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4HE LITERATURE OF MODERNITY FOCUSES ON THE IDEA OF CHANGE AND DISCONTINU ITY STATING THAT IN A MODERN CONDITION CHANGE IS PARAMOUNT AND NOTHING CAN REMAIN lXED OR STABLE 4HE BASIC MOTIVATION FOR THIS STRUGGLE FOR CHANGE IS LO CATED IN A DESIRE FOR PROGRESS AND EMANCIPATION WHICH CAN ONLY BE FULlLLED IF CONTAINMENT WITHIN THE STImING CONVENTIONS OF THE PAST CAN BE OVERCOME 4HUS THE USUAL DEPICTIONS OF MODERNITY PRESENT IT AS A HEROIC PURSUIT OF A BET TER LIFE AND A BETTER SOCIETY WHICH IS BASICALLY AT ODDS WITH STABILITY TRADITION AND CONTINUITY -ARSHALL "ERMAN FOR INSTANCE STATES THAT h4O BE MODERN IS TO lND OURSELVES IN AN ENVIRONMENT THAT PROMISES US ADVENTURE POWER JOY
GROWTH TRANSFORMATION OF OURSELVES AND THE WORLD AND AT THE SAME TIME THAT THREATENS TO DESTROY EVERYTHING WE HAVE EVERYTHING WE KNOW EVERYTHING WE ARE v
4O BE MODERN THUS MEANS FOR HIM TO PARTICIPATE IN A QUEST FOR BETTERMENT OF ONESELF AND ONE S ENVIRONMENT LEAVING BEHIND THE CERTAINTIES OF THE PAST )NEVITABLY THIS JOURNEY RESULTS IN THE AMBIVALENT EXPERIENCE OF GRATIlCATIONS OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT ON THE ONE HAND AND NOSTALGIA FOR WHAT IS IRRETRIEV ABLE LOST ON THE OTHER P Xdaadfj^jb '%%* q XdaadfjZ '%%* R hde]^V
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3EVERAL FEMINIST AUTHORS HAVE POINTED OUT THAT SUCH BY NOW WELL DIF FUSED THEORETICAL APPROACHES TEND TO GENDER MODERNITY AS MALE 4HIS IS NOT ONLY DUE TO THE INTIMATE CONNECTION BETWEEN MODERNITY AND CRITICAL REASON n REASON BEING A CAPACITY THAT 7ESTERN PHILOSOPHY HAS INVARIABLY ATTRIBUTED TO MALES MORE THAN TO FEMALES AS FOR EXAMPLE 'ENEVIEVE ,LOYD HAS SHOWN 4HE GENDERING OF MODERNITY AS MALE ALSO RESIDES IN THE HEROES THAT lGURE IN ITS NARRATIVES AND IN THE SPECIlC SITES THAT THEY OCCUPY !S 2ITA &EL SKI ARGUES THE EXEMPLARY HEROES OF "ERMAN S TEXT n &AUST -ARX
"AUDELAIRE n ARE NOT ONLY SYMBOLS OF MODERNITY PURSUING IDEALS OF PROGRESS
RATIONALITY OR AUTHENTICITY IN A CONSTANT BATTLE WITH A WORLD TIED DOWN BY IR RATIONAL BELIEFS AND CORRUPT MECHANISMS OF POWER 4HEY ALSO EMBODY NEW FORMS OF MALE SUBJECTIVITY WHICH MANIFEST THEMSELVES IN THE PUBLIC ARENA OF CITY STREETS AND POLITICAL DISCOURSES SEEMINGLY FREE FROM ANY FAMILIAL AND COMMUNAL TIES 4HEY THUS FUNCTION AS MARKERS OF BOTH MODERNITY AND MAS CULINITY AND THIS RESULTS IN A CLEARLY GENDERED AND HENCE BIASED ACCOUNT OF THE NATURE OF MODERNITY 4HE CONCEPTUALIZATION ITSELF OF MODERNITY AS THE EMBODIMENT OF THE STRUG GLE FOR PROGRESS RATIONALITY AND AUTHENTICITY ALSO BEARS GENDERED OVERTONES )N AS FAR AS MODERNITY MEANS CHANGE AND RUPTURE IT SEEMS TO IMPLY NECES SARILY THE LEAVING OF HOME ! METAPHORICAL @HOMELESSNESS INDEED IS OFTEN CONSIDERED THE HALLMARK OF MODERNITY &OR A PHILOSOPHER SUCH AS (EIDEGGER IT IS CLEAR THAT MODERN MAN HAS LOST THE KNOWLEDGE OF @HOW TO DWELL (EI DEGGER 4HEODOR !DORNO IS OF THE SAME OPINION h$WELLING
IN THE PROPER SENSE IS NOW IMPOSSIBLE ; = 4HE HOUSE IS PAST v !DORNO !LTHOUGH !DORNO S PERSPECTIVE IS VERY DIFFERENT FROM (EIDEGGER S
BOTH PHILOSOPHERS SHARE THE FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTION THAT MODERNITY AND DWELLING ARE AT ODDS AND CANNOT BE RECONCILED 4HE METAPHOR IS ALSO RE CURRENT IN SOCIOLOGICAL STUDIES AS CAN BE INFERRED FROM THE BOOK BY 0ETER "ERGER "RIGITTE "ERGER AND (ANSFRIED +ELLNER 4HE HOMELESS MIND -ODERNIZATION AND CONSCIOUSNESS !S THE HOME IS ASSOCIATED WITH WOMEN AND FEMININITY THE METAPHOR OF HOMELESSNESS REINFORCES THE IDENTIlCATION OF MODERNITY WITH MASCULINITY )T SEEMS AS IF THE VICISSITUDES OF MODERNITY ARE CAST INTO A SCENARIO WHICH ASCRIBES THE ACTIVE AND GENERATIVE ROLES TO THE MASCULINE QUALITIES OF REASON
