make a plan for how to do it. Stick with your plan, and keep track of your progress. Exercise, being active and fit helps you feel good about yourself.
Once we’re aware of it, and know that the way we think is up to we, we can begin to change the way we think. And changing the way we think about ourself changes the way we feel about yourself. Here are a few tips to do away with teh negatie toughts and boost self esteem(National Eating Disorders Association; Mainstreaming Body Equity, Carla, June, Maura, 2001): • •
Look inward and be your own inspiration. Stop comparing yourself to others. Edit thoughts that get you feeling inferior. Focus on your unique qualities and achievements. Accentuating the things that you like about yourself will boost your spirits and minimise
Practice self-care. When you hear negative comments from within tell yourself to stop. Appreciate that you’re much more than how you look like on any given day, we’re complex and constantly changing. If you catch yourself dwelling on problems or complaints about yourself or your day,
find something positive to counter it. Each day, write down three good things about yourself, and/or three things that went well that day because of your action or effort. take time to pamper yourself- with a warm soothing bath or a massage, read an inspiring book or watch an inspiring movie, write a journal, go for a walk, spend tiime with yourself. •
Accept compliments. When self-esteem is low, it’s easy to overlook the good things people say about us. We don’t believe it when someone says a nice thing. Instead, we think, “...yeah, but I’m not all that great...” and we brush off the compliment. Instead, let yourself absorb a compliment, appreciate it, and take it seriously. Give sincere compliments, too. Give yourself at least three compliments everyday.
•
Try new things, and give yourself credit. Experiment with different activities to help you get in touch with your talents. Then take pride in your new skills. Think about the good results. For example: I signed up for track and found out I’m pretty fast! These positive thoughts become good opinions of yourself, and add up to self-esteem. 24
Promoting Positive Body Image
•
•
•
Recognize what you can change and what you can’t. If you realize that you’re unhappy with something about yourself that you can change (like getting to a healthy weight), start today. If it’s something you can’t change (like your height, facial structure, colour), work on accepting it. Obsessing about our “flaws” can really skew your opinion of yourself and bring down your self-esteem. The term ‘perfection’ is subjective, each person has some unique qualities and attributes. Take pride in your opinions and ideas. Don’t be afraid to voice them. If someone disagrees, it’s not a reflection on your worth or your intelligence. That person just sees things differently from you. Build a support system. Spend time with people who have a positive influence on you; those who energise you rather than reinforce bad habits. Surround yourself with positive people. It is easier to feel good about yourself and your body when you are around others who are supportive and who recognize the importance of liking yourself just as you naturally are.Exercise together, swap healthy recipes, champion one another
when you’re making progress. •
Make a contribution, volunteer. Become engaged in activities that promote your phusical and mental well being and at the same time help others. Tutor a classmate who’s having trouble, help clean up your neighborhood, participate in a walkathon for a good cause, or volunteer your time in some other way. When you can see that what you do makes a difference, it builds your positive opinion of yourself, and makes you feel good. That’s self-esteem.
•
Educate yourself and become a critical viewer of social and media messages. Pay attention to images, slogans, or attitudes that make you feel bad about yourself or your body. Protest these messages: write a letter to the advertiser or talk back to the image or message.
•
Talk it out. If you have real concerns, talk to a professional, a doctor, your parents, fitness experts and doctors.
•
Being an inspiration to others. If you thought of your own ways to cope with social situations and find confidence, you
may find it rewarding to share advice and offer encouragement to others.
25
Promoting Positive Body Image
Prevention and Counseling Strategies
Tips for Fostering a Positive Body Image Among Children and Adolescents
In order to help youth experience healthy body image as the norm rather than the exception, adolescents and their parents need accurate information regarding healthy eating and the effects of media, society, culture, peers, and family on body image. Beginning at a young age, youth need to understand that bodies come in many different sizes and shapes. The message that everyone is different, and that different shapes and sizes are normal, should be clear and unbiased. Youth need to understand the physical and emotional changes that they will experience in puberty and be reassured their development is normal.
Source: Story M, Holt K, Sofka D, eds. Bright Futures in Practice: Nutrition. (Appendix I) Arlington, VA: National Center for Education in Maternal and Child Health, 2000.
