EFFECTIVE APPROACHES FOR SURVEILLANCE AND MODELLING OF MACRO AND MICRO PLASTIC TO AID RESPONSE EFFORTS
REPORT PREPARED FOR THE PLASTIC POLLUTION WORKING GROUP (PPWG) OF THE UK & EIRE SPILL ASSOCIATION BY Mark J Orr, UK and Ireland Spill Association AND
REPORT PREPARED BY Kate Brown, Oil Spill Response Ltd
1 Introduction
The introduction of plastic has brought many advances in storage, packaging, ease of use and reuse. It is now used everywhere and our modern economy has adapted to its suitability for so many items we use everyday. Our use increases year on year, According to UNEP (2020) in 2018, global production of plastics reached 360 million metric tonnes, and this figure is even higher if plastics used in manufacturing synthetic textiles, synthetic rubber, and plastic additives were included. Of this 8 million tons of plastic from rivers and beaches flows into the ocean each year.
Sadly its proliferation is causing many other problems; waste disposal, secondary pollution, emissions in production being some of them. However far too much ends up in the oceans either as finished products or the lentil sized nurdles which provide the base plastic from which products are made.
As we learned in Goal 1 there are many ways by which plastic enters the oceans many of which can be prevented by good process management and use of interception techniques which require investment to install and then to manage.
However anyone who has walked a beach and looked at the seaweed and debris in the strandline will have been surprised and disappointed by the amount of plastic it contained. There are estimated to be 170 trillion plastic particles in the sea.
This paper will cover:
Remote sensing: Satellite imagery and remote sensing can be used to track macroplastics and large collections of microplastics in oceans and waterways. Automated algorithms can be used to detect and quantify the extent of plastic pollution in water bodies.
Innovative technology: New technologies such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) can be used to survey and monitor plastic pollution in hard-to-reach areas. These technologies can provide more accurate and detailed data than traditional survey methods.
Modelling: Numerical models can help predict the transport and fate of plastic pollution. Models can consider factors such as ocean currents, wind patterns, and shoreline characteristics to predict where plastic debris is likely to accumulate.
Citizen science: Citizen science initiatives can be used to collect data on microplastics in waterways. These initiatives involve engaging the public in data collection and can provide a large volume of data at a relatively low cost.
Data sharing and collaboration: Collaboration and data sharing among researchers, governments, and other stakeholders can help build a more comprehensive understanding of plastic pollution. Sharing data can also help identify the sources of plastic pollution and inform targeted mitigation efforts.
Identification of sources: Advanced analytical techniques, such as DNA and chemical tracers, can help identify the sources of plastic pollution. This information can be used to target specific sources and reduce plastic pollution at its source.
Stakeholder engagement: Engaging stakeholders, including industry, government, and local communities, can help raise awareness and promote behaviour change. This can include initiatives such as beach cleans and plastic reduction campaigns.
2 With remote satellite sensing how accurate is the digital imagery in identifying small spills of plastic hurdles?
The accuracy of remote sensing imagery in identifying small spills of plastic depends on several factors such as the resolution of the imagery, the type of the image – radar or optical, the size of the plastic debris, clear skies so a good image may be captured and the contrast between the plastic debris and the surrounding water or land.
On a clear day a plastic cluster would be detectable from space using a optical satellite producing a high resolution image Smaller clusters maybe 10-10m2) may be identifiable using very high resolution images in ideal conditions
However, small spills of plastic debris such as those slowly leaving a lost container or slow release from an outfall pipe by a plastic manufacturer will be very difficult to detect and differentiate from other features in the environment, such as waves or clouds, particularly if the debris is well dispersed and/or presents a low contrast with the sea.
To improve the accuracy of identifying small spills of plastic debris in remote sensing imagery, researchers have developed advanced algorithms that can detect and classify objects based on their spectral and spatial characteristics. These algorithms can help differentiate plastic debris from other features in the environment and improve the accuracy of detection.
Satellite image companies, like Orbital EOS, 1 use a combination of human and artificial intelligence to ensure active monitoring of images. They find pixels in images that have a higher reflectivity in the infrared (IR) part of the light spectrum. Water absorbs IR very efficiently, so anything that has a strong signal in IR, is a floating object. Using shape and other contextual information the analysts can decide that the object is of interest. The analysts then uses software to enhance the image and identify what it is.
Repetitive use of satellite imagery enables a live incident to be monitored and an plume to be tracked remotely. Its destination may then be predicted based on its track and interpretation by analysts based on surface influences which may include wind, tide or local currents, these are commonly included in spill tracking models.
Working with this information near a coastline UAVs (drone) may be used to improve prediction and their imagery fed into the spill tracking modelling software. As a drone is flying much lower the imagery will be more accurate and higher resolution.
