Utah Antiquities Selected Papers Volume 6, Number 11-15 - 1979

ANTIQUITIES SECTION SELECTED PAPERS

VOLUME VI, NUMBERS 14-15

Division of State History

CUMULATIVE INDEX Antiquities Section Selected Papers Number 1 Number 2 Number 3

Three Fremont Sites in Emery County, Utah by David B. Madsen. Volume I, Page 1.

Innocents Ridge and the San Rafael Fremont by Alan R. Schroedl and Patrick F. Hogan with an appendix

by La Mar W. Lindsay. Volume I, Page 29.

An Archeological Survey of the Northeast Portion of Arches National Park by Michael S. Berry. Volume I. Page 67.

Number 4

An Archeological Reconnaissance of the White River Area, Northeastern Utah by Michael S. Berry and Claudia F. Berry with illustrations by La Mar W. Lindsay. Volume II, Page 1.

Number 5

Man, Mammoth, and Lake Fluctuations in Utah by David B. Madsen, Donald R. Currey, James H. Madsen, Jr. Volume II, Page 43.

Bulldozer Dune (42SL46) by David B. Madsen. Volume II, Page 59.

Interstate Highway 1-70 Salvage Archeology by Curtis J. Wilson and Howard L. Smith with ceramic analyses

by John Fritz and Christine Plimpton. Volume II, Page 67.

Unusual or Enigmatic Stone Artifacts: Pots, Pipes, Points, and Pendants From Utah by La Mar W. Lindsay.

Volume II, Page 104.

Number 6 Number 7 Number 8 Number9 Number 10 Number 11

Archeological Survey of The Bluff Bench/San Juan River and White Mesa Areas, San Juan County, Utah 1973-1974 by Richard E. Fike and La Mar W. Lindsay. Volume III, Page 1.

Pint-Size Shelter by La Mar W. Lindsay and Christian K. Lund with appendices by La Mar W. Lindsay and Donald R. Currey. Volume HI, Page 25.

Archeological Investigations in the Maze District Canyonlands National Park, Utah edited by William A. Lucius with contributions by Patrick Hogan, Leonard Losee, and William A. Lucius. Volume III, Page 75.

Number 12

Backhoe Village by David B. Madsen and La Mar W. Lindsay with appendices by Jan Andrews and Joseph C. Winter. Volume IV, Page 1.

Number 13

An Archeological Survey of the Upper White Canyon Area, Southeastern Utah by Philip M. Hobler and Audrey E. Hobler with an appendix by Polly Schaafsma. Volume V, Page 1.

Number 14 Number 15

Prehistory of the Deep Creek Mountain Area by La Mar W. Lindsay and Kay Sargent. Volume VI, Page 1.

Trace Element Analysis of Obsidian Sources and Artifacts from Western Utah by Fred W. Nelson and Richard D. Holmes. Volume VI, Page 65.

ŠCopyright 1979 Utah State Historical Society

EDITOR'S PREFACE This volume is the fifth in a monograph series designed to examine and interpret the prehistoric cultures of Utah. Antiquities Section Selected Papers is specifically geared to Utah archeology and paleontology, but includes papers from adjacent geographical areas and from ancillary disciplines relevant to the understanding of local archeological and paleontological problems.

The series has three goals: 1) to provide a vehicle for the publication of research carried out by the Antiquities Section; 2) to provide an outlet for archeological reports which do not have a general distribution (i.e., investigations done in conjunction with environmental impact statements); and 3) to allow publication of valuable manuscripts now on file and re-publication of articles now out of print and unavailable.

Manuscripts from all sources, including state and federal agencies, educational institutions, and private individuals, will be accepted for examination and possible publication. Articles should be typed double spaced and should be accompanied by photoready line drawings and photographs. Submitted articles will be reviewed by the Antiquities Section staff or other qualified reviewers in the case of ancillary reports. Papers will be published on an irregular basis, depending on the number and quality of reports on file.

David B. Madsen

DEDICATION While none of the previous volumes have had dedications, I feel it is time to call attention to someone who contributed a life-long interest in speculative thinking. Lloyd Spradlin's pursuit of knowledge in general and archeology in particular was intensive.

Conversations with him laid the groundwork for several valuable contributions to western prehistory.

I would like to formally dedicate this monograph to his memory. — D. B.M.