DOMINANCE AND COURAGE WHILE LEAVING THE MORE PASSIVE AND RESISTANT ROLES TO THE FEMININE CAPACITIES OF NURTURING AND CARING !GENCY CONSEQUENTLY IS MOST OF ALL LOCATED WITH PREDOMINANTLY MALE HEROES VENTURING OUT TO CON QUER THE UNKNOWN WHEREAS IT IS GENERALLY THE ROLE OF WOMEN TO EMBODY MODERNITY S @OTHER n TRADITION CONTINUITY HOME 4HIS SCENARIO IS TO A LARGE EXTENT ALSO THE SCRIPT FOR MODERNISM
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@-ODERNISM IN ITS BROADEST SENSE CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS THE GENERIC TERM FOR THOSE THEORETICAL AND ARTISTIC IDEAS ABOUT MODERNITY THAT EMBRACE THE EXPERIENCE OF THE NEW AND THAT AIM TO FOSTER THE EVOLUTION TOWARDS A BRIGHT ER FUTURE 4YPICALLY HOWEVER THESE MOVEMENTS WERE PART OF HIGH CULTURE
AND TENDED TO BE CRITICAL OF MASS CULTURE AND THE HOMOGENIZING EFFECTS OF MODERNIZATION -ODERNIST DISCOURSES HAVE THUS OFTEN HAILED THE STRUGGLE FOR AUTHENTICITY AND INTEGRITY AND HAVE DENIGRATED THE NEEDS FOR COMFORT AND CONSOLATION THAT WERE SEEN AS CHARACTERISTIC FOR A PETIT BOURGEOIS MENTAL ITY 4HIS POLARIZATION OF VALUES THAT UNDERSCORED THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN ART AND KITSCH BEARS GENDERED OVERTONES AS IS POINTED OUT BY !NDREAS (UYSSEN h)T IS INDEED STRIKING TO OBSERVE HOW THE POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC DISCOURSE AROUND THE TURN OF THE CENTURY CONSISTENTLY AND OBSESSIVELY GENDERS MASS CULTURE AND THE MASSES AS FEMININE
WHILE HIGH CULTURE WHETHER TRADITIONAL OR MODERN CLEARLY REMAINS THE PRIVILEGED REALM OF MALE ACTIVITIES v
)N MANY WAYS THE DISCOURSES AND PRACTICES OF MODERNISM FAVORED MASCU LINE QUALITIES AND WERE EMBODIED BY MALE REPRESENTATIVES 4HIS IS CONlRMED BY 2ICHARD -C#ORMICK S COMMENT THAT IN THE .EW /BJECTIVITY hTHE GENDER OF THE SUBJECT WHO SEEMINGLY PRODUCED IT THE SUBJECT IT GLORIlED AND TO WHOM IT WAS ADDRESSED WAS OBVIOUSLY EXPLICITLY INDEED DEFENSIVELY MASCU LINE v -C#ORMICK .OT SURPRISINGLY THEN THE GREAT MODERNIST ARTISTS AUTHORS AND ARCHITECTS ARE PREDOMINANTLY MALE AND THE CANONS IN THE DIFFERENT lELDS COMPRISE ONLY A LIMITED AMOUNT OF WOMEN n EVEN IF THE LAST DECADES SAW IMPORTANT CON TRIBUTIONS BY FEMINIST SCHOLARS WHO ATTEMPTED TO RE INSCRIBE WOMEN ARTISTS
AUTHORS AND ARCHITECTS INTO THE HISTORIES OF THE VISUAL ARTS LITERATURE AND AR CHITECTURE /F COURSE THE DOMINATING ROLE OF MEN IN THESE lELDS WAS PRECIPI TATED BY THE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS OF THE TIMES WHICH ENCOURAGED MEN TO FOLLOW THEIR DREAMS AND WARNED WOMEN NOT TO STRAY TOO FAR FROM ACCEPTED PATTERNS OF LIFE 7E SHOULD NOT UNDERESTIMATE HOWEVER TO WHICH EXTENT THE LEGITIMATING DISCOURSES OF MODERNISM REINFORCED THE ASSUMED SU PERIORITY OF MASCULINE QUALITIES OVER FEMININE FEATURES AND CONSEQUENTLY
FACILITATED THE ACCESS OF MEN INTO THE ROLES OF HEROES AND LEADERS TO THE DETRI MENT OF THEIR FEMALE COUNTERPARTS )N THE ARCHITECTURAL DISCOURSE FOR EXAMPLE IT WAS QUITE COMMON AROUND THE TURN OF THE CENTURY TO SEE TH CENTURY ECLECTICISM BEING CONDEMNED FOR ITS @EFFEMINATE TRAITS !RCHITECTS SUCH AS (ERMANN -UTHESIUS !DOLF ,OOS OR (ENRY VAN DE 6ELDE ADVOCATED THE VIRTUES OF SIMPLICITY AUTHENTICITY AND INTEGRITY CONTRASTING THESE SOBER AND @VIRILE QUALITIES WITH THE SENTIMENTAL ITY ORNAMENTATION AND OSTENTATIOUS PRETENSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ECLECTICISM
