Utah Antiquities Selected Papers Volume 4, Number 12 - 1977 by Utah Historical Society

ANTIQUITIES SECTION SELECTED PAPERS

VOLUME IV, NUMBER 12

Department of Development Services Division of State History

AUGUST 1977

STATE OF UTAH Scott M. Matheson, Governor

DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT SERVICES Michael D. Gallivan, Executive Director

DIVISION OF STATE HISTORY MelvinT. Smith, Director

STATE BOARD OF HISTORY Mabel Oliver Helen Z. Papanikolas Howard C. Price, Jr. Elizabeth Skanchy MelvinT. Smith Richard O. Ulibarri

Milton C. Abrams, Chairman Juanita Brooks Dello G.Dayton Theron H.Luke Clyde L.Miller Elizabeth Montague

STATE ANTIQUITIES COMMITTEE Donald V. Hague Ray T. Matheny MelvinT. Smith Stanford S. Smith Chandler P. St. John Harold Tippets

Milton C. Abrams, Chairman Clyde J. Benally Dello G.Dayton EvanDeBloois J. Eldon Dorman Richard E. Fike

EDITORIAL STAFF David B. Madsen, Editorial Advisor Thomas J. Zeidler, Editor

CORRECTIONS p. 7, Appendix line 6, "sq. in." should read "sq. m." p. 7, col. B line 7, "beyong" should read "beyond." p. 15, Fig. 7, "Stratum" should read "Stratum 2." p. 44, col. A line 13, "Fi. 17" should read "Fig. 17."

References p. 12, col. B line 12, "Lindsay n.d. should read "Lindsay [site reports on file, Antiquities Section.]" p. 41, col. B line 24, "Dalley 1972" should read Dalley 1972c." p. 43, col. B line 21, "Dalley 1972s" should read "Dalley 1972Q." p. 44, col. A line 28, "Dalley 1972" should read Dalley 1972c." p. 83, col. A line 10, "Hendrick 1919" should read "Hedrick 1919." p. 86, col. B line 3, "Winter 1972" should read "Winter 1972a." p. 90, col. B line 44, "Jenning's" should read "the Jennings et al." p. 91, col. B line 33, "Dalley 1972" should read "Dalley 1972b." p. 115, col. B, add to "Berry, Michael S." 1975 An Archeological Survey of the Northeast Portion of Arches National Park. Antiquities Section Selected Papers, Vol. I No. 3. Salt Lake City. 1976 Numic-Fremont Relationships in the Southeastern Great Basin. Paper delivered at the 1976 Great Basin Anthropological Conference. Las Vegas. p. 117, col. B, add Madsen, David B. and Michael S. Berry 1975 A Reassessment of Northeastern Great Basin Prehistory, American Antiquity, Volume 40, Number 4. Washington.

CUMULATIVE INDEX Antiquities Section Selected Papers

Number 1

Three Fremont Sites in Emery County Utah by David B. Madsen. Volume I, Page 1.

Number 2

Innocents Ridge and the San Rafael Fremont by Alan R. Schroedl and Patrick F. Hogan with an appendix by La Mar Lindsay. Volume I, Page 29.

Number 3

An Archeological Survey of the Northeast Portion of Arches National Park by Michael S. Berry. Volume I, Page 67.

Number 4

An Archeological Reconnaissance of the White River Area, Northeastern Utah by Michael S. Berry and Claudia F. Berry with illustrations by La Mar W. Lindsay. Volume II, Page 1.

Number 5

Man, Mammoth, and Lake Fluctuations in Utah by David B. Madsen, Donald R. Currey, James H. Madsen, Volume II, Page 43.

Number 6

Bulldozer Dune (42SL46) by David B. Madsen. Volume II, Page 59.

Number 7

Interstate Highway 1-70 Salvage Archeology by Curtis J. Wilson and Howard L. Smith with ceramic analyses by John Fritz and Christine Plimpton. Volume II, Page 67. Unusual or Enigmatic Stone Artifacts: Pots, Pipes, Points, and Pendants From Utah by La Mar W. Lindsay. Volume II, Page 104.

Number 8

Number 9

Archeological Survey of The Bluff Bench/San Juan River and White Mesa Areas, San Juan County, Utah 19731974 by Richard E. Fike and La Mar W. Lindsay. Volume III, Page 1.

Number 10

Pint-Size Shelter by La Mar W. Lindsay and Christian K. Lund with appendices by La Mar W. Lindsay and Donald R. Currey. Volume III, Page 25.

Number 11

Archeological Investigations In The Maze District Canyonlands National Park, Utah edited by William A. Lucius with contributions by Patrick Hogan, Leonard Losee, and William A. Lucius. Volume III, Page 75.

Number 12

Backhoe Village by David B. Madsen and La Mar W. Lindsay with appendices by Jan Andrews and Joseph C. Winter. Volume IV, Page 1.

EDITOR'S PREFACE

This volume is the fourth in a monograph series designed to examine and interpret the prehistoric cultures of Utah. Antiquities Section Selected Papers is specifically geared to Utah archeology, but includes papers from adjacent geographical areas and from ancillary disciplines relevant to the understanding of local archeological problems. The series has three goals: 1) to provide a vehicle for the publication of research carried out by the Antiquities Section; 2) to provide an outlet for archeological reports which do not have a general distribution (i.e., investigations done in conjunction with environmental impact statements); and 3) to allow publication of valuable manuscripts now on file and republication of articles now out of print and unavailable. Manuscripts from all sources, including state and federal agencies, educational institutions, and private individuals, will be accepted for examination and possible publication. Articles should be typed double spaced and should be accompanied by photo-ready line drawings and photographs. Submitted articles will be reviewed by the Antiquities Section staff or other qualified reviewers in the case of ancillary reports. Papers will be published on an irregular basis, depending on the number and quality of reports on file.

David B. Madsen July 1977

BACKHOE VILLAGE

by DAVID B. MADSEN and LA MAR W. LINDSAY Antiquities Section Division of State History State of Utah

with appendices by JAN ANDREWS and JOSEPH C. WINTER

ANTIQUITIES SECTION SELECTED PAPERS Number 12

PREFACE Archeological excavations were conducted during February and March, 1976, by the Antiquities Section, Division of State History, at Backhoe Village in the central Sevier Valley, Central Utah. Archeological salvage was necessitated by the construction of the Sevier Valley Trade Technical College in Richfield, Utah. Approximately half the building foundations were completed and the majority of the site destroyed when the site was first identified. Mrs. Pearl Jacobson of Richfield became concerned over the human bones exposed in the footing trenches and reported the site to the Antiquities Section. Inspection of the site revealed considerable cultural debris (pottery, stone, and bone) and a number of pit structures which were visible in the profiles of the construction trenches. In order to salvage what remained of the site, the Honorable Calvin L. Rampton, Governor of the State of Utah, directed that funds be allocated for archeological salvage. The site was excavated under the direction of David B. Madsen and the supervision of La Mar W. Lindsay. Crew members included Justin Brydson, Winston Gamble, Rickey Jim, Peggy Kreis, Christian K. Lund, Phil Ostler, Howard Smith, and John Whittaker. In addition, a number of "short-term" volunteers also participated at various time including Suesan Taylor, Tom Zeidler, Laurie George, Shelley Dickey, Richard E. Fike, Mignonette Madsen, and Asa Nielson. Mignonette Madsen processed and labeled the artifacts in the laboratory. Jan Andrews analyzed the human skeletal material (Appendix I) and Joseph C. Winter analyzed the corn (Appendix II). David Crompton and Kay Sargent photographed the artifacts. Amy Pringle and Suesan Taylor are credited with the typing. Despite adverse weather conditions and the limitations of time and money, the large Sevier site yielded much information. The following report is basically descriptive, with interpretation limited to placing the site in the context of the Sevier culture.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface

Page 3

Abstract

Introduction

Location and Setting Geology Climate Vegetation Fauna Previous Research Site Description Setting Excavation and Stratigraphy Excavation Procedure Stratigraphic Sequence Summary and Discussion

JO '10 jj jj jI jj j2 12 12 12 12 16

Cultural Features Structure 1 Structure 2 Structure 3 Structure4 Structure 5 Structure 6 Structure 7 Structure 8 Structure 9 Use Surface/ Midden Areas A-D Summary and Discussion

16 16 17 lg 20 22 22 23 23 25 29 30

Dating

Artifacts Chipped Stone Ceramics

32 32 50

Ground Stone Worked Bone Miscellaneous Faunal Remains Summary and Discussion Human Skeletal Remains

Page 60 67 73 73 76 76

Pollen and Macrofossil Analyses Pollen Analysis Surface and Stratigraphic Pollen Samples Structural Pollen Samples Metateand Vessel Samples Macrofossil Analysis Discussion

78 73 80 80 83 86 86

Site Interpretation and Discussion Subsistence Economy Fremont (?) Origins Appendix I — Sevier Skeletal Material From Backhoe Village —Jan Andrews Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Discontinuous Morphological Traits Pathologies Dental Pathologies Burials Summary and Conclusion Appendix II — Maize From Backhoe Village and its Relations with the Fremont/ Sevier Corn Complex —Joseph C. Winter Introduction Fremont/Sevier Maize References

87 87 89 93 93 93 94 95 95 97 93 102

105 205 105 j 15

ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1 Site location: Eastern Great Basin 2 Aerial photograph: Sevier Valley 3 View of site location from the foothills of the Pavant Range 4 Siteplanmap 5a View of profile at Structure 3 5b View of profile at Structure 4 6 Site stratigraphy in southern exposure 7 Composite profile of site stratigraphy 8 Stream Channel II 9a Structure I (Plan map) 9b Structure I (Final photograph — structure fully excavated) 10a Structure 2 (Plan map)

Page 8 9 10 13 14 14 15 15 16 ]\j 17 18

Figure 10b Structure 2 (Partially excavated showing charred timbers and artifacts in situ) 11a Structure 3 (Plan map) 11 b Structure 3 (Final photograph — structure fully excavated) 12 Structure 3 (Firebasin with raised clay rim) 13a Structure 4 (Plan map) I3b Structure4 (Partially excavated floor) 14 Structure 4 (Close-up of skeletal material) 15 Structure 6 (Plan map) 16a Structure 8 (Plan map) 16b Structure 8 (Final photo showing fully excavated structure with backhoe damage)

Page 18 "*|<j 19 20 20 21 21 '22 24

Figure

Page

17a Structure 9 (Upper component — plan map) 26 17b Structure 9 (Upper component —final photo showing component fully excavated) .. .26 18 Structure 9 (Wall cross section) 27 19 Structure 9 (Clay-coiled floor of upper component) 27 20a Structure 9 (Lower component— plan map). 28 20b Structure 9 (Lower component — final photo showing partially excavated component and irregular floor) 29 21 Diagram of radiocarbon dates at one standard deviation 32 22 Points: Type la; lb; Id; Ha; lib; III; IV 39 23 Points: Type Via; VIb 42 24 Drills: Type I; Ila; lib; III; IV; V; VI; VII 43 25 Trifaces: Type la; lb; Bifaces: Type la; lb 45 26 Bifaces: Type II; III; Unifaces: Type I; II 46 27 Utilized Flakes (Microphotographs) 47 28 Cores 48 29 Hammerstones: Pecking and Polishing Stones . . . 49 30 Sevier Gray jars 53 31 Sevier Gray jars; Designs on Sevier Black-on-gray bowls 54 32 Unknown designs on Ivie Creek sherds 55 33 Ivie Creek Black-on-white/ Sevier variety bowls .. 57 34 Sevier Gray / Surface Manipulated sherds; Clay pipes; Worked sherds 58 35 Anthropomorphic figurine fragments 59 36 Slab type and "Utah-type" metates 64 37 Type I shaped mano, Type IV shaped mano, Type II cobble mano 65

38 39 40 41

42 43 44 45

47 48 49

50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57

Hoe/mauler, stone balls, sharpening stone Lignite beads, jadeite pendant Awls Center drilled "gaming piece"; Undrilled gaming pieces; Disk bead; Oval bead; Triangular bead; Tubular bead; Pendants Bone Figurine Olivella bead; shell bead/ pendant Close-up view of Canis skull Relative percentages of pollen types in samples from the surface and stratigraphic units Relative percentages of pollen types in samples from structural features and ceramic vessels Distribution of cattail pollen (in relative percent) across the floor of Structure 3 Relative percentages of pollen types in samples from metate troughs Distributional Map of Fremont Culture, Sevier Culture and a possible unnamed Plains-derived culture Side view of skull View of frontal region of skull revealing hole resembling trepanation Right parietal and frontal bone of crania Surface view of palate Upper region of eye socket of infant Frontal and top view of infant's skull Surface view of mandible Facial view of skull

Page 66 67 69

70 72 73 74

81 83 84

92 96 97 98 99 99 100 101 101

TABLES Table I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

Radiocarbon Dates Provenience of Chipped Stone Types Chipped Stone Tools: Materials and Measurements Provenience of Chipped Stone Tools Comparison of Chipped Stone Tools and Stone Types Provenience of Ceramic Artifacts Ratio of Vessels to Sherds at Selected Fremont Village Sites Provenience of Ground Stone Artifacts Metate Dimensions Mano Dimensions

Page

Table

Page

31 33

XI XII XIII

68 75

34 37 38 51 60 61 62 63

Worked Bone Provenience Unworked Bone Provenience Burial Features From Selected Fremont and Sevier Sites XIV Plant Macrofossils XV Row Frequencies for Fremont and Selected Anasazi Maize Collection XVI Cupule Width Measurements for Fremont, Sevier, and Selected Anasazi Collections XVII Additional Trait Measurements for Fremont and Sevier Collections

77 85 107

110 112

ABSTRACT Salvage excavations were conducted at a Sevier village site in the central Sevier River valley west of Richfield, Utah, by the Antiquities Section, Division of State History, in the spring of 1976. Backhoe Village was seriously disturbed by construction activities, and only nine partially intact semisubterranean pit structures and four use-areas were investigated. Storage structures were not encountered and may have been removed by grading of the construction site. The dwellings are primarily quadrilateral (8-12 sq. in.) with crawlway/ ventshafts. A single dwelling is roughly circular. Six dwellings are wholly or partially claylined. The artifact collection is characterized by corner- and side-notched arrowpoints, large biface blades, plain and decorated varieties of Sevier Gray pottery, trough and shaped slab metates, clay and bone figurines, and a variety of bone awls. Snake Valley Corrugated pottery is the most common trade item, but is dated much earlier at Backhoe Village than elsewhere Dating is controlled by seven radiocarbon determinations, which provide a maximum occupational time range for the site of 1400-840 B.P. (450-1110 A.D.) However, the minimum time range of 1180-1040 B.P. (770-910 A.D.) is more likely in view of the limited artifact and midden accumulation. Subsistence at Backhoe Village appears to have been based primarily on the collection of wild plants (principally marsh species) and was supplemented by hunting and corn agriculture. Dietary problems are indicated by the presence of iron deficiency anemia in four of the eight burials that were recovered. In comparison with other Sevier village sites, hunting was limited. Deer, mountain sheep, and rabbits were the primary faunal resource. Pollen evidence suggests a heavy reliance on cattails as the primary floral resource. The limited evidence for agriculture and the concomitantly extensive evidence for collecting suggest a village sedentarism based on gathering and limited hunting rather than on domesticated plants. All wild resources are locally available in quantities easily sufficient to support a sedentary occupational pattern. A sedentarism based on collecting is characteristic of eastern Great Basin villages, but not of their counterpart on the Colorado Plateau. Both of these groups have been termed Fremont, but a coherent entity which incorporated them both has never been and cannot be defined. We therefore restrict the term Fremont to agricultural groups on the Colorado Plateau and define collecting villages in the eastern Great Basin as the Sevier Culture.

INTRODUCTION Backhoe Village (42Sv662) is a large, single component, Sevier Culture site on the west side of the central Sevier River Valley (elevation ca. 1645 m.) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).* The site is located in the town of Richfield, Utah, in the NW>/4 NE'/4 NW>/4 Sec. 35, T. 23 S., R. 3 W., at lat. 112Â° 55' E., long. 38Â° 46' N., Salt Lake Base and Meridian (U.S.G.S. Richfield, Utah, 15 Min. Quadrangle). Archeological excavations were required by construction of a large state-sponsored school building. Considerable subsurface cultural debris and human skeletal material was exposed in a number of footing trenches throughout the 4,600-sq.-m. site. Subsequent investigations revealed nine pit structures and four usesurface/midden areas. None of these cultural features was wholly intact because of backhoe destruction. Site stratigraphy is simple, consisting of precultural

strata, a single cultural deposit, and overlying, postoccupational colluvium. The site yielded a considerable quantity of chipped and ground stone, ceramics and bone artifacts, and an unusual amount of human skeletal material. Excavations at Backhoe Village were valuable (beyong the normal limits of salvage) because knowledge of the Sevier culture in the Central Sevier drainage is entirely lacking except for limited data to the south in the towns of Sevier and Marysvale (Gillen 1941). This lack of information is striking considering the extremely lush environment of the valley. The region offers a variety of habitats and ecozones, all within close proximity. During aboriginal times they would have offered an immediate source for a large variety of flora and fauna.

*The "Sevier Culture" is a newly defined cultural entity which includes pottery-making, village-dwelling groups in the eastern Great Basin. These groups have previously been defined as variants of the Fremont Culture (c.f., Marwitt 1970). However, we restrict the use of the term "Fremont" to groups in the Colorado Plateau. As a result the use of the terms "Sevier" and "Fremont" in this monograph may appear confusing when the site and its contents are discussed in the light of extant literature. We suggest that problems of clarity can be resolved by referring to the section on Site Interpretation and Discussion when necessary.

Fig. 1 Site location: Eastern Great Basin.

a, cd 60 O

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Local townspeople have reported unearthing Sevier artifacts at several locations in Richfield. Sites at the central park and other modern developments, all within a radius of 1 km., contained pottery and apparently, evidence of plant domestication. All were exposed following the removal of several meters of alluvium and are similar in location and depth to Backhoe Village. Other large Sevier Village sites exist elsewhere in the

valley, and it is probable a relatively large population existed along the Sevier River during the Sevier occupational period. In addition to providing information on the Sevier culture where none exists, location of the excavation in Richfield resulted in considerable publicity and allowed ample opportunity for public education.

LOCATION AND SETTING

Backhoe Village is in the lO-km.-wide Central Sevier River Valley of the east-central Great Basin. The valley is adjacent to the Wasatch Plateau (elevation 3,350 m.) which is the dominant feature of the transitional zone between the Basin and Colorado Plateau provinences (Spieker 1949). This intermontane valley and the Pavant Plateau to the west (elevation 3,045 m.) are considered a part of the zone because of the gradual nature of the transition and because each possess certain geomorphic features of both provinces. These

features are also considered transitional because some disagreement exists regarding physiographic placement (e.g., Fenneman 1931; Young and Carpenter 1965; Spieker 1949; Hunt 1956). However, the Sevier River drainage lies wholly within the Great Basin. The site lies 4.8 km. west of the river in the alluvium from the Pavant Plateau. The river originates on the Markagunt and Paunsaugunt plateaus approximately 130 km. to the south and flows 150 km. northward turning west and draining into Sevier Lake.

GEOLOGY Exposures of Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary deposits in the Tushar Mountains and the Pavant Range have contributed heavily to the Pleistocene and Recent valley alluvium (Eardley 1969; Young and Carpenter 1965). This alluvium consists of poor

Fig. 3

to well-sorted clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders, and reaches approximately 250 m. in depth near Richfield where it overlies the Tertiary or Quaternary Sevier River Formation. Remnant Tertiary Green River, Crazy Hollow, and Bald Knoll formations are

View of site location from the foothills of the Pavant Range. 10

greasewood {Sarcobatus vermiculatus), sagebrush {Artemisia tridentata), and rabbitbrush {Crysothamnus nauseosus). Willows {Salix sp.), cottonwood {Populus sp.), cattail {Typha sp.), and saltcedar {Tamarix sp.) are present along the river. Great Basin sagebrush, pinyon-juniper woodland and mountain mahoganyscrub oak communities (Kuchler 1964) are present on the alluvial fans and foothills to 2,100 meters. In addition to sagebrush, dominant species include juniper {Juniperus sp.), pinyon pine {Pinus edulus), mountain mahogany {Cercocarpus sp.), and scrub oak {Quercus sp.). Above 2,100 m., the pine-Douglas fir community (Kuchler 1964) is present with prolific growth on the north-facing slopes. Dominant species include aspen {Populus tremuloides), ponderosa pine {Pinus ponderosa), spruce {Picea sp.) and Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga menziesii). Although Backhoe Village is located in a cultivated area, it is apparent that vegetation on and immediately surrounding the site would have consisted principally of greasewood, rabbitbrush, and sage. Indigenous grasses were also present. Site proximity to mesic species such as willow and cattail during aboriginal times is probable. These species have varied according to the changing course of the Sevier River and may have been much closer than the present (4.5 km.). Pinyon-juniper is located 1.2 km. above the site; montane and subalpine vegetation is about 6 km. distant.

also present in the Pavant Range. To the east, the valley is flanked by Tertiary rocks of volcanic origin. The valley floor occupies a graben-modified synclinal trough, with the Sevier and Elsinore Faults on the east and west sides of the valley, respectively (Young and Carpenter 1965). The latter fault runs directly along the western perimeter of Backhoe Village. The Sevier River receives flow from a number of snowand spring-fed intermittent and perennial streams. Annual river flow, averaging about 75,000 acre ft. (1920-1960), has varied from 50,000 to more than 450,000 acre ft. over a forty-year period (Young and Carpenter 1965). High water has resulted in considerable flooding particularly before the contruction of water storage and control dams in the southern part of the drainage. Large portions of the Sevier Valley were periodically inundated, and no doubt the river has changed course many times over the centuries.

CLIMATE The Sevier Valley is characterized as a midlatitude dry climate, common to the Great Basin and much of the Plateau (Burnham 1950). The valley floor is semiarid with an annual average precipitation of less than 10 in. per yr. Average precipitation is more than 30 in. per yr. in the surrounding mountains. Moisture is derived from both the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico and is distributed about equally throughout the year. This uniformity is less apparent in the northern Sevier River Valley where greater amounts of precipitation from the Pacific fall during the winter months; to the south a higher percentage is derived from the Gulf during the summer (Burnham 1950; Young and Carpenter 1965). Temperature variance between the warmest and coldest months averages more than 100Â° F. The frost-free period averages 121 days. The average temperature during the growing season is 68Â° F. compared to an annual mean of 49Â° F. (U.S. Weather Bureau Climatic Census 1957, 1965, 1961-70).

FAUNA The distribution of fauna varies throughout the region and'has been altered over time by human intervention. Game species abound and include mule deer and elk, the former was apparently less abundant while elk may have been absent from the region prehistorically (Barnes 1922; Durrant 1952). Pronghorn antelope and mountain sheep are presently nonexistent, although the latter was reported in the San Pitch drainage in early historic times. Bison were distributed well to the north in the Great Basin and eastward on the Plateau (Barnes 1922). Carnivores are abundant and include mountain lion, bobcat, lynx, coyotes, foxes, and wolves. Grizzly and black bear were reported during earlier times. Other species present include beaver, badger, weasel, marmot, jack and cottontail rabbits, skunk, porcupine, and various species of prairie dogs, gophers, bats, rats, mice, squirrels, and chipmunks (Barnes 1922; Durrant 1952).

VEGETATION Sevier Valley vegetation varies from the mesophytic species of the valley floor to the xerophytic species on the foothills to the subalpine varieties of the surrounding mountains. Saltbush-greasewood and Great Basin sagebrush communities (Kuchler 1964) are present in the uncultivated areas of the valley plain. Dominant species include saltgrass {Distichlis stricta),

PREVIOUS RESEARCH distinctive cultural entity and named from this early effort. The limited research in the Sevier drainage contrasts with the abundant data of surrounding areas.

Archeological research of Central Utah was inaugurated with Noel Morss' (1931) survey of the Fremont River. The Fremont culture was identified as a 11

Smith (1937) excavated a small site at the town of Ephraim in the San Pitch drainage. Gillen (1941) excavated three sites, two at Marysvale and one at Ephraim, and in addition, identified one at Sevier. Pottery at the Marysvale sites suggested affinities with the Fremont sites of the Parowan Valley (Marwitt 1970; Berry 1972). Gillen (1936) also conducted early excavations at Nephi, about 25 mi. north of the Sevier River. The site was first noted by Judd (1926) and was later the subject of full scale excavations (Sharrock and Marwitt 1967). Marwitt's (1970) regional synthesis of the Fremont places the Marysvale sites in the Parowan Fremont variant. The Ephraim sites, Pharo Village (Marwitt

1968), the Nephi Mounds (Sharrock and Marwitt 1967), Snake Rock Village (Aikens 1967), Old Woman and Popular Knob (Taylor 1957) are, according to Marwitt, affiliated with the Sevier variant. The Gooseberry site on the Wasatch Plateau also has apparent Sevier Fremont affinities (DeBloois 1977, personal communication). However, of all the variants, the boundaries of the Sevier are the least well defined by Marwitt (1970) and all of these sites are representative of the Sevier Culture as defined here. In addition, numerous sites have been identified from recent surveys (Bennett 1975; Nielson 1976; Lindsay n.d.), but none were classified as village sites.

SITE DESCRIPTION SETTING

these areas where cultural features were initially defined. Horizontal control was accomplished by establishing datum points for each cultural feature and tying these to a foundation reference plan map. An internal half-meter grid system was established for the floors of Structures 3 and 9. Eight structures, all partially destroyed by backhoe activities, were fully excavated. Structure 7 and the crawlway/ventshafts of Structures 1 and 3 were only partially examined. In addition, four use-surface/ midden areas and associated pits were explored. Artifacts were provenienced separately for fill, floor (or surface) and the major subfloor features for each structure. Floor contact of Structures 3 and 9 were provenienced with the half-meter grid. Charcoal samples were taken from each structure for radiocarbon dating; soil and fill samples were collected from various strata and cultural features for both pollen and macrofossil analysis.

Backhoe Village covers an area approximately 110 m. N-S by 42 m. E-W or 4,620 sq. m. (Fig. 4). The site, which was farmed for many years, was graded 1 to 2 m. below the plow zone in preparation for building construction. Judging from the surrounding terrain, the agricultural surface sloped about 5% northwest to southeast. A backhoe was used to penetrate and break up the frost zone preparatory to digging the footing trenches for the building foundations. This resulted in some disturbance to subsurface cultural deposits, particularly in the northern half of the site where the occupational stratum was shallowest. Approximately half of the total site area (2,300 sq. m.) was excavated some 3 to 4 m. below the graded surface for footing trenches. Foundations were constructed the full length of the eastern site perimeter, and concrete footings were laid in the remaining trenches. The graded surface consisted of poorly sorted clay, sand, silt, and gravel. Few artifacts and relatively little cultural debris were present on the graded surface.

STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE Gross stratigraphy is fairly simple, and all strata contain numerous well-sorted gravel and clay lenses in a sandy matrix (Fig. 6, 7). The construction trenches made correlation of local strata difficult, but three of the four strata can be traced throughout the site. The relative depths and levels of origin of representative cultural and natural features are shown in Figure 7. Stratum 1 is a continuous basal, sterile, tannish gray alluvial, clayey sand deposit containing calcium carbonate. The relatively hard compacted deposit contains various laminae of silt clay, sand, and coarse gravel. A few charcoal flecks were observed about 2 to 3 m. below the graded surface at the extreme northern and southern portions of the site. However, no artifacts were recovered from the deposit. Stratum 1 varies from about 30 cm. in the center of the site to 1.25 m. in the northern portion.

EXCAVATION AND STRATIGRAPHY EXCAVATION PROCEDURE When the site was first encountered, a number of charcoal/ash lenses, indicating pit structure floors and use-surface/midden areas (e.g., Fig. 5) were identified and recorded. Most of these (in profile) contained varying amounts of pottery sherds, chipped and ground stone artifacts, and bone. The locus of the reported human skeletal material (Structure 4) was readily apparent. In several cases (Structures 2, 3, 4, and 8) walls and subfloor features were identified in the profiles. The bulk of the surface collection (provenience unknown) was derived from the backhoe trenches in 12

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Fig. 5b

View of profile at Structure 4. 14

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Fig. 6

Site stratigraphy in southern exposure.

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Stratum 2 is a continuous, moderately compacted, sterile red alluvial sand which serves as the level of origin for all cultural features. The stratum overlies Stratum 1 throughout the site and varies from 5 cm. in the center of the site to 1 m. in the extreme southern portion. A minor component, a reddish tan, clayey sand, intergrades Strata 1 and 2. The 35-cm. thick deposit is absent in the central third of the site. This deposit also contains a few charcoal flecks, although no artifacts were recovered. The stratum contains numerous lenses and small pockets of tannish, clayey sand and coarse gravel, particularly in the central portion of the site. It was moderately disturbed by the backhoe in the northern third. Stratum 3 is a reddish tan, clayey sand, which contains charcoal/ash and is found intermediate between Strata 2 and 4 in the southern third of the site. Abundand artifacts were provenienced for the limited 15 to 25 cm. deposit. Stratum 4 is a continuous, hard-compacted, sandy clay with abundant charcoal/ash. The deposit varies from .25 cm. thick in the southern portion of the site to 1.25 cm. in the center. The stratum contains numerous pottery sherds, chipped and ground stone and bone, and serves as the fill for all cultural features. It essentially caps the site. Much of the deposit was removed by the backhoe in the northern third of the site and is badly disturbed elsewhere. The dip of strata (1 and 2) in the center of the site suggests an erosional channel was present sometime before site occupation. Two minor channels (I and II), in the southern and northern portions of the site, course from northwest to southeast and contain well-sorted silt, sand, and gravel. Channel I originates from the top of Stratum 3 and truncates all identified basal deposits. A pottery sherd was recovered near the interface of the channel at the top of the stratum. The channel is about 5 m. wide at the level of origin. Channel II (Fig. 8) originates from or above the graded surface (within Stratum 4) and truncates Strata 3 and 2, and a portion of Stratum 1. The channel is about 5 m. wide at the graded surface. -SJfltt.

Graded

Surface

-SlilUaJ.

% io QCultural Deposition m. Vertical Scale Exaggerated (X2)

Fig. 7

Composite profile of site stratigraphy showing approximate contour and relative position of selected cultural features. 15

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Fig. 8

Stream Channel II.

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION um in the northern half of the site may be the result of redeposition in the southern portion. Whether or not this was a factor in the ultimate abandonment of the site is unknown. Similar stratigraphy and anomalies are present at Pharo Village (Marwitt 1968). Stratum 4 is a recent postoccupational colluvium. Flooding continued with the incising of Channels I and II and as indicated by the silt, sand, and gravel lenses of the stratum. In sum, the site exhibits evidence of continual alluviation with periodic flooding and degradation throughout its entire depositional history. The alluvium originates in the Pavant Range to the west and the direction of alluviation has remained consistently northwest to southeast.