PREHISTORY OF THE DEEP CREEK MOUNTAIN AREA, WESTERN UTAH by LA MAR W. LINDSAY AND KAY SARGENT Antiquities Section Division of State History State of Utah

ANTIQUITIES SECTION SELECTED PAPERS Number 14

PREFACE An archeological survey and excavations were conducted in the Deep Creek Mountain area in western Utah by the Antiquities Section, Utah State Division of History. The work was accomplished for the Bureau of Land Management under contracts for survey (Lindsay and Sargent 1977) and excavation (Sargent 1978). The data reported here is, with some modification, an integration of the two contract reports. This includes a reassessment of the original data in light of the recent identification of valley archeological sites near the Deep Creek Mountains.

The survey represents a modest stratified sample of a small portion of the Deep Creek Mountains. The data has apparent predictive value in that we are able to suggest where and under what conditions sites are most likely to occur. This was a principal goal of the survey and is consequently of value in understanding aboriginal settlement. The test excavation of four sites provides a temporal dimension, thus allowing a test of the Great Basin typological sequence in this locale. The research offers some indication of aboriginal subsistence, particularly for the period just prior to and coincident with the introduction of pottery to the Great Basin.

The survey and excavations were conducted under the direction of David B. Madsen and the overall

supervision of La Mar W. Lindsay. Kay Sargent supervised the test excavations at two sites and is credited with much of the photography. Crew members included at various times during the winter 1976 and spring 1977 survey and fall 1977 testing, Jim Dykman, La Mar Lindsay, Chris Lund, David Madsen, Kevin Pollard, Kay Sargent, Suesan Taylor, and Tom Zeidler.

Special appreciation is given to Bureau of Land Management personnel, Richard E. Fike, Geoffrey Middaugh, and Shelley Dickey, of the Utah State, Salt Lake, and Richfield District offices respectively, who provided information such as aerial photographs, preliminary U.S.G.S. topographic maps, and ancillary data pertinent to the survey. BLM also provided a helicopter for access to high elevations. Special thanks are also due M. G. "Red" Sheldon and Rolf M. Kraft of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for the accommodations which were provided and the hospitality extended to the field crew during the project. Also, acknowledgment is given to Russell Hoffman who willingly shared his working knowledge of the "Deeps."

Amy Pringle and Rebecca Hobbs of the Antiquities Section assisted with preparation of the manuscript.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Preface

2

Abstract

5

Introduction Research Design: Survey and Excavation Environmental Setting Location Geology Climates: Past and Present Water Resources Flora Fauna

5 7 8 8 8 10 12 12 16

Cultural and Research Contexts

17

Survey Archeological Sites Limited Cultural Indications Additional Reconnaissance Site Summary

20 20 22 22 23

Excavations Introduction Scribble Rock Shelter (42JM67) Site Setting Excavation and Stratigraphy

25 25 25 25 27

Site Summary and Interpretation Coal Shovel Shelter (42JM48) Site Setting Excavations and Stratigraphy Site Summary and Interpretation Additional Test Excavations (42JM65 and42Jbl75) Dating Summary and Discussion of the Excavations

Page 31 31 31 32 33 33 36 36

Artifacts Chipped Stone Projectile Points Discussion Drills Bifaces Unifaces Utilized and Waste Flakes Ground Stone Ceramics Faunal Analysis Bone Artifacts

38 39 39 45 46 49 49 49 50 52 54 56

Deep Creek Mountain Area Settlement and Subsistence

57

References

59

ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1. General Location Map of western Utah and eastern Nevada 2. The Deep Creek Mountains from the base of the Fish Springs Range 3. Indian Farm Creek Canyon 4. Indian Farm Creek Canyon Aerial Photograph 5. Ibapah Peak Showing Alpine and Krumholz Vegetation 6. Marsh Setting at Trout Creek in Snake Valley 7. Pinyon/Juniper Woodland — Sagebrush — Riparian Zones in Granite Creek Canyon 8. Location map showing survey quadrats, archeological sites, and vegetation zones 9. Location map of Trout Creek archeological sites 10. Location Map of Scribble Rock Shelter (42JM67) 11. Location Map of Coal Shovel Shelter (42JM48) 12. Scribble Rock Shelter

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Scribble Rock Shelter plan and contour map Interior of Scribble Rock Shelter Scribble Rock Shelter Pictographs East-west profile near front of shelter East-west profile of site stratigraphy Extent of excavation in shelter interior North-south profile of site stratigraphy Coal Shovel Shelter Coal Shovel Shelter plan and contour map Excavated Trench 2 Coal Shovel Shelter site stratigraphy Site42Jbl65 Site42Jbl75 Survey Projectile Points Scribble Rock Shelter Projectile Points Coal Shovel Shelter and 42Jb 165 Projectile Points Survey and Coal Shovel Shelter Bifaces and U nifaces Scribble Rock Shelter Drill, Bifaces, and Unifaces

