A Comparative History of Libraries in
Introduction
From necessary documentation to elaborate fantasies, the written word has had many different purposes throughout history, and we capture much of this within the term “book”. With that in mind, what is a library? The term has been used to cover a wide range of collections and collecting institutions over a long period of time(Ryholt et al., 2019, 7). For the purposes of this paper, I will be using Ryholt et al (2019)’s loose definition of any collection of any size, any non-documentary texts deliberately grouped and stored together, and any places designated for the storage of such collections during their time of use(7).
The two regions covered include Europe and the Middle East. There is a long and complex history between these regions, highlighted by tensions between the dominant religions of each area, such as the Crusades(Del Sarto, 2021, 10-11);(Brooks, 2022). However, a shared love of knowledge in both regions will become clear to readers by this paper ’ s conclusion.
Region 1: Europe
Antiquity (B.C.E.- 599 C.E.)
Greece
In ancient Athens, legal documents slowly gained importance in daily life, but the development of libraries and archives was slower(Lyons, 2011, 25). The first of these, a city archive for Athens, was established in 405 B C E (Lyons, 2011, 25) Texts stored there, most often written on scrolls, were stored in sealed jars(Lyons, 2011, 25). I personally find this to be an inefficient method of information retrieval by today’s standards.
Anonymous(100 C.E.). Papyrus 131, f. The Aristotelian Constitution of the Athenians. Accessed via Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BL Papyrus 131-10v Constitution of Athens.jpg
Ptolemaic Egypt
Another notable collecting institution from before the common era is the Library of Alexandria, established in the third century B.C.E. and located in Ptolemaic Egypt(Lyons, 2011, 26). It was also a museum, and had a garden, a dining room, a reading room, lecture halls, and meeting rooms, creating an even more diverse landscape for the transmission of information(Lyons, 2011, 26). It’s even been argued that this setup formed the model for a modern university campus(Lyons, 2011, 26).
The mission of the caretakers of the Library of Alexandria was to gather all knowledge of the known world, and messengers were routinely sent to purchase items for the Library at the most popular book fairs of the time, held in Rhodes and Athens(Lyons, 2011, 26). International scholars came on funded visits, and, more significantly, any ships entering Alexandria had to turn over any books for copying(Lyons, 2011, 26). The original owners would receive the copy upon completion, and the original would remain in the Library of Alexandria(Lyons, 2011, 26). This system really paid off: The collection at Alexandria, allegedly containing over half a million scrolls, held the most sought-after texts of the time, including the Hebrew Old Testament and texts by Greek authors(Lyons, 2011, 26) This collection also asserted the Ptolemaic Pharaohs' dominance over both Greek and non-Hellenic regions(Lyons, 2011, 26).
In the early third century B.C.E., the collection at Alexandria was cataloged alphabetically by the poet Callimachus: This was the first known alphabetically-organized library catalog(Lyons, 2011, 26), marking a new tool for information retrieval.
An offshoot library of the one at Alexandria, called the Serapeum, acted as a public library, where Alexandria’s library was reserved for scholarly use(Lyons, 2011, 27). This library’s collection development was focused on Greek texts for educational use, especially those prized ones by Homer, Euripedes, and Demosthenes(Lyons, 2011, 27). The Serapeum was destroyed during Roman capture in 273 C.E.(Lyons, 2011, 27), but it is an early example of a public library.
Rome
One of the most significant developments to come from Roman book consumption was the physical binding method of the codex. Scrolls were disadvantageous for a number of reasons: They required two hands to read and lacked page numbers as a continuous surface(Lyons, 2011, 35). Individual scrolls were also hard to tell apart, but this was dealt with using small tags(Howard, 2009, 10). These factors made them hard to reference, and near impossible to index(Lyons, 2011, 35). Scrolls were also disadvantageous from a storage perspective, as their round shape was not ideal for neat stacking: Scrolls were grouped according to topic and stored in stone or wooden jars(Howard, 2009, 10).
de Ribera, J (1624) St Jerome seated on the ground and reading an inscribed scroll, a skull next to his right leg and a lion beyond. Bequest of Phyllis Massar, 2011 at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accessed via Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:St. Jerome seated on the ground and reading an inscri bed scroll, a skull next to his right leg and a lion beyond MET DP832641 jpg
Codices(the multiple form of ‘codex’) are the first format that resembles the modern bound book(Howard, 2009, 11). They consisted of collected and folded(papyrus or parchment) sheets bound together at the back of the spine, typically using a cover as a protective element(Roberts and Skeat 1983, 1, as cited in Howard, 2009, 11) Though the earliest known codex, written in Latin, is dated at 100 C.E., historical record demonstrates that Romans did not adopt the codex format into widespread use until a bit into the fifth century C.E. (Howard, 2009, 11). The codex was a fruitful format for navigational tools like page numbers, indices, headings, and summaries: These developments made codices more useful as reference tools(Lyons, 2011, 37). Additionally, the (roughly) rectangular shape of codices would have allowed them to be stacked more efficiently, and the spine of the codex gave a good space for identification, which would have made both information storage and retrieval easier for users.