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(ENDRIK 0ETRUS "ERLAGE CALLED FOR A MODERN ARCHITECTURE WHICH WOULD EM BODY THE SUBLIME n A FORM OF BEAUTY HE EXPLAINS WHICH DIFFERS FROM THE MORE COMMON QUALITY OF PLEASING THE EYE JUST LIKE MALE BEAUTY DIFFERS FROM FEMALE BEAUTY 4HE SUBLIME IS BASED UPON SPIRITUAL STRIVINGS ASCETICISM AND A TOTALLY FREE CONSCIOUSNESS 4HESE HIGHER IDEALS HE STATES SHOULD LEAD AR CHITECTURE TO A NEW STYLE BASED UPON CONSTRUCTIVE PRINCIPLES NECESSITY AND SOBRIETY "ERLAGE ! RATHER LATE VARIATION OF THIS GENDERED OUT LOOK ON MODERN ARCHITECTURE CAN BE FOUND IN !YN 2AND S &OUNTAINHEAD
WHICH DEPICTS THE MALE ARCHITECT HERO AS SOLELY POSSESSING THE QUALITIES OF INTEGRITY VIRILITY AND AUTHENTICITY WHICH MODERN ARCHITECTURE REQUIRES )N A MOVE CONSISTENT WITH THIS ANALYTICAL SCHEME #HRISTOPHER 2EED STATES
IN THE INTRODUCTION TO HIS EDITED VOLUME .OT AT (OME 4HE 3UPPRESSION OF $OMESTICITY IN -ODERN !RT AND !RCHITECTURE THAT THERE IS A GROWING DIVERGENCE OF DOMESTIC ITY AND MODERNISM (E SEES MODERNISM S ASSOCIATION WITH THE IDEA OF THE AVANT GARDE AS THE MAIN REASON FOR THIS DIVERGENCE (E ARGUES THAT IN AS FAR AS MODERNISTS CONCEIVED OF THEMSELVES AS @AVANT GARDE THEY HAD A BUILT IN TENDENCY TO BE UNDOMESTIC h!S ITS MILITARY DERIVED NAME SUGGESTS THE AVANT GARDE LITERALLY @ADVANCE GUARD IMAGINED IT SELF AWAY FROM HOME MARCHING TOWARD GLORY ON THE BATTLElELDS OF CULTURE x &ROM THE 6ICTORIAN DRAWING ROOM WITH ITS ETAGERES FULL OF TRINKETS TO THE TWENTIETH CENTURY TRACT HOUSE WITH ITS MASS PRODUCED PAINTINGS THE HOME HAS BEEN POSITIONED AS THE ANTIPODE TO HIGH ART 5LTIMATELY IN THE EYES OF THE AVANT GARDE BEING UNDOMESTIC CAME TO SERVE AS A GUARANTEE OF BEING ART v 2EED
&OR 2EED IT IS CLEAR THAT ARCHITECTS SUCH AS ,OOS OR ,E #ORBUSIER WERE DEEPLY HOSTILE TO THE CONVENTIONAL UNDERSTANDING OF HOME WHICH THEY ASSOCIATED WITH SENTIMENTAL HYSTERIA AND DUSTY CONSERVATISM 4HEY ADVOCATED A NEW WAY OF LIVING IN WHICH RESIDENCES WOULD BE REDUCED TO MACHINES FOR LIVING THAT WOULD OFFER THEIR INHABITANTS ONLY THE BAREST MINIMUM OF DECORATION I=: 8JAI D; 9DB:HI>8>IN
)F ONE OF THE PERSPECTIVES DISCUSSED ABOVE TENDS TO ESTABLISH THE GENDERING OF MODERNITY AS MASCULINE THROUGH ITS OPPOSITION WITH FEMININE DOMESTIC ITY A FOCUS ON DOMESTICITY ITSELF ON THE OTHER HAND REVEALS A RATHER DIFFERENT MODE OF INTERCONNECTION )N TRACING THE HISTORY AND MEANINGS OF DOMESTIC ITY ONE SEES THAT THERE WAS A DIRECT CONNECTION BETWEEN THE EMERGENCE OF THE DOMESTIC IDEAL ON THE ONE HAND AND THE RISE OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM AND IMPERIALISM ON THE OTHER 7ALTER "ENJAMIN OBSERVES THAT THE PRIVATE INDIVIDUAL MAKES HIS ENTRY ON THE SCENE OF HISTORY IN THE EARLY TH CENTURY IN A MOMENT THAT FOR THE lRST TIME HIS HOME BECOMES OPPOSED TO HIS PLACE OF WORK )NDEED UNTIL THEN THE HOUSE WAS NOT A PRIVATE SHELTER FOR THE MEMBERS OF A SMALL FAMILY
BUT RATHER A LARGE STRUCTURE THAT COMPRISED WORKSHOPS AS WELL AS RESIDENTIAL &%)
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ACCOMMODATION )T DID NOT ONLY HOUSE HUSBAND WIFE AND CHILDREN BUT ALSO MEMBERS OF THE EXTENDED FAMILY PROTÏGÏS AND SERVANTS "EFORE THE TH CEN TURY THE HOUSE WAS FAR LESS PART OF THE PRIVATE PUBLIC DICHOTOMY THAT WE HAVE COME TO ASSOCIATE WITH IT NOR DID IT BEAR THE CLEARLY GENDERED OVERTONES THAT SUGGEST THAT THE HOUSE lRST OF ALL BELONGS TO THE MOTHER "IRDWELL 0HEASANT ,AWRENCE :àNIGA $OMESTICITY THEREFORE IS A CONSTRUCTION OF THE TH CENTURY 4HE TERM RE FERS TO A WHOLE SET OF IDEAS THAT DEVELOPED IN REACTION TO THE DIVISION BETWEEN WORK AND HOME 4HESE IDEAS STRESSED THE GROWING SEPARATION BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE SPHERES WHICH WAS JUSTIlED BY ASSUMPTIONS REGARDING THE DIFFER ENCES IN @NATURE BETWEEN THE GENDERS AS FOR INSTANCE IN THIS FAMOUS QUOTE BY *OHN 2USKIN hTHE WOMAN S POWER IS FOR RULE NOT FOR BATTLE AND HER INTELLECT IS NOT FOR INVENTION OR CREATION