However, it is important to note that satellite sensing alone may not be sufficient for identifying and monitoring small spills of plastic debris. In such cases, a combination of remote sensing with other techniques, such as use of drones, in-situ sampling and citizen science, may be required to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the location, size, and extent of plastic pollution.i
Innovative technologies like unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) are increasingly being used to survey and monitor plastic pollution in hard-to-reach areas and where detection has been identified by satellite imagery The following references highlight the benefits of these technologies:
UAVs for aerial surveys: UAVs, also known as drones, can be used to conduct aerial surveys of plastic pollution in remote or inaccessible areas. These surveys can provide high-resolution imagery and data that can be used to identify the location and extent of plastic pollution. For example, a study published in the journal Remote Sensing in 2019 used UAVs to conduct aerial surveys of plastic pollution in a remote archipelago in the Indian Ocean. The study found that UAV surveys were able to identify plastic debris in areas that were inaccessible by foot, and provided detailed information on the size and location of the debris (source: https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/11/11/1343).
AUVs for underwater surveys: AUVs are robotic vehicles that can be used to conduct underwater surveys of plastic pollution. These vehicles can operate autonomously and are equipped with sensors and cameras that can provide detailed data on the location and extent of plastic pollution. For example, a study published in the journal Marine Pollution Bulletin in 2018 used AUVs to survey plastic pollution on the seafloor in a coastal area of Norway. The study found that AUV surveys were able to detect plastic debris at depths of up to 30 meters, providing a more comprehensive picture of the extent of plastic pollution than traditional survey methods (source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X17307009).
Combining UAV and AUV surveys: Some studies have combined the use of UAVs and AUVs to provide a more comprehensive picture of plastic pollution in coastal and marine environments. For example, a study published in the journal Marine Pollution Bulletin in 2020 used UAVs and AUVs to survey plastic pollution in a coastal area of Italy. The study found that the combined use of these technologies provided more accurate and detailed data on the location and extent of plastic pollution than either technology alone (source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X20302310).
Overall, innovative technologies like UAVs and AUVs are increasingly being used to survey and monitor plastic pollution in hard-to-reach areas. These technologies can provide more accurate and detailed data than traditional survey methods, and can help inform policy and management decisions to address the plastic pollution crisis.
4. There are many varieties of computer modelling available, what works to track plastic? Is it the same as oil spill modelling software
There are several computer modelling approaches available to track and predict the movement of plastic debris in the ocean, and some of these models are similar to those used for oil spill tracking. However, there are also some key differences between the two types of models.
One approach to tracking plastic pollution in the ocean is to use numerical models that simulate the transport and fate of plastic debris based on ocean currents, wind patterns, and other environmental factors. These models can provide predictions of the likely trajectory and accumulation of plastic pollution over time, which can be used to inform response efforts and policy decisions. Some examples of numerical models used for plastic tracking include the Marine Debris Tracker and SINTEF’s OSCAR model.
While some of the underlying principles of oil spill modelling can be applied to plastic tracking, there are also some important differences to consider. For example, plastic debris can be affected by different factors than oil spills, such as wind and waves, and may behave differently depending on the size and shape of the debris. Therefore, it's important to use models specifically designed for plastic tracking, rather than relying on oil spill models alone.
An attempt to do this has been analysed in a Canadian study, which comprehensively reviewed the structure of four well-known Lagrangian particle-tracking models2, i.e., Delft3D Water Quality Particle tracking module (D-WAQ PART), Ichthyoplankton (Ichthyop), Track Marine Plastic Debris (TrackMPD), and Canadian Microplastic Simulation (CaMPSim-3D) in simulating the fate and transport of microplastics. A discussion of formulae and other models and how they work is useful and explains their limitations. 3 These models can be used to identify potential sources of plastic pollution, track the movement of specific types of plastic, and predict where plastic debris is likely to accumulate, local data eg wind speed has to be entered to provide great predictive accuracy.
There is much in the way of research and study in terms of tracking plastic in the wider scientific community, one of many objectives is to determine the practicality of these existing modelling software packages for modelling plastic in a response situation.
5. Citizen Science
Citizen science is a proven and powerful tool in mobilising public interest in the harm plastic pollution is doing to the environment. Recording sightings, collecting samples, assisting in beach cleans but also segregating and identifying what is collected , all provide value information for analysts to build a picture of the locations, degree and types of plastic pollution.
2 Lagrangian Modeling of Marine Microplastics Fate and Transport: The State of the Science . Mostafa Bigdeli, Abdolmajid Mohammadian, Abolghasem Pilechi, Mercedeh Taheri. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(4), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10040481
3 Toward the Detection and Imaging of Ocean Microplastics With a Spaceborne Radar. Madeline C Evans, Christopher S Ruff; IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing ( Volume: 60) June 2021; https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9449485
As citizen action has built and become better co-ordinated true value rests in using standardised methods for collection, sampling, sample handling and analysis. This enables data to be shared and analysis against common data sets so that it can be used to inform policy and management decisions.