The first collections in Roman libraries contained war trophies claimed from regions colonized by Rome, for example, the seized book collection of the Macedonian king Perseus by Aemilis Paulus(Lyons, 2011, 29). Later, Augustus Caesar established the Library of Apollo on Palatine Hill(Lyons, 2011, 29). This library, as well as the temple adjoining it, were beautifully decorated buildings(Platner, 1929, 17-18). The library itself allegedly contained two sections, one in Greek and one in Latin, as well as a meeting space large enough for the Senate, and portraits of famous authors in medallion form(Platner, 1929, 17).
Private book collecting was also popular among Roman elites, including volumes in both Greek and Latin(Lyons, 2011, 29). Private book collecting, going forward, was mainly practiced by those with the disposable income to do so- as each new volume had to be copied by hand, they were prohibitively expensive for the average layperson(Norman, n.d.)
Public readership in Rome grew during the first few centuries of the Common Era, and topics covered a wide range of subjects(Lyons, 2011, 29). Unfortunately, this age of great libraries and wide readership ceased with the Roman Empire’s decline and more frequent invasions, caused by a collapse of infrastructure supporting a literate society(Lyons, 2011, 29). This societal shift left many intellectual institutions by the wayside, and eventually the only ones that remained were those supported by the Christian church(Lyons, 2011, 29).
Middle Ages and Renaissance (600 C.E. - 1500 C.E.)
Monastic Libraries and the Age of Scriptoria
Private collections were still very much the norm going into the Middle Ages in Europe: The most renowned contemporary private collections were those held in monasteries, particularly those of Benedictine monasteries(Howard, 2009, 12). The Rule of St. Benedict of Nursia was first established in the sixth century C.E., at the Monastery of Monte Cassino in southern Italy(Lyons, 2011, 38). This rule was significant because it made the study of Christian literature obligatory for Benedictine monks, and more specifically mandated three hours of reading a day(Lyons, 2011, 38)
From the sixth century C.E. onwards, libraries were considered essential components of monastic life in Western Europe: A dedicated librarian among the monks would conduct the care and keeping of the collection, and the most valuable of these could be chained to their shelves(Lyons, 2011, 38). Collections books typically did not travel, but lending sections were established in some monasteries(Lyons, 2011, 38). Monks and scholars would travel to other monasteries in search of a specific book, and were given money with which to purchase these volumes(Lyons, 2011, 38) Some monasteries that had special reputations for intellectual activities performed there would allow monks from external monasteries to come there to copy manuscripts for their own collections, such as the Monastery of Bobbio in Italy(Lyons, 2011, 38).
Books were copied either by secular or monastic copyists, by the latter in a scriptorium. This was a large room dedicated solely to the copying of manuscripts(Howard, 2009, 12). Copying work in a scriptorium began after parchment had been prepared and bound in a separate
location(Howard, 2009, 12). Copying was a difficult task, and exactness was prized(Howard, 2009, 13) After copying, especially special volumes would be enhanced by illuminators, artists who would use boldly colored pigments to decorate a text with relevant ornamentation(Howard, 2009, 13). Only about one out of every forty manuscripts included illumination in some form, and gold or other bright pigments were favored(Howard, 2009, 13).
Anonymous(Eleventh century C.E.). Scriptorium at Echternach, from Book of Pericopes of Henry II. Accessed via Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Scriptorium at Echternach.jpg
If any readers are interested in learning more about scriptoriums via an interactive point-and-click video game that takes great care to represent a historically accurate setting during/after the decline of the scriptorium age, I highly recommend Pentiment by Obsidian Entertainment(rated M).