Considerable alluviation, at times catastrophic, is evident throughout the site's depositional history. Strata 1 and 2 are probably no earlier than mid-Holocene. Flooding is apparent at times in the depositional sequence and is evidenced by lenses and small pockets of silt sands and coarse gravel. The large depression in the center of the site indicates that a major erosional channel was active either during or toward the end of the Stratum 1 event. The truncation of the lower component of Stratum 2 suggests that the channel persisted during this transitional deposition. The truncation of the occupational/spoil component (Stratum 3) suggests the main erosional channel was again active following site occupation. The absence of the strat-

CULTURAL FEATURES Nine partial pit structures were identified and (except Structure 7 and the crawlway/ventshafts of Structures 1 and 3) were fully excavated. All are quadrilateral, square to rectangular, except Structure 9 which is roughly circular. All have crawlway/ventshafts which run east or southeast except Structures 2, 4, 5, and 7, which were presumably destroyed by the backhoe (exceptions are noted below). Firebasins are absent in Structures 1, 5, and 6, and were also apparently destroyed. No granaries or other surface constructions were identified, but any in the northern half of the site would have been removed when it was

graded. Four use-surface/midden areas (A-D), none of which were directly associated with the structures, were partially explored. As noted above, all structures and use-surfaces originate either from the top of Stratum 2 or within Stratum 3. The levels of origin of Structures 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, were partially destroyed. These constitute the northern half of the site and lie as much as 1 m. higher than those to the south (Fig. 7). However, this is a product of the natural surface morphology, and no superposition of structures exists.

STRUCTURE 1 raised bench fronting the ventshaft. Shape and Dimensions. The structure's size cannot be determined, but it is square to rectangular. Less than a third (5 sq. m.) remains. Walls. Only two contiguous, partial walls remain.

Structure 1 (Fig. 9) is the southernmost on the site. Two walls originate from the top of Stratum 2 and suggest a quadrilateral configuration. Associated features include a crawlway/ventshaft, post, and a small 16

Fig. 9a

Structure 1 (Plan map).

One runs straight, roughly northwest to southeast, and is 3.3 m. long. The other is slightly excurvate, measuring 2 m. long and is roughly perpendicular to the other forming a southeast corner at the ventshaft. They are smooth and nearly vertical, but slope outward from the center of the structure toward the top. Depth of the structure varies from .90 to 1.05 meters. The walls are plastered (9 to 21 cm. thick) and smoke-blackened. Crawlway/ventshaft. The floor of the ventshaft is a continuation of a bench in the southeast corner of the structure and runs 4.5 m. to the southeast where it has

been destroyed. The shaft is flat-bottomed, and measures 38 cm. wide at the floor and 76 cm. at the top. Depth of the shaft is about 62 centimeters. The walls of the shaft are also plastered. Bench. A bench (or step) is located in the southeast corner of the structure. It approximates a quarter circle and is 1.05 to 1.12 m. (radius) from the corner of the structure. The bench rises 17 to 20 cm. above the floor and serves as the base at the mouth of the ventshaft. A posthole, 12 cm. dia. and 25 cm. deep, originates from the top of the bench. The hole contained a partially charred, 75 cm. vertical post-butt. Floor. The structure's floor is the use-packed, tannish red, finely grained sand of Stratum 2. The relatively smooth floor was covered with a layer (to 5 cm. thick) of charcoal/ash which contained a large number of obsidian waste flakes. Fill. Structural fill consists of an approximately 20cm. thick deposit of sterile, tannish red sand lying directly on the floor. This underlies a 33-to-50-cm. deposit of sand, containing burned daub, charcoal, and partially burned logs. A 20-to-30-cm. charcoalflecked sand deposit is intermediate between the former and a 30-to-50 cm. deposit of alternating red, sandy clay and tan, sandy clay laminae. Summary and Observations. The semisubterranean structure is probably quadrilateral and is at least 16 sq. meters. Roof construction probably consisted of timbers with wattle and daub, supported by interior posts. These were partially burned and subsequently collapsed some time after the structure was abandoned. The structure probably served as a dwelling, and was a locus of obsidian tool manufacturing.

STRUCTURE 2 H

Fig. 9b

Structure 1 (Final photograph fully excavated).

Structure 2 (Fig. 10) is located about 10 m. northeast of Structure 1. One whole and two partial walls, which originate from the top of Stratum 2, suggest a quadrilateral configuration. Associated features include: a firebasin, two subfloor pits, and two postholes. No crawlway/ventshaft was located, but one was presumably present in the disturbed eastern portion of the structure. Shape and Dimensions. The structure is square, assuming symmetrical construction and central location of the firebasin and about two-thirds (7 sq. m.) remains. Walls. One whole and two partial, contiguous walls remain. The whole wall runs roughly northeast to southwest and is 3 m. long. The partial walls form roughly right angles to the former. The partial southwest wall is 1.8 m. long and the opposite wall is 1 m. in length. Depth of the structure varies from 65 to 70 centimeters. The nearly vertical walls are relatively smooth, but unplastered, and not smoke-blackened.

structure 17

Firebasin. The firebasin is a shallow 7- to 8-cm. deep floor depression with a prepared, fire-reddened clay rim 12 to 13 cm. wide and 4 to 5 cm. high. The basin is roughly 60 cm. in diameter (rim to rim). Fill consists of a powdery, gray ash with charcoal flecks. Maximum depth is 7 cm., at the center. Subfloor Pits. Pit 1 is located in an alcove in the wall in the southwest corner of the structure. It is bellshaped and is 53 cm. N-S by 43 cm. E-W. The bottom expands to 55 cm. N-S by 52 cm. E-W. Depth varies from 37 to 42 cm. below the floor. Pit fill consists of a basal, 10 cm. thick, tan, sandy clay deposit with charcoal flecks. This underlies a soft, tan sand containing considerable charcoal. The pit was capped by two thin, flat-slab metates at the level of the floor. A large number of pottery sherds, ground stone, and a bone pendant were recovered from the fill. Pit 2 is located adjacent to the northeast wall and measures 34 cm. N-S by 35 cm. E-W and 57 cm. deep. Pit fill consists of a loosely packed, tan sand containing charcoal. Fill. Structure fill consists of a soft, tan, clayey sand (probably derived from Stratum 4) containing charcoal and burned daub. The fill is relatively homogeneous, although burned daub is more common 10 to 20 cm. above the floor. The fill contained seven large, partially charred timbers lying near the floor; one "Utah-type" metate was also recovered. Summary and Observations. The semisubterranean structure is quadrilateral and measures about 10.5 sq. meters. Roof construction probably consisted of timbers with wattle and daub, supported by interior posts. These were partially burned and subsequently collapsed some time after the structure was abandoned. The recovery of the large metate from the fill near the floor may indicate that final destruction was deliberate. The structure probably served as a dwelling where food was processed and stone tools were manufactured.

i I

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N m.

Structure Two: Plan Fig. 10a

Structure 2 (Plan map).

Floor. The structure floor is the use-packed tannish red, fine-grained sand of Stratum 2. The floor is covered by a thin veneer of charcoal/ash and is fire-reddened near the firebasin. Two complete ceramic vessels, a large bowl fragment, and numerous ground stone artifacts were recovered from the floor. Two postholes are near the firebasin. One is 9 cm. in diameter and 7 cm. deep. The other is about 20 cm. in diameter and 27 cm. deep.

STRUCTURE 3 Structure 3 (Fig. 11) is located about 10.5 m. northeast of Structure I, and 4.5 m. northwest of Structure 2. Four partial walls, which originate from the top of Stratum 2, indicate a quadrilateral configuration. Associated features include: a crawlway/ventshaft, firebasin, subfloor pit, two small rectangular depressions near the firebasin, nine postholes, and a small raised bench fronting the ventshaft. Shape and Dimensions. The structure is square, assuming symmetrical construction and about threefourths (12 sq. m.) remains. Walls. Two pairs of contiguous walls remain with each pair forming slightly rounded corners. The northwest wall and its counterpart are 2 m. and 75 cm. long respectively, and form the west corner. The southeast wall and its counterpart are 1.75 m. long from the mouth

Fig. 10b Structure 2 (Partially excavated showing charred timbers and artifacts in situ). 18

•-» ^

Structure Three: Plan & Profile

Fig. 11a

Structure 3 (Plan map).

of the ventshaft and form the east corner. Depth of the structure varies from 65 to 75 centimeters. The nearly vertical walls are plastered with a reddish, sandy clay containing charcoal flecks and vary from 10 to 22 cm. thick. They are not smoke-blackened. Crawlway/ventshaft. The floor of the ventshaft is a continuation of a bench in the east corner of the structure and runs 4.7 m. to the southeast where it has been destroyed. The floor is flat-bottomed, consisting of a hard, use-packed cultural fill and is 50 cm. wide. The walls, which are plastered, taper outward 80 cm. at the top (level of origin). The shaft is about 65 cm. deep. Bench. A bench (or step) is located in the east corner fronting the ventshaft. It measures 80 to 90 cm. EW by 75 to 85 cm. N-S and rises to a 18 cm. maximum above the floor where it serves as the base at the mouth of the ventshaft. A posthole, 12 cm. in diameter and 21 cm. deep, originates from the top of the bench. The hole contains an uncharred, 95-cm. vertical juniper postbutt. Floor. The structure floor is the use-packed, tannish red, fine-grained sand of Stratum 2. The relatively smooth floor slopes markedly downward about 5° toward the east. It was covered by a 1 cm. charcoal/ash deposit except in the easternmost portion. Artifacts were noticeably few. In addition to the firebasin and subfloor pits, the floor contained eight postholes. Three are located in the westernmost third of the structure

Fig. l i b 19

Structure 3 (Final photograph — structure fully excavated).

these were partially burned and, subsequently, collapsed some time after the structure was abandoned. The hard, use-packed cultural fill on the floor of the ventshaft supports the idea these served as crawl or entryways as well as ventilators. The function of the rectangular depressions in the floor, adjacent to the firebasin, is unknown. However, they may represent footings for a structure used in connection with cooking. The small number of artifacts recovered from the floor suggests the structure was purposely abandoned. The lack of post-butts (except the one fronting the ventshaft) suggests they were removed for use elsewhere either just prior to or in connection with destruction. The structure probably served as a dwelling where food was processed. (See Paleoecology â&#x20AC;&#x201D; pollen analysis of Structure 3 floor.) Fig. 12

Structure 3 (Firebasin with raised clay rim â&#x20AC;&#x201D; floor partially excavated).

STRUCTURE 4

with the remainder to the east of the firebasin. Five (including one in the bench) lie in serpentine fashion from the firebasin to the ventshaft. These may indicate a deflector, however no adobe was encountered in the course of excavation. The postholes vary from 7 to 27 cm. diameter (avg. 15 cm.) and 7 to 30 cm. deep (avg. 13.5 cm.). No post-butts were found. In addition, two roughly parallel rectangular depressions are located on opposing sides of the firebasin. One is 65 cm. southwest of the basin rim and is 42 cm. long, 14 to 17 cm. wide and 7.5 cm. deep. The other is 3 to 5 cm. northeast of the basin and is 37 cm. long, 20 cm. wide, and 7 to 9 cm. deep.

Structure 4 (Fig. 13) is located about 35 m. northnorthwest of Structure 3. Four partial walls, which probably originate from the top of Stratum 2 indicate a quadrilateral configuration. Associated features include: a partial firebasin, subfloor pit, six postholes, and a small raised bench in the south corner. No crawlway/ventshaft was located, but one may have been removed by the backhoe trenches. Shape and Dimensions. The structure is rectangular and less than half (10 sq. m.) remains. Walls. Two pairs of contiguous walls, bisected by a construction trench, remain. Each pair form slightly rounded corners. The southeast wall and its counterpart are 3.6 m. and 2.6 m., respectively, and form the

Firebasin (Fig. 12). The firebasin is a shallow 5 to 6 cm. deep depression with a prepared, fire-reddened clay rim 10 to 15 cm. wide and 4 to 5 cm. high. The basin is roughly 90 cm. (outside diameter). Fill consists of a 5 cm. thick, fine, gray, charcoal/ash deposit which underlies 2 to 3 cm. of red, sandy clay and charred, fibrous material. Subfloor Pit. The roughly oval pit is near the southeast wall. It is 47 cm. northwest to southeast, 39 cm. wide and 15 cm. deep. Pit fill consists of a hard, compacted tan clay with charcoal. Fill. The basin-shaped structure fill consists of three primary depositional units. The lowest consists of a sterile yellow eolian sand lying directly on the floor. This varies from 28 to 30 cm. near the walls to 4 to 5 cm. near the center of the structure. The sand underlies a deposit of reddish, clayey sand, burned daub and charcoal which varies from about 30 cm. at the center of the structure to 8 cm. near the walls. Uppermost are alternating bands of red and tan clayey sand which vary from 60 to 65 cm. thick. These laminae are probably derived from Strata 2 and 4 respectively. Summary and Observations. The semisubterranean structure is quadrilateral and is about 16 sq. meters. Roof construction probably consisted of timbers with wattle and daub supported by interior posts. Some of

Fig. 13a 20

Structure4 (Plan map).

Fig. 13b Structure 4 (Partially excavated floor showing disarticulated human skeletal material from both the floor and in the fill). Firebasin. The partial firebasin is a 10 to 16 cm. depression without a prepared clay rim. Assuming symmetrical construction, the basin is circular (1 m. diameter) and only half remains. A 20-cm. diameter., 6-cm. deep hole originates from the floor of the basin. Fill consists of a fine, powdery, whitish gray ash with charcoal flecks. Maximum thickness is 16 centimeters. Subfloor Pit. The pit is located about 75 cm. east of the firebasin and measures 45 cm. in diameter and 25 cm. deep. It is slightly bell-shaped with pronounced longitudinal "digging-stick" marks on the sides. Pit fill consists of a loosely packed yellowish tan sand with charcoal flecks.

south corner. The northeast wall and its counterpart are 4.25 m. and 60 cm., respectively, and form the north corner. The structure intrudes both sand and gravel facies of Stratum 2, and the walls are plastered in the areas of gravel deposition. Depth of the structure varies from 25 to 40 cm., but it may have been deeper since the level of origin was removed by grading. The partially plastered walls slope outward from the center of the structure about 45Â°. Bench. A bench (or step) fronts the south corner about 1 m. distant. It then runs roughly parallel with the southwest wall about 1.75 m. where both are destroyed. Given the relative positions of benches and ventshafts in Structures 1, 3, and 8, this structure probably also contained a ventshaft which may have been destroyed by construction. Floor. The structure floor is the use-packed, tannish red, fine-grained sand of Stratum 2. The relatively smooth floor was covered by a charcoal/ash deposit which varies from 1 cm. thick to as much as 2 cm. near the firebasin. A large number of artifacts, particularly manos and metates were recovered from the floor. Both the floor and the fill of the structure contained considerable disarticulated human skeletal material (Fig. 14) (see Appendix I). In addition to the firebasin and the subfloor pit, the floor contained two posthole triads which run roughly parallel northwest to southeast, about 50 cm. apart south and west of the firebasin. The postholes vary from 11 to 20 cm. diameter (avg. 15 cm.) and 5 to 17 cm. deep (avg. 11 cm.). No post butts were found.

Fig. 14 21

Structure 4 (Close-up of skeletal material).

Fill. The relatively homogeneous fill of the structure is the tan, clayey sand of Stratum 4. In addition to the skeletal material, the fill contained artifacts, two large, partially burned timbers, charcoal, and a small amount of burned daub concentrated near the floor. Burials. The structure contains three aggregates of disarticulated human skeletal material which include six adults (4 male and 2 female) and two subadults. Partially burned cranial elements suggest the material was present when the structure was burned. The three aggregates were recovered from both the floor and fill indicating deposition occurred with the filling of the structure. Aggregate 1 represents a minimum of three individuals lying directly over the partial firebasin. The material originally encountered in the course of construction was probably derived from this locus. Aggregate 2, about 2.25 m. south of the firebasin, represents at least three individuals. These were recovered directly from and above the bench in the south corner of the structure. Aggregate 3, about 2 m. southwest of the firebasin, represents one individual. It was found lying directly against the southwest wall of the structure. Summary and Observations. The semisubterranean structure is probably quadrilateral and is about 20 sq. meters. Roof construction consisted of timbers, with wattle and daub, supported by interior posts. The lack of post butts suggests they were removed for use elsewhere at the time of destruction. The relatively homogeneous fill and the partially burned and disarticulated human skeletal material on both the floor and in the fill suggest that destruction and subsequent filling of the structure occurred with the internment of the burials. The structure probably served as a dwelling where food was prepared, followed by use as a burial chamber.

Walls. One straight, 2 m. long, partial wall remains and runs roughly northeast to southwest. At its southern end the wall curves outward (to the southeast) from the interior of the structure for 40 centimeters. This may indicate the mouth of a crawlway/ventshaft, however this was so badly disturbed, none was identified. Depth of the structure is about 20 centimeters. Floor. The structure floor is the hard, use-packed, tannish red, fine-grained sand of Stratum 2. A charcoal/ash deposit, maximum 5 cm. thick, covers the floor. Three partially restorable vessels were recovered. Three postholes originate from the floor and run roughly parallel 15 to 30 cm. from and along the wall. They vary from 14 to 16 cm. in diameter and 10 to 16 cm. deep. Fill. The badly disturbed fill is the tan, clayey sand of Stratum 4. Charcoal and burned daub were present on the floor. Summary and Observations. The structure is probably quadrilateral and less than 10 sq. m. remains. Roof construction probably consisted of timbers with wattle and daub, supported by interior posts. These were partially burned and subsequently collapsed when the structure was abandoned. The structure probably served as a dwelling.

STRUCTURE 6 Structure 6 (Fig. 15) is located 3 m. east of Structure 4. Two pairs of contiguous walls (two whole and two partial), which originate from the top of Stratum 2, indicate a quadrilateral configuration. Associated features include: a crawlway/ventshaft and two partial subfloor pits. Shape and Dimensions. The structure is roughly square, assuming symmetrical construction, and about half (6 sq. m.) remains.

The relative homogeneity of the skeletal material (complete decomposition of cartilage and other soft matter with full disarticulation) suggests the skeletons were buried en masse. These were probably earlier burials possibly encountered in the course of aboriginal excavations of post-Structure 4, pit-dwellings. Evidence of cannibalism, such as butchering marks and the splitting of long bones, is entirely absent.

STRUCTURE 5 Structure 5 is located about 2.5 m. north of Structure 4 and only one partial wall, probably originating from the top of Stratum 2, was identified. Associated features include three postholes. Shape and Dimensions. Shape and dimensions are unknown and only about 5 sq. m. remains. If the structure is similar to others with straight walls, it is probably quadrilateral.

Structure Six: Plan & Profile

Fig. 15 Structure 6 (Plan map). 22

Walls. Three contiguous walls (two whole and one partial) and one contiguous pair of partial walls are bisected by the construction trench. The southwest and southeast walls measure 3.65 and 3.15 m., respectively, and form the south corner. A crawlway/ventshaft is perpendicular to the southeast wall, about 2 m. from the south corner and runs to the southeast. A small partial wall, measuring about 20 cm. long, is contiguous with the southeast wall and forms the east corner. Two contiguous partial walls on the opposite side of the construction trench form the north corner. The northwest and northeast walls measure 1.25 and .35 m., respectively. The walls slope roughly 70Â° outward from the interior of the structure and are highly irregular. The southeast wall is excurvate on either side of the ventshaft; the southwest wall is poorly defined with extrusions roughly in the center and another at the west corner, measuring 15 and 40 cm. wide, respectively. Depth of the structure varies from 25 to 30 centimeters. Crawlway/Ventshaft. The floor of the ventshaft is a continuation of the structure's floor at the southeast wall and runs 2.25 m. to the southeast. The hard-packed charcoal/ash floor of the shaft is flat-bottomed and the walls are nearly vertical. Width varies from 55 cm. at the mouth to 40 cm. at the distal end. Depth varies from 33 cm. at the mouth to 40 centimeters. Fill consists of the reddish tan clayey sand, containing charcoal/ash and burned daub, of Stratum 4. Floor. The structure floor is a relatively soft, usepacked tannish red, fine-grained sand of Stratum 2. The floor contained only a small amount of charcoal/ ash and relatively few artifacts were recovered. The floor was particularly poorly defined along the southwest wall. Two partial, subfloor pits originate from the floor. No postholes were identified. Subfloor Pits. Pit 1 is located 35 cm. from the southeast wall, about 1 m. north of the mouth of the ventshaft. It is 45 cm. diameter and 60 cm. deep and only about half remains. Fill consists of light reddish, finegrained sand containing some gravel and charcoal. Pit 2 is located 1.75 m. from the southwest wall and 2.75 m. west of Pit 1. It is 60 cm. in diameter and 40 cm. deep and only about half remains. Fill consists of light reddish sand with some gravel and charcoal. Pottery sherds and chipped stone were recovered from the fill. Fill. The structure's fill consists of a 3-to-5 cm. thick deposit of fine-grained, reddish tan sand with charcoal, lying directly above the floor. This is followed by a 15-to-20 cm. thick deposit of sand, charcoal, and burned daub. The reddish tan, clayey sand of Stratum 4 caps the structure. Summary and Observations. The semisubterranean structure is quadrilateral and measures about 12 sq. meters. Roof construction was probably timbers with wattle and daub, however there is no evidence of interior support posts. The roof is partially burned, and

collapsed sometime after the structure was abandoned. This was followed by considerable erosion (melting) of structure walls. The structure's use is unknown although the charcoal/ash floor deposit suggests that a firebasin may have been associated with the structure, and it may have served as a dwelling. No cultural activities are inferred.

STRUCTURE 7 The badly disturbed structure is located about 1 m. northeast of Structure 6. The structure was only cursorily explored. Two partial walls, probably originating from the top of Stratum 2, suggest a quadrilateral configuration. No crawlway/ventshaft or other associated features were identified. Shape and Dimensions. The structure is probably square and about three-fourths (7 sq. m.) remains. Walls. Two partial, parallel walls (3 m. apart) run roughly northwest to southeast and are 2 m. long. Depth of the structure is about 1.3 m. deep. Floor. The structure floor is the use-packed, tannish red, fine-grained sand of Stratum 2. A thin veneer of charcoal/ash lies directly on the floor. Pottery and a ground stone fragment were recovered. Fill. Structure fill consists of burned daub and melt lying directly on the floor. Banded clay and silt followed by a reddish, clayey sand deposit lie directly over the burned daub and are about .35 and .07 cm., respectively. The tan, clayey sand of Stratum 4 (24 cm. thick) caps the fill and structure. Summary and Observations. The semisubterranean structure is probably quadrilateral and is about 10 sq. meters. Roof construction cannot be inferred. The structure probably contained a firebasin as indicated by the ash-covered floor. The structure's use cannot be determined.

STRUCTURE 8 Structure 8 (Fig. 16) is located about 15 m. north of Structure 7. Two partial walls, probably originating from the top of Stratum 2, suggest a quadrilateral configuration. Associated features include a crawlway/ ventshaft and raised bench, firebasin, and adobe deflector, three subfloor pits, and six postholes. Shape and Dimensions. The structure is probably rectangular, assuming symmetrical construction and central location of the firebasin, and about a third (5 sq. m.) remains. Walls. Two contiguous, partial walls remain. The straight, southeast wall and its irregular counterpart measure 3.75 and 1.75 m., respectively, and form the north corner. The mouth of the 75-cm. wide ventshaft is in the northeast wall 45 cm. from the corner. 23

The walls are nearly vertical. Depth of the structure is about 40 centimeters. Crawlway/Ventshaft. The floor of the ventshaft is a continuation of a bench in the east corner of the structure and runs 2.3 m. to the east where it has been destroyed. The flat-bottomed shaft, with nearly vertical walls, has been bisected by a 1.25-m. wide construction trench. The shaft is 75 cm. wide at the mouth and tapers to 35 cm. at the distal end. Depth varies from 56 cm. at the mouth to 45 centimeters. Fill consists of the reddish tan, clayey sand of Stratum 4. Bench. A bench (or step) is located in the east corner of the structure. It approximates a quarter circle and is about 60 cm. from the northside of the ventshaft. The hard use-packed bench rises about 25 cm. above the floor and serves as the base of the shaft. It consists of the reddish tan sand of Stratum 2, which contains charcoal, and overlies a thin veneer of charcoal/ash which covers the floor elsewhere.

Subfloor Pits. Pit 1, located about 40 cm. south of the firebasin, is roughly rectangular, 39 cm. northsouth by 23 cm. wide and 10 cm. deep. Fill consists of charcoal/ash and artifacts. Pit 2 intrudes Pit 1, measuring 20 cm. diameter and 20 cm. deep. The charcoal/ ash fill contains numerous artifacts. Pit 3, located 90 cm. south of Pit 1, is 14 cm. diameter and 12 cm. deep. The ash fill contained amorphous, basalt tempered, unfired, greenish gray clay which may have been potting material.

Floor. The structure floor is the use-packed, tannish red, fine-grained sand of Stratum 2. The relatively smooth floor is covered with a thin veneer of charcoal/ash. In addition to the firebasin, deflector, and subfloor pits, the floor contains six postholes. The postholes form no apparent pattern and vary from 6 to 22 cm. in diameter (avg. 11 cm.) and 5 to 19 cm. deep (avg. 11 cm.). Firebasin. The partial firebasin is an 11-cm. deep depression with a prepared clay rim and is 19 cm. wide

Fig. 16a

^_^"

and rises 11 cm. above the floor. Less than half remains. The basin is 84 cm. (outside diameter). Fill consists of charcoal and whitish gray ash, 27 cm. thick. Deflector. The L-shaped adobe deflector originates at the mouth of the ventshaft on the side opposite the corner of the structure. It runs 85 cm. southeast to northwest then turns to the northeast for 75 centimeters. The deflector lies in a 6-cm. deep footing trench which varies from 50 cm. wide at the wall to 15 cm. at the center. Average width is about 20 centimeters. The deflector consists of reddish tan, clayey sand, containing charcoal flecks and rises 2 cm. above the floor.

Fill. The structure's fill consists of a charcoal/ash deposit about 3 cm. thick lying directly on the floor. A 2-cm. thick band of sterile tannish, sandy silt overlays the ash. The remaining 33 cm. of fill consists of the reddish tan, clayey sand of Stratum 4 containing charcoal-flecked clay and daub.

Structure Eight: pun

Structure 8 (Plan map). 24

Fig. 16b

Structure 8 (Final photo showing fully excavated structure with backhoe damage).

Walls. The irregular wall of the upper component exceeds 20 meters. If the structure is octagonal, the sides roughly measure (clockwise from the ventshaft) 2.25 m., 2 m., 2.5 m., 3 m., 1.25 m., 4 m., 3 m., and 2.5 meters. The walls have a 10- to 12-cm. thick clay lining (Fig. 18). The wall originates from the top of Stratum 2 and intrudes Stratum 1, 10 to 15 centimeters. Depth of the structure (upper component) varies from about 70 cm. at the base of the wall to 90 cm. near the center. Crawlway/Ventshaft. The hard-packed floor of the ventshaft lies about 10 cm. below the floor of the upper component. The shaft remained unmodified during both occupations. Floor. The floor of the upper component is a hardpacked, coiled, tannish clay (Fig. 19). The coils, best defined in the northern third of the structure, vary from 1 to 2 m. long, 5 to 15 cm. wide and about 5 cm. thick. A thin veneer of charcoal/ash covering the floor varies from 1 cm. thick in the southern half of the structure to 3 cm. near the firebasin and in the structure's northern half. In addition to the firebasin, possible deflector, and subfloor pits, the floor of the upper component contains 55 postholes which vary from 5 to 22 cm. (avg. 11.5 cm.) in diameter and 5 to 50 cm. (avg. 13.5 cm.) deep. Four postholes located in the northeast quadrant, contain post butts. Firebasin. The roughly circular firebasin, without raised clay rim, is 1.05 m. in diameter and directly over-

Summary and Observations. The semisubterranean structure is quadrilateral and measures about 15 sq. meters. Roof construction consisted of timbers with wattle and daub, supported by interior posts. The structure evidently remained intact for some time after it was abandoned. Charcoal in the deflector and bench suggests that the structure was constructed subsequent to initial site occupation. The structure probably served as a dwelling. The lack of post butts and other timber suggests they may have been removed at the time of destruction for use elsewhere. The structure was apparently not burned. No cultural activities are inferred.

STRUCTURE 9 The virtually complete structure, northernmost on the site, is located about 3 m. northwest of Structure 8. It is roughly circular and originates from the top of Stratum 2. Associated features of two occupations include: a crawlway/ventshaft, firebasins, deflector, subfloor pits, and numerous postholes, some containing post butts. Shape and Dimensions. The structure is roughly circular (6.5 m. diameter) to octagonal. The southern portion (possibly two sides) was destroyed and about five-sixths (27.5 sq. m.) remains. Upper Component (Fig. 17): 25

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1.0

1 i i i i. J m.

Structure Nine: Upper floor plan

Fig. 17a

Fig. 17b

Structure 9 (Upper componentâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;plan map).

Structure 9 (Upper component â&#x20AC;&#x201D; final photo showing component fully excavated). 26

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Fig. 18

Structure 9 (Wall cross section).

lies the lower component's basin. It varies from 5 to 10 cm. deep below the floor of the upper component. Fill consists of gray ash and charcoal, capped by the tannish, clayey sand of Stratum 4. Deflector. An alignment of five postholes, two containing post butts, suggests support for a deflector. However, the absence of adobe, directly associated with the posthole alignment, indicates the deflector was either an exclusively wooden construction or the adobe was inadvertently removed in the course of excavation. The alignment originates at the wall in the eastern portion of the structure, 1.25 m. south of the ventshaft and runs about 2 m. west, then north intersecting the axis of firebasin and the shaft.