BUT FOR SWEET ORDERING ARRANGEMENT AND DECISION x 4HE MAN IN HIS ROUGH WORK IN OPEN WORLD
MUST ENCOUNTER ALL PERIL AND TRIAL x "UT HE GUARDS THE WOMAN FROM ALL THIS WITHIN HIS HOUSE
AS RULED BY HER x NEED ENTER NO DANGER NO TEMPTATION NO CAUSE OF ERROR OR OFFENSE 4HIS IS THE TRUE NATURE OF HOME n IT IS THE PLACE OF 0EACE v
!S A CONSEQUENCE OF THEIR DIFFERENT NATURES MEN WERE CONSIDERED lT TO TAKE THEIR PLACE IN THE PUBLIC SPHERE OF WORK AND POWER WHEREAS WOMEN WERE RELEGATED TO THE PRIVATE REALM OF THE HOME WHICH THEY WERE ASSUMED TO TURN INTO A PLACE OF REST AND RELAXATION FOR THEIR HUSBANDS FATHERS OR BROTHERS 7HEN MEN LEFT THEIR PLACES OF WORK WITHIN THE HOUSE IN ORDER TO ESTABLISH WORKSHOPS FACTORIES AND OFlCES AS THE MAIN SITES OF ECONOMIC PRODUCTION A WHOLE IDEOLOGY THUS CAME INTO BEING WHICH JUSTIlED THE GENDER DIVISION BE TWEEN BREADWINNERS ON THE ONE HAND AND CARETAKERS ON THE OTHER 4HIS IDE OLOGY IS ARTICULATED IN TERMS OF GENDER SPACE WORK AND POWER )T PRESCRIBES RATHER PRECISE ALBEIT CHANGING NORMS REGARDING THE ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF FAMILY LIFE THE NEEDS OF CHILDREN THE PROPER WAYS OF ARRANGING FOOD
CLOTHS AND FURNITURE THE CARE OF BODY AND HEALTH THE BEST WAYS TO BALANCE WORK LEISURE AND FAMILY ACTIVITIES THE NEED FOR CLEANLINESS AND HYGIENE $O MESTICITY CAN THEREFORE BE DISCUSSED IN TERMS OF LEGAL ARRANGEMENTS SPATIAL SETTINGS BEHAVIOURAL PATTERNS SOCIAL EFFECTS AND POWER CONSTELLATIONS n GIV ING RISE TO A VARIETY OF DISCOURSES THAT COMMENT UPON IT OR CRITICIZE IT )N .ORTH !MERICA THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY GAVE RISE TO WHAT !NNE $OUGLAS HAS CALLED A @FEMINIZATION OF CULTURE !ROUND THE SECOND HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY THE GROWING AMOUNT OF EDUCATED MIDDLE CLASS WOMEN BECAME THE MAIN CONSUMERS OF CULTURAL PRODUCTS SUCH AS BOOKS AND DECO RATIVE OBJECTS FOR THEY WERE THE ONES WHO HAD TIME AND OPPORTUNITY FOR CULTIVATING A CULTURE OF READING AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 4HEY CHAMPIONED A LIT ERATURE THAT WAS CONSTRUCTED AROUND THE FEMININE VIRTUES OF PIETY SENSIBILITY AND NURTURING AND THAT PROPAGATED A CULTURE OF SENTIMENTALISM !S $OUGLAS RECOGNIZES HOWEVER THIS FEMINIZATION OF CULTURE NEVERTHELESS DID NOT IMPLY P Xdaadfj^jb '%%* q XdaadfjZ '%%* R hde]^V
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A SERIOUS THREAT TO THE HEGEMONY OF THE ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL GOALS WHICH WERE DRIVEN BY A VERY DIFFERENT SET OF VALUES h3ENTIMENTALISM IS A COMPLEX PHENOMENON )T ASSERTS THAT THE VALUES A SOCIETY S ACTIVITY DENIES ARE PRECISELY THE ONES IT CHERISHES IT ATTEMPTS TO DEAL WITH THE PHENOMENON OF CULTURAL BIFURCATION BY THE MANIPULATION OF NOSTALGIA x -ANY NINETEENTH CENTURY !MERICANS IN THE .ORTHEAST ACTED EVERY DAY AS IF THEY BELIEVED THAT ECONOMIC EXPANSION URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION REPRESENTED THE GREATEST GOOD )T IS TO THEIR CREDIT THAT THEY INDIRECTLY ACKNOWLEDGED THAT THE PURSUIT OF THESE @MASCULINE GOALS MEANT DAMAGING PERHAPS LOOSING ANOTHER GOOD ONE THEY INCREASINGLY INCLUDED UNDER THE @FEMININE IDEAL 9ET THE FACT REMAINS THAT THEIR REGRET WAS CALCULATED NOT TO INTERFERE WITH THEIR ACTIONS v $OUGLAS
$OUGLAS OBSERVES AN OPPOSITION BETWEEN THE SENTIMENTAL VALUES OF A FEMI NIZED CULTURE ON THE ONE HAND AND THE TOUGHER GOALS THAT PRE OCCUPY THE DOMINANT SOCIAL ACTORS ON THE OTHER 3HE RECOGNIZES THAT IT IS PERFECTLY POS SIBLE FOR A SOCIETY TO BE DRIVEN BY SEEMINGLY INCOMPATIBLE DESIRES AND VALUES