Private & Special Collections
Jewish people in medieval Europe did not require books for individual worship, but were available through rabbinical schools and in Houses of Learning attached to synagogues(Lyons, 2011, 52). The latter often had a function similar to that of a public library, and wealthy community members would deposit books for the public to study(Lyons, 2011, 53). One special consideration to be made is that in Jewish tradition, any paper bearing the divine name cannot be destroyed(Lyons, 2011, 51) The production and distribution of Jewish books was difficult in medieval Europe due to antisemitic persecution, and even periodic burnings of the Talmud in Paris(Lyons, 2011, 53).
Beyond religious libraries, many wealthy patrons of the arts took great pride in their book collections and sought out especially rare volumes on medicine, law, poetry, and
scripture(Howard, 2009, 23). Some of these aristocratic collectors would build private libraries (also called “studies”) to demonstrate both their wealth and intellectual prowess(Howard, 2009, 23).
The Renaissance marked a shift in thought around libraries, especially private monastic collections: This shift to a humanist ideology caused people to write new books and gather those from antiquity(Howard, 2009, 24). However, this certainly did not mark an end of elite book collecting. Arguably the most famous of these wealthy collecting patrons was the Medici family of Italy, established a library in Florence to hold their vast book collection, which featured classical Greek and Roman volumes(Howard, 2009, 25).
Early Impact of Print
The circulation of paper in Europe was one factor that allowed a wider audience of readership in Europe(Howard, 2009, 23), but blank paper does not make for a good read. The humanist attitudes promoted by the Renaissance created a demand for access to information, but those attitudes alone did not create more books(Howard, 2009, 25). The adoption of printing using movable metal type was the third functional innovation that allowed for wider access to information in Europe, and it spread quickly thereafter(Howard, 2009, 40);(Lyons, 2011, 62). Simply put, this innovation(or series of grouped innovations, depending upon how one looks at it) set a baseline for informational access that would develop during the Early Modern period into a more recognizable form of library to us in the modern age.
Modern Era(1500 C.E. - 2024 C.E.)
Rise of Lending Libraries
The next extremely notable innovation in the European library sphere regarding increased access occurred in the nineteenth century: Books were still relatively expensive for working-class people at this time, though not as much so as pre-print(Lyons, 2011, 147). Public libraries before the late nineteenth century were little more than restrictive studies for treasures from antiquity, only allowing scholars into their collections and restricting access to a few hours per week(Lyons, 2011, 148).
Both private circulating libraries and public lending libraries opened in Europe during this period, and these provided a less expensive option for many people to access the printed word(Lyons, 2011, 147). They also gained a reputation for supplying women with sensational novels(Lyons, 2011, 147): See on the next page an 1804 satirical print by Isaac Cruickshank, a British printmaker, demonstrating this reputation of circulating libraries.
Cruickshank, I.(1804). The Circulating Library. Laurie & Whittle. Accessed through the British Museum. https://www britishmuseum org/collection/object/P 1948-0214-689
© The Trustees of the British Museum. Shared under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4 0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4 0) license
Notice that in this print, shelves labeled “Novels,” “Romances,” and “Tales” are almost empty, whereas shelves labeled “History” and “Sermons” look untouched(Cruickshank, 1804). This aligns with the sentiments of librarians and library reformers of the nineteenth century, who were dismayed that the public sought out fiction so much more than educational volumes(Lyons, 2011, 150).
Many libraries towards the beginning of the nineteenth century operated on a subscription-based model, especially in Britain, making them accessible to a mainly middle-class audience(Lyons, 2011, 147). These libraries would provide access to the latest fiction, and publishers were happy to help them with substantial discounts on their bulk orders(Lyons, 2011, 147). This led to the development of the triple-decker novel, or a novel bound in three parts so that three different people could check out different parts of the same book at once(Lyons, 2011, 147). Special libraries also existed throughout Europe to serve specific
niches, such as scientific or literary groups(Lyons, 2011, 147). During the late nineteenth century, the development of inexpensive reprintings of books all but put an end to subscription-based libraries(Lyons, 2011, 148). I say ‘all but’ because there are actually two member-supported libraries right here in Rhode Island still operating today: They are the Providence Athenaeum in Providence and the Redwood Library in Newport. I understand that this note is outside of the scope of this paper, as both libraries are located in the United States, but find it generally relevant to the intended scholastic audience at the University of Rhode Island.
However, book lending was still strong in Germany through the end of the nineteenth century, and businesses like Borstell & Reimarus were renting out books from their 600,000-volume collection in their large Berlin store by 1891, where even the nobility were among its customers(Lyons, 2011, 149).