Fill. The structure's fill consists of a 1 to 2 cm. reddish, sterile sand deposit, thickest near the mouth of the ventshaft, overlying the ash floor deposit. Charcoal, reddish sand and daub, 21 cm. thick, is intermediate, underlying the reddish tan clayey sand of Stratum 4. The latter caps the structure. Lower Component: (Fig. 20) Walls. The wall of the earlier component was examined only in the northeast quadrant of the structure at the mouth of the ventshaft and about 2.5 m. along the wall to the northwest (Fig. 18). The walls of the original structure slope about 25° outward from the center of the structure and lie 12 cm. outside of those of the upper component. Limited testing suggests that the structure's configuration was the same for both components. The wall originates from the top of Stratum 2 and intrudes Stratum 1 about 20 centimeters. Depth of the structure varies from about 80 cm. at the base of the wall to 1 m. near the center. Crawlway/Ventshaft. The hard-packed floor of the ventshaft lies about 5 cm. below the floor of the lower component. The shaft originates in the wall of the northeast quadrant and runs east 6.65 m. where it has been destroyed. Width of the shaft varies from 1 m. at the mouth to 60 cm. at the center and 75 cm. at the distal end. Depth is about 5 centimeters. Fill consists of the reddish tan, clayey sand and charcoal of Stratum 4. Floor. The floor of the lower component varies from 5 to 10 cm. below that of the upper component. The floor slopes from the walls downward about 5° toward the firebasin. The floor consists of the tannish sand of Stratum 1 and contains only a small amount

Subfloor Pits. Pit 1, which is located in the northeast quadrant and about 75 cm. west of the ventshaft, measures roughly 75 cm. east-west by 50 cm. northsouth and 10 cm. deep. Fill consists of gray ash. Pit 2 is about 1 m. southwest of Pit 1 and measures 65 cm. northwest to southeast by 50 cm. north-south and 14 cm. deep. Fill consists of gray ash. Pit 3 is about 1.25 m. east of the firebasin and measures 25 by 30 cm. and 34 cm. deep. Fill consists of tannish, clayey sand and gray ash. A posthole intrudes the fill. A metate was found standing on end in the pit. Pit 4 is about 1.5 m. south of the firebasin and measures roughly 25 by 30 cm. and 10 cm. deep. Fill consists of reddish sand and gray ash. Pits 5 and 6 are contiguous, located 40 and 75 cm. northwest of the firebasin, respectively. Pit 5 measures 50 by 35 cm. and 5 cm. deep. Pit 6 is roughly 65 by 50 cm. and 8 cm. deep. Postholes intrude both pits. Fill consists of tan, clayey sand with charcoal/ash.

Fig. 19 Structure 9 (Clay-coiled floor of upper component). 27

Structure Nine: Lower floor plan A profile

J Fig. 20a

Structure 9 (lower component â&#x20AC;&#x201D;plan map).

of charcoal/ash. In addition to the firebasin and subfloor pits, the floor contains 29 postholes which vary from 8 to 22 cm. dia. (avg. 14 cm.) and 8 to 30 cm. deep (avg. 24 cm.). They are primarily located in the northern half of the structure. Firebasin. The roughly circular firebasin is without a raised clay rim. It measures 1.05 m. north-south by 1.25 m. east-west and underlies the upper component's firebasin. The basin intrudes about 5 cm. below the floor of the lower component. Fill consists of a fine powdery gray ash overlain by the red sandy fill which served as the basin for the second component. In addition, three ovoid depressions lie in a semicircular arc on the west within the confines of the basin. They are about 30 cm. long, 10 to 15 cm. wide, and 5 cm. deep. Subfloor Pits. Pit 1 is located near the wall in the eastern portion of the structure and is about 90 cm. north-south by 40 cm. east-west. Fill consists of reddish sand with irregular concentrations of tan clay and a few artifacts. A posthole originating from the upper component intrudes the fill near the east side of the pit. Pits 2 and 3 are contiguous, about 75 cm. southwest of the mouth of the ventshaft. Pit 2 is roughly circular, measuring 30 cm. in diameter and 32 cm. deep. Pit 3, located about 45 cm. to the south is roughly trapezoidal in plan, measuring 50 cm. north-south by 40 cm. east-west at its widest point. Both the sides and fill of the pit are intruded by three postholes, two containing butts originating from the upper component. Fill of both pits consists of reddish sand with charcoal and a few artifacts. Pit 4, located about 10 cm. northwest

of Pit 3, is roughly rectangular with pointed ends and concave sides (in plan). The shallow 10-cm. deep depression is roughly 1.5 m. northwest to southeast by 75 cm. wide. Fill consists of red clayey sand with some gray clay and charcoal flecks. Two postholes originate from the floor of the pit. Six postholes, one containing a post butt, intrude the pit from the upper component. Pit 5, located 50 cm. northwest of Pit 4, is a shallow depression which is roughly 55 cm. northeast to southwest and 40 cm. wide. Fill consists of reddish sand with charcoal. Pits 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 are a T-shaped cluster of superimposed pits located about 50 cm. west of Pit 5. Pit 6 is roughly circular, measuring 40 cm. in diameter and about 25 cm. deep. The pit is truncated by Pits 7 and 8 and is intruded by two postholes which originate from both the lower and upper components. Pit 7 is roughly circular, measuring 35 cm. in diameter and about 25 cm. deep. The pit is intruded by a posthole also originating from the lower component. Pit 8 is roughly rectangular, measuring 25 by 40 cm. and 10 cm. deep. The pit is truncated by Pit 9 and intruded by a posthole which also originates from the lower component. Pit 9 is roughly rectangular, 40 by 50 cm. and 65 cm. deep. The pit is truncated by Pit 10 and intruded by a posthole which also originates from the lower component. Pit 10 is roughly rectangular, 35 by 40 cm. and 25 cm. deep. Fill of the pits consists of red sandy silt with charcoal flecks. A few artifacts were recovered from the cluster. Pit-11 is located about 1 m. southwest of Pits 6-10. The roughly oval pit measures 35 by 45 cm. and about 30 cm. deep. Fill consists of 28

reddish tan sand with charcoal. Pit 12 is located 1.90 m. southwest of Pit 11. The roughly circular pit measures 32 cm. in diameter and 30 cm. deep. Fill consists of reddish tan sand with charcoal. Fill. Fill separating the two components consists of a relatively hard-packed, reddish tan sand with charcoal flecks which averages about 5 cm. thick. Coils of hard-packed tannish clay, which constitute the floor of the upper component, overlay the fill. Summary and Observations. The semisubterranean structure is roughly circular and measures about 33 sq. meters. Roof construction consisted of timbers with wattle and daub, supported by interior posts. The structure contained two occupations. The lower component conforms to the original aboriginal excavation with loose, sandy walls and poorly defined, irregular floor. No deflector was identified for the component; however both occupations shared a common ventshaft. The firebasins are located in the approximate center of the structure. The superimposed subfloor pits, all originating from the lower component, suggest this earliest occupation was of greater duration. The reddish tan, charcoal flecked, sandy fill separating the two components may be floor accumulation of the earlier occupation, however, it is more likely the structure was abandoned for a short time before it was reoccupied. The prepared clay-lined walls and coiled floor of the upper component may be the result of necessary repairs. The lack of superposition of pits originating from the floor of the upper component suggests an occupation of relatively shorter duration. The type of

deflector construction is problematic. The sterile eolian sand deposit separating the floor from postoccupational deposition indicates the structure was abandoned for some time prior to final destruction. The structure probably served as a dwelling. The lack of post butts everywhere except in the northeast quadrant suggests that many were removed at the time of destruction for use elsewhere. The structure was apparently not burned.

USE-SURFACE/MIDDEN AREAS Four use-surface/midden areas were identified. Two (A and B) are in the southern portion of the site, with (C and D) to the north. All four are local deposits originating atop Stratum 2. Direct association with any of the structures could not be determined due to construction disturbance. They are not well defined spatially and consist of rather diffuse laminae of reddish sand, charcoal/ash, and abundant artifacts. No fire hearths are associated with these surfaces, although several contain use-pits. Area A. The use-surface/midden area is in the southeast corner of the site, about 20 m. southeast of Structure 2. The roughly triangular surface, which originates within the upper component of Stratum 3, measures about 2.25 sq. meters. The west and east portions are truncated by construction trenches. The charcoal/ ash lens is roughly 5 cm. thick on the west and gradually pinches-out up the 5Â° slope to the east. The lens

Fig. 20b

Structure 9 (Lower component - final photo showing partially excavated component and irregular floor). 29

overlies a relatively hard, use-packed surface of reddish sand of Stratum 2. A mano was recovered from the use-surface. Area B. This area is located in the southern portion of the site, about 5 m. southwest of Structure 3. The full extent of the charcoal/ash deposit which directly overlies the surface of the reddish, sterile sand of Stratum 2 is unknown. The eastern portion is truncated by a construction trench. A bell-shaped, circular pit which originates from the top of the stratum, was partially excavated. The pit measures approximately 1.20 m. in diameter at the top and 1.35 m. in diameter at the bottom and is 65 cm. deep. Fill consists of reddish sand and clay laminae containing charcoal lenses. Pottery and bone were recovered from the limited excavation. Stratum 3 caps both the pit and the general use-area.

tures during occupation. A portion of this material may also represent the displaced accumulation of scant general cultural debris that was scattered over the entire site.

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION The nine semisubterranean structures (1-9) and four use surface/midden areas (A-D) originate from the top of Stratum 2. The exception is Area D which originates from within Stratum 3. This is the only apparent temporal stratigraphic distinction between cultural features at the site. Structural plan and location offer no apparent evidence of the direction of aboriginal construction or temporal distinction. Only Structure 4 appears to have been intentionally destroyed; probably in connection with its use as a burial chamber and probably while other pit-dwelling(s) were under construction. All structures, but one, are quadrilateral, square to rectangular with rounded corners. These range from about 10 to 20 sq. m. and average 15 sq. meters. Structure 9 is roughly circular, measuring about 6.5 m. in diameter or 27 sq. meters. Four structures have nearly vertical walls which are plastered, and five have crawlway/ventshafts which originate in the corners and run east or southeast. Most structure floors are a hard, usepacked clayey sand with a thin veneer of hard-packed ash. The floors of the ventshafts are similar suggesting these were used as crawl or entryways. The firebasins are in the approximate centers of the structures, and three have raised clay rims. Four of the structures contain raised benches (or steps) fronting the ventshafts. Seven structures were destroyed by fire, four at the time of abandonment and three remained intact form some time before destruction. Structure 4 is the only structure that appears deliberately filled. Structures 8 and 9 were abandoned and sometime later, collapsed without burning.

Area C. The use-surface/midden area is located in the east-central portion of the site, about 4 m. east of Structure 7. The roughly circular, irregular surface, which originates atop Stratum 2, measures about 5 m. in diameter. The southern and eastern portions are truncated by construction trenches. Another intrudes the approximate center. Two partial, probably circular, pits originate from the top of the sterile reddish sand of Stratum 2. One is located in the approximate center of the area and measures roughly 1.35 m. in diameter at the top and 90 cm. at the bottom. The pit varies from 35 to 55 cm. deep. Fill consists of the reddish tan, clayey sand and charcoal of Stratum 4. Numerous artifacts were recovered. Another partial pit was identified in the southeast corner of the use-area. It measures about 1 m. in diameter and is 30 cm. deep. Fill is Stratum 4, which caps the entire area. A lower human mandible fragment was recovered from this area. Area D. The use-surface/midden area is located in the northwest corner of the site about 7 m. northwest of Structure 9. The irregularly shaped surface, which originates atop Stratum 2, is about 12 sq. meters. The west portion is truncated by a construction trench. A cluster of three, roughly circular, superimposed pits originating from the top of the stratum, are located in the northwest portion of the use-area. These vary from 70 cm. to 1.2 m. in diameter (avg. 95 cm.) and 15 to 25 cm. deep. Fill primarily consists of gray ash and abundant artifacts including a human ulna and fibula. Stratum 4 caps the use-area.

Sharrock and Marwitt (various) have noted that Fremont and Sevier architecture is characterized by considerable intra and intersite diversity. Backhoe Village is no exception; however, the structures do have counterparts elsewhere. Although as a rule, they are slightly smaller, the quadrilateral structures overlap with the ranges of those at Marysvale (Gillen 1941) of the Sevier River drainage and Pharo Village (Marwitt 1968) to the north. The quadrilateral structure at Nephi (Sharrock and Marwitt 1967), farther north, is somewhat smaller. The circular structure is unique in the drainage, although, circular types of comparable size as well as quadrilateral are present in the Nephi Mounds and at Snake Rock (Aikens 1967) and other sites in the Ivie Creek drainage (Taylor 1957; Wilson and Smith 1976). They are also found to the west, for example, at Median Village (Marwitt 1970) and the Evans Mound (Berry 1972). Plastered walls and firebasins with raised clay rims are likewise variously pres-

Summary and Observations. The four use-surface/ midden areas are highly irregular. Deposition (or use) was apparently coincident with the occupation of all structures. The exception is Use-area A which developed sometime after the site was first occupied. Areas B, C, and D were probably used in connection with a variety of cultural activities including food processing and stone and bone tool manufacture. The charcoal/ ash deposited in each area is no doubt midden accumulation perhaps in part as refuse derived from the struc30

including the Sevier drainage, is most likely the result of the initial scraping and leveling of the construction site. This resulted in considerable disturbance to cultural deposits, particularly in the northern half, virtually destroying the levels of origin of Structures 4, 5, and 7, as well as the considerable penetration of Structure 8. Backhoe Village is essentially similar in plan to Pharo, and less so to Nephi, which consists of a number of small mounds. Also, Backhoe and Pharo Villages contain only single components, while at Nephi, three are represented. These sites differ markedly from the large accretional mounds of the Parowan Valley (Marwitt 1970; Berry 1972). The extremely limited midden component at Backhoe is similar to that at Pharo suggesting that both occupations were of short duration.

ent; however, those east of the Wasatch Plateau are generally slab-lined. The deflector at Backhoe Village is unique in the drainage with adobe types restricted to the west and slab types to the east. Ventshafts are present everywhere with those of the Sevier drainage trending primarily to the east or southeast in apparent opposition to prevailing winds and the direction of alluviation. The raised benches fronting the ventshafts at Backhoe may have counterparts in two structures (1 and 2) at Pharo Village, but they are absent everywhere else. In sum, Backhoe Village shows the greatest similarity to those sites of the Sevier drainage; however, a number of architectural traits are shared with sites of adjacent regions. The absence of coursed adobe surface dwellings and granaries prevalent elsewhere,

DATING lage suggests the length of occupation at the site was minimal, and the shorter time span is most probable. The seven dates cluster convincingly, and none of the seven can be rejected as aberrant. T h e / 1 and Mests (Long and Rippeteau 1974) were applied to the dates to determine if they statistically represented an instant in time or a duration of time. The result of the/-test was that they are not similar at the 90% level of significance. According to the Mest, the oldest and youngest dates have less than a 5% probability of being contemporaneous. These tests clearly indicate the site was occupied for a period of time, but as noted above this occupation span was probably minimal. In order to

Seven charcoal/wood samples from structure floor contexts were submitted for radiocarbon dating. The dates from these samples are listed in Table I and illustrated in Figure 21. With the exceptions of the minimally investigated structures 5 and 7, all the structures were dated. Five of the samples are derived from structural timbers or support posts, with two of these being in situ posts in structures 1 and 9. The remaining two samples consist of charcoal from hearths. The maximum time range for the seven dates at one standard deviation is 1400 to 840 B.P. (450 to 1110 A.D.). The minimum time range is 1180 to 1040 B.P. (770 to 910 A.D.). Other evidence from Backhoe Vil-

TABLE I Radiocarbon Dates

Location

Lab Designation

Sample

Radiocarbon Age*

Calendrical Date**

Structure 1

RL-626

In situ post in floor

1160*100

A.D. 810

Structure 2

RL-623

Charred post on floor

1290*110

A.D. 683

Structure 3

RL-622

Charred post on floor

940*100

A.D.1016

Structure 4

RL-620

Charred post on floor

1070*100

A.D. 894

Structure 6

RL-621

Firebasin charcoal

960*110

A.D.1000

Structure 8

RL-624

Firebasin charcoal

1270*100

A.D. 701

Structure 9

RL-625

In situ post in floor

1120*110

A.D. 849

â&#x20AC;˘Radiocarbon age is based on 5,568 year half-life. **Calendar age is based on calibrations provided by Damon et al. (1974). 31

Structure Structure Structure Structure Structure Structure Structure

3— 6— 4— 9— 1— 8— 2—

1 L 1

-••-

l 1 '

—m~— i

1 I1

RR AH

Fig. 21

1400

1200

1000

sio

650

800 1050

Diagram of radiocarbon dates at one standard deviati ion.

determine the approximate midpoint of this occupation span, the seven dates were averaged using procedures outlined by Long and Rippeteau (1974). The average of the seven dates is 1116*39 years B.P. (834*39 A.D.), and it is probable that the site was occupied within 75 years of this date. The radiocarbon dates from Backhoe Village sug-

gest an occupation span approximately in the middle of the general Sevier chronology of 1,500 to 600 years ago (Marwitt 1970). Backhoe Village is roughly contemporaneous with the Nephi Mounds (Sharrock and Marwitt 1967) and was apparently occupied somewhat earlier than Pharo Village (Marwitt 1968), although a 1490 B.P. date rejected by Marwitt is possibly valid.

ARTIFACTS In view of the number of dwellings, the depth of the middens, and the extensive surface area of Backhoe Village, there are surprisingly few artifacts: 5,617 nonperishable artifacts were recovered and are described below. The majority fall into previously defined categories of the Sevier Fremont artifact inventory (Marwitt 1970) and are only briefly described. The spatial distribution of the artifacts is well controlled, but because of the extensive backhoe damage at the site, little can be inferred in the way of artifact utilization or be-

havior. No internal temporal patterns are evident. However, the artifact complex, particularly some ceramic categories, is somewhat earlier than similar complexes at other Fremont sites. The unique aspects of the artifact complex from the site are discussed below, but in general, the complex is consistent with the Sevier Fremont as defined by Marwitt (1970). The limited number of artifacts is unusual, but may be attributed to a relatively short occupation span.

CHIPPED STONE

tact structure floors and fill). Consequently, Structure 9 and Use Area D provided the larger amounts. Structure 1 (with limited floor) is an exception in the sheer numbers of obsidian waste flakes contributed to the total collection. Chipped stone artifacts are classed both morphologically and functionally. The broad categories are: points, drills, trifaces, bifaces, unifaces, utilized flakes, waste flakes, cores, hammerstones, and pecking and polishing stones. The functional categories of blade, scraper, graver, burin, and axe are eliminated. These are reflected as biface and uniface types.

INTRODUCTION Chipped stone artifacts recovered from Backhoe Village are provenienced from the fill, floor, and subfloor pits of each structure and the four use-surface/ midden areas (Table II). Disturbance by the backhoe contributed to a large surface and unknown provenience collection. The abundance of chipped stone artifacts generally corresponds to percentages of pottery, ground stone, and bone recovered from the separate loci and conforms to the size of the excavations (in32

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TABLE HI Chipped Stone Tools:

Materials and Measurements

Â¥

POINTS

Type la

Type Id

Fig. 22 A

Obsidian

3.2

1.7

0.4

1.15

3.0

1.8

0.4

0.98

2.0

0.3

0.77

Obsidian

Fig. 22 K

Obsidian

2.4

1.2

0.4

0.58

Fig. 22 L

Chalcedony

2.8

1.2

0.3

0.59

Obsidian

2.9

1.2

0.3

0.36

Chalcedony

1.1

0.3

0.45

Obsidian

1.1

0.3

Chalcedony

1.3

0.4

0.91

Type I la

Type lib Chalcedony

2.2

1.4

0.3

0.54

Chalcedony

2.7

1.6

0.6

1.73

Obsidian

3.9

1.5

0.4

1.37

Obsidian

4.2

1.7

0.5

2.18

Obsidian

2.8

1.5

0.4

0.64

Obsidian

2.1

1.2

0.3

0.35

1.7

0.4

0.64

Fig. 22 M Type I k

Type lb Fig. 22 F

Chalcedony

3.3

1.5

0.5

1.87

Fig. 22 N

Obsidian

4.7

2.3

0.5

3.72

Obsidian

3.8

1.8

0.4

1.96

Chalcedony

4.4

2.0

0.5

3.08

1.7

0.4

5.7

3.6

2.0

44.02

5.2

2.5

1.5

18.32

Chalcedony

5.6

2.4

1.8

19.05

Chert

4.9

2.6

1.7

26.18

Chalcedony

4.5

2.7

1.9

22.82

Obsidian

4.0

3.2

1.4

13.59

Quartzite

5.1

2.7

1.7

20.84

Chert

5.0

3.4

1.5

25.81

Chalcedony

3.4

1.0

0.4

0.81

Chalcedony

0.9

0.4

Obsidian

0.3

1.6

Type III

Obsidian Type Ic

Obsidian

0.4

Obsidian

0.4

Type IV Fig. 22 Q

TypeV

(See discussion)

TypeVIb Fig. 23 G

Type Via Fig. 23 A

Chert

Obsidian

5.3

2.2

0.6

6.65

Chalcedony

4.6

2.0

4.89

Chalcedony

4.5

2.3

0.7

5.60

Obsidian

3.8

2.4

0.7

5.91

Obsidian

3.6

2.1

0.8

3.88

Obsidian

3.1

1.9

0.6

2.63

Obsidian

4.9

2.1

0.8

5.05

Obsidian

2.0

0.6

Obsidian

2.1

0.5

Chalcedony Silicified Sandstone

DRILLS: Type I Fig. 24 A Chalcedony

3.3

1.7

0.5

2.76

Chalcedony

3.2

1.8

0.9

4.18 Type Ha Fig. 24 B

Material

Length (cm.)

Width (cm.)

Thickness (cm.)

Weight (gm.)

Type Ic

Length (cm.)

Material

BIFACES

Chalcedony

5.0

5.9

1.6

65.22

Quartzite

0.2

6.0

2.2 133.98

Chalcedony

4.6

4.0

1.5

Chert

8.0

5.0

2.4 101.65

Chalcedony

7.6

6.1

2.3 119.04

6.0

5.0

2.0

63.51

Chert

7.0

2.5

1.2

19.90

4.4

3.8

1.8

23.50

3.1

1.0

7.8

5.1

1.6

Chert

7.3

3.9

1.4 31.25

Fig. 24 K

Chalcedony

5.1

2.6

0.4

2.77

Fig. 24 L

Chalcedony

3.7

2.3

1.2

8.60

Chalcedony

11.2

2.1

—

62.80

S E

E G

:.' H

Chalcedony

3.1

0.7

Chalcedony

3.3

0.6

Type 11 Obsidian

Fig. 26 A

1.1

4.4

7.5

38.36

1.0

4.5

Chalcedony

28.53

Type III Chalcedony

Fig. 26 B

8.2

4.3

2.3

Silicified

78.62

Limestone Flint

7.4

4.7

2.1

86.69 See discussion

Type IV Silicified Sandstone

6.0

4.6

2.0

52.65

UNIFACES: Type I Fig. 26 D

Quartzite

6.1

4.0

1.8

45.56

Chalcedony

5.1

3.7

1.6

38.32

Chert

Chalcedony

6.9

3.9

2.9

64.34

Chalcedony

6.5

4.7

1.7

50.49

Silicified

Type II

Limestone

Fig. 26 E Chalcedony

5.8

4.2

2.0

32.55 F

Type lib Fig. 24 C

Chalcedony

2.7

1.6

0.6

57.62

1.53

Obsidian

3.6

1.5

0.4

1.17

Chalcedony

2.4

1.5

0.3

0.88

Obsidian

3.6

1.8

0.5

2.02

Chalcedony

0.4

Obsidian

2.7

1.5

0.4

0.91

Chalcedony

1.9

1.6

0.4

0.42

Type VI

Type VII

TRIFACES: Type la Fig. 25 A, B Type lb

Type III Fig. 24 G

Obsidian

1.7

0.9

0.3

0.25

Obsidian

1.9

1.1

0.3

0.25

Quartzite

7.3

1.6

1.4

18.19

Fig. 25 D

Chert

9.3

3.4

0.6

21.38

Chalcedony

7.3

2.8

0.8

16.26

Chalcedony

6.0

2.6

0.6

8.01

Fig. 25 G

Chalcedony

8.9

3.1

0.7

19.30

Chalcedony

7.5

3.0

0.6

12.04

Chalcedony

3.2

0.6

Chalcedony

5.5

4.5

0.6

BIFACES:

Type IV Fig. 24 H

Fig. 25 C

0.2

Obsidian

Type lb Chalcedony

1.1

0.3

1.1

0.3

TypeV Fig. 24 J

Chalcedony

3.2

0.57

10.88

TABLE III (continued)

f B

ex s

UNIFACES: Type II

•a

Silicified Limestone

8.7

Chalcedony

4.6

3.7

0.9

16.80

Chalcedony

3.8

2.0

1.4

9.42

Chalcedony

4.7

2.8

0.6

6.96

-J

6.3

1.4

87.16

Silicified Sandstone Quartzite

7.6

6.4

2.4

119.74

5.4

4.4

1.6

47.06

6.9

5.8

1.5

59.63

Silicified Limestone

CORES:

(See discussion)

HAMMERSTONES:

(See discussion)

PECKING AND Silicified Limestone

POLISHING STONES: 7.0

4.7

1.3

36.39

Chert

6.2

4.4

1.6

31.86

Chalcedony

5.3

5.1

1.9

42.52

7.0

2.8

1.1

20.12

Chalcedony

6.0

3.3

1.0

20.11

Chert

5.0

3.3

1.7

17.79

Chert

4.3

2.8

1.1

12.95

Chert

5.4

3.4

2.0

25.10

Chalcedony

3.7

3.6

1.3

23.25

(See discussion)

UTILIZED FLAKES:

Silicified Limestone

(See discussion)

TABLE IV

Obsidian

Chalcedor

Quartzite

Jasper

Chert

Flint

Silicified Limestone

Silicified Sandston

Totals

Provenience of Chipped Stone Material Types

—

Fill

—

Floor

367

—

392

Fill

—

Floor

—

Subfloor Pits

—

Fill

—

Floor

—

Subfloor Pits

—

Fill

—

Floor

—

Subfloor Pits

—

Fill

—

Floor

—

Fill

—

Floor

—

Subfloor Pits

—

Structure 7

Fill

—

Structure 8

Fill

—

Floor

—

Subfloor Pits

—

Fill

203

296

Upper Comp. Floor

141

—

233

Subfloor Pits

—

Fill/Floor

—

Lower Comp. Subfloor Pits

—

39 1

Provenience Unknown Structure 1

Structure 2

Structure 3

Structure 4

Structure 5

Structure 6

Structure 9

Use Area A

Fill

—

Use Area B

Fill

—

Use Area C

Fill

—

Use Area D

Fill

—

122

Pit Fill

135

231

483

950

101

176

175

1,999

Totals

TABLE V Comparison of Chipped Stone Tools and Stone Material Typ

TOTALS

—

•

—

-—

—

~•

-" ^_

—

426

798

146

141

1,695

—

Jasper

Chalced

Quartzit

"*-

Obsidia

Silicified Sandston

Flint

Silicified Limeston

Chert

POINTS: corner-notched

side-notched

unnotched

—

UNIFACES

—

UTILIZED FLAKES

unidentified fragments preforms DRILLS TRIFACES BIFACES

WASTE FLAKES CORES

—

HAMMERSTONES

— —

•

17 2

PECKING/POLISHING STONES TOTALS

1 483

950

101

—

176

175

1,999 1

Maximum dimensions and weight of each implement (excepting flakes, cores, hammerstones, and pecking and polishing stones) are shown in Table III. Fragmentary specimens were estimated for length and width where practicable, but not weighed. Stone material types are presented for provenience (Table IV) and artifact classes (Table V). The overwhelming percentages of chalcedony over all types except obsidian in part reflects a considerable amount of chert in which chalcedony inclusions are a major component. Flint, quartzite, silicified limestone, and silicified sandstone are present in lesser percentages while jasper is negligible in the collection. Only a few specimens show any suggestion of heat treatment. The bulk of these are chalcedony waste flakes which do not occur with sufficient regularity to warrant discussion. In addition to the 1,999 chipped stone artifacts, 47 pieces of amorphous, nondescript stone were recovered which do not readily fit existing classes. Many of the specimens are blocks or "chunks" predominantly of chalcedony. Chert, silicified limestone, and sandstone are also represented. Many specimens contain inclusions or impurities which make cleavage unpre-

dictable. These probably represent discards which proved impractical for tool manufacture. Comparable types for each class are presented, first for the Sevier Culture, where possible, and others of the Great Basin, followed by those of the Colorado Plateau. Most classes of artifacts are of no diagnostic utility since they are also found in Archaic sites. These comparable types are cited where pertinent. POINTS Projectile points are classified into six categories based on the general outline, notching, stem and base configurations, and flaking. The specimens range from notched to unnotched finished points and preforms (Type VI). Type la No. Specimens: Four complete, One fragmentary (Fig.22,A-E) Description: The specimens are small, triangular, corner-notched points with straight to slightly excurvate edges, constricting stems and rounded bases. All 38

Fig. 22

Points: Type la (A-E); lb (F-J); Id (K); Ha (L); lib (M); III (N-P); IV (Q). 39

are lenticular in cross section and four are made on curved flakes. Two specimens show collateral flaking on both faces producing medial ridges, and all but one show fine secondary retouch along the edges. All corner notches but one are bifacial. Stem bases on the four complete specimens 'are bifacially thinned (See Table III for materials and measurements). Comparable Types: Type II, Marwitt (1968, Fig. 52, g); Type 5, Sharrock and Marwitt (1967, Fig. 38, i-j); Type IV, The Gooseberry Site (DeBloois 1977^ personal communication); Type ID, Schroedl and Hogan (1975, Fig. 10, e); Similar to Type IIIB, Lindsay and Lund (1976, Fig. 15, k-1), but less elongated; Fowler, Madsen and Hattori (1973, Fig 11 h-1 r Fig. 27, i-j).

Description: The specimen is a small, triangular, double corner and side-notched (serrated?) point with straight edges toward the tip. The base is absent, and the stem is fragmentary. The diagonal tangs forming the corner notches are fragmentary, and those on the side notches are slight. The specimen is made on a curved flake and is lenticular in cross section. It is randomly flaked and shows fine secondary retouch along the edges. The four notches are bifacial. Comparable Types: Remotely similar to Aikens (1967, Fig. 38, j-1). Type Ila No. Specimens: One fragmentary (Fig. 22, L) Description: The specimen is a small triangular side-notched point with straight to slightly excurvate edges and straight base. It is lenticular in cross section. Collateral flaking is present on one face, and fine secondary pressure retouch is present along the edges. The side notches are bifacial. The base is bifacially thinned. Comparable Types: Type III, Class A, Marwitt (1968, Fig. 52, o); Type 2, Gillen (1941, Plate IV, 5); Type 2A, Taylor (1954, Fig. 15, Fig. 20, b); Aikens (1967, Fig. 24, i); Madsen (1975, Fig. 9, H); Type 3b, Leach (1967, Fig. 5, b).