To ensure this citizen science volunteers should receive training and education on the protocols and methods used for data collection. This can help ensure the data collected is consistent and of high quality.
Citizen science initiatives should collaborate with scientists and other experts in the field to ensure that the data collected is scientifically valid and can be used to inform policy and management decisions.
Citizen science initiatives should have a system for managing and storing the data collected. This can include the use of a centralized database or online platform, which can facilitate data sharing and analysis. Good examples of this are:
The Marine Debris Monitoring and Assessment Project (MDMAP) is a program developed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) that provides standardized protocols for citizen science groups to use when conducting beach debris surveys. The protocols include detailed instructions for sampling, data collection, and sample handling, as well as quality control measures to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data collected.
The Marine Debris Tracker is a citizen science app developed by the University of Georgia and NOAA that allows users to report sightings of marine debris. The app includes protocols for data collection and submission, as well as quality control measures such as error checking and data filtering.
The European Citizen Science Association (ECSA) has developed a set of Ten Principles of Citizen Science 4 and other guidelines for citizen science projects that provide recommendations for project design, data collection and management, and quality assurance. The guidelines include a section specifically focused on marine litter monitoring, which provides recommendations for sampling methods, data collection, and quality control measures.
The Plastic Soup Foundation, a non-profit organization based in the Netherlands, has developed a set of guidelines for citizen science projects focused on plastic pollution. The guidelines provide recommendations for sampling, data collection, and quality control measures, and emphasize the importance of collaboration with scientists and other experts in the field.
By following these and other established standards and guidelines, citizen science initiatives can ensure that their data collection on plastic pollution is scientifically valid and can be used to inform policy and management decisions.5
4 https://ecsa.citizen-science.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/ECSA_Ten_Principles_of_CS_English.pdf
5 Citizen science and marine conservation: a global review. Rachel Kelly, Aysha Fleming, Gretta T Pecl, Julia von Gonner, Aletta Bonn. 2 Nov 20. The Royal Society. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0461
6. Collaboration and data sharing are essential components of efforts to build a more comprehensive understanding of plastic pollution. Some examples and references that highlight the benefits of collaboration and data sharing:
The Global Partnership on Marine Litter (GPML): The GPML is a collaboration between the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and a range of other stakeholders, including governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and industry. The partnership aims to promote international cooperation on marine litter issues and to build a global network of experts and organizations working on the issue. The GPML encourages data sharing and collaboration among its members, and provides a platform for sharing best practices and developing new solutions to the plastic pollution crisis (source: https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/oceans-seas/what-we-do/addressing-marine-plasticpollution/global-partnership).
The Plastic Waste Reduction Programme (PWRP): The PWRP is a collaborative effort between the European Union and six Southeast Asian countries to address plastic pollution in the region. The program includes a focus on data sharing and collaboration among governments, NGOs, and other stakeholders. Through the PWRP, participating countries have developed a regional database on plastic pollution and have worked together to develop strategies for reducing plastic waste (source: https://ec.europa.eu/info/publications/plastic-wastereduction-programme-southeast-asia_en).
The Ocean Cleanup: The Ocean Cleanup is a non-profit organization that is developing advanced technologies to remove plastic pollution from the world's oceans. The organization has developed a system for tracking plastic pollution using satellite imagery and other data sources, and has made this data available to researchers and other stakeholders through an online platform. The platform also includes tools for visualizing and analyzing the data, and allows users to contribute their own data on plastic pollution (source: https://theoceancleanup.com/technology/monitoring/).
The Plastics Data Challenge: The Plastics Data Challenge is a collaborative effort between the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the Schmidt Ocean Institute, and other partners to develop new approaches to collecting, analyzing, and sharing data on plastic pollution. The challenge encourages collaboration among scientists, data experts, and other stakeholders to develop innovative solutions to the plastic pollution crisis (source: https://www.schmidtocean.org/challenge/plastics-data-challenge/).
Collaboration and data sharing among researchers, governments, and other stakeholders are essential for building a more comprehensive understanding of plastic pollution and developing effective strategies for addressing the issue. By working together and sharing data and expertise, progress can be made towards a cleaner, healthier planet.
7. Source identification is a crucial component of spill response efforts, as it allows authorities to hold responsible parties accountable for the spill and to take steps to prevent similar incidents from happening in the future. Some examples and references that highlight the importance of source identification in spill response:
By analysing the composition and characteristics of plastic debris found in the environment, researchers can identify the sources of the pollution and take steps to address them. For example, a study published in the journal Environmental Science & Technology used chemical tracers to identify the sources of microplastic pollution in the Great Lakes region, including
wastewater treatment plants, plastic manufacturing facilities, and stormwater runoff (source: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.9b07299).