26
Promoting Positive Body Image
Media Literacy Youth also need to be aware of the power of the media and learn how to view media with a critical eye. Media literacy skills can be taught to young children and can continue to help youth make their way through the life-long sea of media they will encounter. Once young people learn about overt media tactics, they are empowered and can experience media in a different way. The following lists some of the multitude of media techniques commonly used. These techniques should be discussed with youth and taught to recognize how companies use these techniques as they experience media, particularly as it relates to body image and self-esteem. Also, they should be encouraged to share this knowledge with their peers and parents. Once young people understand how media tries to target them, they can more carefully decipher the advertisements they see and take a stand against the negative effects media may have on their body image. Media literacy training groups can provide useful training to youth and the professionals who work with them.
Media Tricks and Techniques Media Tricks: •
Computer retouching of photographs of models in magazines and catalogs
•
Special lighting positions to highlight certain areas of the body and block out others
•
Replacement (in ads, movies, videos and television) of one person’s body part with another person’s more flattering or desirable body parts.
Media Techniques: •
Symbols (pictures or characters associated with products)
•
“Scientific evidence” (using scientific sounding language or a using a health professional, certified or not, to present product information)
•
Exaggeration (using hype to make a product sound fabulous)
•
Humor (make people laugh, either related to product or not)
•
Name-calling (speaking poorly of another product or using comparisons)
•
Flattery (either flattering the potential user of the product or characters flattering each other)
•
Bribery (particularly common in food advertisements)
•
Using groups to sell product (especially with young people, form of peer pressure)
•
Repetition (again and again and again and again and...)
•
Simple solutions to problems(the idea that a product will solve one’s problems, popular with youth oriented ads)
•
Age group specific target markets (specific ads are targeted to specific age groups)
Source: Adapted from Bob Gannon, Executive Director, New Mexico Media Literacy Project
27
Prevention Programs
[Source: Mainstreaming Body Equity, Carla, June,
Recommendations
Maura, 2001]
Toward the goal of preventing serious eating disorders and low self esteem among girls and young women, researchers have measured the efficacy of prevention programs in: 1) decreasing female students’ drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, weight control, dieting and problem eating behaviour and 2) increasing their body satisfaction, self-esteem, media literacy and ability to resist harassment. In general, researchers have attempted to test the effectiveness of three components of programs designed for elementary, middle and high school students—program pedagogy, content and scope. To date, prevention programs using four pedagogical approaches for children and youth at different ages and stages of development have been evaluated and tested. These include: 1. didactic, information-based programs 2. interactive, activity-based programs 3. empowerment-relational approaches 4. dramatic-theatre interventions.
1. Programs should avoid taking a didactic approach. Because information-based programs do not result in attitudinal and behavioural changes, many researchers have concluded that pure information is highly insufficient in terms of prevention. 2. Curriculum should encourage active participation in lessons. Research demonstrates that active participation in prevention programs is a necessity. Efforts should be made to develop curriculum ideas encouraging group work, teamwork, games, play, drama, and activities where students participate at every stage.
addressing body image determinants such as peer influence and competition, sexual harassment at school, and racism. 4. Prevention programs that focus on accepting diverse bodies should be designed for children in kindergarden through grade five using creative and age appropriate activities. Creative prevention interventions are clearly needed for children, who as young as age 6, are developing appearance-related prejudices and body image concerns. Theatrical interventions have shown success for this age group.
3. Girl-focused participatory programs should be developed and implemented as part of a comprehensive prevention strategy. Participatory approaches that provide space for the experiences of girls to shape the program have been shown to increase girls’ body esteem, self-esteem and resistance to teasing (Dahlgren Daigneault, 2000; Friedman, 1996; Piran, 1999; Rice and Russell, 2001). These programs could be run as focus groups within the school, directly 30
Content of Eating Disorder Prevention Programs
[Source: Mainstreaming Body Equity, Carla, June, Maura, 2001]
1. Content should de-emphasize nutritional information. Nutritional information should not be included, nor should moralistic messages about food be given. If some nutritional information is incorporated, discussion should focus on the unalterable genetic component of body size and weight. It is very important that children receiving information about healthy food choices understand that these choices will not necessarily lead to a specific body weight. 2. Programs should avoid specific discussion of eating disorders. Researchers now agree that information about eating disorders should not be provided to pre-pubertal children, and that program planners should use caution when including this information in programs designed for any age group. Curriculum should not glamorize or normalize eating disorders (e.g. avoiding case studies of recovering peers). 3. Programs should aspire to provide positive representations of diverse bodies. Curriculum should provide
role models with diverse bodies and looks, people who are praised for their accomplishments and their appearance. Students should also learn to discern stereotypes operating in depictions of people with different bodies, including difference based on ability, colour and size. These messages should be highlighted in every activity for each age group. 4. Programs should emphasize the genetic component of weight, shape and other body traits. Children should be exposed to the reality of the genetic component of body weight, the inevitability of weight gain during puberty, and the biology of other body traits such as physical disabilities and facial differences. Programs should never try to teach kids how they should change their bodies, but rather the differences between what they cannot control (pubertal changes, genetic components of size and ability) and what they can control (development of a multifaceted identity, selection of realistic role models, and variety in nutrition and exercise). When physical activity is promoted, efforts should be made to emphasize pleasure and enjoyment rather than weight loss.