Type lb No. Specimens: Four complete, One fragmentary (Fig. 22, F-J) Description: The specimens are triangular (two elongated), corner-notched points with straight to slightly excurvate edges and are distinguished from Type la by moderately to markedly expanding stems with straight to concave bases. Tangs are less pronounced than Type la and terminate well above the bases. All specimens are made on curved flakes. The two larger are lenticular in cross section, and the smaller are plano-convex in which flake scars are more pronounced on the dorsal surface; the remainder are randomly flaked. All show fine secondary retouch along the edges, and the corner notches are bifacial. Stems are bifacially thinned. Comparable Types: Type 4, Sharrock and Marwitt (1967, Fig. 38, g-h); Gillen (1941, Plate II, 5-6); Type IB, Schroedl and Hogan (1975, Fig. IOC); Type IB, Taylor (1954, Fig. 15); Dalley (1972c, Fig. 16, u); Type 4a, Leach (1967, Fig. 6, a-b); Type 1I1A, Lindsay and Lund (1976, Fig. 17, h-j); Similar to W 37, Jennings (1957, Fig. I07,b); Rose Springs Corner-notched, Aikens (1970, Fig. 18, g-i); Fowler, Madsen and Hattori (1973, Fig. 11, y-aa).

Type lib No. Specimens: One complete (Fig. 22, M) Description: The specimen is a small, triangular, side-notched point (drill?) reworked to a "needle-like" point with an acute tip. The specimen is distinguished from Type Ila by incurvate edges and convex base. It is lenticular in cross section and is made on a curved flake. The edges show fine secondary retouch. The notches are bifacial, and the base is bifacially thinned. Comparable Types: Base and notching similar to Type III, Marwitt (1968, Fig. 52, n); Aikens (1967, Fig. 38, b); Wilson and Smith (1976, Fig. 16, 1). Type He

Type Ic

No. Specimens: Four fragmentary Description: The specimens are small, triangular, side-notched points with straight to excurvate edges and missing or fragmented bases. All are lenticular in cross section. One is made on a curved flake, and one has a partial medial ridge which is on the dorsal face. All show fine secondary retouch along the edges. The side notches on all but one are bifacial, and the base on one is bifacially thinned. Comparable Types: Too fragmentary for comparison.

No. Specimens: Two fragmentary Description: The specimens are corner-notched points without stems. One is reworked along one edge and the base. Only one corner notch is present on each. The remaining tangs project diagonally downward apparently terminating well above the base. Both specimens are lenticular in cross section and show fine secondary retouch along the edges and the reworked base. Corner notches are unifacial. Comparable Types: Too fragmentary for comparison.

Type III

Type Id

No. Specimens: Three complete (Fig. 22, N-P) Description: The specimens are fairly large, triangular, unnotched points with straight to excurvate

No. Specimens: One fragmentary (Fig. 22, K) 40

edges and rounded bases. All are lenticular in cross section and are made on curved flakes. The original flake scar is present on the dorsal face of one specimen. All show secondary retouch along the edges, and the bases are bifacially thinned. Comparable Types: Type I, Marwitt (1968, Fig. 52, c); Aikens (1966, Fig. 22, t); Similar to Type 1 (Blades), Adovasio (1970, Fig. 55, a); Wilson and Smith (1976, Fig. 17,i). Type IV No. Specimens: One fragmentary (Fig. 22, Q) Description: The specimen is a lanceolate, unnotched point with straight edges and square to rounded base. It is lenticular in cross section and the original flake scar is present on one face. Secondary retouch is present along the edges and base of both faces. Comparable Types: Similar to Type I, Sharrock and Marwitt (1967, Fig. 38, a). TypeV No. Specimens: 16 fragmentary Description: The specimens are small point fragments showing at least one straight/excurvate edge or base with fine secondary retouch. Thirteen are lenticular in cross section, and three are plano-convex in which flaking is more pronounced on the dorsal faces. Two are made on curved flakes, and the original flake scar is present on one. Material: Nine obsidian, seven chalcedony Type Via No. Specimens: Eight complete, three fragmentary (Fig.23A-F) Description: The specimens are unfinished triangular points with little or no secondary retouch. Six are lenticular in cross section, and five are plano-convex. Eight are made on curved flakes, and medial ridges are present on all eleven specimens. Five show evidence of some basal thinning. Comparable Types: Similar to Marwitt (1968, Fig. 53, i-j); Sharrock and Marwitt (1967, Fig. 38, t); Gillen (1941, Plate IV, 4); Aikens (1967, Fig. 38, p, s-t, Fig. 24, o); Aikens (1966, Fig. 22, w); Taylor (1957, Fig. 54, B-C). Type VIb No Specimens: Eight complete (Fig. 23 G-K) Description: The eight specimens are unfinished, triangular points and are distinguished from Type Via by the complete absence of secondary retouch. Six are lenticular in cross section, and two are plano-convex. Original flake scars are present on all specimens. Comparable Types: Marwitt (1968, Fig. 54, n); Aikens (1966, Fig. 22, cc, 1967, Fig. 24, n); Schroedl

and Hogan (1975, Fig. 10, v-w, y); Dalley (1972c, Fig. 17,0DISCUSSION OF POINTS Projectile points recovered from Backhoe Village are common types associated with Sevier and Fremont sites in the Great Basin and Colorado Plateau. Cornernotched points comprise 55 percent and side-notched, 27 percent of the finished types (22). Unnotched varieties ieties constitute 18 percent of the collection. The ratio of corner-notched to side-notched points is similar to Pharo Village where corner-notched outnumber sidenotched forms by 3:1 (Marwitt 1968). Obsidian and chalcedony are represented to the exclusion of other stone types in the finished forms with obsidian preferred by 5:1 over chalcedony for corner-notched points (Table V). Type I points fall within the typological range of Rose Springs Corner-notched (Aikens 1970; Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973) (except Type Id, a unique specimen) and have a ca. 1350 to 600 B.P. temporal range (Lanning 1963; Hester 1973). The distribution of Type la, with constricting stem are only slightly differentiated from Parowan Basal-notched points which are generally more elongate with tangs extending to or slightly below the base (Adovasio 1970; Dalley 1972). The distribution of Type la points is essentially limited to the Great Basin (Marwitt 1968; Sharrock and Marwitt 1967) and Plateau (Lindsay and Lund 1976; DeBloois 1977, personal communication; Schroedl and Hogan 1975) areas of central Utah. Radiocarbon dates (1090Âą75 and 690Âą90 B.P.) from the two Basin sites bracket the type. Only at the Gooseberry Site (DeBloois 1977, personal communication) and O'Malley Shelter in southern Nevada (Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori 1973) are Type la points represented in number similar to Backhoe. These are dated ca. 1200 B.P. and 880 B.P. respectively. The Parowan Basal-notched, ca. 1050 B.P. (Marwitt 1970) to ca. 775 B.P. (Berry 1972) also lies within the range of dates posited for the type. At Backhoe, however, Type la points occur slightly earlier (ca. 1100 B.P.) (see section on Dating) and hence closely correspond to their occurrence at Gooseberry. Type lb, expanding stem, points are differentiated from the Eastgate expanding stem (Aikens 1970). The type has been recovered from excavated sites throughout the region including the upper levels of Danger (Jennings 1957) and Hogup Caves (Aikens 1970) and Sevier and Fremont Village sites (Sharrock and Marwitt 1967; Berry 1972; Taylor 1954). Despite the purported early occurrence by ca. 4600 B.P. of these arrow points at Hogup Cave (Aikens 1970, cf. Madsen and Berry 1975) a temporal range similar to Type la is suggested. Type II, side-notched points are only moderately represented at Backhoe, but have been recovered from numerous excavated Sevier sites in the Basin (Aikens

Fig. 23

Points: Type Via (A-F); Vlb(G-K).

1967; Marwitt 1968; Gillin 1941) and Fremont sites on the Plateau (Taylor 1957; Madsen 1975; Leach 1967). Side-notched points generally occur everywhere later (ca. 650 B.P. to Historic; Kehoe 1966; Hester 1973) than corner-notched forms; however, the radiometric data from Great Basin Sevier sites suggest contemporaneity. The Berry and Berry (1976) argument for the co-occurrence of the two types should not be limited to the Uintah Basin since the east-central Great Basin serves to demonstrate co-occurrence equally well. At Backhoe, a side-notched point is directly associated with corner-notched points on the floor of Structure 9 (Table II) and is radiocarbon dated (1120*110 B.P.). Similar associations occur at the Nephi Mounds (1100*80 B.P. and 1030*70 B.P.) (Sharrock and Marwitt 1967) and less directly at Pharo Village (760*80 to 690*90 B.P. (Marwitt 1968). The radiocarbon determination at Backhoe provides the earliest data on this association. Unnotched triangular (Cottonwood Triangular, Aikens 1970) and lanceolate forms (Types III and IV) occur in a variety of archeological contexts (Aikens 1966, 1970: Jennings 1957; Marwitt 1968; Adovasio 1970; Sharrock and Marwitt 1967; Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori 1973). They occur at Backhoe in associa-

tion with radiocarbon dates (1270*100 and 1070*100 B.P.). Type VI preforms are widely distributed throughout the region (Jennings 1957; Aikens 1970; Marwitt 1968; Sharrock and Marwitt 1967; Taylor 1957) and are also nondiagnostic. Type Via preforms represent an intergrade between Type III points and Type VIb preforms, and many specimens are very nearly like Cottonwood Triangular points. Preforms were recovered from a number of structure floors and are radiocarbon dated (1290*110 to 1070*100 B.P.). Materials for the most part are restricted to obsidian and chalcedony (Table IV). The ratio of waste flakes to preforms for the two stone material types (obsidian 50:1 and chalcedony 125:1) suggests that obsidian was imported with most of the primary reduction nearly complete. The reduction of chalcedony cores was accomplished on site. Also, no obsidian cores were identified while chalcedony dominates (65 percent) the collection. DRILLS Drills are categorized into seven major classes based primarily on tip length in relation to base height and on base configuration. Type IV drills are similar to 42

Fig. 24

Drills: Type I (A); Ila (B); lib (C-F); III (G); IV (H-I); V (J); VI (K); VII (L).

The edges are straight to incurvate from the tip to the top of the base and show fine, delicate secondary retouch. The specimen is lenticular in cross section. Comparable Types: Aikens (1967, Fig. 38, bb, Fig. 24, u-v); Schroedl and Hogan (1975, Fig. 10, 1); similar to Type 2, Adovasio (1970, Fig. 54, d-f); Dalley (1972c, Fig. 16, bb); Type 1 (less side notch), Leach (1967, Fig. 8, a).

Cottonwood Triangular points and Type VII to "gravers" (see Comparable Types) but both are distinguished by acute tips. Type I No. Specimens: One complete, one fragmentary (Fig. 24, A) Description: The specimens are small, thin drills with straight edges. The complete specimen is cornernotched with weak shoulders, a slightly expanding stem and straight base. The tip forms an acute point. The tip and base are missing on the fragmentary specimen. One is lenticular in cross section and the other is plano-convex. The latter is made on a curved flake. Bifacial, collateral flaking is evident on the complete specimen producing medial ridges. Both specimens show fine pressure retouch along the edges. Comparable Types: Type III, Marwitt (1968, Fig. 53, e-f); Aikens (1966, 22, dd).

Type lib No. Specimens: Four complete, one fragmentary (Fig. 24, C-F) Description: The specimens are small, triangular drills with expanding bodies and rounded to oval bases. Tip lengths are equal to or less than the heights of the bases. The edges are incurvate from the tips to the tops of the bases and show secondary retouch, although less delicate than Type Ila. All are plano-convex in cross section and show random flaking. Three are made on curved flakes. Medial ridges are present on the dorsal, surfaces of two specimens. Comparable Types: Type II, Marwitt (1968, Fig. 53, c-d); Dalley (1972s, Fig. 16, dd); remotely similar to Type 2a, Leach (1967, Fig. 8, b).

Type Ha No. Specimens: One fragmentary (Fig. 24, B) Description: The specimen is a long, thin drill with expanding body and missing base. Tip length is probably equal to or greater than the height of the base. 43

Type HI

base. The tip shows secondary retouch. The specimen is plano-convex in cross section. The original flake scar is present on the dorsal surface. Comparable Types: Type II, Marwitt (1968, Fig. 53, d); similar to Adovasio (1970, Fig. 58, b-e).

No. Specimens: One complete, one fragmentary (Fig. 24, G) Description: The specimens are triangular with variable excurvate and incurvate edges, bifurcated bases, and pronounced tangs. The base of the complete specimen is bifacially notched and one tang is flared. One specimen is lenticular in cross section and the other is plano-convex. The complete specimen is made on a curved flake and both show fine pressure retouch along the edges. Comparable Types: Somewhat similar to Marwitt (1968, Fig. 53, t); Type IV, Lindsay and Lund (1976 Fi. 17, n).

TRIFACES Trifacial (multifacial) specimens fit no existing category and are subdivided based primarily on size. Type la No. Specimens: One complete (Fig. 25, A-B) Description: The specimen is a large, straight-edged, pointed implement, triangular in cross section. The point is missing. Two faces are flat with the remainder showing a moderately pronounced medial ridge. Secondary retouch is present along the edges. Comparable Types: None comparable, the specimen is unique.

Type IV No. Specimens: Two complete, two fragmentary (Fig. 24, H-I) Description: The specimens are small, triangular drills with straight to excurvate edges. Bases on the two complete specimens are irregular, but slightly convex. Two specimens are lenticular in cross section and two are plano-convex. Original flake scars are present on the dorsal faces of two specimens, and two have moderately pronounced medial ridges. Two are made on curved flakes, and one shows collateral flaking on the dorsal face. All edges show fine secondary retouch, and one is formed to an acute tip. Comparable Types: Similar to Type I, Marwitt (1968, Fig. 52, a); Aikens (1966, Fig. 22 o-p); Adovasio (1970, Fig. 52,[b]); Dalley (1972, Fig. 16, y-z).

Type lb

No. Specimens: One complete (Fig. 25, C) Description: The specimen is a coarse, leaf-shaped, pointed tool â&#x20AC;&#x201D; trifaced at the tip, which is worked to an acute point (drill?). It varies from triangular to plano-convex in cross section. The three edges at the tip show evidence of secondary retouch. Comparable Types: Remotely similar to Adovasio (1970, Fig. 56, b); Dalley (1972c, Fig. 16, ff).

TypeV BIFACES No. Specimens: One fragmentary (Fig. 24, J) Description: The specimen is a small, irregular, leaf-shaped bi-pointed drill, expanded in the midsection. The edges vary from straight to slightly irregular and show secondary retouch. The tips are missing. The specimen is lenticular in cross section. Comparable Types: Only Class 3, Fowler, Madsen and Hattori (1973, Fig. 12, o, r).

Bifacially worked stone is classified into four major categories based primarily on overall configuration, base type, and flaking. The specimens vary from finely made Type I forms to unfinished varieties. Type la No. Specimens: Three complete (Fig. 25, D-F) Description: The specimens are triangular to lanceolate with straight to excurvate edges and square or straight to slightly rounded bases. All are lenticular in cross section and one is made on a curved flake. One specimen shows partial, collateral flaking and medial ridges are present on two. One shows parallel lateral flaking on one face along one edge. Secondary retouch is present on the edges of all specimens, and two are basally thinned. Comparable Types: Marwitt (1968, Fig. 54, g-i); Sharrock and Marwitt (1967, Fig. 38, r); Gillen (194l' Plate II, 14-15, Plate IV, 9-10, Plate V, 7); Aikens (1966, Fig. 22, m, u); Schroedl and Hogan (1975, Fig. 10, j); Wilson and Smith (1976, Fig. 17, i); Dalley (1972, Fig. 16, a-b); Type If and Id, Leach (1967, Fig. 7, d, g).'

Type VI No. Specimens: One fragmentary (Fig. 24, K) Description: The specimen is a thin, finely worked drill with a straight, expanding base and straight edges. The tip and one shoulder are missing. The specimen is lenticular in cross section. The edges show fine secondary retouch. The base is thinned. Comparable Types: None comparable Type VII No. Specimens: One complete (Fig. 24, L) Description: The specimen is a partially finished drill with excurvate edges and a nondescript, unworked 44

Fig. 25 Trifaces: Type la (A-B); lb (C); Bifaces: Type la (D-F); lb (G-J). 45

Fig. 26

Bifaces: Type II (A); III (B-C); Unifaces: Type I (D); II (E-F)

Type lb

Typelc

No. Specimens: Three complete, one fragmentary (Fig. 25, G-J) Description: The specimens are triangular (elongate) to lanceolate with straight to excurvate edges and square to straight to slightly rounded bases. These are differentiated from Type la bifaces by the presence of weak shoulders on one edge of each specimen. One specimen has a faint shoulder opposing the more prominent one resulting in a stem which is greater than three-fourths the maximum width. The triangular specimen has a shallow unifacial notch on the edge opposite the prominent shoulder resulting in a roughly square, but weak tang at the base. Medial ridges are present on two specimens, and all show random flaking except the fragmentary specimen which is unifacially, flaked along one edge. All are lenticular in cross section and show secondary retouch along the edges. Three are basally thinned. Comparable Types: Remotely similar to Schroeder (1950, Fig. 26); Type 5 Blade, Leach (1966, Fig. 21).

No. Specimens: Two fragmentary Description: The specimens are triangular to lanceolate with straight to excurvate edges and rounded tips. Bases are missing. A medial ridge is present on one specimen. Both are lenticular in cross section and show secondary retouch along the edges. Comparable Types: Too fragmentary for comparison. Type II No. Specimens: One complete, one fragmentary (Fig. 26, A) Description: The specimens are large, triangular bifaces, thick in cross section, with excurvate edges and rounded bases. Both show random flaking, and a medial ridge is present on one specimen. They are lenticular in cross section although the whole specimen is somewhat irregular with the proximal half of one face flat to concave. The edges of both specimens show only minimal retouch. 46

Fig. 27

Utilized Flakes (Microphotographs):(A-D). Arrows indicate worked edges.

Comparable Types: Appears similar to Marwitt (1968, Fig. 54, k-1); Aikens (1967, Fig. 38, q); Schroedl and Hogan (1975, Fig. 10, i); Type IIIA, Lindsay and Lund (1976, Fig. 20, a-b).

Description: The specimens are small biface fragments of variable size and shape. Four are lenticular in cross section, and four are plano-convex. All show fine secondary retouch along the edges and are presumably derived from Type I categories. Material: Seven obsidian, four chalcedony

Type III No. Specimens: Ten complete, four fragmentary (Fig. 26, B-C) Description: The specimens are triangular to ovate, irregularly shaped bifaces of variable size. One is almost crescentic in outline. The edges vary from straight to excurvate and irregular. Large flake scars are present on all faces. Medial ridges are present on the faces of two specimens where the random flaking was better controlled. Eight specimens are more or less lenticular in cross section, and six are plano-convex. Secondary retouch is nonexistent. Comparable Types: Possibly similar to Marwitt (1968, Fig. 53, k-1, p, Fig. 54 n); Aikens (1967, Fig. 39, n); Type 3, Leach (1967, Fig. 9c).

UNIFACES Unifacially worked stone is classified into two major categories based on one or more than one worked edge. Type I No. Specimens: Two complete, one fragmentary (Fig. 26, D) Description: The specimens vary from needle-shaped or half crescent to triangular of varying size. All show unifacial, multiple edge random flaking. One specimen has been worked to a blunt point. One is lenticular in cross section, and two are plano-convex. Comparable Types: Similar to "scrapers and gravers", Marwitt (1968, Fig. 53, q-r), but unifacially

Type IV No. Specimens: 11 fragmentary 47

flaked only; also Marwitt (1968, Fig. 53, m); possibly Aikens (1967, Fig. 39, f-h); Schroedl and Hogan (1975, Fig. 10, r); Type 2, Leach (1967, Fig. 9, b)

cular to the flake edges (under 10 to 30X magnification). No. Specimens: 52 (Fig. 27, A-D) Description: The specimens are for the most part lamellar flakes which vary in size and shape. All are unretouched flakes which have been removed from cores through percussion flaking and show signs of wear along at least one edge. Material: 10 obsidian, 31 chalcedony, one quartzite, seven chert, one silicified limestone, two silicified sandstone Comparable Types: Lindsay and Lund (1976, Fig. 24); see Wylie (1975) and Ahler (1971) for discussion.

Type II No. Specimens: 18 (Fig. 26, E-F) Description: The specimens vary in size and from triangular to amorphous shapes. One is crescentic in outline. All but one are made on large flakes. Large percussion flake scars are present on the dorsal face of each specimen. All show unifacial retouch on a single edge. Comparable Types: Similar to "end scrapers", Marwitt (1968, Fig. 53, n-o); Aikens (1966, Fig. 22, hh), (1967, Fig. 39, a-e); Schroedl and Hogan (1975, Fig. 10, q).

WASTE FLAKES No. Specimens: 1,695 Description: The specimens vary in size and shape and are, in general, distinguished from small cores by the presence of a bulb of force and positive flake scars. Material: 426 obsidian, 798 chalcedony, 84 quartzite, three jasper, 146 chert, 30 flint, 141 silicified limestone, 67 silicified sandstone

UTILIZED FLAKES Utilized flakes were identified by negative microflake scars and striations both parallel and perpendi-

Fig. 28

Cores (A-C). 48

Material: 59 chalcedony, five quartzite, nine chert, one flint, 18 silicified limestone, four silicified sandstone. Comparable Types: Schroedl and Hogan (1975, Fig. 11, e); Lindsay and Lund (1976, Fig. 25, d-g); Adovasio (1970, Fig. 60, a, Fig. 61, c); Dalley (1972c, Fig. 18, i-o).

CORES Cores are distinguished by large percussion flake scars and showing marked bulbs* of force. No distinction is made between "prepared" cores, bifacially worked and "spent" or exhausted cores. No. Specimens: 92 (Fig. 28, A-C) Description: The specimens vary in shape and size. Only a few are classic tortoise shell-shaped or planoconvex in cross section. Many are small "spent", biconvex cores in which further reduction or flake removal was impossible. A number of the larger specimens are blocks in which only a few flakes have been removed. The majority are amorphous in shape. All specimens show concavities or negative scars where large flakes have been removed. Only a small percentage may be considered prepared cores in which flakes were selectively removed from a common striking platform. Rather, most exhibit random flaking in which any suitable surface was used. Measurements: Size and weight vary from 5.2 cm. in diameter, 3.3 cm. thick and 105.5 gms. to 12 cm. dia., 5 en. thick and 732.8 grams.

Fig. 29

HAMMERSTONES Hammerstones are identified by general symmetry and the presence of numerous "battering marks" present on the small ridges and to a lesser extent elsewhere on the surface of the specimens. They are distinguished from pecking and polishing stones which are much smaller and more or less oval in shape with "battering marks" restricted to the poles. These also tend to show a luster indicative of polishing. No. Specimens: 23 (Fig. 29, A-B) Description: Specimens are generally spheroid to oblate and show signs of "battering" along the edges, consequently large flakes have been removed "inadvertently" from a number of specimens.

Hammerstones: (A-B); Pecking and Polishing Stones: (C-E). 49

Measurements: Size and weight vary from 11.5 cm. in diameter and 1,213.2 gms. to 5.5 cm. dia. and 159.4 grams. Material: Five chalcedony, five quartzite, two chert, eight silicified limestone, three silicified sandstone Comparable Types: Marwitt (1968, Fig. 55, a-b); Aikens (1966, Fig. 23, e); Schroedl and Hogan (1975, Fig. 11, g); Lindsay and Lund (1976, Fig. 25, a); Adovasio (1970, Fig. 62, a-c); Dalley (1972c, Fig. 18, a-c).

this specimen. The implement better fits the functional drill category. The large, finely made Type lb, shouldered bifaces have few counterparts, although remotely similar specimens were recovered from widely dissimilar contexts: a preceramic Basketmaker site (ca. 1500 B.P.) on the lower Virgin River (Schroeder 1950) and a Fremont site on the upper Green (Leach 1966). The quantity (four) in which these were recovered from Backhoe proves wholly enigmatic. Type la bifaces have numerous counterparts in blade categories in a large variety of contexts (Jennings 1957; Aikens 1970; Sharrock and Marwitt 1967; Marwitt 1968). A variety of geologic strata apparently served as immediate lithic sources (Young and Carpenter 1965). Silicified limestone and sandstone may have been obtained from the Flagstaff, North Horn, and Price River formations, all main constituents of the Pavant Plateau. The latter would have also provided quartzite. Bald Knoll, Green River, and Crazy Hollow remnants similarly provided stone including chert and perhaps chalcedony from the latter. The large cores of these materials suggest immediate sources. Obsidian was probably obtained from the nearest known source, the Mineral Mountains, about 50 mi. to the southwest. The wide variation exhibited in the obsidian (i.e., transparent, brown-banded, snow flake etc.) at Backhoe is also seen at the posited source. The complete absence of obsidian cores at the site suggests the source of the stone was far removed, and obsidian was imported in the form of preforms, possibly through trade. The extensive number of obsidian waste flakes on the floor of Structure 1 supports this notion since they average less than 5 mm. in maximum dimension and are obviously secondary, finishing flakes. The restriction of these flakes to the floor of only one structure is inexplicable.

PECKING AND POLISHING STONES Pecking and polishing stones are ordinarily identified as ground stone (see Comparable Types below), however placement here is at least equally justified. No. Specimens: Three (Fig. 29, C-E) Description: The specimens vary from spheroid to prolate. Two show signs of "pecking" at the poles, and one has latitudinal striations across the midsection. All specimens are polished. Material: One quartzite, two silicified limestone Measurements: length, 4.1 to 6.7 cm.; width, 2.8 to 5.6 cm.; thickness, 1.5 to 4.4 cm.; weight, 35.9 to 255.0 grams. Comparable Types: Marwitt (1968, Fig. 65, c and possibly d-e); Sharrock and Marwitt (1967, Fig. 40, e); Aikens (1966, Fig. 23, d); Wilson (1972, Fig. 21, a-e).

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION Aside from the few unique implements (Type V drill, trifaces, and Type lb bifaces), the chipped stone assemblage from Backhoe Village is wholly reminiscent of the Sevier inventory. Type la projectile points appear to be a variant of the more widely distributed Rose Springs Corner-notched with expanding stem and are very similar to the Parowan Basal-notched (see Discussion of Points). The co-occurrence of corner-notched and side-notched points at Backhoe and the Nephi Mounds (Sharrock and Marwitt 1967) (ca. 1100 B.P.) corresponds to the co-occurrence in the Uinta Basin (Berry and Berry 1976). Drill forms are highly variable in most Sevier collections and Backhoe is no exception, however all but the Type V, bi-pointed drill have counterparts. The drill is similar to Class 3 drills at O'Malley Shelter, but these are dated ca. 3700 to 3000 B.P. The drill has no correspondence within the time frame of Backhoe. The identification of the small "Cottonwood Triangular" as Type IV drills based on the acute tips is problematic, and the function of these remains open to question. The two trifacial implements are unique. The Type la specimen ("spike") is without correspondence. The much smaller Type lb may be similar to "blades" from the Parowan Valley (Adovasio 1970; Dalley 1972c) however, that function cannot be posited for

CERAMICS Ceramic materials from Backhoe Village include the diagnostic types associated with the Sevier as well as the usual range of ceramic artifacts generally found at Sevier village sites. Common Sevier ceramic artifacts, such as pottery scrapers, pipes, and figurines, are well-represented. The collection of pottery and sherds is dominated by plain and decorated varieties of Sevier Gray pottery, with intrusive pottery types constituting less than 9% of the total. Provenience of the ceramic materials is given in Table VI. POTTERY Nineteen partially restorable vessels and 2,239 sherds were recovered, and are classified into ten types and varieties. Five of the ten are indigenous varieties and include Sevier Gray, Sevier Black-on-gray, Sevier Corrugated, Sevier Surface-Manipulated, and Ivie Creek 50

TABLE VI

Unflred Pottery

Total

Worked Sherds

Partially Restorable Vessels

Clay Pipes

Figurines

—

Structure 1

Fill

—

Floor contact

—

—•

Fill

—

Floor contact

—

Subfloor pits

—

Fill

112

Floor contact

Subfloor pits

Fill

Floor contact

Fill

Great Salt Lake Gray

—

£)

Sevier Surface Man.

—

Snake Valley Cor. Tusayan B/W

Sevier Cor.

Snake Valley B/G

Sevier B/G

Provenience Unknown

Ivie Creek B/W Snake Valley _Gray

Sevier Gray

Ceramic Artifact Provenience

—

139

—

Floor contact

—

Fill

Floor contact

—

Subfloor pits

—

Structure 7

Fill

—

Structure 8

Fill

226

—

239

—

Floor contact

—

Subfloor pits

Fill

439

—

475

—

Upper component Floor contact

—

130

—

"•—

Subfloor pits

—

Floor/fill

Subfloor pits

—

Use Area A

Fill

—

Use Area B

Fill

Use Area C

Fill

134

—

169

—

Use Area D

Fill

176

—

211

—

Pits

338

—

378

—

1,889

127

2,239

Structure 2

Structure 3

Structure 4

Structures

Structure 6

Structure 9

Lower component

TOTAL

—

•

—

Black-on-white. These five varieties make up 91% of the collection, indicating that Backhoe Village is well within the ceramic core area defined for the Sevier Fremont (D. Madsen 1970). The remaining varieties include Snake Valley Gray, Snake Valley Black-ongray, Snake Valley Corrugated, Great Salt Lake Gray, unfired pottery, and a possible Anasazi variety. With the exception of Sevier Black-on-gray and Ivie Creek Black-on-white, descriptions and discussions of these ceramic types have not been included here since they are available in detailed form in Rudy (1953); D. Madsen (1970); and R. Madsen (1977).

The problem with Ivie Creek Black-on-white is more clear-cut and does have a solution. Four varieties of Ivie Creek Black-on-white have been identified: slipped and unslipped basalt temper as well as slipped and unslipped quartz sand (gray basalt) temper. The inclusion of these four varieties within a single type is probably a result of their distribution along either side of the Wasatch Plateau, and the related problem involving the separation of Sevier and Emery Gray. It is obvious that the four varieties represent decorated varieties of Sevier Gray and Emery Gray pottery, and do not represent a separate tradition as R. Madsen has suggested (1977). The unslipped varieties should be renamed to follow the format widely accepted in describing Snake Valley Gray and its decorated varieties. For this reason, we have resurrected the term Sevier Black-on-gray (Steward 1936) and applied it here to unslipped carbonpainted varieties of Sevier Gray. As with Snake Valley Black-on-gray, Sevier Black-on-gray is technologically identical with the locally produced plain gray ware (see Rudy 1953; R. Madsen 1977 for descriptions) and differs only in the presence of carbon-painted designs on the interior of bowls. We have retained the term Ivie Creek Black-onwhite to refer to the slipped varieties since they differ slightly (in terms of technology) from the locally produced plain gray ware. Ivie Creek Black-on-white bowls are essentially unsmudged Sevier or Emery Gray vessels to which a slip was added subsequent to the original firing. A carbon-painted design was then added, usually on the interior. Ivie Creek Black-on-white vessels do not differ in kind from the locally produced plain gray pottery, but simply have the additional slipped characteristic and more properly should be considered decorated varieties of Sevier or Emery Gray. To distinguish which plain gray ware the slipped specimens are derived from, we suggest adding Sevier or Emery variety to the "Ivie Creek Black-on-white" rubric. Sevier Gray â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Ten of the 18 partially restorable vessels and 1,879 (85% of the collection) sherds are Sevier Gray. Decoration is limited to an exterior fugitive red wash on 14 sherds and a coffee-bean applique on one of the vessels. Vessel forms are primarily large, wide-mouthed jars with no handles and smaller, narrow-necked jars with strap handles. Plain gray bowls are rare. An unusual feature is the presence of flat bottoms on five of the partially restorable vessels. There is no distinct edge along these flat bottoms. Rather, they curve gradually into globular bodies, and appear to have been made simply by pressing the vessels down on a flat surface while the clay was still plastic. A variety of different-sized jars have flat bottoms, and all five partially restored vessels rest on flat surfaces without support. Individual vessels are described below and are identified by the structure in which they were found.