WHICH ARE DESIGNATED TO THEIR OWN REALMS 4HUS TH CENTURY !MERICA COULD HARBOUR SENTIMENTALISM AS WELL AS THE RUTHLESS PURSUIT OF CAPITALIST ACCUMU LATION 4HE GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY PASSED THROUGH SEV ERAL STAGES !CCORDING TO *OHN 4OSH IN EARLY 6ICTORIAN %NGLAND THE SEPARATION BETWEEN WORK AND HOME lRST BECAME A REALITY FOR MEMBERS OF THE MIDDLE CLASS AND PROFESSIONAL MEN 4HEY VERY MUCH APPRECIATED HOME
lRST OF ALL AS A WELL DESERVED REFUGE FOR THE BREADWINNER 'RADUALLY THE HOME BECAME THE HALLOWED SPHERE OF WIFE AND CHILDREN WHICH COINCIDED WITH A GROWING CULT OF MOTHERHOOD AND AN INCREASING FOCUS ON THE CHILD AS THE CEN TRE OF FAMILY LIFE )N THE lRST HALF OF THE TH CENTURY HOWEVER IT CONTINUED TO PERMEATE THE LIVES OF MEN TOO n AS HUSBANDS AS FATHER AND AS UPHOLDERS OF lRESIDE VIRTUES )T IS ONLY TOWARDS THE END OF THE TH CENTURY 4OSH STATES THAT DOMESTIC ITY AND MASCULINITY WERE CONSIDERED AS OPPOSITIONAL 4HE VALUES OF INTIMACY
NURTURING AND COMFORT WERE INCREASINGLY PERCEIVED AS THREATENING THE REPRO DUCTION OF MASCULINITY &OR IT IS IN THIS MOMENT THAT FATHERS BEGAN TO DOUBT WHETHER THEIR SONS WHO WERE RAISED IN THESE HOMES UNDER THE OVERPOWER ING INmUENCE OF WOMEN WOULD BE CAPABLE OF DISPLAYING THE MANLY FEATURES REQUIRED FOR SUCCESS IN THE PUBLIC REALM /NE SEES THEREFORE A DOUBLE EVOLU TION TOWARDS THE END OF THE CENTURY IN "RITAIN ON THE ONE HAND A CONTINU ING GROWTH OF MASCULINE DOMESTICITY AMONG THE LOWER MIDDLE CLASS ON THE OTHER HAND A REAL CRISIS OF DOMESTICITY AMONG THE PROFESSIONAL AND COMMER CIAL CLASSES WHO BEGAN TO BECOME VERY ANXIOUS ABOUT THE DIMINISHED PA TRIARCHAL AUTHORITY AND THE DOMINANCE OF A FEMININE AMBIENCE IN THE HOME 4HE RESULT WAS IN THESE CIRCLES A DISCERNABLE MALE REVOLT AGAINST DOMESTICITY
4OSH CONCLUDES n A REVOLT ) WOULD ADD THAT HAD A LOT IN COMMON WITH THE ANTI DOMESTICITY THAT PERVADED HEROIC MODERNIST DISCOURSES &%+
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)T IS ALSO IMPORTANT TO REALIZE THAT THE IDEALS INCORPORATED IN THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY HAD IMPLICATIONS THAT WENT BEYOND THE THRESHOLD OF THE HOME !S +AREN (ANSEN POINTS OUT THE ETYMOLOGICAL NEARNESS OF @DOMESTIC ITY AND @TO DOMESTICATE IS NO COINCIDENCE DOMESTICITY IS OFTEN CONSIDERED AS BEING PART OF A CIVILIZING MISSION AND AS SUCH THE IMPORT OF DOMESTICITY WAS A CRUCIAL FACTOR IN THE COLONIAL ENCOUNTER !NNE -C#LINTOCK BUILDS UPON THIS INSIGHT AND UNRAVELS THE CONNECTION BETWEEN DOMESTICITY AND IMPERIAL ISM WHICH OFTEN REMAINS HIDDEN FROM MORE CONVENTIONAL INTERPRETATIONS OF DOMESTICITY hIMPERIALISM AND THE INVENTION OF RACE WERE FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF 7ESTERN INDUSTRIAL MO DERNITY x !T THE SAME TIME THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY WAS NOT SIMPLY A TRIVIAL AND mEETING IRREL EVANCE BELONGING PROPERLY IN THE PRIVATE @NATURAL REALM OF THE FAMILY 2ATHER ) ARGUE THAT THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY WAS A CRUCIAL IF CONCEALED DIMENSION OF MALE AS WELL AS FEMALE IDENTITIES n SHIFTING AND UNSTABLE AS THEY WERE n AND ARE INDISPENSABLE ELEMENTS BOTH OF THE INDUSTRIAL MARKET AND THE IMPERIAL ENTERPRISE v -C#LINTOCK
)N ANALYSING 6ICTORIAN IMAGES COMMODITY ADVERTISEMENTS AND DISCOURSES
-C#LINTOCK SHOWS HOW THE NOTION OF DOMESTICITY AS A PROPERLY ORGANIZED