The latter nineteenth century’s reformers opened free public libraries that further widened access to working-class people(Lyons, 2011, 147) Rising literacy and expansion of voting rights(in some countries) contributed to this, as the ruling classes now found the topic of ordinary readership to be an issue of public interest: They ensured that “healthy” literature was provided to the masses through these new public libraries(Lyons, 2011, 148). Charles Dickens, when opening the Manchester Free Public Library in Britain in 1852, made a speech about his hopes that the library would resolve conflict between capital and labour(Lyons, 2011, 148). By the turn of the twentieth century, workplace libraries began to pop up for relevant reference during the workday, and trade union libraries also began to gain popularity(Lyons, 2011, 149-50).
Britain was once again ahead of the curve in provisions for lending libraries: Beginning in 1850, local taxes could be imposed in order to fund libraries, and the rate at which this could be done was actually increased by double in 1855(Lyons, 2011, 148).
Rise of Standards
As the amount of printed matter grew internationally, and readership became public, a system of tracking all of these printed volumes had to be devised. This task was taken up by many different people, and in Europe there were many forms of standardization undertaken nationally through the twentieth century before the creation of the European Bureau of Library, Information, and Documentation Associations in 1992(or EBLIDA, for short)(EBILDA, 2024)
Digital Libraries & E-Content
Scholarly content aggregators, or databases, developed in the late twentieth century among an increasing amount of digitized content on networked computers(Candella et al., 2011, 3). These early, pre WorldWideWeb databases served the purposes of self-publishing works and retrieval of those works with (by today’s standards) clunky search interfaces(Candella et al., 2011, 3). Metadata became a consideration in the late 1990’s, and the giant corporation we know today as Google also started during this “Wild West” of the early internet(Candella et al., 2011, 3-4).
As the Web developed, more specific domains of content were identified, and more databases showed up in turn: However, this information was fragmented across a lot of different places across the Web(Candella et al., 2011, 3-4). Content sharing was one solution for this, and by 2010, content aggregators were up and running to provide a wide variety of information to institutions on a subscription basis(Candella et al., 2011, 7-10). Subscription-based models are still the norm for scholarly content aggregators today, and libraries must face budgetary considerations when deciding whether or not to continue a particular subscription.
Region 2: Middle East
There are many different spellings in English for the Qur’an. In this EBook, I will be using the spelling ‘Qur’an’.
Antiquity (B.C.E. - 599 C.E.)
Before Islam
This section of history is necessarily pre-Islam, as the Prophet Muhammed ﷺ lived from 570 C.E. to 632 C.E(Lyons, 2011, 47). He was recognized as a prophet during his lifetime, and the Qur’an is a collection of his revelations, though the written tradition of Qur’anic manuscripts did not occur until after his death(Lyons, 2011, 47).
Much written pre-Islamic history has been lost to time, as early Islamic scholars rejected these times as jāhilyyah, or “time of ignorance”(Jaffri, n d ) However, a lot of information that remains has been transmitted orally, and since recorded in written form(Jaffri, n.d.).
Additionally, a culture appreciative of libraries was inherited from earlier Nestorian and Sassanid traditions pre-Islam(Mahmood, 2020). Libraries were known to exist in Iran, Syria, and Persia, as well as the Library of Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt(Mahmood, 2020), covered in the early European section.
Middle Ages and Islamic Golden Age (600 C.E. - 1500 C.E.)
The Qur’an
Middle Eastern acquisition of paper development methods in the eighth century(Howard, 2009, 6) is a direct cause of the proliferation of Islamic libraries(Antonio et al., 2021, 13);(Lyons, 2011, 49). Paper, though expensive, was much less so than papyrus or parchment, and paper mills were widespread in the Middle East by the ninth century C.E.(Howard, 2009, 6).
Anonymous(Between 568 C.E. and 645 C.E.). Qur’anic Manuscript held by University of Birmingham. Accessed via Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Birmingham Quran manuscript.jpg
In Islam, it is required to show physical copies of the Qur’an utmost respect: Muslim readers must bathe before handling it, and it should not be placed on the ground or underneath another book(Huda, 2018). Additionally, non-Muslim readers should not handle Arabic copies of the Qur’an, but audio copies in Arabic or a translation in any form are deemed acceptable(Huda, 2018). There are also specific disposal procedures for Qur’anic volumes: Acceptable procedures include wrapping in cloth and burying deeply in the ground, placing under water so the ink dissolves, or, as a last resort, burning completely(Huda, 2018).