The identification of and the descriptive nomenclature for Sevier Gray, Emery Gray, and Ivie Creek Black-on-white is presently confused and ambiguous. Marwitt (1968) and D. Madsen (1970) noted the problems, but made no attempt to provide solutions. R. Madsen's (1977) comprehensive treatment of Sevier/ Fremont ceramics compounds rather than clarifies the confusion since it ignores several varieties of Ivie Creek Black-on-white, and isolates it as a separate ceramic tradition. There are two primary problems which involve (1) the separation of Emery and Sevier Gray and (2) the inclusion of several ceramic varieties under the rubric of "Ivie Creek Black-on-white." The first problem has no ready solution since Fremont pottery (indeed, Southwestern pottery in general) is primarily categorized on the basis of tempering inclusions. Both Sevier and Emery Gray are tempered with crushed basalt, but can be distinguished on a general level by the following criteria: "Both Emery Gray and Sevier Gray are tempered with crushed basalt, and are the only Fremont types containing that material. Sevier Gray is usually tempered with dark basalt and little or no quartz. Emery Gray, on the other hand, generally contains gray basalt with high percentages of quartz. Inclusions in Emery Gray are almost always fine (0.1-0.3 mm.) to medium (0.3-0.6 mm.), whereas Sevier Gray is generally characterized by coarse (0.6-2.0 mm.) particles" (R. Madsen 1977:32). Unfortunately, the range of variation of these characteristics overlaps, and in a mixed collection it is impossible to categorize a large percentage of sherds as either Sevier or Emery Gray. To date, most ceramic collections containing Sevier and/or Emery Gray have been typed on a geographical basis. That is, east of the Wasatch Plateau basalt-tempered pottery has been called Emery Gray, while west of the Plateau it has been termed Sevier Gray. Since the two types cannot be separated as presently defined, we have followed this practice here and have called all basalt-tempered pottery Sevier Gray. However, some sherds can readily be identified as Emery Gray, and we stress that this type is present in the collection from Backhoe Village in minor amounts (less than 2% of the collection).

Fig. 31 Sevier Gray jars (A-C); Designs on Sevier Black-on-gray bowls (D-F). 54

Fig. 32 Unusual designs on Ivie Creek sherds.

Structure 2-A: This specimen is a small, flat-bottomed jar with a slightly flaring rim (Fig. 30,A). With the exception of a missing strap handle, the vessel is virtually complete. Maximum depth is 11.1 cm. Maximum diameter is 9.9 centimeters. Diameter at the mouth is 6.9 centimeters. Structure 2-B: This vessel is a small, globular-bodied jar with a vertical, slightly excurvate, rim and a single strap handle (Fig. 30,B). Maximum depth is 12.7 centimeters. Maximum diameter is 13.6 centimeters. Diameter at the mouth is 8.8 centimeters. The rim is 4.8 cm. from lip to shoulder. Structure 2-C: This medium-sized flat-bottom jar is complete except for the rim (Fig. 30,C). Maximum diameter is 15.0 centimeters. Maximum depth is about 15 centimeters. Structure 2-D: This vessel is a large, globular, roundbottomed olla (Fig. 30, D) with a recurved rim. Maximum diameter and depth is about 24 centimeters. Structure 2-E: A portion of a large olla is large enough to determine that it was flat-bottomed. Estimated maximum diameter and depth is 28 centimeters. Structure 5-A: This specimen is an unusual flatbottomed jar with a small ridge at the shoulder (Fig. 31,A). The vessel has a narrow neck with a vertical rim. Maximum diameter is 16.3 cm. at the pinched-out shoulder. Maximum depth is 15.2 centimeters. Structure 5-B: This vessel is a medium-sized, globular-bodied, round-bottomed vessel with a recurved rim. Estimated maximum diameter is 21 centimeters. Estimated maximum depth is 18 centimeters.

terior fugitive red wash was originally applied to the vessel, but has virtually been eliminated by use. The lower 2/3 of the bowl has been refired to a light red on the exterior and appears to have been set in coals, suggesting use as a cooking vessel. Maximum diameter is 20.1 centimeters. Maximum depth is 7.5 centimeters. B — A small bowl with a maximum diameter of 18.1 cm. and a maximum depth of 6.1 cm. has a heavy fugitive red wash on the exterior. Design is depicted in Figure 31,E. C — A small bowl with an unusual, poorly executed design (Fig. 31,F) has a 19.2 cm. maximum diameter and has a maximum depth of 7.4 centimeters. Ivie Creek Black-on-white/Sevier Variety — Three partially restored vessels and 58 sherds are a slipped and painted variety of Sevier Gray. The vessels and 39 sherds are stained with an exterior fugitive red wash. Bowls are the only vessel form represented. The painted designs are quite variable, but fall within categories described by R. Madsen (1977). Designs on the larger sherds are shown in Figure 32. A single, large bowl fragment has two bands of tooled impressions around the exterior, 1.3 cm. below the rim. The three partially restored bowls are described below: Structure 2-A: This rather deep bowl with an exterior fugitive red wash has a maximum diameter of 22.2 cm. and a maximum depth of 10.4 cm. (Fig. 33,A). Structure 2-B: A smaller bowl with similar design elements (Fig. 33,B) has a maximum diameter of 18.6 cm. and a maximum depth of 8.6 centimeters. Structure 5-A: This small bowl with an unusual design (Fig. 33,C) is a maximum of 18.2 cm. in diameter and 7.8 cm. in depth. Three drill holes are present in the extant portion of the vessel indicating that it was broken and repaired.

Structure 7-A: The bottom portion of a large flatbottomed olla was recovered from Structure 7. Maximum diameter is estimated to be 28 centimeters. Structure 8-A: This vessel is a medium-sized, straightrimmed, globular jar with a round bottom (Fig. 31, B). Maximum diameter is 15.4 centimeters. Maximum depth is 13.8 centimeters. Estimated diameter at the mouth is 8 centimeters. Structure 8-B: This specimen is a small, roundbottomed jar with a slightly recurved rim and a single strap handle (Fig. 31,C). It is decorated with a string of "coffee-bean" appliques at the juncture of the rim and body. Maximum diameter is 9.6 centimeters. Maximum depth is 9.4 centimeters. The diameter at the mouth is 6.3 centimeters. Sevier Black-on-gray — Three partially restored bowls and 42 sherds (2% of the collection) are Sevier Gray pottery which has been decorated with a carbon-painted design. Bowls are the only vessel form represented, and all designs are painted on the interior. One vessel and 19 sherds have an exterior fugitive red wash. All three partially restorable Sevier Black-ongray bowls were recovered from Structure 8 and are described below: A — The design on this bowl has been virtually obscured by use and is drawn in Figure 31,D. An ex-

Sevier Corrugated — Three sherds of Sevier Gray decorated with exterior corrugations were recovered from the site. None of these is a rim sherd. They are too small to estimate vessel form or size. Sevier Surface-Manipulated — Six Sevier Gray sherds are decorated on the exterior surface by a variety of tool-made designs. Three rim sherds, which appear to be from the same vertically rimmed vessel, have vertical rows of fingernail impressions running from the lip to the shoulder of the vessel (Fig. 34,A). The rows are 3.7 cm. long and are 0.3 cm. apart. Another rim sherd has a similar fingernail-impressed design, but comes from a vessel with a slightly recurved rim (Fig. 34,B). A small rim sherd from a vertically rimmed vessel is incised with shallow vertical and horizontal lines which form a cross-hatched pattern (Fig. 34,C). The lines are an average of 0.4 cm. apart. The remaining specimen is a body sherd from a jar or bowl in which shallow, hemispherically shaped lines have been incised horizontally around the vessel. The lines are 0.5 cm. wide, 0.1 cm. deep, and are 0.2 cm. apart.

Fig. 34

Sevier Gray/Surface Manipulated sherds (A-C); Clay pipes (D-E); Worked sherds (F-J)

Snake Valley Gray â&#x20AC;&#x201D; One hundred ninety-eight sherds (9% of the collection) of Snake Valley Gray and its decorated varieties were recovered from Backhoe Village. This pottery type most probably originated in the Parowan area and is present at the site as a tradeware. Snake Valley Gray and its varieties were traded extensively throughout the Sevier and Fremont areas, and it has the widest distribution of any Sevier ceramic type. It constitutes a major portion of the collections at other excavated central Sevier sites, exceeding 10% at Pharo Village (Marwitt 1968) and 20% at the Nephi Mounds (Sharrock and Marwitt 1967). These high percentages and the poor execution of some painted designs led Marwitt (1968) to speculate that some of this pottery may have been locally made. This seems doubtful in light of the overall uniformity of the type, and it is generally considered a tradeware when recovered outside the Parowan Valley area (D. Madsen 1970; R Madsen 1977). Sixty-four sherds, 18 of which have an exterior fugitive red stain, are plain Snake Valley Gray. None of these are rim sherds, and vessel forms cannot be deter-

mined. However, many of the sherds are small and in the absence of jar rim sherds, it may be that they are derived from unpainted portions of Snake Valley Blackon-gray bowls. Snake Valley Black-on-gray â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The 123 recovered Snake Valley Black-on-gray sherds are, with two exceptions, all derived from bowls with interior designs. Forty-nine have an exterior fugitive red stain. No partially restorable vessels were recovered, but the large rim sherds suggest that the bowls averaged 20 cm. in diameter and 8 cm. in depth. The two exceptional sherds appear to be from a composite bowl, a unique vessel form previously described from sites in the Parowan Valley (D. Madsen 1970, Fig. 46). Snake Valley Corrugated â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Thirty-one sherds from a minimum of four vessels have exterior corrugations. No complete or partially restorable vessels were recovered, but the rim sherds and curvature of the body sherds indicate the sherds are all derived from medium to large, globular-bodied jars with recurved rims. Estimated diameters average 26 cm. and estimated depths 24 centimeters. 58

Anasazi Tradeware — A single sherd of Anasazi pottery, tentatively identified as Tusayan Black-onwhite, has exterior corrugations and interior carbonpainted design. The rim sherd is derived from a bowl. Great Salt Lake Gray — one partially restorable vessel and ten sherds (probably derived from the same vessel) were recovered from the floor of Structure 5. The vessel is a small undecorated jar with a vertical rim and a globular body. Estimated depth is 11 cm.; width is 9 centimeters. The rim is 2.5 centimeters high, and the diameter of the mouth is 6.6 centimeters. The Great Salt Lake Gray identification is based on the variety of tempering inclusions which include coarse quartz, sand, and mica. Unflred Pottery — Eight sherds are from unfired vessels that appear to have been broken during the process of construction. On several the coils are still visible, and the surfaces are poorly smoothed. All eight sherds contain basalt tempering particles, and should be considered unfinished Sevier Gray. Drilled Sherds — Only seven sherds and one partially restored vessel contain drilled mending holes. All seven are from painted vessels indicating either they were easier to repair or were more highly valued. Worked Sherds — A variety of ceramic artifacts normally classified as scoops, pottery scrapers, disks, etc., are combined in this category. Fourteen of the 16 specimens would normally be termed "pottery scrapers," but this implied function cannot be confirmed by any direct evidence. The 14 "scrapers," are made from fragments of the following pottery types: Sevier Gray, Sevier Black-on-gray, Snake Valley Gray, Snake Valley Black-on-gray, and Snake Valley Corrugated. Their shapes are not uniform, and their only common feature is one or more ground and beveled edge and at least one broken edge (Fig. 34,F-H). Shapes range from square to triangular to oval. Sizes range from a maximum width of 9.3 cm. to a maximum width of 2.5 centimeters. The remaining two worked sherds are ground completely around their circumference, and appear to be too small to have functioned as scraping implements. Both sherds originated from Snake Valley Black-on-gray vessels. One is oval and measures 2.3 by 1.7 cm. (Fig. 34,1). The other is an extremely small, circular disk measuring 0.7 cm. in diameter (Fig. 34,J).

are cigar-shaped. Diameters are 1.5 and 0.9 centimeters. FIGURINES Two identifiable figurine fragments (Fig. 35, A-B) and two shaped clay fragments, which may be parts of figurines, were found on the floor or in subfloor pits of Structures 4 and 9. The two identifiable fragments are broken heads of anthropomorphic figurines. The noses on both were pinched up when the clay was still plastic, and appliqued eyes were placed in the depressions caused by the pinching. Small holes, presumably representing nostrils, are incised into the lower portion of the nose on one specimen. The two figurine fragments are well within the range of the general Sevier and Fremont pattern (c.f, Morse 1954), but lack elaborate features such as hair bobs and necklaces. Two fragments of shaped, sun-dried clay may be body fragments of figurines. However, no distinctive anthropomorphic or zoomorphic features could be discerned. All four fragments are of unfired, untempered clay. DISCUSSION Ceramic materials from Backhoe Village are similar to other Sevier collections, and fit easily into the tech-

CLAY PIPES The mouthpiece ends of two unfired clay pipes were recovered (Fig. 34,E-D). They may be from either elbow or tubular pipes since both varieties are found in Sevier contexts (e.g., Marwitt 1968). Clay pipes are usually made from tempered clay used to produce the local gray ware (e.g., D. Madsen 1970; Marwitt 1968). However, both pipes are untempered clay and have been only partially fired through use. Both fragments Fig. 35 Anthropomorphic figurine fragments (A-B). 59

TABLE VII

lated that these sherds were deposited after the site was abandoned. Such an hypothesis seems extreme, however; and it is more likely that the corrugated sherds were deposited during the latter portion of the occupation span at Backhoe Village. Snake Valley corrugated is dated much earlier than A.D. 1100 at other Sevier sites (e.g., Marwitt 1970; Sharrock & Marwitt 1967), and it appears that the temporal brackets supplied by Berry (1972) and R. Madsen (1977) may be inadequate. At the very least, Snake Valley Corrugated pottery should be used as a dating tool with extreme caution.

Ratio of Vessels to Sherds at Selected Fremont Village Sites

Backhoe Village

1:117

Caldwell Village

1:376

Pharo Village

1:511

Nephi Mounds

1:608

Evans Mound

1:1,467

Turner-Look

1:1,472

GROUND STONE The ground stone from Backhoe Village consists of specimens which represent the full range of Sevier types: trough, slab, and "Utah-type" metates; shaped and cobble manos; cobble pigment grinders; hoes/maulers; stone balls; beads and pendants; and enigmatic ground stone objects. The ground stone is primarily sandstone, vesicular basalt, suggesting that the grinding qualities of these stone types, were superior to other readily available materials. Provenience of ground stone artifacts is given in Table VIII.

nological and distributional patterns defined for the regional Sevier and Fremont variants (D. Madsen 1970; R. Madsen 1977). Clarification of the Ivie Creek Blackon-white problem, as outlined above, emphasizes that the pottery types associated with the variants are technologically distinct, and that the decorated varieties simply represent a modification of the locally produced plain gray wares. The ratio of complete and partially restorable vessels to the total number of sherds is markedly different from most Sevier village sites, and warrants some discussion. If other factors are held to be equal, it can be assumed that the ratio of vessels to sherds will give an indication of the length of time the site was occupied. The ratio of vessels to sherds from Backhoe Village, other excavated Sevier sites, and selected sites from other regional Fremont variants is listed in Table VII. The ratio at Backhoe Village is markedly below that of the other sites, and suggests the length of occupation was much shorter. For example, at Evans Mound (Berry 1972) a minimal occupation span of 200 years is reflected in the relatively high ratio of sherds to vessels. The occupation of Backhoe Village appears to have been of shorter duration.

METATES Nine whole and six fragmentary metates are readily divided into three categories: trough, "Utah-type," and slab varieties. Twenty specimens can be classed only as metate fragments. The three varieties can be distinguished on the basis of material type as well as form. The possibility that different forms and materials were used to grind different kinds of foodstuffs was investigated by taking pollen samples from the surfaces of the nine whole specimens. However, neither the metate types nor the stone types can be distinguished on the basis of differential pollen counts. The samples may represent fill on the metate surfaces, but most probably the metates were all used for similar purposes. Dimensions and material types are listed in Table IX. The nine slab metates were manufactured from broad, flat sandstone or granite slabs varying between 4 and 10 cm. thick. Seven of the nine identifiable fragments were shaped into roughly rectangular forms by bifacial retouch along the lateral edges. (Note the flaking on the edges of the slab metate in Figure 36,A). Two types of grinding surfaces are found on the slab metates, and in five cases, are found on opposing sides of the same metate: trough grinding surfaces, similar to those on trough and "Utah-type" metates but much flatter and not exceeding 3.5 cm. deep, exhibit unidirectional or reciprocal grinding; flat grinding surfaces are apparently the result of multidirectional or circular grinding techniques. The trough and "Utah-type" metates have unidirectional grinding surfaces that have more of a rocker shape and are much deeper than the slab metates,

The ceramic collection and radiocarbon dates from Backhoe Village are inconsistent in terms of present hypotheses on Sevier development and chronology. The seven C-14 dates have a median age of 1116 B.P. (A.D. 834), and group coherently enough to prevent rejection of the earliest dates. The painted pottery associated with these dates falls on the early end of the temporal ranges established for these ceramic types and design elements (e.g., D. Madsen 1970, R. Madsen 1972, 1977; Breternitz et al. 1974) but is essentially in agreement. However, the 31 Snake Valley Corrugated sherds seem temporally out of place, since Berry (1972, 1974) suggests "a beginning date for the type no earlier than A.D. 1100" (emphasize his). Since all but one of the sherds are derived from structure fill, it may be postu60

TABLE VIII

? 1

Structure 1

Enigmatic Fragment

Jadeite Stone Disk

Pendants

Beads

Sharpening Stones

B£

Hoe/Mauler

Pigment Grinders

Stone Balls

Type IV

u a.

Typel

Provenience

Pounders/ Grinders

g Type III

Cobble Manos

Artifact

Fragments

sr |

Metates

Type II

Provenience of Ground Stone Artifacts

Fill 1

Floor contact Structure 2

Fill Floor contact

Subfloor pits Structure 3

— —

Fill Floor contact

Structure 4

— —

1 2

__ __

—

Fill

Structure 5

Floor contact

__ _

— — —

— —

Fill Floor contact

Structure 6

Fill

Floor contact

Subfloor pits Structure 8

Fill Floor contact

— — — — — —

Subfloor pits Structure 9

Fill

Upper Component Floor contact Subfloor pits

—

1 3

Lower Component Subfloor pits Use Area A 1

General fill

Use Area C General fill

Use Area D General fill

1 2

Pit fill Provenience Unknown

TOTAL

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TABLE X Mano Dimensions

-—^__^ Artifacts Shaped Manos Type I

Dimensions

JS •

B ev

^~~~~~—-~^_^

a *

£M "S

4.3

1,392

23.3

7.8

Basalt

19.2

9.1

3.7

956

Basalt

20.1

8.9

4.8

1,170

Basalt

18.2

9.0

4.7

1,193

Basalt

22.6

8.9

4.1

1,211

Basalt

17.1

8.8

3.0

582

Sandstone

20.5

9.1

2.3

897

7.3

4.1

1,172

8.0

4.4

Granite

G H

21.0

Limestone concretion

Type II Type III

Basalt

Granite

A B

Sandstone

21.3

8.7

3.2

967

Sandstone

18.7

10.5

5.9

2,070

Sandstone

21.4

1,118

3.4

3.4 2.8

16.3

7.0

2.7

Sandstone Sandstone

Type IV

9.7 10.0

562

Cobble Manos Type I

9.9

6.1

2.8

Basalt

13.1

8.0

4.1

584

Sandstone

16.7

9.3

4.8

1,248

Granite

11.8

8.3

6.7

1,153

Granite

10.5

7.4

3.8

Granite

12.3

8.1

5.0

752

Granite

9.4

7.4

5.5

619

Type II

Sandstone

Pigment Grinders A B

C , Granite

3.8

Granite

4.4

Granite

4.1

Granite

4.2

Granite

Pounding/ grinding Implements B C

Basalt Sandstone

24.6

11.7

7.2

3,686

23.0

15.8

8.8

4,933

29.1

16.3

6.4

4,196

Fig. 36

Slab type (A) and "Utah-type" (B) metates. Note the bifacial retouch on the slab type metate. 64

unformed cobble manos. These categories are further subdivided by the number and type of grinding surfaces (cf. Marwitt 1970). Dimension and material types are listed in Table X. Shaped manos are divided into the following four varieties: Type I — A single rocker-shaped grinding surface (Fig. 37,A); Type II — a single flat grinding surface; Type III — one flat and one opposing rockershaped grinding surface; Type IV — two opposing flat grinding surfaces (Fig. 37, B). Ten of the 15 shaped manos are the Type I variety, and are relatively uniform in terms of both size and material. The dominance of rocker-shaped manos is incongruous since twothirds of the metates are the slab type with relatively flat grinding surfaces. Cobble manos are also divided by the number of grinding surfaces. Four are ground on one surface only, and are categorized as Type I. The single Type II specimen is ground on three adjacent sides (Fig. 37, C). Four of the five cobble manos are unmodified sandstone, granite, or basalt cobbles. The fifth is a broken portion of a basalt metate which was utilized as a mano without any further modification.

reaching up to 10 cm. in depth. None of the six specimens exhibits grinding on the obverse surface. The "Utah-type" metates differ from the trough types in having an additional shallow grinding surface adjacent to the upper end of the main trough (Fig. 36,B). the presence of economic pollen types in samples from these secondary depressions suggests that they were used for grinding rather than for some other purpose such as a "mano rest." However, with the exception of slightly different pine counts, pollen samples from the main trough and the secondary depression of the three whole "Utah-type" metates cannot be distinguished, and the purpose of the two types of grinding surfaces remains unknown. Twenty ground stone fragments are too small and broken to be classified in any of the categories listed. Sixteen fragments are sandstone, three are granite, and one is limestone. Four specimens are ground on two opposite surfaces, and may be from slab metates. MANOS The seventeen complete manos and three fragments fall into two primary categories: shaped manos and

Fig. 37 Type I shaped mano (A), Type IV shaped mano (B), Type II cobble mano (C). 65

STONE BALLS

hand-held mortars on which the ochre was pulverized. Material and dimensions of the five specimens are given in Table X.

"Stone balls" are spherical ground stone implements ranging from 3.4 to 5.4 cm. in diameter. The 15 specimens have been shaped by pecking, and the amount of grinding varies from very little to the entire surface. Materials are primarily sandstone and limestone, but two specimens are basalt. The function of these stone balls has never been demonstrated; they have been varyingly categorized as gaming pieces, ceremonial objects, or simply enigmatic artifacts. However, at Backhoe Village, stone balls were found in direct association with manos on the floors of two separate pit structures (Fig. 38,B-E). They appear to have been used, along with manos and metates, in the preparation of food. They may well be associated with the small depression on "Utah-type" metates since the normal manos seem much too large to be effective on those grinding surfaces.

POUNDERS/GRINDERS Three relatively large grinding implements were also used on one end as abraders. The specimens are all large, unformed cobbles which are ground on one surface. Their size is such that they may have been used either as metates or manos. Materials and dimensions are listed in Table X. HOE/MAULER A Type I basalt mano has been reworked by bifacial retouch into a chipping implement resembling a hoe (Fig. 38,A). Its present form is an elongated isosceles triangle. The broad end is abraded in addition to being flaked. The implement is 17 cm. long and 3 cm. thick. It is 8.6 cm. wide at the broad end and tapers to 4.6 cm. at the narrow end.

PIGMENT GRINDERS Pigment grinders are unshaped cobbles that have no modified or ground surfaces, but are heavily stained by red ochre. They appear to have been used as

Fig. 38 Hoe/ mauler (A), stone balls (B-E), sharpening stone (F). 66

WORKED BONE The collection of 97 worked bone specimens from Backhoe Village is distinguished from other Sevier sites primarily by the absence of large roughly formed implements such as scrapers, fleshers, chisels, etc., and by the presence of a zoomorphic bone figurine. Fleshers and other similar implements are common at other central Sevier sites (e.g., Marwitt 1968,) and are quite abundant in the Parowan Valley (e.g., Dalley 1970). The suggested use of these tools in the working of hides or other soft material and their absence, along with the limited amount of bone scrap, is indicative of a reduced reliance on faunal resources at the site. Other worked bone from the site consists of a variety of awls, "gaming pieces," beads, and pendants which are commonly found at most Sevier village sites. Provenience of the worked bone is listed in Table XI.

Fig. 39 Lignite beads (A-C), jadeite pendant (D).

AWLS Bone awls are categorized in a format originally defined by Kidder (1932) and used in nearly all discussions of Sevier and Fremont worked bone (e.g., Sharrock and Marwitt 1967; Marwitt 1968; Dalley 1970; Schroedl and Hogan 1975; Wilson and Smith 1976). In this system, awl categories are distinguished by the amount of working on the head. However, since it categorizes awls which were obviously used for different purposes, the system is misleading. (For example, small needle-like awls are classed together with large, robust, punch-like awls simply because the heads on both specimens have been removed!) Kidder's system is used here only because it facilitates comparisons with other Sevier collections, and because the number of awls is too limited to describe functional categories based on shape and wear patterns. Type A â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Head of Bone Intact â&#x20AC;&#x201D; One complete and one broken specimen fall into this category and epitomize the difficulty of classifying awls by the amount and shape of the head (Fig. 40,A-C). One complete specimen is made from the distal end of a cottontail tibia. Its over-all length is 6.9 cm., but the tip is only worked 1.6 cm. up the shaft. The second complete specimen is the proximal end of a mountain sheep ulna. The shaft has been broken 4 cm. below the articulating surfaces and has been worked into a punchlike awl. The worked surface extends only 1-2 cm. up the shaft. The broken specimen is made from the distal portion of a mule deer metapodial. The tip end is missing, but the shaft has been worked all the way up the shaft to the unmodified head. The cottontail awl is much smaller and more fragile than either the mountain sheep or deer awl, and the type of working on the shaft suggests different use. However, since the head is intact on all specimens, they are classed together.

STONE BEADS AND PENDANTS Nine circular, flat lignite beads ranging from 0.7 to 1.3 cm. in diameter and from 0.3 to 0.5 cm. thick were found at Backhoe Village (Fig. 39,A-C). The beads are ground and highly polished. A 0.3-cm. diameter hole is drilled through the center of each bead. A rectangular jadeite pendant, 1.4 by 0.9 by 0.2 cm., was recovered from the floor of Structure 3 (Fig. 39,D). The pendant is highly polished, and has a biconically drilled hole through one end. The specimen is similar to a jadeite pendant from the Nephi Mounds (Sharrock and Marwitt 1967). ENIGMATIC GROUND STONE A thin piece of turquoise has been ground into what may have been a bead or pendant. However, the fragment is too broken and eroded to determine original shape or function. A cylindrical ground stone fragment, circular/ hexagonal in cross section, served an enigmatic function. The object is 1.8 cm. in diameter and is ground completely around. One end is flat, the other is broken. Length of the fragment is 3.6 centimeters. SHARPENING STONES Four sandstone fragments were apparently used to sharpen bone or wooden tools (Fig. 38,F). The otherwise unmodified fragments have both broad (about 4-5 cm. wide) and narrow (0.5 cm. wide) gouges ground into the stone in apparently random fashion. These gouges are both flat and V-shaped in cross section, indicating they were used to fashion pointed and knife-like objects. 67

TABLE XI Worked Bone Provenience

Structure 1

Fill

Structure 2

Fill

Unusual — E

Totals

1 _

Unusual — D

Figurine

1 — — — — —

Unusual — B

Oval Bead

fti

Unusual — A

1 — — —

Disk Beads

Type A

TypeH

TypeG

TypeF

TypeE

TypeD

TypeC

1 — —

P,ECES

Pendants

Provenience Unknown

TypeB

Provenience

Type A

Artifacts

— t

Tubular Beads

GAMING AWLS

Triangular Beads

_«,

5 1

Floor contact

Subfloor pits Structure 3

Fill Floor contact

Structure 4

1 1 —

Subfloor pits

Fill

6 6

1 — —

1 — — — — — —

—

— —

5 2 2

Floor contact Structure 5

Floor contact

Structure 8

Fill

4 1 1

Floor contact

Structure 9

Fill

Floor contact

Subfloor pits

General fill

Use Area D

General fill Pit fill

Totals

Subfloor pits

Use Area A

2 3 —

1 11

1 —

1 ~•

24 16 6

1 2

7 7

1 13

Type B — Head of Bone Unaltered Except by Original Splitting — Eighteen complete and three fragmentary specimens are grouped together by this definition, but can be further separated morphologically into "punches" and "awls." These subcategories are distinguished primarily by length to head-width ratios, with punches exceeding 1:4 and awls less than 1:7. The seven punches (Fig. 40, D) are much shorter than the awls and range in length from 5.8 to 7.1 centimeters. Head-widths range from 1.5 to 2.0 centimeters. They are all completely worked up the shaft, but exhibit a higher amount of polish from use on tip end. All seven are made from the proximal end of deer metapodials.