@DOMESTICATED AND CLEAN PRIVATE SPACE WAS PUT FORWARD AS THE HALLMARK OF CIVILIZATION )T WAS THUS USED TO JUSTIFY THE COLONIAL ENTERPRISE IN UNDERLINING THE MORAL RIGHTNESS OF hTHE WHITE MAN S BURDENv THAT CONSISTED IN BRINGING THIS CIVILIZATION TO OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD 3EEN FROM THIS PERSPECTIVE IT IS CLEAR THAT MODERNITY AND DOMESTICITY CAN NOT JUST BE SEEN AS OPPOSITIONAL IF ONE OPENS UP THE SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION MORE WIDELY AND INCLUDES AS WELL THE MORE HIDDEN LAYERS OF SOCIAL AND ECO NOMIC DETERMINANTS THAT OFTEN REMAIN CONCEALED ON THE LEVEL OF MODERNIST DISCOURSES AND PRACTICES IT BECOMES CLEAR THAT THERE IS ALSO A CERTAIN COM PLICITY BETWEEN MODERNITY AND DOMESTICITY .OTWITHSTANDING THE DOMINANT ACCOUNTS THAT ASSOCIATE MODERNITY WITH THE PUBLIC AND DOMESTICITY WITH THE PRIVATE A MORE THOROUGH ANALYSIS ALLOWS ONE TO SEE THAT THIS DISTINCTION ITSELF IS PART OF A SET UP THAT IS ENTIRELY INTRINSIC TO MODERNITY 4HIS INSIGHT DESTABI LIZES THE NEAT OPPOSITION BETWEEN BOTH TERMS LDB:C 6H HJ7?:8IH D; BD9:GC>IN
)F ONE TRIES TO lGURE OUT HOW WOMEN RELATED TO THE EXPERIENCE OF MO DERNITY IN THE TH AND EARLY TH CENTURY THE PICTURE BECOMES STILL MORE COMPLICATED )N AN OFTEN QUOTED ESSAY ON @4HE )NVISIBLE &LÊNEUSE *ANET 7OLFF ARGUES THAT WOMEN REMAIN LARGELY INVISIBLE IN THE CANONICAL LITERATURE ON MODERNITY BY 3IMMEL "ENJAMIN OR 3ENNETT WHICH REPEATEDLY INVOKES "AUDELAIRE S mANEUR n THE STROLLER THE MAN IN THE CROWD n AS THE MOST PARADIG MATIC lGURE OF MODERNITY )N THE TH CENTURY SHE STATES WOMEN COULD NOT POSSIBLY PARTICIPATE IN THE ACT OF INCONSPICUOUSLY STROLLING AROUND IN THE CITY
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OBSERVING THE HUSTLE AND BUSTLE AND ENJOYING CHANCE ENCOUNTERS !CCORDING TO THE MORES OF THE TIME VIRTUOUS WOMEN n THAT IS MIDDLE CLASS BOURGEOIS WOMEN n WERE NOT ALLOWED TO VENTURE INTO THE STREETS WITHOUT A PROPER COM PANION !NY WOMAN WHO WAS SEEN ON HER OWN IN THE PUBLIC SPACES OF THE CITY RAN THE RISK OF BEING LABELLED A @PUBLIC WOMAN A PROSTITUTE 4HIS ESSAY BY 7OLFF HAS PROVOKED A LIVELY DEBATE ABOUT WOMEN S INVOLVE MENT WITH MODERNITY %LISABETH 7ILSON HAS OBJECTED TO 7OLFF S AC COUNT OF THE @SEPARATE SPHERES WHICH ASSIGN WOMEN TO THE PRIVATE SPACE OF THE HOME AND MEN TO THE PUBLIC REALM OF THE ECONOMIC POLITICAL AND CULTURAL WORLD !CCORDING TO 7ILSON WOMEN WERE FAR FROM CONlNED TO THE HOME IN TH CENTURY METROPOLISES #ERTAINLY TOWARDS THE CLOSING YEARS OF THE CENTURY THERE WAS A GROWING AMOUNT OF EATING ESTABLISHMENTS AND DE PARTMENT STORES WHICH OFFERED NEW SPACES FOR WOMEN AND THUS JUSTIlED THEIR PRESENCE IN THE STREETS 4HE BOUNDARIES BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT SPHERES AND CLASSES WERE ALSO FAR FROM RIGID SINCE THERE EXISTED INTERMEDIATE SOCIAL ZONES THAT ALLOWED FOR NEGOTIATIONS AND CROSS OVERS IT WAS FOR INSTANCE NOT UNUSUAL THAT A PROSTITUTE WOULD EVENTUALLY END UP AS A RESPECTABLE MARRIED WOMAN 4HERE WERE MOREOVER A GROWING NUMBER OF WORKING CLASS WOMEN AND FE MALE WHITE COLLAR WORKERS WHO WERE CLEARLY AT EASE MOVING THROUGH THE CITY WITHOUT THE CHAPERON REQUIRED FOR MIDDLE CLASS WOMEN 4HE SOCIAL REALITY OF TH CENTURY ,ONDON OR 0ARIS 7ILSON ARGUES WAS THUS FAR MORE TURBULENT AND TRANSGRESSIVE THAN 7OLFF DEPICTS IT AND CITIES OFFERED WOMEN OPPORTUNI TIES OF FREEDOM AND SELF DElNITION THAT WERE PREVIOUSLY UNHEARD OF 4HE LATE TH AND THE EARLY TH CENTURY ALSO SAW THE RISE OF A FEMINIST MOVEMENT WITH THE SUFFRAGETTES CAMPAIGNING FOR THE VOTE AND SOCIAL RE FORMERS QUESTIONING THE ROLE OF DOMESTICITY IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN #HARLOTTE 0ERKINS 'ILMAN IS PROBABLY THE BEST KNOWN EXAMPLE OF THOSE WOMEN WHO ADVOCATED A DOMESTIC REVOLUTION AND WHO IMAGINED NEW ARRANGEMENTS OF EVERYDAY LIFE THAT WOULD ALLOW WOMEN TO FULLY PARTICIPATE IN PUBLIC LIFE AND IN CULTURAL ACTIVITIES FOR AN OVERVIEW OF THESE TENDENCIES SEE (AYDEN