For more specific information on early Qur’anic preservation, please refer to Khatib(2022, updated 2024)’s article on the preservation of the Uthmānic Codex.
With these preservation considerations in mind, the codex was ‘immediately adopted’ for Qur’anic manuscripts because the format better lent itself to protection than scrolls did(Lyons, 2011, 48)
Mosque Libraries
The distinct preservation of Qur’anic manuscripts in turn caused other writings to be collected: This caused the establishment of libraries across the Muslim world(Antonio et al., 2021, 1). Additionally, Muslim teachings encourage acquisition of knowledge that will bring a person closer to God(Antonio et al , 2021, 2) The majority of treasured works during this period were
either original works of Muslim scientists drawing from a variety of methods/traditions, or translated manuscripts from a variety of pre-Islamic civilizations with commentary by Muslim scholars(Antonio et al., 2021, 2).
The first library to have a specific focus on the subjects of philosophy, science, and mathematics was the Bayt al-Hikmah in Baghdad(modern-day Iraq), built around 815 C.E. by Caliph al-Ma’mun (Antonio et al., 2021, 2). The Bayt al-Hikmah contained volumes translated into Arabic from several different languages, including Greek, Syrian, Pahlavi, and Sanskrit volumes: The copying of these volumes was vital for their continued existence, and this is demonstrated by the comparative robustness of manuscripts in Arabic than in any European language(Antonio et al., 2021, 2-3).
Islamic libraries like the Bayt al-Hikmah are directly tied to the development of scientific and social subjects in the Muslim world from the eighth through tenth century C.E.(Antonio et al., 2021, 1). However, the true brilliance of Islamic libraries emerged in eleventh-century Cairo via the Fathimiyah Caliphate(Peterson, 1996; as cited in Antonio et al , 2021, 3) One example from this period is the Dar al-’Ilm, built in Cairo in 1005 C.E. by Caliph al-Hakim(Antonio et al., 2021, 3). This institution was just one part of the wholly rebuilt Cairo, which also included a large palace and a mosque, both of which featured their own libraries(Antonio et al , 2021, 3) The library at the Fathimiya palace was located in the basement, and was allegedly decorated splendidly with fine carpeting covering the walls and floors(Antonio et al., 2021, 3). Writing surfaces and tools were also supplied by the library to its patrons, and anyone was allowed to study there(Antonio et al., 2021, 3). This last point makes it more akin to a modern-day public library than anything in Europe at the time, a place where people of various social classes could gather over a thirst for information(Antonio et al., 2021, 3). Researchers, assistants, and laborers were regularly hired for the library, and scientists were paid very well to conduct their research at the library(Antonio et al , 2021, 3)
← al-Wasiti, Y.(Thirteenth century C.E.). Library in Baghdad. Accessed via Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A Library in Golden Islamic Age.jpg
Outside of Egypt, the Umayyad al-Hakam, Islamic ruler in Cordova, Spain, founded a large library in the late 10th century CE: This library also brought together various disciplines, but was unique in that it also hired copyists and bookbinders(Antonio et al., 2021, 3). Agents were
set by al-Hakam in each province to purchase or copy books for the collection(Antonio et al., 2021, p 3) This library was also free to the public(Antonio et al , 2021, 3)
The Bayt al-Hikmah was unfortunately destroyed along with its vast collections in a Mongol invasion of Baghdad led by Hulegu Khan in 1258 C.E.(Algeriana et al., 2017, 185-6). However, the Islamic library at Cordoba continued flourishing despite Mongol attempts at sacking, and allegedly contained over 400,000 volumes at one point in time(Lyons, 2011, 49). However, this library was also not immune from political turmoil, and upon influence from orthodox religious scholars, Caliph al-Mansur ordered the destruction of books on secular scientific subjects(Antonio et al., 2021, 3).
Eventually, further large libraries were established in central Asia by Mongol conqueror Timur and his successors in the fourteenth century and beyond(Lyons, 2011, p. 49).
Art of the Book: Calligraphy
In the Arab, and especially Muslim, world, calligraphy was considered a high art and a test of character: It was highly prized in Qur’anic volumes(Lyons, 2011, p. 48). As Islam spread, the original language of the Qur’an, Arabic, did as well in written communication(Lyons, 2011, p. 48). To learn more about the importance of calligraphy in the Muslim world, please watch this 2013 interview by The Guardian with Taha Al-Hiti, a professional Arabic calligrapher.