1 104

The awls are longer, ranging in length from 8.1 to 11.7 cm. (Fig. 40,E). Head-widths range from 0.9 to 1.4 centimeters. All 14 are made from the proximal end of either deer or mountain sheep metapodials. Type C — Head of Bone Partly Worked Down — This type is not readily distinguished from Type B since the amount of working on the head varies from unintentional "use" polish to intentional reduction and smoothing of the head. Only those specimens which exhibit the apparent intentional reduction are included here. Both punches and awls are represented in this category, and size ranges are similar to Type B. The 68

Fig. 40

Type A Awls, A-C; Type B Awl, punch variety, D; Type B Awl, awl variety, E; Type D Awls, F-G; Type E Awl, H; Type F Awl, I; Type G Awl, J. 69

five specimens are made from the proximal end of deer or sheep metapodials. Type D — Head of Bone Wholly Removed — Although all 11 specimens share the characteristic of having had all articulating surfaces removed, their varied morphologies suggest different functions. Unfortunately, their number is too small, and their differences too varied to categorize them here. This type includes specimens similar to the punches and awls defined for Type B (Fig. 40,F); intermediate specimens; needle-like specimens (Fig. 40,G); and short, flat specimens. All specimens are apparently derived from the long bones of a large mammal. Type E — Splinter Awls — As the name implies, the seven awls in this category are made from long bone splinters of varying sizes. They are distinguished from Type D awls by being worked only near the tip end. They range in length from 2.0 to 12.8 cm., and range in width from 0.2 cm. (an extremely small fragment) to 1.6 cm. (half a long bone). A single specimen (Fig. 40,H) resembles a drill. Type F — Lateral Metapodial Awls — Two lateral metapodials of deer have been modified by grinding the tip to a point (Fig. 40,1). They are otherwise unmodified. Dalley (1970) has suggested that manufacture of this type awl was limited primarily to the Parowan Valley of Utah. However, every excavated central Sevier site has contained these awls (e.g., Sharrock and Marwitt 1967; Marwitt 1968; this report), and Dalley's suggestion appears untenable. Type G — Unusual Awls — A single specimen is manufactured from the jaw of a carnivore (Fig. 40,J). It has been completely worked on all surfaces, and all protuberances and articulating surfaces have been removed. It is essentially a broad, flat, spatula-like implement. It tapers from 4.1 cm. at the condyle to 1.2 cm. at the broad, round tip. Length is 12.6 centimeters. Width is 0.7 centimeters. Type H — Awl Fragments — Thirteen specimens are broken midsections or tips. Since the heads are not present, they cannot be categorized. All ten appear to be from mammalian long bones.

"Gaming pieces" are quite common at Sevier and Fremont village sites, and are often found in "sets" (e.g., Judd 1919; Wormington 1955; Sharrock and Marwitt 1967; Dalley 1970). Both Judd (1919) and Dalley (1970) have suggested that at least the drilled variety may have been ornamental since they have been found associated with pendants in arrangements suggesting they were strung. However, actual use must remain open at present. Type A — Center-Drilled Pieces — Four specimens (Fig. 41,A), made from midsections of mammal long bones, are drilled through the center and stained with red ochre on the narrow side. They are roughly rectangular with square to rounded corners and are uniform in terms of size. Lengths range from 4.1 to 4.5 centimeters. Widths range from 1.0 to 1.3 centimeters. Type B — Undrilled Pieces — The 16 complete and three fragmentary specimens are extremely varied in terms of workmanship. All are made from mammalian long bone midsections; but they range from broken bone fragments, which are unmodified except for usepolish and interior stain (Fig. 41,B), to pieces which have been shaped by grinding into a flat, rectangular form (Fig. 41,C). They range in length from 3.5 to 5.1 cm., and in width from 0.9 to 1.6 centimeters. Fourteen specimens are stained with red ochre on the interior portion of the bone. A single specimen is marked in the center of the exterior surface with a series of lines incised perpendicularly to the main axis. BEADS/PENDANTS Worked bone which appears to have been strung and used for ornamental purposes are separated into descriptive categories on the basis of end versus center drilling. The ornamental bone is quite varied and cannot be easily classed beyond this level. The many unique specimens are described individually below. Disk Beads — Three specimens are circular, flat, disk beads which have been drilled through the center (Fig. 41,D). They are not bone cross sections, but rather have been ground flat, apparently from a section of mammalian long bones. They are uniform in size, and are 0.8 cm. in diameter and 0.3 cm. thick. They were found together in a subfloor pit of Structure 2, and may have been strung together on a single strand. Oval Bead — A single highly polished bead (Fig. 41,E) is oval in plan with diameters of 1.5 and 0.6 centimeters. It is comparatively thin (0.1 cm.) and has a small hole drilled through the center. Triangular Beads — Two specimens are flat, triangular in outline, and drilled through the center (Fig. 41,F). Maximum dimensions are 1.6 by 0.7 cm. by 0.1 cm. thick. Tubular Beads — Two specimens (Fig. 4l,G) are conical in shape, and are 0.6 and 0.8 cm. in diameter at the narrow end; 1.3 and 1.7 cm. in diameter at the wide end; and 2.8 and 3.6 cm. long. They are made

"GAMING PIECES" Small, flat, pieces of bone ground into a rectangular shape, sometimes polished and/ or stained with a red pigment and sometimes drilled through the center, are described here as "gaming pieces" or counters following convention. The assumption that these bone pieces were used as dice in a gambling game seems out of order since there is absolutely no data to support such a statement. The wide acceptance of this functional description is inexplicable, although the following logic may be one reason: "The large number of gaming pieces found at the Turner-Look Site would suggest that some game was commonly played (Wormington, 1955:93)." 71

C — A spatula-like object has been manufactured from the femur of a deer or mountain sheep (Fig. 42). The head has been modified to resemble the head of an animal. (It most closely resembles a camel!) The shaft tapers to a broad, flat, rounded tip. A hole has been drilled into the marrow cavity in the approximate center of one side, but does not go completely through the shaft. On the reverse side, an irregular series of lines have been incised perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. The lines are irregular enough to suggest that they were not made sequentially at one time, and are uniform enough to suggest that they were made in the same way, and possibly, for the same purpose. The most obvious explanation is that it is some kind of record-keeping devise. A similar implement lacking the carved head and the incised lines was recovered from Evans Mound and interpreted as a weaving tool (Dalley 1972a). Length is 13.2 centimeters. Width and thickness are 2.2 and 3.2 centimeters. D — The distal portion of a deer or mountain sheep metapodial has been worked by cutting completely around the shaft 3.5 cm. above the end. The specimen is not further modified, and it is probable that it constitutes a discarded portion of bone resulting from the construction of another implement such as a Type D awl. Fig. 42

E — A deer antler tine is modified by use at its base. The basal end is worked to a broad, straight form by a random series of extremely small incised cuts. These incisions are sharp and were apparently made by chipped stone tools. The most obvious explanation is that the antler tine was used as a flaking implement.

Bone Figurine Possibly Used in Weaving.

from the end of mammalian long bones, the head of the bone has been removed, and the end of the shaft has been ground to form a conical shape. A hole has been drilled through the narrow end into the marrow cavity. Pendants — One fragmentary and three complete specimens are so varied that they are all illustrated in Figure 41,H-K rather than described here. Their only shared characteristic is that they are all highly polished. Two complete specimens, also highly polished, resemble pendants in outline, but are not drilled for stringing. They do not resemble gaming pieces, and are included here as "Pendant blanks" following Dalley's (1970) usage.

DISCUSSION With the exception of Dalley's (1970) work at Median Village, worked bone from Sevier sites has received little attention other than mere description. This is unfortunate since, as Dalley points out, Sevier people utilized bone for tools, ornaments, and possibly recreation to a much higher degree than did other similar horticultural groups, such as the Fremont and Anasazi. The variety of bone tools, along with their sheer number, suggest that bone working techniques constituted a large portion of the Sevier artifact technology. Within the context of a general Sevier bone tool complex, Backhoe Village stands out by having relatively few types of bone implements. This cannot be attributed to sampling error since all areas of the site were tested, and the ratio of worked to unworked bone is as high or higher than at other Sevier sites. The lack of bone chopping, cutting, and scraping tools is inexplicable since it does not fit the general pattern. We can only suggest that stone or possibly wooden tools were substituted, or that the need for tools to work soft material, such as hide, was limited.

UNIQUE SPECIMENS Six worked bone items do not fit into any of the categories defined above. A — Two items are manufactured from midsections of small mammalian long bones. The midsections were split in half and ground to a length of 1.8 centimeters. Width of both specimens is 0.7 centimeters. On one specimen four lines have been incised on the exterior, perpendicular to the axis (Fig. 41,L). B — The rib fragment of a small mammal has been modified by cutting away the articulating surfaces and drilling a hole through one end (Fig. 41,M). It is slightly polished, but otherwise unmodified. 72

Zoomorphic bone figurines are unknown from other reported Sevier sites, although Marwitt (1968) does describe a fragment of flat, polished bone containing two drilled holes as a figurine. A virtually identical figurine was reportedly excavated by amateurs from a site approximately 7 miles south of Backhoe Village (Asa Neilson 1976, personal communication), and it may be that the manufacture of these figurines may be common to the central Sevier River Valley.

MISCELLANEOUS ARTIFACTS A variety of artifacts which cannot be easily categorized in other general artifact classes are described below. Although their relative number is low, they provide important evidence concerning extra site relationships and internal subsistence activities. SHELL Two worked shell artifacts and two unworked shell fragments were recovered. One worked shell specimen is tentatively identified as Olivella sp. It has been cut in half longitudinally, and has been drilled through the center (Fig. 43,A) and was apparently strung and used as a bead. Olivella shell ornaments have been recovered from other Sevier sites (e.g., Sharrock and Marwitt 1967), and it is apparent that Sevier peoples participated in a trade network which extended to coastal areas. A bead/pendant, made from shell, is completely worked on all surfaces (Fig. 43,B). The species from which it was derived cannot be determined. It is tabular in cross section, and resembles a figure eight in

plan. A hole, presumably for stringing, has been drilled through one end. It is 0.8 cm. long, 0.4 cm. wide, and 0.2 cm. thick. The two unworked shell fragments are apparently of local derivation. One is a portion of a fresh water bivalve which is too fragmented to identify, even to genus. The other is an aquatic gastropod of the lymnoid type. LAVA COBBLES Small unworked lava cobbles averaging 8-10 cm. in diameter were found scattered throughout the site in structure fills, on structure floors, and in subfloor pits. There is no evidence of use, and their function is unknown. However, 15 cobbles were found together in a subfloor pit of Structure 9, suggesting that they were kept for a specific purpose. They may represent waste fragments derived from shaping metates and manos, or, more probably, represent cached source material for the basaltic inclusions in locally produced pottery.

FAUNAL REMAINS The faunal remains from Backhoe Village reflect the general Sevier subsistence pattern in that a wide range of animals, including large ungulates, rabbits, small rodents, and birds, were collected. Only 1,186 faunal specimens were recovered, and 241 were identified to the genus or species level. Ten varieties of animals were identified and are tabulated in Table XII. In addition, the unidentified bone was tabulated in bird, small mammal, and large mammal categories. The latter category was tabulated as unidentified Artiodactyla since the only identified large mammals are mountain sheep and mule deer. The relatively small proportion of identified bone is a reflection of two factors. First, the identification process utilized a cautious approach, and only positive identifications were considered. As a result many nondiagnostic bones with articulating surfaces were not identified. This is particularly true of the Artiodactyla since many elements of this order can only be distinguished on the basis of relative size. These size ranges overlap, and many elements in a mixed collection cannot be identified. Second, a large percentage of the faunal remains was so fragmented as to preclude identification. The majority of these broken and splintered bones (88%) are from large mammals and reflect a common Fremont practice (e.g., Marwitt 1968, Dalley 1970, Smith 1972). This practice suggests a significant use of bone marrow. Lagomorphs (rabbits) are by far the most common faunal type both in terms of total bone count and number of minimum individuals. Rabbits, pocket gophers, and muskrats constitute 87% of the identified bone and suggest a primary reliance on small mammals.

Fig. 43 Olivella bead, A; shell bead/ pendant, B. 73

Fig. 44

Close-up view of Canis sp. skull showing possible butchering marks

This may be misleading however, since the amount of Usable meat from a rabbit is only 1/40 of that from a deer or mountain sheep (White 1953), and as noted above, the actual percentage of deer and sheep is probably much higher. Dalley's (1970) brief review of faunal remains from the Sevier and Fremont areas suggests that in terms of absolute amounts of meat, deer, mountain sheep, and antelope are the primary resources. However, in terms of frequency of collection, and in light of limited preservation techniques (if any), small mammals may have been more important in the diet than the limited amount of meat would suggest. Sevier peoples may have occasionally (perhaps seasonally) gorged themselves on meat from large mammals, but in terms of sheer numbers it appears that small mammals were more readily available and more important in the daily diet.

Village. The canine skull recovered from Structure 9 is tentatively identified as dog. The number of diagnostic elements is minimal, and the skull may be that of a coyote since both species have been recovered from Sevier sites. The skull is marked by cuts which suggest butchering and/or skinning (Fig. 44). If the skull is a dog's and if the butchering or skinning was a prelude to consumption, this may represent the first evidence of a domesticated faunal resource in the Sevier culture. However, such a conclusion must be considered tentative in the absence of corroborative evidence. The distribution of faunal remains at the site is unusual and inexplicable. Nearly 90% of all faunal remains were recovered from Structures 8 and 9 and Use Area D. A similar distribution occurs with the chipped stone assemblage, and there may be some unexplained connection. It is possible that this area was used as a refuse dump since most of the scrap bone comes from the fill of both structures. However, the large percentage of faunal material from the floors and subfloor features of these structures belies this explanation, and some other unexplained factor must be involved. The variation in relative amounts of bone recovered from Sevier and Fremont village sites is marked and appears to be related to differences in subsistence economies. Although differences in population size,

Twenty faunal specimens representing at least six individuals from a minimum of four different species were identified as bird bones. Only one of these specimens, a raven, was identified. Bird bones at Sevier Village sites have generally not been identified, but those from Pharo Village (Marwitt 1968) give some indication of the kind of birds that were hunted. At that site primary reliance was on grouses and marsh birds, and a similar pattern is probable at Backhoe 74

TABLE XII Unidentified small mammals

Totals

Fill

Floor contact

Subfloor pits

Fill

Neotoma spp. (woodrat)

—

Lepus californicus (jackrabbit)

—

Unidentified birds

—

•

Corvuscorax (raven)

—

Unidentified ARTIODACTYLA 10

Thomomys bottae (pocket gopher)

Sylvilagusspp. (cottontail rabbit)

Ovis canadensis (mountain sheep)

Ondatra zibethicus (muskrat)

Odocoileus hemionus (mule deer)

Castor canadensis (beaver)

Provenience

Artifacts Canis e.f.familiaris (dog)

•

( :

Unworked Bone Provenience

Provenience unknown Structure 1

—

Fill

Structure 2

Structure 3

Floor contact

—

Subfloor pits Structure 4

Fill

Structure 5

Floor contact

Structure 6

Fill

Floor contact

—

Floor contact

Structure 7

Fill

—

Structure 8

Fill Floor contact

—

Fill

101

318

137

162

128

—

Subfloor pits Structure 9

Upper Component Floor contact

—

1 1

Subfloor pits Lower Component 3

Fill/floor

Subfloor pits

3 1

Use Area A

Fill

Use Area B

Fill

—

Use Area C

Fill

—

Use Area D

Fill

—

•~—

818

108 1,186

Totals

Pits

—

137

(1)

(5)

(2)

(1)

| (3)

(2)

(10)

(8)

(6)

(*) Denotes minimum number of individuals 75

length of occupation, and preservation, etc., are obvious, they are not sufficient to explain the radical differences in the amount of faunal remains. These differences have been noted previously (c.f., Schroedl and Hogan 1975) with the suggestion that populations in "the San Rafael area were probably placing a greater emphasis on vegetal resources for subsistence than were Fremont populations in other areas of Utah." While this is probably generally true, it is also apparent that variations in subsistence occurs within as well as between the variants described by Marwitt (1970). As an example, the differences between Backhoe and Pharo Village, both centrally located in the Sevier area, are marked. At Pharo Village three dwelling structures and 4,744 faunal specimens were identified, while at Backhoe Village there were seven dwelling structures and only 1,186 bones. Using the number of dwelling structures as a comparative measure is tentative and some of this difference may be due to variations in the number of use areas and the amount of midden fill that was excavated. However, the overall difference is too large to be explained as anything other than variations in the degree of reliance on faunal resources. At Marysville (Gillin 1941), the only other excavated Sevier village site along the Sevier River, a similar faunal complex was recovered. Deer were the dominant type and were followed in importance by rabbits. Muskrats were common enough to suggest a use for both food and fur. The identified bird bones were primarily waterfowl. In conjunction with the floristic evidence, the pattern of a heavy reliance on marsh species suggests that the marshes along the Sevier River were a primary resource zone in the local Sevier subsistence economy.

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION The artifact complex recovered from Backhoe Village is basically representative of the Sevier variant as defined by Marwitt (1970) and Sharrock (1970), and is most similar to the assemblage from the temporally equivalent Nephi Mounds (Sharrock and Marwitt 1967). Unique features are (1) the earliest directly dated co-occurrence of corner- and side-notched arrow points; (2) early occurrence of Snake Valley corrugated pottery; (3) presence of bone figurines; (4) presence of unique chipped stone tools such as finely made shouldered 'blades,' trifacial implements, and a bipointed drill; (5) absence of chopper/scraping bone flesher tools; and (6) the presence of bifacially retouched slab metates. All of the artifacts were apparently produced locally. With the exception of the Olivella shall and obsidian, both of which may be trade products, all the artifactual material including tools, faunal remains, and plant macrofossils are available within five to ten miles of the site. The internal site distribution of the artifacts is heavily biased toward Structure 9 and Use Area D. This is particularly true of pottery, chipped stone tools! and bone scrap. The significance of this distribution is unclear, but it may in part simply be a product of differential amounts of fill removed and floor areas exposed. Artifact distribution does suggest that several structures, most notably Structures 3 and 5, were cleaned out prior to abandonment. New information on artifact utilization is limited to the ground stone: 1) metates of different forms and stone types were apparently used in a similar fashion; 2) 'mano rests' on Utahtype metates were apparently used for grinding; and 3) stone balls were apparently used as grinding implements rather than for games or other purposes.

HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS Human skeletal material was recovered from three different areas of the site. Bones from eight individuals were recovered from the floor and fill of Structure 4. This material represents four adult males, two adult females, and two subadults, but is fragmentary, incomplete, and disarticulated and appears to have been reburied. A morphological and pathological analysis of these eight individuals is provided in Appendix I. In addition, the left portion of a lower mandible from a young adult was recovered from Use Area C, and a mature right ulna and left fibula were recovered from the fill of a pit in Use Area D.

over 40 burials were removed from Evans Mound (Berry 1972), but the data concerning them were either lost or not reported; while at the Nephi Mounds only the "complete" burial is reported (Sharrock and Marwitt 1967). As a result, data from only one or two sites in each of the variants described by Marwitt (1970) were tabulated to determine the general nature of Sevier and Fremont burial practices. Reburials and mass burials, such as the one in Structure 4, are rare. In general, both Sevier and Fremont burials are single individuals who were buried without grave offerings (at least of the nonperishable variety). Body position was apparently irrelevant since burials are found flexed, semiflexed, extended, sitting, lying face down, lying on either side, and facing in all directions. Grave location and disposition were also

For comparative purposes burials from selected Sevier and Fremont village sites are categorized in Table XIII. This table is necessarily incomplete since data on most burials are not available. For instance, 76

TABLE XIII Burial Features from Selected Fremont Sites

In pits in midden/ refuse areas

In refuse/midden areas (no pit)

Disarticulated bone in refuse areas

Flexed

Disarticulated

Male

Female

Subadult

Unknown

Present

Absent

Single burial

Mass burial

NUMBER

In or beneath structures

CONTEXT

GRAVE GOODS

SEX/AGE

POSITION

—

Injun Creek

—

Injun Creek

—

Injun Creek Injun Creek

—

Great Salt Lake Variant Bear River #2

Injun Creek Uinta Variant Caldwell Village

—

Caldwell Village

Caldwell Village Caldwell Village

ca P

—

—"

—

— —

Caldwell Village

—

Caldwell Village

—

Caldwell Village

—

— ^_

—

— —

Caldwell Village San Rafael Variant Snake Rock Village

—

— _

—

„«.

—

Snake Rock Village

—

Turner-Look

Turner-Look Turner-Look Turner-Look Sevier Variant Nephi Mounds

—

•

Pharo Village

—

Pharo Village

—

Backhoe Village

—

Beaver

Median Village

Median Village Median Village

Backhoe Village Parowan Variant Beaver

,,_

—

-1

—

•

(*) sitting

— •

*"~

apparently irrelevant since burials are found simply covered in burrow pit/refuse areas, in interior storage pits which were eventually filled with refuse, and only rarely in prepared graves. Ambler's description of the burial practice at Caldwell Village epitomizes both the Sevier and the Fremont in general:

ials in Structure 4 were carefully reburied, and by the fact that the burials occur at all. However, it is also apparent that this concern was minimal, since disarticulated burials and scattered bone in refuse/midden areas indicates that burials were often disinterred. This suggests they were buried, forgotten, and inadvertently disturbed at a later time. The similarity of the burials from Structure 4 to possible cannibalized remains from the Anasazi area (e.g., Flinn, Turner, and Brew 1976) is sufficient to warrant some comment. The features which suggest cannibalism include disarticulation, broken and splintered long bones, burning, green stick fracturing, and cut and scratch marks. With the exception of the cut and scratch marks, all these features are evident in the skeletal material from Structure 4. However, cannaballsm is not evident. The disarticulation and splintering appears to be the result of excavation and reburial, while the burning is apparently the result of the destruction of the structure in which the individuals were buried. No cut or scratch marks were noted, but it is possible such marks could have been made during the aboriginal excavation process. This suggests that the similarities between cannibalized mass burials and uncannibalized mass reburials are great, and it is apparent that caution must be employed when interpreting cannibalism in archeological materials.

"The most striking characteristic of the burials at Caldwell Village is the apparent carelessness with which the bodies were interred. The primary object seems to have been to dispose of the body as expeditiously as possible. At least three, and probably four, burials were in storage pits below house floors; three were in abandoned burrow pits; and only two were in holes which appear to have been dug specifically for the purpose (1966:30)." However, this apparent lack of concern for the dead, and by inference a lack of concern for an afterlife, is contradicted by the occurrence of occasional well-prepared graves and the inclusion of grave goods/ funerary offerings (see Meighan et al. 1956 for an example). The occurrence of both well prepared and expeditious internments, often at the same site (e.g., Median Village) argues for a status differential of some kind. Exactly what type of status differential occurred is unclear at present, but it was apparently not based on sex. Both males and females are found in prepared graves with similar types of artifacts (e.g., metates). It is evident that some concern was given to individuals of all statuses since the disarticulated bur-

POLLEN AND MACROFOSSIL ANALYSES Pollen and macrofossil samples were collected from Backhoe Village to help interpret subsistence economy, artifact utilization, and activity loci. Samples were collected from naturally and culturally deposited strata; exterior use areas and refuse pits; structural features including firebasins and subfloor pits; and all suitable metates and ceramic vessels. In addition, 50-cm. grids were laid out on the floors of Structures 3 and 9 to facilitate investigation of interior space utilization. Pollen and flotation samples were collected from the center of each 50-cm. square and separately analyzed.

In spite of problems with minimal preservation, the results of this extensive sampling program suggest that several prevailing hypotheses must be altered. Hypotheses tested are (1) Sevier subsistence economy was based primarily on agriculture, supplemented by collecting wild resources; (2) utilized wild plant resources were seasonally compatible with domestic crop production; (3) similar architectural features were used for similar functions; and (4) morphologically distinct artifacts, principally metates, were used to prepare separate plant types.

POLLEN ANALYSIS

adequate and only 62 of the samples contained sufficient pollen to obtain minimal counts of 150 grains. The "indeterminate" category in the following pollen diagrams includes both broken and eroded grains and unknowns which could not be identified because of limited reference material. The relatively high percentages in this category reflect the generally poor preservation. Pollen preservation was extremely var-

The 153 pollen samples taken from Backhoe Village were subjected to an extraction process outlined by Mehringer (1967). Identifications were made at a 600 x magnification and were facilitated by reference material provided by the Garrett Herbarium at the University of Utah. Preservation ranged from fair to in78

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iable between structures and was apparently dependent on how the structure was destroyed. Structures that were destroyed by fire while in use, such as Structure 2, had no pollen in the floor samples. Those that were abandoned or dismantled without burning, such as Structure 9, had poor preservation. The best preservation occurred on floors of structures that were abandoned for a short period before being destroyed by fire. A thin layer of eolian material apparently protected the floor from the intense heat generated by burning roof fall and the collapsed superstructure apparently prevented further weathering. The poor preservation made it necessary to rely on 150-grain counts for interpretation. This is below what is generally considered by us to be sufficient to detect radical difference between samples. Subtle differences may be the result of sampling error and are not considered in our interpretations.

STRUCTURAL POLLEN SAMPLES All firebasins, subfloor pits, and exterior use areas described in the discussion of Cultural Features were sampled for pollen analysis. However, only two firebasins and three pits contained sufficient pollen for interpretation. Relative pollen percentages of these samples are diagramed in Figure 46. In addition, the floors of Structures 2, 3, and the upper component of Structure 9 were extensively sampled. The seven samples from Structure 2, 31 of the 37 samples from the upper floor of Structure 9, and 8 of the 40 samples from Structure 3 contained insufficient pollen. The remaining 6 samples from Structures 3 and 32 samples from Structure 9 were averaged to determine the relative percentages illustrated in Figure 46. In view of the small number of adequately sampled cultural features, the amount of variation is surprising. As expected, the pollen content of firebasins, floors and pit fills differs significantly from the surface and stratigraphic samples, but they also differ significantly among themselves: The Structure 4 firebasin contains nearly twice as much Cheno-^w pollen as any other cultural feature (74 percent); the Structure 2 firebasin contains 20 percent sarcobatus pollen while no other cultural feature has more than 1 percent; the refuse pit in Use Area D contains more than twice the pine pollen of any other culturally or naturally deposited sample (32 percent); only the floor and one subfloor pit in Structure 3 are dominated by cattail pollen; and Helianthus-type COMPOSITAE pollen is found in significant quantities only in Use Area D (12 percent). While there are notable differences between these samples, the significance is unclear. These differences are obviously a result of differential utilization, but they may be either the fortuitous result of a random sampling of a variety of subsistence activities or the result of a consistent cultural pattern. The only conclusion which can be drawn is that preparation and utilization of different floral resources occurred at different activity loci and that this can be detected by pollen analysis. Similar sampling at other Sevier sites with better preservation should confirm or disprove the consistency of these differences.

SURFACE AND STRATIGRAPHIC POLLEN SAMPLES Seven samples were collected from each stratigraphic unit (see Excavation and Stratigraphy for a description) and from the surface for comparative purposes. Stratigraphic samples were collected from the center of each unit. Surface samples consist of at least ten subsamples (c.f. Adam and Mehringer 1975) collected from the surface of the wash immediately upstream from the site and from the surface of a knoll about 250 m. southwest of the site. Relative percentages of these samples (based on 200-grain counts) are diagramed in Figure 45. With a few minor exceptions these seven samples are relatively consistent. Arboreal pollen, primarily juniper, oak, and pine averages about 28 percent of all the samples. These pollen types are probably derived from the foothills and mountains west of the site since they are not present locally. The difference in percentage of arboreal pollen in the wash and knoll surface samples suggest that samples in the alluvial deposits contain both eolian and water deposited pollen. The nonarboreal pollen types are dominated by CHENOPODIACEAE-Amaranthus pollen. This pollen type averages 37 percent for the seven samples and percentages are consistent throughout the deposits. Other pollen types are also consistent, with the exception of high spine COM POSITAE which constitutes 24 percent of the sample from the alluvial unit immediately underlying the cultural deposits. This appears to be the result of fortuitous local deposition since other pollen types show no significant change. The sample from the cultural deposits differs from the naturally deposited samples and from surface sample only in slightly higher percentage of cattail pollen. This is consistent with samples from structures and use areas and is the only clear example of modification of the natural pollen rain in the cultural fill of the site.

Preservation in Structure 3 was sufficient to detect differences in the distribution of pollen types across the floor. Thirty-two samples collected from a 50-cm.square grid system laid out on the floor were counted. Minor variations between all pollen types shown in Figure 46 occurred, but with the exception of cattail pollen, these differences are insignificant and appear to be the result of sampling error and the constraint imposed by changes in the relative percentages of cattail pollen. Cattail pollen {Typha latifolia) varied between 2 percent and 60 percent in the 32 samples. The samples with the highest percentage of cattail pollen are clustered around the centrally located firebasin. 80

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Percentages decline gradually with increasing distance from the firebasin and average less than 5 percent along the structure walls. The distribution of cattail pollen across the floor of Structure 3 is illustrated in Figure 47. It is obvious from this distribution that cattails were used or prepared for use in and around the firebasin and suggest a use as either food or fuel. The use of cattails for fuel is unlikely. The most probable explanation for this distribution is that, since they are edible (Hendrick 1919, Harrington 1967), they constituted a major portion of the diet. They are known ethnographically to have been used for food (Steward 1938, Chamberlin 1911) and these high percentages are a result of preparing the edible portions for consumption by cooking or roasting them in the central hearth. It is unlikely that such extremely high pollen percentages would result from collecting only the basal stocks and it is apparent that the whole plant, including the inflorescence, was collected. This implies additional uses, and it is probable the entire plant was utilized in one fashion or another: Cattails are the principal element in Sevier/Fremont mats (Adovasio, personal communication), and the pollen and seeds are also a usable food resource (Harrington 1967). The usefulness of this plant is reflected in the relatively high percentages found in all the cultural samples. Cattail pollen reaches 48 percent in the samples from the Structure 9 floor, constitutes 25 percent of the pollen from Use Area D, and is well above the average for the naturally deposited samples in the samples from structural features and from processing implements. This pollen evidence suggests cattails were a primarily subsistence resource.

METATE AND VESSEL SAMPLES Pollen samples were collected from the troughs of nine metates and the interior of two ceramic vessels by brushing them with a stiff bristled brush to remove fill material, then washing them with distilled water and collecting the run-off. This essentially removed material ground into the porous rock and fired clay and should contain only pollen accumulated during use. Pollen percentages are depicted in Figures 46 and 48. â&#x20AC;˘ With a single exception, pollen samples from the ceramic vessels do not differ from the surface and stratigraphic samples. This suggests they were either used for a variety of purposes or that differential utilization simply could not be detected by pollen analysis. The exception is the difference in percentages of grass pollen in the two vessels. Grass pollen constituted 16.5 percent of one vessel sample and only 1 percent of the other, suggesting that grass seeds may have been stored or prepared for consumption in one of the vessels. However, this is only marginally higher than grass percentages in the surface and stratigraphic samples and the difference may be a product of sampling error. Pollen samples were collected from metate surface in an effort to determine what foods were prepared and to detect possible differences in the function of different metate forms. Two basic metate forms, slab and trough, were recovered from Backhoe Village. It was logically assumed that these different metate types were used to grind different types of materials. However, no significant differences are apparent in the

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Fig. 47 Distribution of cattail pollen (in relative percent) across the floor of Structure 3. 83

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TABLE XIV Plant Macrofossils

S s

9 O CZ)

Structure 1 Floor

Juniperus sp.

wood (post)

Floor

Zea mays

kernel

Structure 2 Floor

Populus

c.f.fremontii

wood (post) wood (post)

Floor

Juniperus sp.