AND 5HLIG 4HEIR PROPOSALS CONCERNED THE PROVISION OF COLLECTIVE DOMESTIC SERVICES n COMMUNAL KITCHENS LAUNDRY FACILITIES AND CHILD CARE n WHICH WOULD RATIONALIZE THE EXTENT TO WHICH EACH INDIVIDUAL WOMAN HAD TO CATER FOR HER FAMILY THUS FREEING THEM FROM THE NARROW BONDS OF ONE FAMILY DOMESTICITY )T IS DIFlCULT TO UNDERSTAND HOW SUCH RADICAL PROPOSALS FOR THE TRANSFORMATION OF EVERYDAY LIFE COULD NOT BE CONSIDERED @MODERN AND EVEN @MODERNIST .EVERTHELESS THE HISTORY OF THESE CAMPAIGNERS IS USUALLY NOT TOLD AS PART OF THE GREAT NARRATIVE OF MODERNISM NOR IS THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO DIS COURSES ON SOCIAL REFORM AND EMANCIPATION FULLY RECOGNIZED 4HE DIFlCULT POSITION OF WOMEN AS BOTH SUBJECTS OF MODERNITY AND CARE TAKERS OF DOMESTICITY COMES TO THE FORE ONCE MORE IN THE IMAGE OF THE .EW 7OMAN 4HIS lGURE APPEARS IN THE LATE TH CENTURY IN !MERICA AS A RESULT OF THE NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND THE PROFESSIONS &%-
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AND OF THE INCREASING NUMBERS OF WOMEN ENTERING THE WORKFORCE AND THE PUBLIC ARENA &ROM !MERICA SHE MIGRATES TO %UROPE WHERE SHE MAKES AN ESPECIALLY FORCEFUL APPEARANCE IN 7EIMAR 'ERMANY SEE VON !NKUM 4HE .EW 7OMAN IS NOT CONlNED TO THE HOME BUT ENJOYS A FREEDOM THAT BRINGS HER TO THE SPORT lELDS TO THE SOCIAL ARENA AND TO THE LABOR FORCE 3HE LIVES ON HER OWN GOES OUT WITH HER FRIENDS AND IS SEXUALLY LIBERATED 3HE IS COMPETENT AND CONlDENT KNOWLEDGEABLE ABOUT FASHION AND INTERESTED IN ART AND CULTURE !LTHOUGH AFTER MARRIAGE SHE WILL STILL THE ONE CONSIDERED RESPONSIBLE FOR HOME AND CHILDREN SHE IS ABLE TO MOVE IN PUBLIC LIFE ON HER OWN IN A MUCH MORE SELF EVIDENT WAY THAN HER SISTERS A FEW DECADES EARLIER )N ORDER TO MANAGE HER HOME SHE HAS MOREOVER ACQUIRED 4AYLORIST SKILLS
WHICH SHE APPLIES IN A PERFECT EXECUTION OF ALL THE PRESCRIPTIONS OF HOME ECONOMICS 4HE .EW 7OMAN THUS STANDS IN FOR THE NEW SPIRIT OF THE AGE AND OFTEN ACTS AS AN ICON OF MODERNITY *ANET 7ARD OBSERVES HOW IN THIS IMAGE OF THE .EW 7OMAN A WHOLE SERIES OF AMBIVALENCES WERE ACTED OUT THAT REVEAL THE ANXIETIES ACCOMPANYING THE lGURE OF THE LIBERATED AND SELF RELIANT FEMALE 4HE .EW 7OMAN S BODY WAS ARCHITECTURALIZED IT WAS FORMED ACCORDING TO THE NEW IDEALS OF SPORTS AND FASHION WHICH RESULTED IN A LEAN AND ATHLETIC BODY THAT RESEMBLED MORE THAT OF A PREPUBESCENT GIRL THAN THAT OF A MATURE WOMAN 4HIS 'IRL S MOST OBVI OUS CHARACTERISTIC WAS PARADOXICALLY HER MASCULINITY UNDERSCORED ALSO BY A FASHION THAT NEGATED THE RIPE LINES OF A FEMININE BODY AND TENDED TOWARDS A mUID LINEAR SILHOUETTE WITHOUT BREASTS AND HIPS 7ARD STATES THEREFORE THAT hIT IS ON THE BODY OF THE .EW 7OMAN THAT 7EIMAR SURFACE CULTURE WAS MOST VIVIDLY INSCRIBED IN ALL ITS FORCE n DESPITE THE FACT THAT THE lGURE OF MODERNITY WAS PREDOMINANTLY MALE AND DESPITE THE TRADITIONAL VIEW OF WOMAN AS A lGURE OF 5NSACHLICHKEIT v 7ARD
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ATION IN WHICH LIFE IS FAR LESS BRUTISH SHORT AND VIOLENT THAN IT WAS IN THE TH CENTURY n CERTAINLY FOR THE WORKING CLASS 4HIRDLY THE SHIFT TOWARDS A CONSUMERIST ECONOMY MEANT A RISE OF OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMFORT ENJOYMENT AND SELF EXPRESSION &OURTHLY THE SUCCESS OF SCIENTIlC RATIONALISM CHARGED THE HOME WITH CONTRADICTORY EXPECTATIONS )T PERMEATED THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY THAT CENTERED UPON LOVE FAMILY AND PRIVACY WITH REQUIREMENTS REGARDING EFlCIENCY AND CONTROL BRINGING ABOUT THE EXPOSURE OF THE INTERIOR TO THE GAZE OF ADMINISTRATORS HEALTH WORKERS AND DOMESTIC EXPERTS !LL IN ALL THIS RESULTED IN AN AMBIGUOUS POSITIONING OF WOMEN VIS Ì VIS MODERNITY h!S A RESULT WOMEN NEGOTIATED AMBIGUOUS AND AMBIVALENT WAYS OF SEEING THEMSELVES SOMETIMES PULLED FORWARD AS AGENTS OF CHANGE BUT AT OTHERS PUSHED BACK AS SYMBOLIZATIONS OF CONTINUITY AND TRADITION v 'ILES