As in oil spills the use of satellite images, images from UAVs, Automatic Identification System data (a unique code identified to a vessel giving location, course and speed), computer modelling and images of the product geolocated to where it has landed, it is possible to link the lost product back to the source.
Through the use of advanced technologies and forensic analysis, we can continue to improve our ability to identify the sources of spills and pollution, and to protect our planet from the devastating effects of environmental disasters.
8. Engaging stakeholders is a crucial component in spill response efforts, as it allows for a more coordinated and effective response. Here are some examples and references that highlight the importance of stakeholder engagement in spill response:
The Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 highlighted the importance of stakeholder engagement in spill response efforts. In response to the spill, BP launched a community outreach program that engaged local communities and stakeholders in the clean up and recovery efforts. This included initiatives such as beach clean ups and educational campaigns to raise awareness about the impacts of the spill. The programme was widely praised for its effectiveness in engaging stakeholders and promoting behaviour change (source: https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/sustainability/environment/deepwater-horizonstakeholder-engagement.html).
Stakeholder engagement is important in efforts to address plastic pollution. For example, the Plastic Free July campaign is a global initiative that encourages individuals, businesses, and governments to reduce their use of single-use plastics. The campaign has been successful in raising awareness about the impacts of plastic pollution and promoting behaviour change. In 2020, an estimated 326 million people participated in the campaign, and over 1 billion singleuse plastic items were avoided (source: https://www.plasticfreejuly.org/about-us/impact/).
Engaging industry stakeholders is particularly important in spill response efforts, as they can play a critical role in preventing spills and reducing their impacts. For example, the American Petroleum Institute has developed a set of best practices for oil spill prevention and response, which includes engagement with local communities and stakeholders (source: https://www.api.org/oil-and-naturalgas/environment/clean-water/oil-spill-prevention-and-response).
Operation Clean Sweep® (OCS) is an international initiative from the plastics industry to reduce plastic pellet loss, flake or powder into the environment. In the UK, it is led by the British Plastics Federation (BPF). The initiative’s aim is to ensure that the plastic pellets, flakes and powders that pass through manufacturing facilities in the UK are handled with the care they deserve and do not end up in our rivers or seas.
By signing up to Operation Clean Sweep®, companies make a commitment to adhere to best practice and implement systems to prevent plastic pellet loss and that they will play their part in protecting the aquatic environment. https://www.bpf.co.uk/Sustainability/Operation_Clean_Sweep.aspx
Its limitation is that there is no mandatory enforcement to maintain membership. However the British Plastic Federation has introduced a Publicly Accessible Standard (PAS) 510:2021 which sets out
requirements for the handling and management of plastic pellets, flakes and powders throughout the supply chain to prevent spills, leaks and loss to the environment, and covers all the elements from designating responsibilities to operational controls, performance evaluation and continual improvement. defines best practice.
https://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/standards/pas-5102021/. Its benefit is that is being updated and it is being adopted internationally.
Local regulation and inspection is essential to prevent loss and maintain the efficacy of company practices in preventing pollution referring those in the plastic supply chain to this standard and encourage membership of Operation Clean Sweep.
Stakeholder engagement is a crucial component of spill response efforts, as it allows for a more coordinated and effective response. Through initiatives such as community outreach programs, beach clean ups, and plastic reduction campaigns, we can engage stakeholders and promote behaviour change to prevent spills and reduce the impacts of environmental disasters.
With 170 trillion plastic particles in the sea and global production of 360 million metric tonnes the scale of current and future pollution may seem daunting but our environment relies on action to protect it.
The steps we can take are prevention first whilst cleaning up what is already there.
Satellite imagery in conjunction with algorithms enable large areas of the sea, coastline or estuaries to be remotely monitored. Any changes in appearance can be flagged up to an analyst who can delve more closely using forensic analysis.
It is possible to identify a 50m2 plastic spill in this way which is similar to that released from a container that has been lost from a ship that is starting to lose its contents. It is not dissimilar to a discharge from a manufacturing plant whose preventive measures may have failed.
Use of UAVs or human observation may be able to confirm the spillage and with the use of computer modelling able to predict its destination so that a shoreline can be protected through early intervention at sea or response as it hits the shore.
As in other aspects of spill response, early notification of an incident enables mitigation of its harmful effects to be put in place in a timely and proportionate manner that ensures successful recovery that minimises environmental harm.
The use of satellites, UAVs, citizen science and the engagement of all stakeholders enables knowledge and information to be shared and in this way prevent further damages to our environment.
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Project: Goal 6 report
Project Reference: PPWG Goal 6 Report
Report Title: Effective Approaches For Surveillance And Modelling Of Macro And Micro Plastic To Aid Response Efforts
Authors: Mark J Orr and Kate Brown
Checked and Approved By:
Version No: 1
Issue Status: 1
Date Issued: 18 May 2023