Floor

PINACEAE

wood (post)

Firepit

Artemisia sp.

wood

Firepit

Helianthus sp. CHENOPODIACEAE

seed (fragment)

seeds

Firepit Structure 3 Floor

PINACEAE

wood (post)

Firepit

Yucca sp.

seed

Firepit

COMPOSITAE

seed (fragment)

Firepit

Artemisia sp.

wood

Floor

Populus c.f.fremontii

wood (post)

Firepit

Zea mays

cob frag. (4), kernel, peduncle

Firepit

Artemisia sp.

wood

Zea mays

kernels

Lower floor

Zea mays

cob fragments (6), kernels (3)

Upper floor

Juniperus sp.

wood (posts)

Firepit

Pinus c.f. ponderosa

cone (fragment)

Firepit

Zea mays

whole cob (1), cob frag. (2), kernels (2)

Subfloor pit

Zea mays

kernels

Structure 4

Structure 8 Firepit Structure 9

pollen samples and this assumption must be rejected for the present. Three of the trough metates are the "Utah-type" and contain a secondary depression which is often termed a mano rest. Pollen samples were collected from these depressions to determine if their function differed from the primary trough. The only significant difference is in the percentage of pine pollen in one specimen. Pine pollen constituted 19 percent of the small depression sample and only 2 percent of the sample from the large depression. This pattern is reflected in the samples from the other trough metates but in quantities too small to be reliable. The significance of this difference is unclear but it is possible that pine cones or shells were broken on these surfaces to remove the pine seeds. This conclusion must be considered tentative, however, since no significant quantities of pine nuts have been recovered from any Sevier sites.

included in the agricultural complex since they are found in association with corn at other Sevier sites (Winter 1972). Nondomestic floral types are represented by seeds of CHENOPODIACEAE, juniper, Heliantus sp., other COMPOSITAE, and Yucca sp. and by a cone fragment, probably representing western yellow pine. These macrofossils support pollen data suggesting that collecting of wild resources played a major, if not primary, role in the subsistence economy at Backhoe Village. Juniper, cottonwood, and an unidentified conifer (not Pinus monophyla) were identified from the wood of structural timbers. All three types were found in Structure 2 and it seems clear that the inhabitants of Backhoe Village were not selective in their choice of building materials. Apparently any timber of suitable length and width was utilized, which contrasts with Evans Mound where only juniper was used in building (Berry 1972). Sagebrush was a major constituent of all the firebasins and was apparently a primary source of fuel.

The pollen samples from the metates are dominated by Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthus pollen, reaching 83 percent of one sample. Other floral types which differ significantly from the surface and stratigraphic samples are CAMPANULACEAE, Helianthus, and Typha latifolia. All of these plants are nondomesticated types and only two pollen grains of corn were detected on the metate surfaces. This suggests a heavy reliance on the collection of wild resources and supports the hypothesis that gathering constituted the major portion of the subsistence economy with agriculture playing a secondary role.

DISCUSSION Pollen and macrofossil evidence suggest the following floral types were utilized at Backhoe Village: Artemisia, CHENOPODIACEAE, Helianthus, Juniperus, Pinus, Populus, Sarcobatus, Typha, Yucca, and Zea. Chenopods, sunflowers, cattail, yucca, corn, and possibly pine have ethnographic analogues as food and apparently were subsistence resources. The other types were probably used for construction, implements, and fuel.

MACROFOSSIL ANALYSIS Flotation samples were collected from all cultural features in an attempt to recover plant macrofossils. However, preservation was minimal and was restricted to charred macrofossils from firebasins and floors and to charred structural timbers. Forty-eight macrofossils, representing ten floral types, were identified and are listed in Table XIV. The largest number of macrofossils are corn. One whole cob, 12 cob fragments, 17 kernels, and a peduncle were recovered. A detailed analysis of these macrofossils is provided in Appendix II. The number of corn macrofossils is much below that found at other Sevier sites (c.f., Marwitt 1968) and is in accord with the pollen data suggesting primary reliance on collecting. The number of plant macrofossils is too small to allow quantitative analyses, but based on macrofossils above, it appears that at least a limited portion of the subsistence economy was based on corn agriculture. The percentage of cultivar macrofossils is high in comparison with the pollen data and may be the result of differential preservation (i.e., dense cobs and kernels undoubtedly preserve better than the soft root tissues of cattails). No beans or squash macrofossils were recovered, but it is probable that these plant types were

The floral data from Backhoe Village is limited but is more extensive than that for other Sevier village sites. Backhoe Village, Evans Mound (Berry 1972), and to a lesser degree Pharo Village (D. Madsen 1977) are the only Sevier village sites to be subjected to extensive pollen and flotation analyses. Berry (1972, 1974, 1976) has constructed a model of Fremont subsistence economy based on data only from Evans Mound. Now, with data from three Sevier village sites, it is clear that this model is invalid for the Sevier as a whole and is probably invalid even for the Parowan Valley. The model is based on three interrelated assumptions: (1) that agricultural crops, principally corn, were the primary resource; (2) that the collection of wild resources occurred seasonally with timing dependent on maturation and lack of conflict with agricultural crops; and (3) that "none of the wild species exploited by the aboriginal populations was productive enough to allow sedentarism in lieu of adequate crop yields." (Berry 1972:163). Floral data from the three sites mentioned above support neither these primary nor other dependent assumptions. This is discussed more extensively in the section of Site Summary and Discussion, and the following points should suffice: (1) there are no quan86

titative data on the primacy of domesticated versus wild resources at any Sevier site, but subjectively it appears that for Sevier sites in general, wild flora and fauna were by far the most important in the subsistence economy. (2) All wild floral resources and most faunal resources are available within a ten-mile radius of both Evans Mound and Backhoe Village and the collection of these resources could occur year round without disturbing crop production. (3) Locally available wild resources are more than sufficient to support the populations of both villages year round. The productivity of cattails alone in the marshes along the Sevier River, Little Salt Lake, and in Round Valley would support these populations. Harrington (1967) provides an eloquent description of the utility of cattails as a food resource. Flour made from cattail root compares favorably with that of wheat, rice, and corn in terms of percentages of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, and Claassen (1919) estimates that a single acre of cattails may produce up to 5,500 pounds of flour. The data from Backhoe Village suggest a village sedentarism based on the collection of wild resources and supplemented by crop agriculture. The availability, productivity, and high percentages of pollen on

structure floors suggest that cattails were the primary floral resource. The limited pollen data from Evans Mound (Dalley 1972b) suggest that this was also the case at that site. Cattail pollen constitutes up to 60% of the pollen from midden deposits. This is more than ten times the amount in samples from cultural deposits at Backhoe Village and implies that analysis of structural samples at Evans Mound would produce results similar to these at Backhoe Village. The pattern is similar at Pharo Village (D. Madsen 1977). Pollen analysis of the limited available samples from that central Sevier site also suggests that cattails and other wild species, such as sunflowers, were primary resources. Two samples from the midden component and one from a subfloor storage pit were analyzed. The samples are markedly different, with the storage pit containing 29% cattail and 7% sunflower pollen and only a trace of corn pollen. This limited information suggests that stored foods were primarily wild types. The data from Evans Mound, Pharo Village, and Backhoe Village are in agreement and make it apparent that the subsistence model described by Berry (1972, 1976) and implied by others (c.f. Marwitt 1968, 1970) is based on unsupported assumptions and requires considerable modification.

SITE INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION tion with manos, suggesting a use as grinding implements. Pottery types consisted primarily of decorated varieties of Sevier Gray. Vessel forms were primarily small jars and bowls, with large ollas rare. A wide variety of bone, tools, and ornaments were utilized. However, no bone fleshing or chopping implements were recovered, indicating the substitution of other material types of tools or a reduced dependence on faunal materials. Olivella shell and obsidian suggest participation in an extensive trade network.

Backhoe Village is a sedentary Sevier village characterized by quadrilateral and circular semisubterranean, clay-lined dwellings. This architectural variation is indicative of the Sevier variant as described by Marwitt (1970) as is, with a few exceptions, the artifact inventory. The primary use of chipped stone was for arrow points, drills, and hafted bifaces. The site contained both coarse-grained, deep-troughed, and finegrained shallow slab metates. A suspected differential use of these two types was not supported by the pollen analysis. Ground stone balls were found in conjunc-

system are that the structure of local Sevier groups was sufficiently flexible to allow rapid fragmentation and regrouping throughout the year. This suggestion is in accord with survey data (Antiquities Section's files) which indicate a ratio between five and ten to one of temporary encampments to village sites. However, the presence of the large accretional village sites, such as Evans Mound (Berry 1972), apparently belies this explanation. Berry (1972, 1974, 1976) has eloquently examined the restrictions to group mobility (and by implication group flexibility) caused by a heavy dependence on corn agriculture. His analysis of seasonality (and other analyses on which it is based) is in apparent con-

SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY Subsistence data from Backhoe Village are incomplete, but are sufficient to allow some determination of the nature of various resources, the degree of dependence on certain types, and the restrictions on group size and behavior imposed by the use of these resources. The Sevier and Fremont, as a whole, are generally thought to have relied on a mixed subsistence economy based on agriculture and supplemented by the collection of wild flora and fauna with the degree of dependence on either type determined primarily by local environmental parameters (c.f., Marwitt 1970). The sociopolitical implications of this type of subsistence 87

flict with evidence of a large degree of dependence on wild food. This apparent conflict is based on the assumption that the presence of village sedentarism and corn macrofossils is a result of a heavy dependence on corn agriculture. With few exceptions (e.g. Jennings 1977), this assumption is so pervasive that it is difficult to pinpoint its origin, and it is so widely held that most investigators either choose to ignore or do not realize that it is indeed an assumption. For example, (I) "Pharo Village is interpreted as a small permanent settlement of horticulturists whose diet was supplemented by, and was perhaps seasonally dependent upon, the exploitation of animal resources . . ." (2) "Evidence of horticulture at the site includes charred corncobs and stalks, and numerous grinding implements exemplified by manos and metates . . ." (3) "The fact that these storage structures outnumber dwellings by more than two to one argues that horticulture was a primary economic activity." (Marwitt: 1968;5). Why the presence of manos and metates is indicative of a primary reliance on agriculture is unclear to us. The pollen analysis of metates from Backhoe Village clearly shows a primary reliance on wild foods. Further, by extension of this argument, the presence of numerous grinding implements at Archaic sites would also indicate a reliance on agriculture, a doubtful conclusion. In addition, it is also unclear to us why storage structures must have contained agricultural products rather than wild food and, even if they did, the relationship of the number of storage structures to the percentage of agricultural products in the diet is undetermined. Marwitt's statements and those of many others since Marwitt should not be singled out; (See for example the discussion of Berry [1972] in the section on pollen and plant macrofossils) simply make no sense unless the assumption that corn plus villages equals a primary reliance on agriculture is made manifest. This assumption has never seriously been tested, and it is highly questionable whether it is at all accurate, and if so, uniformly consistent across all Sevier and Fremont variants. Subsistence data from Backhoe Village bear directly on this problem. The analysis of pollen and plant macrofossils from Backhoe Village indicates that only limited evidence for cultivation exists while, conversely, there is abundant evidence for the use of wild plants. Analysis of food preparation implements, probably the single most direct method (other than coprolites) for determining food intake, suggests an overwhelming dependence on wild foods rather than on domestic plants. Pollen samples taken from areas near probable food preparation areas such as fire hearths also provide abundant evidence for the use of wild plants. Obviously, a hypothesis of a dependence on agriculture would be hard to support by the data from Backhoe Village, yet it is a sedentary village similar in construction and environmental setting to Evans Mound and Pharo Village and did contain limited amounts of corn macrofossils.

An implicit question is whether the subsistence economy at Backhoe Village is unique or is similar to that at the other sites. In the absence of adequate pollen and flotation studies, it is difficult to give a definitive answer, but the 60% cattail pollen in the midden samples from Evans Mound (Dalley 1972b) and the 29% cattail and 7% sunflower pollen in the storage pit at Pharo Village suggest that it is highly likely that the subsistence economies were similar, and that agriculture only supplemented wild plant resources. The second question that arises is, how can sedentary villages exist without depleting locally available wild resources? Obviously, they can only exist if the resources are abundant enough and are renewed fast enough to provide continued subsistence. This is the case in the Northwest coast and California, where nonagricultural villages abound (Sahlins 1968). It is also appears to be the case in the Sevier area. All three sites under discussion are found in close proximity to extensive marsh environments. This pattern is repeated throughout the Eastern Great Basin and, with few exceptions, all Sevier village sites are located near lake or riverine marsh environments (Antiquities Section Survey files). Marsh ecosystems are one of the most highly productive (in terms of energy/biomass) of all known ecosystems (Odum 1963), and it is apparent that the occupants of Evans Mound, Pharo Village, and Backhoe Village were highly dependent on marsh resources. It bears repeating that cattail roots are available year round, and that a single acre of cattails will produce up to 5,500 pounds of flour. This figure is impressive but is meaningless in the absence of data on the total available acreage and the size of the population it had to support. However, two points can be made: (I) cattails are nutritionally equivalent to corn, and the ratio of production to acreage is much higher; (2) the area in the vicinity of Backhoe Village was examined and, subjectively, there appears to be a minimum twenty acres of cattail marsh within five miles of the site. If Claassen's (1919) data are accurate, more than 100,000 pounds of flour could be obtained from this acreage and could support a population far larger than the one evident at Backhoe Village. Keeping in mind that this is just one of many edible plant and faunal species found in marsh environments, it is clear that locally available, constantly renewed, resources were more than sufficient to permit village sedentarism. The importance of aquatic (marsh) resources in connection with the development of sedentarism in such diverse locations as Southeast Asia and Mesoamerica has been emphasized by Sauer (1952) and Coe and Flannery (1964). Within the Great Basin itself, sedentarism based on marsh resources was recognized as early as 1910 by Barrett and was called a "specialized tule culture". The only real question is whether Sevier villagers were aware of these resources, and whether or not they utilized them. The evidence from Evans Mound, Pharo and Backhoe Villages indicates they did.

It follows that if sedentary villagers are not restricted by the requirements of corn agriculture, they are free to obtain resources in a variety of environmental zones at any time. Using the village as a base, it is possible that family groups could visit temporary encampments at periods throughout the year. Indeed, it is probable that this is the case since resources from a variety of environmental zones are present in -villages, and the ratio of temporary camps to villages is so high. The supplemental agricultural crops could be cared for by a small percentage of the village population, and even this necessary care could be in the form of rotation among related family groups. In essence, the nature and distribution of Sevier sites and the nature of the subsistence economy suggest a flexible tribal social organization consisting of family aggregates that are free to separate or coalesce depending on the seasonal and annual availability of resources, and that the focus of this tribal organization is the large villages found in proximity to the largest number of resources that are dependable and sufficient to support the basic food requirements of the group. Agricultural products, as well as wild resources from other areas, were utilized, but it is probable that marsh resources were dominant in the Sevier subsistence economy.

FREMONT (?) ORIGINS The use of the terms Fremont and "Sevier variant" in this discussion is ambiguous in view of recent questions raised as to whether a coherent Fremont entity exists at all. Since Backhoe Village must be placed in a more encompassing cultural context, it is necessary to resolve that ambiguity. A discussion of,the nature of the Fremont is germane to an interpretation of Backhoe Village, and the thesis initially proposed by Madsen (1976) is repeated here. The nature, origin, and fate of the "Fremont" has been a topic of considerable controversy since the Fremont were first described by Morss in 1931. The most widely debated issue has been the question of origin. There are basically three differing theses on the subject: (1) that the Fremont consist of an extension of the Anasazi north of the Colorado River (c.f., Morss 1931; Gunnerson 1969; Berry 1975); (2) that the Fremont are derived from an in situ Archaic base with a thin veneer of overlying traits derived from the Southwest (c.f., Wormington 1955; Jennings 1956; Aikens 1970; Marwitt 1970); (3) that the Fremont are derived from the northern Plains and acquired some southwestern traits (Aikens 1966, Sharrock 1966). All three hypotheses have been seriously questioned, yet all three are in many ways valid. The Southwest and Plains origins theses suffer primarily because they do not adequately explain all Fremont regional variation and chronological placement (c.f., Marwitt 1970). The in situ development hypothesis suffers from a lack of a clearly demonstrated continuity between the Archaic

and Fremont (c.f, Madsen and Berry 1975). In addition all three hypotheses suffer from the same basic logical problem: it is necessary to define an entity before describing it.-At present no adequate definition of the Fremont culture exists, and as a result the question of Fremont origins remains unresolved. The concept of the Fremont as a coherent entity is a historical accident. It is a product of the initial definition of the Anasazi and the subsequent discovery of slightly different, contemporaneous, artifact complexes to the north. When Morss (1931) initially described the Fremont, he simply listed a number of traits from sites along the Fremont River which en masse could be distinguished from a similar list of Anasazi traits. Since this initial description, the Fremont region has been expanded by gradually reducing the list of traits and including increasingly larger areas. First to the Uinta Basin (Burgh and Scoggin 1948), then to the Colorado Plateau (Wormington 1955), and finally to the eastern Great Basin (Jennings et al. 1956). During this historical development the overriding criterion was that the artifact complexes were, to a greater or lesser degree, distinct from Anasazi artifact complexes. The degree of similarity amongst themselves or between them and other artifact complexes appears to have been of minor importance. As a result of this singular historical development, we can find no adequate definition of the Fremont after reviewing more than forty years of research. All the discussions are rather ambiguous, but can be boiled down to the concept that all artifact complexes north of the Anasazi area which include pottery and cultigens are collectively known as "Fremont". The logic seems to be that since Anasazi variants can be recognized as a cohesive unit, differing artifact complexes to the north must also be part of a more comprehensive entity. The result of this historical development is Marwitt's summary work on the Fremont. He concludes that "the entire area representing the extent of Fremont culture is considered here an areal tradition taxonomically equivalent to Anasazi." (1970:136). However, he never defines (or even discusses) what this areal tradition is or what the culture consists of. In fact, his discussion is limited to distinguishing various areas within the Fremont region. However, this limitation is not restricted to Marwitt's analysis. As far as we can determine, the concept of the Fremont as a coherent entity is an assumption that has never been adequately discussed. Attempts to define the Fremont in terms of trait lists fail completely since lists specific enough to distinguish the "Fremont" from other Southwestern agricultural groups necessarily exclude one or more of the "Fremont" variants, and lists general enough to include all the variants do not distinguish the "Fremont" from other similarly defined cultures. Actually, in over 40 years of research, resulting in hundreds of papers and monographs, only one attempt has been 89

made to define the "Fremont" (as presently recognized) even in so minimal a manner as through trait lists. The overwhelming majority of trait lists are restricted to defining portions of the Fremont area. There are lists of traits for the Uinta Basin; there are lists of traits for the Colorado Plateau; there are lists of traits for the eastern Great Basin; but nowhere is there a list of traits for the Fremont as a whole. The single attempt to construct such a list was made by Ambler (1970) in a paper entitled "Just What Is Fremont?" Ambler failed for the reasons noted above, and his concluding remarks were: "In conclusion, it is evident that I have not really answered the question posed by the title of this paper." (1970:7). Ambler deserves to be quoted at length:

identification of an artifact complex whose constituent parts can be seen to have originated in widely diverse areas, and it is this very diversity of artifact origin which led to the formulation of differing hypotheses on the origin of a Fremont people. Traits characteristic of the northern Plains are restricted in their distribution primarily to areas of northern Utah, southern Idaho, and southwestern Wyoming. Peoples utilizing these artifacts may well have originated in the Plains as Aikens (1966) suggested. Traits characteristic of the Anasazi are found primarily in areas along the Colorado River drainage system. It may well be that peoples utilizing these artifacts are related to Anasazi groups as is suggested by Morss (1931); Steward (1933); Gunnerson (1969); and Berry (1975). Groups in the Great Basin south of the Great Salt Lake are not characterized by use of Plains or Southwestern artifacts and may well have developed in situ from an Archaic base as suggested by Wormington (1955); Jennings and Norbeck (1955); Aikens (1970); and Marwitt (1970). In sum, we maintain that (1) a Fremont entity cannot be defined and therefore probably does not exist; and that (2) three separate hypotheses of origin have been formulated that are in many ways valid and cannot be rejected out-of-hand. The most succinct explanation for these factors is that at least two and possibly three separate groups sharing a thin veneer of traits, acquired perhaps through trade or through the spread of a cult characterized by figurines and rock art, coexisted in areas north and west of the Colorado River. Only one problem remains: these distinct groups must be defined and named so that they may be compared and contrasted amongst themselves, with contemporaneous groups, and with earlier and later cultural entities. Much of this can be readily accomplished since groups in the Great Basin, on the Colorado Plateau, and in the Trans-Basin-Plains area were identified and described separately during the period of initial definition. When Morss first defined the Fremont (1931), he distinguished it from the "Beaver-Paragonah culture" of the Basin as well as from the Anasazi. This basic distinction was maintained for more than 30 years and is characterized by Jenning's (1956) description of both a Plateau "Fremont" and a Great Basin "Sevier-Fremont." Only recently has the term "Fremont" been fully applied to all village groups north of Anasazi (Aikens 1966; Ambler 1966; Marwitt 1970). Most of these early descriptions were also based on artifact similarities and/or differences, but they correspond closely to data on differential subsistence economies and settlement patterns. As a result, the definitions which follow are reminiscent of earlier work. However, the distinction between these early definitions and our own should be clarified. The early definitions are based on trait lists and are essentially culture history in orientation. Environmental and settlement pattern data are used secondarily, if at all. On the other

"The most common method of accomplishing this [i.e., definition of Fremont] has been to use the trait list kind of approach. There are, however, several drawbacks to both this general approach and the specific applications of it to the Fremont. Many traits listed are so generalized (e.g., maize agriculture) as to be useless in distinguishing Fremont from Anasazi, although they are traits useful in separating Fremont from contemporaneous groups to the west, north, and east. Other traits, such as bone gaming pieces, tubular pipes, and trough metates, although considered to be major traits of the Fremont, are also found among other prehistoric groups, although perhaps not at the same time or in the same quantity as among the Fremont. One of the principal difficulties in the use of trait lists to define the Fremont is the problem that there are actually rather few distinctive and typical traits that are found over the entire area usually considered to be Fremont... I was rather surprised, upon looking again at the distributions for the 115 traits that I plotted a few years ago (i.e., in his 1966 dissertation), to find how few of these actually are found over the entire Fremont area." Ambler did, however, list some traits that do have "widespread distributions and may therefore be considered to be diagnostic of the Fremont as a whole." These traits include such ostensibly "distinctive" features as plain gray pottery, corner- and side-notched arrow points, and agriculture. It seems to us that if comprehensive Fremont culture cannot be defined by trait lists or even through more reliable mechanisms such as similarities in subsistence economy or settlement patterns, then the only valid conclusion that can be drawn is that no such entity exists. This conclusion is important in resolving the apparent conflict between the three primary origin hypotheses, since they are only in conflict if it is assumed that a single coherent Fremont entity exists. If three or more distinct groups coexisted in the Utah area, and it is plausible if not probable that such was the case, then all three hypotheses may be valid. Ambler (1967) and Marwitt (1970) went to great lengths to demonstrate the existence of Fremont variants. However, if no encompassing entity exists then these variants are not variants at all, but rather are distinctive cultural entities in and of themselves. To repeat briefly, past concepts of the Fremont were based on the 90

hand, the definitions outlined below are based primarily on environmental and distributional data and are essentially processual in that they contribute more directly to understanding social organization and culture change. Data on artifact similarities and differences are important and contribute to the definitions, but do not form the basis for distinguishing the cultural entities defined below. In the early historical definitions, the questions of population and artifact origins are an integral, albeit, implicit part. In the definitions which follow, the question of genetic origins is, again, considered important, but is not necessarily relevant to the basic distinctions which are made. We will not attempt to completely define all of these groups, but will restrict ourselves to defining the larger cultural entity which includes Backhoe Village with a brief description of the remaining groups.

SEVIER CULTURE For identification, we suggest the term Sevier Culture. This is similar to Sevier-Fremont designator used by Jennings (1956), but we limit the term Fremont to groups in the Colorado River drainage because of its generic implications. The Sevier Culture is located in the eastern Great Basin south of the Great Salt Lake. Settlement pattern is characterized by villages located on alluvial fans in intermontane valleys adjacent to marsh or riverine ecosystems and by temporary encampments spread throughout other environmental zones surrounding these centrally located villages. The ratio of temporary camps to villages is roughly ten to one. Subsistence economy is based on a dependence on collecting of wild flora and fauna, primarily from marsh environments, and is supplemented by corn agriculture. Given the type of settlement pattern and the lack of restrictions imposed by the seasonality of agriculture, the social organization probably consisted of loosely confederated family aggregates. Architecture is characterized by deep, often clay-lined, semisubterranean dwellings and rectangular adobe surface storage units. Masonry is extremely rare (one reported instance). With the exception of some variation in pottery types, the artifact inventory is fairly consistent in all areas where the culture is found. With a few exceptions such as in textiles and clay figurines, the artifact complex is basically similar to other agricultural village groups in the Great Basin, Colorado Plateau, and Southwest in general and is characterized by plain and decorated varieties of coil-made gray ware, corner- and sidenotched arrow points, trough metates, and a variety of bone implements and ornaments. Temporal variations occur in the Sevier culture and have been defined as phases in the Parowan Valley (Marwitt 1970; Berry 1972). These phases may well extend over the entire Sevier occupational area, but there is presently insufficient information to define them. The Sevier culture

can be identified as a distinct entity from about 1300 to 650 B.P. (A.D. 650 to 1300). However, genetic origin and cultural background are unknown. The similarity in subsistence orientation between eastern Basin Archaic and Sevier cultures suggests an in situ development, but this cannot be clearly demonstrated at present.

FREMONT CULTURE Sites characteristic of an agriculturally dependent group which bear a strong resemblence to Basketmaker Anasazi are found east of the Wasatch Plateau, in the western portion of the Colorado River drainage. We retain the term Fremont, but restrict it to these groups since the artifact inventory described by Morss (1931) in his original definition is characteristic of this culture, and because the area of occupation is similar to that described by Wormington (1955) in her definition of the Fremont. However, we stress that in our usage, the term does not apply to groups outside the Colorado Plateau. Information on subsistence economy is minimal, but it appears that the Fremont were much more dependent on corn agriculture and conversely less dependent on hunting and the collecting of marsh flora than were Sevier groups. No distinction between Sevier and Fremont groups can be made on the basis of plant macrofossils since corn macrofossils are common at sites in both areas. However, this appears to be the result of the differential preservation of dense cobs and kernels and soft plant tissues of other plant types. The limited pollen analyses of Sevier and Fremont sites show a marked difference. Corn pollen is prevalent in both Anasazi and Fremont sites on the Colorado Plateau (Lindsay 1974, n.d.; Madsen 1977) but is rare in Sevier sites in the Great Basin (Dalley 1972, Madsen 1977). Conversely, pollen of wild floral types, particularly marsh plants, is dominant in Sevier sites and is much reduced in Anasazi and Fremont sites. In sum, both macrofossils and pollen suggest a large dependency on corn at Fremont sites, but suggest a reliance on collecting in Sevier sites. Settlement patterns are also distinct and are characterized by relatively small villages (usually less than five dwellings) located either immediately adjacent to small, permanent streams or on hills or knolls overlooking them. With the exception of Caldwell and Whiterocks villages, there are no large villages on undissected alluvial fans. Architecture is characterized by masonry, with stone used to line pit dwellings and laid in courses in surface storage and dwelling units. Masonry storage units are often found in isolated rockshelters. The artifact inventory has few distinctive features and is similar to most other Southwestern agricultural groups. However, the percentage of trade items originating in Anasazi areas is much higher in the Fremont than the Sevier Culture and sites on the interface between central Fremont and Anasazi

areas cannot be readily categorized due to the high percentage of artifacts representative of both cultural groups (Fowler and Aikens 1962; Lister, Ambler, and Lister 1959-1961; Schroedl 1977). Temporal variations occur, but are not clearly defined and may be a product of a temporal-spatial overlap of cultures from different origins (see below). The Fremont culture can be recognized as a discrete entity from about 1500 to 700 B.P. (A.D. 450-1250). The genetic origin and cultural background may be derived from Basketmaker 11/III Anasazi and, ultimately, from an Archaic base (or possibly both Fremont and Anasazi are derived from the same Mogollon source as suggested by Jennings [1977]).

Possible Plains Culture

UNNAMED PLAINS-DERIVED CULTURE Agricultural groups north of the Sevier and Fremont cultures are much less easily defined since the data from these areas can be interpreted in a variety of ways. A number of features of the artifact complex and the subsistence economy from these sites suggest a Plains origin, but other features can be explained as an extension of the Sevier and Fremont cultures into the Great Salt Lake and Uinta Basin areas of Utah. The problem may be a temporal one but cannot be presently resolved due to the lack of adequate chronological controls. The problem is greatest in the Uinta Basin and may be the product of alternate occupation by groups derived from the Southwest and groups derived from the Plains. An alternative explanation is that the Uinta Basin was an area of interaction similar to that on the Fremont/Anasazi interface, and that sites in that area cannot be readily assigned to either group. A third explanation is that the problem is not one of multiple origins but is simply due to diffusional processes. In terms of subsistence economies, settlement patterns, artifact technologies, etc., a number of sites in the Uinta Basin and Great Salt Lake areas can be assigned to the Sevier and Fremont cultures. As a result, a distributional map of the cultures overlap in these areas (Fig. 49) and distinctive characteristics of these sites are similar to those defined above. Whether sequential or contemporaneous, features at sites characteristic of the Plains can be readily identified. Subsistence economy was based on hunting, primarily bison, and collecting of wild flora. Architecture is characterized by shallow-basined structures with no clear evidence of jacal superstructures. No storage structures are present. Artifacts are characterized by paddle-and-anvil pottery, Plains side-notched arrow points, and slab metates. These Plains features can be recognized in the area from 1300 to 650 B P (A D 650-1300).

Sevier

Culture

Fremont Culture

Fig. 49 Distributional Map of Fremont Culture, Sevier Culture, and a possible unnamed Plainsderived culture. In sum, a Sevier Culture, a Fremont Culture, and possibly a third unnamed culture to the north can be recognized and defined. A cultural entity which encompasses all of these groups cannot be defined and probably does not exist. The differences between these groups can be ascribed to separate origins. Similarities are superficial and can be ascribed to trade or cult practices. This explanation resolves a number of presently conflicting hypotheses and adequately explains all extant data. Modifications and refinements are inevitable and desirable, but one thing is certain: continued use of the "Fremont" to explain all cultural variation north of the Anasazi cannot continue in the absence of a definition of that entity.