5. Curriculum should avoid pairing healthy eating and weights messages with media literacy. Researchers agree that pairing nutrition and exercise messages with media-literacy is counterproductive, sending mixed messages to girls and boys. Students’ anxieties can be exacerbated when the message to accept diverse bodies promoted in media literacy conflicts with the message of food and weight control advocated in the healthy eating and weights curriculum. 6. Programs should address the diversity of body image problems among adolescent girls. Because weight may not hold equal importance for girls’ body images across racial and ethnic groups, programs should address the range of body image issues girls face, including concerns related to skin colour/tone, facial features, hair, and height. Just as prevention programs discuss the relationship between sexism and body image, they must address the effects of racism, classism and ableism on girls’ body images and eating patterns, and help them feel comfortable expressing their differing experiences of their bodies (Larkin, Rice, Bennett, 2000; Levine and Smolak, 2001, Piran, 1996, 1998; Rice and Russell, 2001). 31
General Recommendations for Body Image Curriculum
[Source: Mainstreaming Body Equity, Carla, June,
Recommendation 2:
Maura, 2001]
Prevention initiatives should be integrated in subject areas across the curriculum; a curriculum that promotes acceptance of diverse student bodies in the classroom and encourages students to question conformity to societal body norms. Two general recommendations to achieve these learning goals and specific recommendations for reaching them with students of different ages:
Recommendation 1: Develop a New Curriculum Focus on Body Equity: The Elementary schools should not produce another resource focusing on healthy eating and weights but instead create a resource focused on body equity, organized in an age and stage appropriate way. A body equity curriculum would weave together the study of gender, disability, race and class through the body, addressing representation of bodies in popular culture, historical understanding of bodily differences, and the experiences of people who do not fit societal body norms.
Mainstream the Body Equity Message throughout the Elementary School Curriculum. Prevention materials should be developed that mainstream the body equity message in its elementary school curriculum. Mainstreaming body equity in an institution implies that body image issues should be regarded as crosscutting issues in all policy and curriculum development. Program Themes for Different Age Groups Ages 4-7 Accepting Diverse Bodies Ages 8-10 Promoting Body Acceptance and Building Resistance to Body-Based Harassment Ages 11-14 Questioning Adherence to Body Norms and being critical
32
Inferences
1. Body acceptance messages should be repeated at different ages and stages of development. Repeated exposure to non-dieting, weight acceptance and body acceptance messages is necessary for all age groups, and messages should be integrated into as many aspects of school experience as possible (different school contexts, i.e. cafeteria, playground, etc.) and also at home. 2. Parents’ body biases must be addressed. Because the comments that parents make about weight/shape have been shown to affect children in elementary school, and because these comments increase as children age, parents should be made aware of the power that they wield. Efforts should be made to include parents in the prevention programming the most and as early as possible. 3. Curriculum and training should address teachers’ body biases. Classroom teachers need training to implement prevention messages effectively, to confront their own body biases and their potential to transmit such attitudes to students participating in prevention programs. Programs should
schedule training sessions for teachers prior to the onset of the program, in order to prepare them for facilitation and allow them to explore their own attitudes about fat, physical differences, skin colour, disabilities and body image.
for change that should not be abandoned. To safely target male students in mixed classrooms, programmers should develop curriculum interventions and content that are more sensitive to girls and boys with “different” bodies.
4. Peer-Focused Programs should be created. Considering that peer influence becomes important as children reach puberty, programs designed for girls entering puberty should use mentoring and peer education approaches to addressing weight and body image issues.
6. Prevention programs should extend beyond classroom lessons to include changes in the overall school environment. Considering that students receive negative messages about their bodies in peer interactions beyond the classroom, programs must encourage the development and enforcement of school policies that address racial, sexual, weightrelated and disability-related harassment.
