2.3.1 Plosives

2 Consonants

Consonants are one main group of speech sounds, the other being vowels. The two categories are distinct from each other bothwith regard to articulation and tohow they function in speech. All consonants are producedwith some form of stricture in the vocal tract, either a closure or a narrowing, which hinders the airflow, while vowels are produced with a free flow of air (see Chapter 3). Consonants are typically marginal in the syllable, sometimes as clusters, while vowels are at the centre of syllables. Consider the word strict /strɪkt/, where the vowel /ɪ/carries the syllable, while the consonants /str-/and /-kt/form the margins, and do not add any syllables (see further Chapter 5). The only consonants that can sometimes form (unstressed) syllables are /n, l, r/ in e.g. button /ˈbʌtn/, middle /ˈmɪdl/, eager /ˈiːɡr/(GA).

This chapter provides a description of consonant articulation in general, a classification of English consonants into different categories, and a presentation of all the individual consonant phonemes. Westart, however, with an overview of the speech organs and articulators which form the basis for consonant (and vowel) production.

2.1 Speech organs

All English speech sounds are made by air coming from the lungs and travelling up through the windpipe and out through the mouth or the nose. This airstream is modified in different ways to produce the various vowels and consonants. The present section takes a closer look at the organs that modify the airstream. Figure 2.1 shows the main parts of the speech apparatus.

Fig. 2.1 The speech organs.

The lungs are the source of energy for speech. In all languages, most speech sounds are made by air coming from the lungs. In technical terms, the sounds are made on an egressive (or out-going) airstream. When air is expelled from the lungs, the muscles in the abdomen contract, and the result is the same as that of pressing a bellows. We can vary the force with which the air is expelled. As we shall see later, this is important for our sensation of loudness. It is also important in the distinction between fortis andlenis consonants (see 2.2.3).

After being expelled from the lungs, the air travels up through the windpipe (the trachea) and through the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. The vocal cords play a very important role in speech. These

This book is an introduction to the pronunciation and intonation of modern English, with a focus on standard British and American English. It provides a detailed account of the English speech sounds, a discussion of stress and connected speech processes, and an outline of the principles of English intonation. The final chapter presents the main features of English varieties around the world. The book provides terms, symbols and other analytical tools for the description and study of English pronunciation. It offers clear explanations of basic theoretical concepts and plenty of illustrative examples.

English Pronunciation and Intonation is intended for undergraduate students of English in universities, colleges and in teacher training, but may be used by anyone interested in the English language.

Bente Hannisdal is Associate Professor of English linguistics at the University of Bergen, Norway.

Thor Sigurd Nilsen is a former Associate Professor of English linguistics at the University of South-Eastern Norway.

isbn 978-82-15-06702-5