APPENDIX I SEVIER SKELETAL MATERIAL FROM BACKHOE VILLAGE

Jan Andrews University of Utah

ABSTRACT Eight skeletons recovered from Backhoe Village, a Sevier culture site in Richfield, Utah, were examined for morphological characteristics, nonmetrical or anomalous traits, and pathological conditions. The eight skeletons included six adults (4 male and 2 female) and two subadults. The material was incomplete and fragmentary with the remaining bone in good to medium condition. There is evidence to suggest that these individuals were reburied, since most of the skeletons were scattered throughout one of the dwelling structures. This made the separation of the postcranial material of four of the individuals impossible. Some damage occurred to the cranial material due to fire, possibly from destruction of the structure. Due to the fragmentary nature of the skeletal material, no attempt was made to examine the bone metrically. Gross observations of morphological features revealed some similarities to the total existing Sevier skeletal sample* such as minor sexual differences in patterns of muscularity (noted by the medium to small eminences for muscle attachments for both the male and female individuals) and the general size of the long bones. The height of the Sevier skeletal population is estimated as averaging between 5 feet and 5 feet 4 inches. The frequency of some anomalous conditions follow patterns observed in the total Sevier group such as the mandibular tori (12-14%) and the palatine tori (2-5%) although the etiology of these anomalies is not known at present. The occurrence of various pathologies of the bone and teeth suggests that the general health of the Sevier Indians was poor. There is a high incidence of carious lesions and premortem tooth loss associated with periodontal diseases. The most prevalent pathological condition observed was porotic hyperostosis which is a hemolytic disorder associated with iron deficiency anemia. This condition could be related to the dietary patterns of the Sevier Indians and their inability to assimilate iron from certain staple food items.

INTRODUCTION under investigation. In the light of more concentrated information concerning the physiology of growth and development, genetic controls and effects of environment (physical and biological) on bone, the use of skeletal material has as its potential a more far reaching role in the reconstruction of culture history and paleoecology than merely developing physical typologies (Morse 1969). The assumption that bone is durable, stable, and more resistant to pressures of environment than soft tissues has been proven incorrect. The malleability or

The biological evidence of early man is necessarily limited to bones and teeth since the soft tissue is not usually preserved. Until recently descriptive data of skeletal materials have been used to establish the "physical type" of populations and to amplify or corroborate archeological, cultural and linguistic evidence of contact between peoples or to identify isolated communities. The attempt to reconstruct cultural history with the aid of skeletal analysis was due more to faulty methods rather than to the premise that preserved bone can, and does, say something about the population

â&#x20AC;˘The Sevier Indian population is selected from the total skeletal group referred to as Fremont in Andrews (1972). Since the Fremont designation includes skeletons from sites in the Colorado Plateau (Caldwell Village and Turner Look), they were eliminated from this report. Only those skeletons from the Great Basin (Sevier population) were considered for this analysis. 93

plasticity of bone was first commented upon as early as 1892 before modern equipment for precise analysis could be used to establish criteria for proper conditions for normal growth and development so that a range of variability could be determined. Other factors of variability have been added to the list of pressures which may be exerted upon bone, i.e., metabolism which is effected by dietary habits such as deficiencies of vitamin D and calcium, chronic or acute illnesses which temporarily halt bone growth through prolonged, elevated body temperatures, and endocrine disorders which might cause excessive bone growth in limited regions. A corollary of skeletal plasticity is that it is in no way obstructed by the genetical endowment of the individual or human population in which it is manifested. We are, therefore, more attuned to the phenotypic differences of skeletal populations through time and space than genotypic changes. The plasticity of bone itself is gauged by the range of variability in existing human populations, and from a comparison of this variability in past populations with living ones. However, extreme caution is needed when populations are to be compared since numerous factors must be controlled. These factors primarily deal with specific environmental details of temperature, average food consumption (type of foodstuff and quantity), size of in-breeding group, and genetic components (i.e., heritable deficiencies) (Brothwell 1965). In essence, those factors which most effectively bring pressure on the health and well-being of human groups and ultimately upon the individual who has the possibility of being viewed as "representative" of a total number of individuals. The recent emphasis of archeological research toward reconstructing the "total" lifeway and habits of prehistoric peoples, insofar as the recovery of such evidence is possible, adds a new dimension to the study of skeletal remains.

A more comprehensive understanding of prehistoric dietary habits, that is the bulk of food types and their nutritional qualities, will allow the investigator to recreate patterns of sex and age (mortality) and occurrences of disease factors (morbidity) which effect and alter the normal state of bone size, dimension, and growth. It is certainly more rewarding for the student of cultural prehistory to unravel the mysteries of extinct populations within a total framework of everyday activity and survival than by comparing select components across time and space. Similarly, for the investigator whose purpose is to describe and make inference concerning the physical remains of prehistoric peoples, it is far more important to view bone within the perspective of functional dynamics of cause and effect than to merely suggest gross anatomical appearances. Another difficulty emerges in the analysis of skeletal material which is related to the number of skeletons and their completeness as recovered during excavations. As is the case for the Sevier, relatively few skeletons have been found, and therefore must be viewed with some bias as being "typical" of the total population. For the total existing Sevier population this factor, more than any other, precludes precise analysis, the formulation of a range of morphological traits, or the reconstruction of an epidemiology. This barrier should eventually be removed as more skeletons are discovered and compared within the geographical and temporal framework as established by rigorous archeological techniques. The additional descriptions of skeletal remains should, therefore, be as formalized and comprehensive as possible so that the material may be eventually compiled and a more accurate picture of the Sevier skeletal material devised. The material examined for this report will be presented with this future possibility in mind.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The skeletal material examined for this report consisted of eight individuals, six adults and two subadults. According to the excavation reports these individuals had been reburied in the same general area and it was, therefore, impossible to separate the postcranial material of four skeletons. None of the skeletons was complete, but the preservation of the remaining bones was good. Some bones, however, exhibited fire damage particularly in the cranial region with resulting erosion of the outer layer of bone in limited areas. The examination of the skeletal material was conducted primarily by gross observation of morphological traits, anomalous and pathological conditions. There was not attempt to examine the skeletons metrically given their highly fragmented condition. The determination of sex and the age of the skeletons at death

were made tenuously on the basis of a few features, i.e., using the crania for establishing sex is not the most reliable determinant (20%-30%) although dental patterns are significant for estimations of age at death (70%-80%) (Brothwell 1965). Other determinants for age at death were the assessment, when possible, of sutural closure and obliteration and pubic symphyseal measurements (Comas 1960, Brothwell 1965). The difficulty in assigning statistically accurate estimations of sex and age at death to these skeletons makes the analysis of anomalous and pathological conditions more tenuous within the context of an epidemiological approach to certain disease processes and other nonpathological manifestations. Since some diseases and anomalous traits often emerge along patterns of sex and age, the ability to control for these 94

two variables is essential for suggesting possible associations and cause and effect situations. As discussed previously, the reconstruction of a culture's lifeway, as accurately as the archeological evidence will allow, provides fine contextual data for inferring possible causative factors of certain pathologies (i.e., nutritional deficiencies and trauma) but the overall development of disease in human populations is invariably tied, in most instances, to the parameters of sex and age. For these few individuals examined for this report, the occurrence of pathological conditions will reveal little absolute information, however, it may be possible to

generalize some of the diseases and nonpathological conditions to the total existing Fremont population utilizing direct evidence from archeologists concerning diet, settlement patterns, chronology, and affinities with other cultures. Since no attempt was made to examine the skeletal material metrically, all references to morphology were made through gross observations of various traits such as musculature and bone size and density. These observations are therefore unreliable in assessment of any generalized morphology for the skeletons examined.

DISCONTINUOUS MORPHOLOGICAL TRAITS These traits are termed discontinuous since it is possible to count them as present or absent and are referred to as anomalous conditions which can be related to either a genetic or developmental component. These traits are identified as being nonpathological and would not usually impede a normal existence or cause undue stress for the individual. These traits usually occur at certain frequencies in populations and can, therefore, be utilized to make inference about group relationships (Brothwell 1965). The following discontinuous morphological traits were observed in the skeletal material, t h e Pterion which is an anomalous sutural pattern occurring on the external surface of the skull were the frontal, parietal, sphenoid, and temporal bones meet. Since this is an ossification center, the occurrence of an unusual suture pattern is probably dependent upon both mechanical and genetic factors. Mental foramina which are anomalous multiple elliptical holes on the external surface of the mandible. The etiology of this trait is unknown. The mandibular tori are bony protuberances occurring on the lingual surface of the mandible and are often variable in size and shape. These tori are probably genetically controlled but might also be related func-

tionally to chewing. The Sevier exhibit this trait at a frequency of 12-14%. Palatine tori occur on the inner (lingual) surface of the palate. There seems to be a functional association for their development. The os japonicum (Figure 50) is an extra bone occurring on . the maxilla inferior to the orbit. No etiology has been established for this trait. Squatting facets appear on the inferior-anterior surface of the tibia as small, smooth depressions in the bone. These depressions have been attributed to the cultural habit of sitting in a stooped or squatting position for extended periods of time. This anomaly occurs more frequently among the males in the Sevier sample and at a frequency of approximately 30%) (Andrews 1972). Anomalous conditions of the dentition included the shovel-shaped incisor which has a relatively high occurrence rate among the North American Indian populations (Dahlberg 1969) but is rare among the total examined Fremont group (Andrews 1972). The protostyloid pit occurs on the labial portion of the molars and often resembles a carious lesion. This trait occurs at a frequency of 12-13% among the Sevier population (Andrews 1972) and is generally considered a good genetic indicator (Dahlberg 1969).

PATHOLOGIES The most frequent pathological change observed was porotic hyperostosis manifested by diffuse calvarial thickening with expansion of the diploic space and thinning of the outer cortical layer of bone (Figures 50, 51, 52). The thickness of the cranial vault was measured approximately 1 cm. above the squamous suture in the parietal region and ranged from 11.5 to 12.8 mm. in four individuals examined. This measures a thickness twice that of a sample of 24 Fremont skulls which ranged from 3.0 to 6.0 mm. from inner to outer cortical table. Angel (1967) has described this disease as symmetrical osteoporosis and associated it with a pro-

The identification of pathological conditions was attempted only in the strictest sense of description and suggestion of etiology on the basis the type of structural alteration observed in the skeleton, the site of occurrence and, when possible, the relationship to the sex and age of the individual. The pathologies were determined by gross observations rather than microscopic or roentgenographic methods. Therefore, no precise determinations were made except in cases of gross pathological change with historical etiological references such as trauma due to injury and arthritic lipping of the joints. 95

Fig. 50

Side view of skull showing thickness of calvarium in parietal and frontal region probably the result of iron deficiency anemia.

gressive hemolytic disorder. However, recent investigations (El-Najjar et al 1976) have pointed to iron deficiency anemia as the most probable cause for these observed osseous changes and relate this deficiency to the problems of the human digestive system in assimilating iron from various foodstuffs. Previous to this investigation only one other example of porotic hyperostosis had been observed among the Sevier Indian population. An adult male from the Evans Mound site near Cedar City, Utah, was radiographed and similar abnormalities to those described above were noted (Andrews and Moore n.d.). There were a few observed cases of arthritic lipping confined to the vertebral region. Arthritis is generally a disease of the aged but among North American Indians joint inflamation occurs at a high frequency among the middle-aged (Jarcho 1966). The presence of arthritis among the Sevier sample followed similar patterns and was present at a frequency of approximately 13% and occurred more often in males than females (Andrews 1972).

A female skeleton exhibited a circular opening in the left frontal region approximately 1 cm. above the orbit (Figure 51). On at least one of the edges there appear groove marks which resemble cuttings made by a sharp instrument, but there is no conclusive evidence to suggest whether the opening occurred premortem or postmortem (see Figure 51). Lisowski (1967) reviewed the occurrence of prehistoric and early historic trepanation (a "surgical" procedure which removes a trepan, or circular disk of bone from the skull). His observation of numerous examples of trepanation led him to develop evidencial criteria for establishing cases of an opening in the skull as being the result of surgery, and whether the trepan was removed before or after death. The most prominant suggestion for identifying trepanation is the frequency of occurrence in a population, and the elimination of other factors such as the postmortem activity of rodents or insects which may have eaten through the skull, or natural environmental conditions such as water damage or the result of a crushing blow delivered 96

Fig. 51 View of frontal region of skull revealing hole resembling trepanation. Bone loss was probably the result of porotic hyperostosis which has involved the parietal regions as revealed by the surface mottling. pathological condition or a postmortem accident. I suggest, therefore, that the observed lesion is most probably not the result of trepanation but might be associated with the presence of porotic hyperostosis, which was also found in this individual, and the weakening of the cranial structure developmentally. The modeling appearance of the edges which resemble "cutting" marks, as if by a sharp instrument, could be the natural appearance of the lesion since the destruction or degeneration might follow the structural pattern of the bone as it developed in the frontal region.

during the course of excavation. Another important consideration is the number of diseases which may predispose the skull to exhibit lesions similar to those of trepanation through the weakening of the cranial structure in localized regions. Since the skull exhibiting the opening was the first, and therefore only, case of suspected trepanation among the existing 72 individuals which comprise the Sevier sample, it must be surmised that either this is a unique case of trepanation, which is doubtful as surgical procedures among prehistoric groups never occur as isolated incidences (Lisowski 1967), or that the opening was the result of a

DENTAL PATHOLOGIES lesions may be due to the high rate of attrition (wear of tooth against tooth) and abrasion (tooth wear resulting from gritty substances in the diet) which is found frequently in the Sevier dentition (Andrews 1972). This tooth wear usually grinds away the lesions

The most frequent pathological conditions observed among these eight individuals was carious lesions occurring interdentally, and premortem tooth loss due primarily to periodontal disease. The occurrence of interdental caries at a proportion greater than occlusal 97

Fig. 52

Right parietal and frontal bone of crania. Note thickness of calvaria as a result of porotic hyperostosis

on the occlusal surface before the whole tooth is affected. Periodontal disease is associated with the build up of tartar at the gum line and interdentally and is identified by the amount of bone resorption which occurs in the alveolar region. Hypolasia, the appearance of lines like water marks around the crown of the tooth, is related to periods when calcium deposition is impeded due to an illness accompanied by prolonged elevated body temperatures or extreme nutritional deprivation during growth. Abscesses were found in both the mandible and maxilla and result from infections of the tooth at the region of the root. In general, the presence and frequencies of most

dental pathologies is an excellent indicator of the health status of a population. Diseases of the dentition are most often painful and uncomfortable, and the loss of teeth or their weakened structure would make eating most foodstuffs difficult and without proper mastication of food could lead to various digestive difficulties. The presence of both carious lesions and periodontal disease among the Sevier occurs with equal frequency among the sexes and is as much a phenomenon in youth as in old age (Andrews 1972; Graham and Burkart 1976). The prevalence of these pathologies suggests that the health status of the Sevier Indians was generally poor.

BURIALS Burial A. The sex of this individual was determined to be a male from observations of the innominate bone and gross features of the crania. Age at death was estimated at between 25-35 years. The material consisted of the occipital and temporal bones of the crania, the maxillary bones, and the mandible. The postcranial material included the right and left scapula, left innominate, proximal end of the right femur, rib fragments, and portions of other long bones. The eminences for musculature were medium in size, and the general appearance of the postcranial

material suggests an individual of average height (approx. 5'5" to 57") and build. Observed anomalous conditions included an abnormal sutural pattern at the pterion and multiple mental foramina. Pathological conditions included porotic hyperostosis of the cranial vault, an abscess in the maxillary region, carious lesions occurring interdentally on four teeth, and premortem tooth loss resulting from periodontal disease. 98

Burial B. This skeleton was that of a subadult whose age at death was estimated at between 3 and 6 years on the basis of tooth eruption and presence of epiphyseal lines. The material consisted of the facial and temporal bones of the crania and a portion of the mandible. The postcranial material included the left femur, left humerus, left radius, left iliac region, the left scapula, a thoracic vertebrae, various rib fragments, and bones of the left foot. This individual exhibited one anomalous condition; that being a palatine torus (Figure 53). Cribria orbitalis (the occurrence of elliptical holes in the region of the superior orbit) was observed (Figure 54) and is generally related to the early manifestations of porotic hyperostosis (Angel 1967). Dental pathologies included hypoplasia and alveolar bone loss suggesting periodontal disease. Since the secondary dentition was just erupting, it was impossible to determine the occurrence of premortem tooth loss. Burial C. The sex of this skeleton was undetermined. Age at death was estimated at three and six years on the basis of tool eruption and epiphyseal lines. The material consisted of the cranium, the right maxilla, and a portion of the mandible. The postcranial

Fig. 54

Fig. 53

Surface view of palate with internal torus on the alveolar border. Note premortem tooth loss and osteitis around the tooth sockets.

Upper region of eye socket of infant showing cribria orbitalis. This anomaly is usually associated with the early manifestation of porotic hyperostosis. 99

Fig. 55 Frontal and top view of infant's skull. Bulging of frontal and parietals are the result of hydrocephalia which was the probable cause of death. 100

material included the left scapula, patellae, atlas and axis vertebrae, two thoracic and two lumbar vertebrae, and some hand bones. This child appeared to have developed a congenital problem typical of hydrocephalia which was probably the cause of death (Figure 55). Since this deformity would cause severe mental and physical impairment, it must be assumed that the Sevier peoples cared for such individuals until their death. Dental pathologies included carious lesions and hypoplasia with some limited tartar accretions on the gum line. Burial D. By gross observation of the crania this skeleton was estimated to be a male whose age at death was approximately 30-40 years. The material consisted .of the frontal, maxillary, and zygomatic bones of the crania, the mandible, and some portions of the occipital. The cranial bones had been burned in some places, and the periosteum was eroded in the frontal region. The postcranial material was in good condition and consisted of the left and right femur, the left and right tibia and fibula, the patellae, the left and

Fig. 57

Fig. 56

Surface view of mandible showing bilateral occurrence of tori on internal alveolar border. Note alveolar bone resorption in regions where teeth were lost premortem and occlusal carious legions in the right PM, and left M2.

Facial view of skull showing two anomalous conditions. The left region of the maxillary shows a pronounced torus on the external alveolar, and there is a bilateral occurrence of the os japonicum on the lower rim of the orbits. 101

right pubic bones, the left humerus, and the bones of the feet. The musculature of this individual was medium to heavy suggesting a rather rugged build. The postcranial material was generally more dense and larger than that observed in the other male skeletons of this sample. Two anomalous conditions were observed and include the bilateral occurrence of mandibular tori (Figure 56) and squatting facets on the left and right tibia. The only observable pathology in this skeleton was slight alveolar bone resorption of the mandible. Four Burials, E-H. A burial found in structure 4 which included postcranial material is included in this description since it could not be determined to be a separate burial. The four individuals are tentatively identified as two males and two females by the generalized features of the crania. Through the examination of dental features and the occurrence of arthritic lipping on some of the vertebrae, age at death was estimated at 30 to 40 years for all individuals. The material consisted of four fragmented crania and four mandibles (complete). The crania of two individuals were damaged by fire with resulting erosion of the periosteum in the frontal, parietal, and occipital regions. The postcranial material is sparse and highly fragmented consisting of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, two innominate bones, one male and one female, two scapula and various portions of long bones.

Morphologically these four individuals shared common traits of a medium musculature and bone size and build with an average estimated height of 5'2" to 5'5". The observed anomalous conditions among these four individuals included an.abnormal sutural pattern in the pterion region found in a female and palatine tori in another female who also exhibited a shovelshaped incisor. Both females were found to have mandibular tori. One of the males exhibited a pallatine tori, an os japonicum and was also found to have a deviated septum (Figure 57). Both females and one male were found to have porotic hyperostosis with the resultant thickening of the calvarial vault. The male exhibiting this condition was also found to have the anomalous traits as described above. The thoracic vertebrae were observed to have limited involvement with arthritic lipping, but the sex of this individual cannot be determined. One female exhibited a circular opening, tenuously associated with porotic hyperstosis, in the frontal region. All four individuals had poor teeth. One male had an impacted wisdom tooth and several teeth lost premortem. All examined skeletons had carious lesions, averaging three to four per dentition, medium tartar accretions, and medium to extreme alveolar bone loss. One female exhibited hypoplasia in all incisors of the maxilla.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The addition of these eight skeletons to the total Sevier skeletal population raises the sample number from a total of 72 to 80 individuals. This sample includes 36 males, 20 females, and 24 of undetermined sex which includes the subadults. There was no attempt to examine the skeletons metrically given the fragmented and incomplete nature of the material. However, gross observations of musculature and general features of the cranial and postcranial skeleton reveals the similarity of stature and physical qualities to the Sevier group. In general, the males are of medium musculature. The females are similar as evidenced by their prominant eminences for muscle attachment. The Sevier were medium in stature averaging approximately 5'2" to 5'7" for the adult males established by an index of height measurements. The females average approximately 5'2" for the total sample. The frequency of occurrence of various anomalous conditions among any skeletal population is more importantly directed toward establishing "genetic" distance between populations than as descriptors for individual groups (Brothwell 1965). However, as more information comes to light concerning the functional and developmental aspects of many of these traits,

then one might apply more objective statements regarding etiology and those independent variables which might be associational. For instance, the occurrence of mandibular tori is probably controlled by one or more genes, but their size and bilateral appearance might be associated with other factors such as sex, age, and various cultural habits such as chewing leather or in general using the mouth as a tool. The frequency of these anomalous traits have been noted for the entire available Sevier skeletal population (Andrews 1972). The general nature and appearance of osseous changes which may be attributable to a pathological condition were numerous given the small number of skeletons examined. Dental pathologies reflect a poor dental hygiene among the Sevier since this factor was found to be significant among the total population. Operationally, dental pathologies are related both to genetic factors which are responsible for the structure of the teeth and calcium metabolism, and nutritional factors especially during critical periods of growth and development. The general health status of any prehistoric population may be broadly suggested given the condition of the dentition as being poor (Dahlberg 1969, Molnar 1972). 102

The most significant pathological changes observed were those associated with a hematologic disorder, porotic hyperostosis. This condition is related functionally to nutritional patterns which are manifested by iron deficiency anemia. Since there are other concomitant problems which emerge for an anemic individual, it is suggested that this would be a critical problem for a small population dependent upon individual members for survival, that is for hunting, gathering, and agricultural activities. This disease would also be a cause of early death as well. The remaining pathologies observed such as osteoarthritis and a congenital disorder, hydrocephalia, have been observed among other Sevier skeletons. Osteoarthritis, particularly of the spine, occurs as a rather high frequency (30-40%) among the Sevier. At least two other examples of hydrocephalia in subadults have been identified (Andrews 1972).

The overall impact of the observed disease process upon the prehistoric Sevier Indians can only be surmised given the limited sample size. However, the frequency of certain disease processes (i.e., arthritis and dental pathologies) suggests that ill health may have exerted considerable pressure upon the Sevier population, especially in the context of their subsistence economy. The pressures of the environment (nutrition, climate) were the most obvious factors affecting the Sevier Indians' health. As more skeletons are found and included in the Sevier sample, the patterns of environmental effects upon health and disease will become more obvious. The integration of this information into the attempted reconstruction of the Sevier Culture's lifeways will provide a broader spectrum in which to view unique manifestations of cultural behavior.

103

104

APPENDIX II MAIZE FROM BACKHOE VILLAGE AND ITS RELATIONS WITH THE FREMONT/SEVIER CORN COMPLEX by Joseph C. Winter Department of Anthropology San Jose State University

INTRODUCTION One complete corn cob, several shattered cob pieces and the fragments of approximately six kernels were retrieved from Backhoe Village. All were carbonized. Although the sample is far too small to pro-

vide meaningful data about the local maize population, it can be used for general comparisons with the Fremont/Sevier corn complex as a whole.

FREMONT/SEVIER MAIZE (Snake Rock and Turner-Look) do not. The pre-Fremont levels at Clydes Cavern have abnormally high frequencies of eight-rowed material but this early situation is apparently unrelated to the later phenomenon and should not be confused with the PII-III period development of "Mais de Ocho". Relatively early and primitive forms of corn with high amounts of teosinte germplasm are present in the early Clydes Cavern levels, which could account for the abnormally high frequency of eight-rowed cobs. These frequencies decline through time, however, and by the Fremont/ Sevier levels (#4-8) the sample averages only 17% eight-row, which is normal for central Utah. The one complete cob from Backhoe Village fits into this trend, with its 14 rows. In northern Utah, no collections of more than twenty cobs have frequencies of more than 8% eight-row. 2). In addition to the row number pattern, the degree of kernel denting throughout the state is also suggestive of variation within the Fremont/Sevier corn complex. In the north, denting is well-developed and a number of extreme dents have been found at Mantles Cave, Caldwell Village and Hogup Cave (Anderson 1948; Cutler 1966b, 1970). The Clydes Cavern dent corn is well-dented but not extremely, while most of the dent from the south, including Evans Mound, is only moderately or weakly dented. Weakly dented maize has also been noted in a number of neighboring Anasazi collections, including Cave No. 1, Cave DuPont, Zion Cave, Antelope Cave and several Glen Canyon and Navajo Mountain sites (Winter 1973). Anderson and Cutler (1942) and Cutler (1960) originally argued that much of this northern Anasazi dent material was the result of the spread of the so-called "Pueblo race" of

Cutler (1966a), Galinat and Gunnerson (1969) and Winter (1972b, 1973, 1974, 1976) have examined numerous Fremont/Sevier maize collections and have commented on the existence of a Fremont/Sevier maize complex which was fairly distinct from that of the neighboring Anasazi. Cutler (1966a) suggested that this complex was fairly similar throughout Utah, but Winter (1972b, 1973) has proposed a south-to-north gradient with the southern samples (e.g. Evans Mound) sharing certain characteristics with local Anasazi maize. Several variables are involved. 1) This trend is especially visible in the row numbers (Table XV). Since row number is a complex genetically based trait, variations in row numbers are probably good indications of differences between geographically separated collections. Cutler (1965, 1966a) has documented an increase of eight-rowed maize throughout the northern Southwest during Pueblo II-III times (ca. 1000 A.D. to 1300 A.D.), which is represented in Table XV by the data from selected Anasazi collections. Note, for example, the increase in frequencies of eightrowed cobs from Basketmaker through Pueblo III. The southern Fremont maize, with the exception of the Lower Escalante material, has yielded collections which apparently reflect this influx or region-wide development of eight-rowed corn beginning in the Pueblo II period. Several southern samples exhibit eight-rowed frequencies of 9% ot 13%, while most collections from the area average 20% to 26% eight-row. This "influence" does not, however, appear to have reached far into Utah, since certain of the Fremont collections from central and east-central Utah, such as Clydes Cavern and PR41, average high frequencies of this trait, while others 105

corn into the Southwest ca. A.D. 1000, but Cutler (1969) and Cutler and Blake (1971) have since suggested that the Pueblo form was recently added to the Southwestern complex, as a result of the introduction of a Mexican Dent by the Spaniards. Since the weakly dented kernels in many northern Anasazi collections are thus unrelated to the later Pueblo dents, it is probable that there was an exchange of dent material between the southern Fremont, Sevier, and local Anasazi groups. The kernels from Backhoe are too fragmentary to determine if they were dented or not. 3). A tentative trend in cupule width measurements also suggests Fremont maize variations. The cupule widths of most northern Anasazi samples average about 7.0 mm, which is a fair approximation of the aboriginal mean throughout much of the Southwest (Table XVI). Many Fremont collections are characterized by a slightly higher mean, especially in the southcentral and central areas where most of the collections average 8.0 mm. or more. The Evans Mound collection has smaller cupules, with measurements which are very similar to those of the Comb Wash Anasazi collection. Unfortunately, cupule width data has not been published for the Median Village collection, and thus it is not clear if the Evans Mound specimens represent an exception to the general situation of high cupule widths among the southern Fremont sites, or if there was an unusually close relation between southwestern Utah Fremont and Anasazi corn. Elsewhere, the Turner-Look sample from east-central Utah and all four of the northern Utah Fremont samples have moderate-tolow cupule widths. Again, the cob from Backhoe Village appears to fit into this pattern, with its cupule width of 7.75 millimeters. The total Fremont maize complex is generally distinct from Anasazi maize in that the former has more dented kernels, slightly larger cobs, lower frequencies of eight-rowed cobs, and bigger cob diameters. Measurements of cob diameter, rachis diameter, cob/rachis index and lower glume width are presented in Table XVII. Most Anasazi corn has cob diameters which fall between 12 and 17 mm. (Cutler 1966a), while Fremont cobs average 17 to 20 mm. in diameter. Regionally, the southern Fremont collections have relatively high frequencies of eight-rowed cobs, wide cupules and moderate to weakly dented kernels. The northern sam-

106

ples are characterized by low amounts of eight-rowed cobs, smaller cupules and well dented to extremely dented kernels. Collections from central Utah are often intermediate in one or more traits. While it is apparent that the Fremont maize complex was a unique population which existed from relatively early times, as indicated by the Clydes Cavern sequence, few of the factors have been identified which were responsible for the regional variation. One contributing influence affecting the southern Fremont collections was probably the proximity of Anasazi farmers. Since the northern Anasazi and southern Fremont/Sevier maize populations evidently shared certain traits, such as eight-rowed and dent germplasm, it is likely that some form of exchange of maize occurred between the Parowan and Glen Canyon Fremont groups and the northern Anasazi of the Virgin, Mesa Verde, and Kayenta districts. Either that or the ancestors of the Fremont and local Anasazi farmers shared a common form of corn which diverged over time. If actual exchange took place it is likely that it was intentional, since corn pollen normally travels very short distances and fields only a few miles apart can be maintained in near isolation. However it developed, the relationship between southern Fremont, Sevier, and northern Anasazi maize seems to have been prolonged, or at least to have occurred several times, since corn was exchanged both before and after the appearance of eight-rowed maize around A.D. 1000. Basketmaker caves in southern Utah and northern Arizona have yielded Fremont-like dent corn, which suggests that dent germplasm was dispersed southward prior to A.D. 700. Later, a northward exchange of maize may have occurred during or after the Pueblo II-III period development of eight-row. Further to the north the influence of Anasazi corn seems to have been less intense, at least as demonstrated by the declining frequencies of eight-rowed corn. Other factors may also have been responsible for this northern shift in cob row frequencies and for changes in denting and cupule width characteristics, but there is very little evidence to indicate what these factors might have been. Genetic drift, environmental conditions and cultural selection could all have been at work in producing the patterns of trait variation across the state.

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