There were a great number of copyists in the Muslim world(around 100,000) by the fifteenth century, so when printing with movable type became popular, a lack of reading material wasn’t a concern(Lyons, 2011, 49). This, alongside the prized nature of calligraphy in Islam, were both factors leading to Ottoman Sultan Bayazid II’s 1485 decree, which banned printed matter throughout the Ottoman Empire(Lyons, 2011, 49).
← Hashrim, M (1765-6 C E ) An Afsharid Manuscript of Qur’anic Verses, Iran. Accessed via Wikimedia Commons
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:An Afsharid manuscript of Qur%27anic verses, signed Muhammad Hashim, Iran, dated 1765-66.jpg
Modern Era (1500 C.E. - 2024 C.E.)
Printing in Arabic
Sultan Bayazid II of the Ottoman Empire’s print-banning decree of 1485 was partially repealed in 1727 for secular works(Lyons, 2011, 49). Later that century, in 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte brought the press to Egypt with both Greek and Arabic type(Lyons, 2011, 63). In the 1840’s the 1485 print ban was finally repealed in full in Mohammed Ali, Pasha of Egypt’s modernization campaigns(Lyons, 2011, 49). Within this blossoming of print culture in the Arab world, Beirut became a secular publishing center during the latter nineteenth century, and still is today(Lyons, 2011, p. 49).
Modern Libraries
Libraries in the modern Middle East function quite similarly to those in Europe and the U S , and these collecting institutions have digital counterparts(al-Tamini, 2023). The development of these libraries aligns somewhat with those in Europe, and eBook culture is very much alive in the Middle East today(al-Tamimi, 2023).
Comparison
Both Europe and the Middle East had a common early library that impacted their respective library cultures, the Library of Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt. This caused a lasting focus in both regions on Greek and Latin language texts(Platner, 1929, 17);(Antonio et al., 2021, 2-3), and also followed an existing tradition of libraries housed in religious gathering spaces(Delia, 1992, 1451)
The codex format’s success is also directly tied to early adoptions of the format for both the Christian and Muslim holy books(the Bible and Qur’an respectively), and are differentiated from the Jewish Torah(which uses a scroll format, even to this day)(Lyons, 2011, 36, 48, 51).
Libraries in both regions during the Middle Ages were institutions vitally connected to religion(Antonio et al., 2021, 2);(Lyons, 2011, 38). However, Christian monastic libraries were typically reserved for monastic scholars, and laypeople were a) not allowed inside of these libraries, and b) could not make use out of the non-vernacular texts, even if they were able to physically access the libraries(Lyons, 2011, 67);(Howard, 2009, 21). In contrast, many Muslim libraries in the same period were open to the public, or at least multiple classes of people: This could be due to encouragement in Qur’anic verses to “think, reflect on, and acquire knowledge” that will bring one closer to God(Antonio et al., 2021, 1,3). A far more literate public, as well as an earlier adoption of paper as a writing surface, made books a much more accessible and commonplace item in Middle Eastern life during the Middle Ages than in Europe at the same time(Howard, 2009, 5-10; Lyons, 2011, 49).
Conclusion
As we have seen in both Europe and the Middle East, libraries could be spaces restrictive to certain classes or class-neutral spaces, dependent upon notions of profit and eliteness in respective societies(Antonio et al , 2021, 2);(Lyons, 2011, 147). The question of who is “worthy” of accessing information from collections-based institutions and what institutions are “worthy” of preserving it reveals societal biases upon which scholarly systems have often operated(Boisvert, 2023, 1). Repatriation of these objects is a complex issue, and I am grateful to have had an awareness of imperialism in the collections sphere introduced to me in my very first Museum Studies course in 2018. My first ever undergraduate paper was about the arduous journey of the repatriation of the G’psgolox Pole from a Swedish museum back to the Haisla indigenous peoples of Canada(Morganti, 2018, 1). Regardless of location or object type, libraries and other collecting institutions are signifiers of who is considered worthy of having their legacy preserved and by whom, which reveals often-unsaid imperial biases against historically colonized peoples(Boisvert, 2023, 2, 5). Digital content complicates issues of ownership and access further, and discussions regarding how they should be handled are ongoing(Boisvert, 2023, 4-5).
Digital content has also allowed for individual accessibility tools like text size adjustments, where large-print copies of printed books require additional considerations from libraries and publishers alike. As we move forward towards the future of consuming information, will not believe so- it will be adapted to fit whichever te information access!
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