26 27 28 29 29 30 30 31 32 33 33 34 35 41 44 45 46 47

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Scribble Rock Shelter Milling Block Scribble Rock Shelter Grinding Stones Coal Shovel Shelter Grinding Slab

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Paiute-Shoshoni and Sevier Ceramics Sevier Ceramics Scribble Rock Shelter Bone Artifacts

Page 52 53 56

TABLES Table I. II.

Page Quadrat Locations and Descriptions 14 Summary of Deep Creek Mountain Archeological Sites 21 III. Radiocarbon Dates from the Excavations . . . 36 IV. Artifact Provenience from All Sites 38 V. Scribble Rock Shelter Artifact Provenience 40 VI. Coal Shovel Shelter Artifact Provenience . . . 40 VII. Survey Projectile Point Materials and Measurements 42 VIII. Scribble Rock Shelter Projectile Point Materials and Measurements 43 IX. Coal Shovel Shelter Projectile Point Materials and Measurements 45

•f

Page Survey Biface and Uniface Materials and Measurements XI. Coal Shovel Shelter Biface and Uniface Materials and Measurements XII. Scribble Rock Shelter Drill, Biface, and Uniface Materials and Measurements XIII. Scribble Rock Shelter Utilized and Waste Flakes XIV. Coal Shovel Shelter Utilized and Waste Flakes XV. Scribble Rock Shelter Identified Fauna XVI. Scribble Rock Shelter Unidentified Bone Fragments

46 47 48 50 50 54 55

ABSTRACT A survey of a stratified sample in the southeastern portion of the Deep Creek Mountains has identified 28 archeological sites. They are predominantly open lithic scatters and campsites, suggesting semipermanent occupance. Four cave/rockshelters were test-excavated to determine the presence and extent of subsurface cultural deposition. Occupation of Coal Shovel and Scribble Rock shelters by Sevier culture groups is radiocarbon-dated to 1700Âą150 and 680Âą 180 B.P., respectively. The association of late Archaic and Sevier artifacts at Scribble Rock suggests a transitional component. This is contrary to recent interpretations of a cultural hiatus in the northeastern Great Basin. A temporal range of over 8,500 years is posited for the Deep Creek Mountain area. A tentative Piano Paleo-Indian site on a recessional playa of Lake Bonneville may extend the timedepth to 9,000-10,000 years. No correlation between site types, their locations, and cultural affiliations is evident.

Sites are predominantly in canyon bottoms and in various vegetation zones. They are always near riverine species.

Deer and mountain sheep bones recovered from Scribble Rock Shelter suggest that these species were heavily exploited and that mountain sites were occupied seasonally.

Obsidian from the Thomas Range was the preferred toolmaking stone. It was present in both mountain and valley sites. Inferred hunting patterns, and material source areas suggest an essentially constant seasonal round for Archaic, Sevier, and Paiute-Shoshoni populations in the Deep Creek Mountains.

INTRODUCTION The Antiquities Section conducted an archeological survey of the southeast portion of the Deep Creek Mountains in western Utah (Fig. 1) for the Bureau of Land Management in 1977. A 10% sample from approximately 150 km2 of National Resource Lands was required in connection with studies of proposed land use. Test excavations were necessary to determine the presence and extent of subsurface cultural deposits and the significance of the sites in the prehistoric sequence of the eastern Great Basin. The study area was necessarily expanded to valley locations when the probable "seasonal nature" of Deep Creek Mountains site occupance became apparent following test excavations. Sites subsequently identified adjacent to the range in Snake Valley to the east may have served the occupants of the Deep Creek Mountain sites at varying times.

The test excavations of four sites indicate that many of the open campsites and lithic scatters identified during the survey are likely limited to the surface.

Many of these scatters have been displaced downhill.

Subsurface cultural deposits are apparently restricted to cave/rockshelters which are predominantly found in the igneous intrusive associated with the higher peaks in the south-central part of the range. Also, the apparent association of artifacts from the late Archaic and Sevier culture at Scribble Rock Shelter

(42Jbl67) does not provide evidence of the cultural hiatus seen at many sites in the Great Basin (Madsen and Berry 1975) and on the Colorado Plateau (Lindsay and Lund 1976; Jennings, Schroedl, and Holmer 1977).