5. Curriculum developers should develop programs that encourage male students to examine their own beliefs about body image. Because male students are often unable or unwilling to critically examine their own beliefs and because they tend to move into a defensive posture when gender equity issues are discussed, some researchers have suggested that they be excluded from prevention programs (Nichter, 1999; Phelps, 1999; Piran, 1998). While researchers agree girl only sessions are most likely a necessity as girls enter puberty, the mixed classroom and common curriculum are potential tools
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Resources
1. National Eating Disorders Association http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org Provides thorough information, as well as reliable links, on eating disorders, body image issues, and dieting among youth in American society, as well as ways to get involved in prevention of disordered eating, body image disturbances, and eating disorders. Information on the GO GIRLS Program (Giving Our Girls Inspiration and Resources for Lasting Self-Esteem), a self-esteem building program with a focus on body image and media, is available here. 2. New Mexico Media Literacy Project http://www.nmmlp.org A program with the goal of teaching all youth to be media literate and savvy. Their site has sample media deconstructions, some free media literacy educational material, links to the resources they provide, products and services they produce for sale, and information regarding trainings around media literacy. 3. Empowered Parents http://www.empoweredparents.com/ http://www.empoweredkidZ.com/ Both sites have useful information regarding healthy eating, eating disorder prevention, healthy eating and body image for youth, and how parents can cope with their child having an eating disorder. Site content by Abigail H. Natenshon, author of When your child has an eating disorder: a step-by-step workbook for parents and other caregivers (New York: Jossey Bass Publishers, 1999).
4. Mainstreaming Body Equity A Report prepared for the Elementary Teachers’ Federation of Ontario (September 20, 2001) Carla Rice, M.Ed., Ph.D. Candidate Maura Jette, M.A. Candidate, Research Assistant (York University School of Women’s Studies) and June Larkin, Ph.D. Undergraduate Program Coordinator, (University of Toronto) 5. Mirror Mirror http://www.sirc.org/publik/mirror.html A summary of research findings on body image (Kate Fox, 1997) 6. Body Image in Indian Women as influenced by the Indian Media A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Texas Women’s University Manisha Kalidas Kapadia B.A., B.S., M.S., 2009 7. Kid’s Health http://kidshealth.org/teen/your_mind/body_image.html 8. Guidelines for Adolescent Nutrition Services http://www.epi.umn.edu/let/pubs/adol_book.shtm Chapter 13: Body Image and Adolescents by Jillian Croll, 2005
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References and Bibliography
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Robinson, S., Kratina, K. Body Image. Retrieved from http://www.brown.edu/Student_Services/Health_Services/Health_Education/ nutrition_&_eating_concerns/body_image.php on August 21, 2014.
Bowden, H. (2012). “Too fat” and “too thin”: Understanding the bodily experience of anorexia nervosa. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Sides-Moore, L., Tochkov, K. (2011). The thinner the better? Competitiveness, depression and body image among college student women. College Student Journal, Texas University of Arts & Humanities, 439.
Bunnell, D.W., Cooper, P.J., Hertz, S., and Shenker, I.R. (1992). Body shape concerns among adolescents. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11, 79-83. Cavale, Jayant and Singh, Dweep C. (2010). Current status of body image research in India. Journal of Psychological Science, V-5, No. 2, 124-131. Clay, D., Vignoles, V.L., Dittmar, H. (2005). Body image and self esteem among adolescent girls: Testing the influence of sociocultural factors. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 15(4), 451-477. Collins, M.E. (1991). Promoting healthy body image through the comprehensive school health program. Journal of Health Education, 22, 297-302.
Weinshenker, N. (2014). Teenagers and body image. Retrieved from http://www. education.com/reference/article/Ref_Adolescents_Body/ What is body image (April, 2015). Retrieved from http://www.nedc.com.au/bodyimage on August 12, 2015. Wiederman, M.W., Hurst, S.R. (1998). Body size, physical attractiveness and body image among young adult women: Relationships to sexual experience and sexual esteem. The Journal of Sex Research, 35:3, 272-281. Williams, J.M., and Currie, C. (2000). Self-esteem and physical development in early adolescence: Pubertal timing and body image. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20.
Haas, C.J., Segrist, D.J., Pettibone, J., Pawlow, L.A. (2006). An intervention for the negative influence of media on body esteem. Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, 405-410. Jarry, J.L., Kossert, A., Karen, L. (2005). Do women with low self-esteem use appearance to feel better. Retrieved from http://nedic.ca/node/819 Nortan, B. (2002). When is a teen magazine not a teen magazine. Journal of Adolescent and adult literacy, 45:4, International Reading Association, 296-299. Petersen, A.C. (1994). Psychological and social issues during adolescence. Women’s Health Issues, 4, 63-69.
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