5LTIMATELY A PICTURE IS DRAWN IN WHICH FOR A MAJORITY OF WOMEN IN THE 7EST THE HOME WAS CLEARLY THE PLACE WHERE MODERNITY WAS EFFECTUATED hx IN THE lRST HALF OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY MODERNITY FOR MILLIONS OF WOMEN WAS ABOUT WORKING TO CREATE A SPACE CALLED @HOME IN WHICH VIOLENCE INSECURITY DISEASE DISCOMFORT AND PAIN WERE THINGS OF THE PAST 4HIS COULD PROVIDE WOMEN WITH A SENSE OF CITIZENSHIP AND A STAKE IN THE FUTURE -OST IMPORTANTLY WORKING TO CREATE @BETTER HOMES OFFERED MANY WOMEN THE OPPORTUNITY TO SEE THEMSELVES AS HAVING A CENTRAL ROLE IN ACHIEVING WHAT IS BELIEVED TO BE THE PROJECT OF MODERN SOCIAL EXISTENCE THE RIGHT TO DElNE THEIR OWN FUTURES AND THE CAPACITY TO BE IN CONTROL OF THEIR OWN LIVES v 'ILES
&AR FROM BEING AN ANTIDOTE TO MODERNITY FOR MOST OF THESE WOMEN THE HOME WAS INDEED THE PLACE WHERE MODERNITY WAS ENACTED 4HIS HOME WAS NOT NECESSARILY SEEN AS CONSTRICTING AND NARROW /FTEN IT WAS CONCEIVED OF AS PART OF A WIDER ENDEAVOR THAT AIMED AT A CIVILIZING MISSION 4HE DOMESTIC VIRTUES OF LOVING CARE AND SUBTLE GUIDANCE WERE MEANT TO BE TRANSPOSED ONTO THE LEVEL OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS WELFARE INSTITUTIONS AND THE GENERAL SET UP OF THE STATE )N THAT SENSE MANY WOMEN AND THEIR ORGANIZATIONS BENT THE IDEOLOGY OF DOMESTICITY IN SUCH A WAY THAT IT GAVE THEM ACCESS TO PUBLIC LIFE AND POSITIONS OF SUBSTANTIAL INmUENCE RATHER THAN LIMITING THEM TO THE STRICT CONlNES OF THEIR OWN HOUSEHOLD 4HE RADICAL OPPOSITION TO DOMESTIC IDEALS ADOPTED BY SECOND WAVE FEMI NISM IN THE WAKE OF "ETTY &RIEDAN S ! &EMININE -YSTIQUE WAS THUS TYPI CALLY A PHENOMENON OF THE SIXTIES AND SEVENTIES 4HIS FEMINISM CLAIMED THAT FUNDAMENTAL EQUALITY BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN INVALIDATED THE IDEA THAT THEY SHOULD OCCUPY DIFFERENT ROLES IN LIFE 4HE BURDENS AND ENJOYMENTS OF THE HOME THEY ARGUED SHOULD BE SHARED BY BOTH MEN AND WOMEN AND THE SAME SHOULD APPLY TO THE CHALLENGES AND REWARDS OF WORK AND SOCIAL ACTIVI TIES 4HIS FEMINIST LINE OF THOUGHT HAS GIVEN RISE TO THE POLICY OF EQUAL OPPOR TUNITIES THAT IS BY NOW OFlCIALLY ADOPTED IN MOST 7ESTERN COUNTRIES )T MEANS THAT THE LEGAL SYSTEM NOW TREATS MEN AND WOMEN AS TOTALLY EQUAL SUBJECTS THEY ARE SUBJECT TO THE SAME RULES AND BEAR THE SAME RESPONSIBILITIES &&%
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.EVERTHELESS REALITY LAGS FAR BEHIND POLICY AND SHOWS THE CONTINUING STRENGTH AND INmUENCE OF THE IDEOLOGY OF DOMESTICITY !LTHOUGH THIS IDEOL OGY IS NOWADAYS TACIT RATHER THAN EXPLICIT STATISTICS CLEARLY SHOW THAT IN GENERAL MEN ARE DEVOTING MANY MORE HOURS TO THEIR JOBS THAN WOMEN AND THAT WOMEN SPEND ON AVERAGE MANY MORE HOURS THAN THEIR MALE PARTNERS IN CHILD CARING AND OTHER DOMESTIC ACTIVITIES )N &LANDERS IN FOR EXAMPLE
MEN SPEND AN AVERAGE OF HOURS AND MINUTES ON THEIR JOB WOMEN ONLY HOURS AND MINUTES ON THE OTHER HAND WOMEN DEVOTE AN AVERAGE OF HOURS AND MINUTES A WEEK TO HOUSEHOLD CHORES AND CHILD CARE AND MEN ONLY HOURS MINUTES )GNACE 'LORIEUX *OERI -INNEN ,EEN 6AN 4IELEN SEE ALSO 4ONY #HAPMAN 3UCH DATA CLEARLY INDICATES THAT TRADITIONAL ROLE PATTERNS ALIGNED WITH THE IDEOLOGY OF DOMESTICITY STILL HAVE A MAJOR INmUENCE IN THE DAILY LIFE OF THE GREAT MAJORITY OF PEOPLE 4HIS TEXT IS AN ABBREVIATED VERSION OF A PREVIOUSLY PUBLISHED TEXT (ILDE (EYNEN @-ODERNITY AND DOMESTICITY 4ENSIONS AND #ONTRADICTIONS )N (ILDE (EYNEN 'Ã LSÃ M "AYDAR EDS .EGOTIATING $OMESTICITY 3PATIAL 0RODUCTIONS OF 'ENDER IN -ODERN !RCHITECTURE ,ONDON 2OUTLEDGE
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