A priori notions regarding the importance of vegetation and the use of ethnographic analogy are reflected in the sampling and interpretation, but in unexpected ways. The attempt to correlate archeological site types and cultural affiliations with the well-stratified vegetation of the Deep Creek Mountains resulted only in a recognition that sites tend to cluster about several vegetation zones where a variety of flora and possibly fauna was immediately available. Also, the PaiuteShoshoni analogue (Steward 1938), applied to Archaic hunter-gatherer subsistence interpretations (e.g. Jennings 1957; cf O'Connell 1975; C. Fowler 1977; Bettinger 1977; Aikens 1978), may also apply to at least the early Sevier culture in this locale, although the Paiute-Shoshoni may have relied more on collecting pinyon nuts.

Admittedly, the evidence is highly inferential, given the relative lack of explicit subsistence data. However, the following lines of evidence suggest similar adaptations for Archaic, Sevier, and Paiute-Shoshoni populations.

1) Sites indicative of the three groups are identified in mountain and valley locations.

2) All three groups obtained obsidian from a source in the southern part of the Thomas Range, about 75 km east of the Deep Creek Mountains.

3) Fish Springs, which is between the "Deeps" and the obsidian, served all three groups. Marsh resources in Snake Valley were likely utilized by the Sevier culture as well (cf Madsen and Lindsay 1977).

4) Paiute-Shoshoni hunting is documented in both the ethnographic (Steward 1938) and archeological

records (e.g. O'Connell and Hay ward 1972; O'Connell 1975; Bettinger 1977). Apparently, hunting was also a principal means of subsistence at the excavated late Archaic/early Sevier site (42JM67).

In sum, limited water resources and an apparent preference for obsidian from a common source by Archaic, Sevier, and Paiute-Shoshoni Deep Creek Mountain populations, suggests a similar local pattern of aboriginal settlement and presumably subsistence for at least the past several thousand years.

Fig. 1 General location map of western Utah and eastern Nevada.

6

RESEARCH DESIGN

This suggests cultural deposition occurred anywhere obsidian was found. The sites were plotted on U.S.G.S. maps and aerial photographs using the Smithsonian trinomial system. A sample of diagnostic artifacts was collected during the survey for identification in the laboratory. The Utah Museum of Natural History is curating all specimens from the survey and excavations.

Deep Creek Mountain area research by the Antiquities Section was conducted in three phases: 1) survey sampling of the Deep Creek Mountains, 2) test excavation of selected mountain sites, and 3) additional reconnaissance in Snake Valley. In addition, a literature search was conducted of the documented use of economic plants and of potentially edible species of the Deep Creek Mountains (Lindsay and Sargent 1977). Many species are recorded as explicitly used by the Paiute-Shoshoni in this locale (Chamberlain 1911; Steward 1938).

EXCAVATION

SURVEY Twenty field days were required to survey 22 (about 0.65 km2 quadrats (U.S.G.S. quarter sections), totalling about 14.3 km2. These quadrats were randomly selected from valley bottom to the alpine zone and hence at random for types of terrain and topographic features (Table 1 and Fig. 8). For instance, six quadrats (II-l through 6) are located in the shadscale/sagebrush ecotone (elevation 1,520 to 1,680 m) where there is both relatively flat and sloping terrain (greater than 25°). The quadrats vary in distance from both ephemeral and perennial streams. Five quadrats (III-l through 5) were similarly chosen from the sagebrush zone (elevation 1,680 to 1,980 m) and likewise from piny on/juniper (V-l) and montane (VII-1 through 3) settings. Two of the montane quadrats represent partial samples of alpine locations (VIII). The ecotones were identified during and following the survey from data derived from archeological site inventories as well as extant vegetation studies (McMillan 1948; Nelson 1976). The quadrats ultimately provide a 10% sample of the 150-km2 area which itself is only partially representative of the large 450-km2 Deep Creek Range (Survey — Site Summary).

Crew members walked each quadrat maintaining intervals of 50 meters or less. Shorter intervals were maintained where terrain and topographic features warranted. Reconnoitering the quadrats was accomplished using U.S.G.S. topographic maps and aerial photographs to locate section corners, bench marks, and natural features. Archeological sites were defined by the presence of diagnostic artifacts or at least ten lithic flakes. Obsidian, which is not indigenous to the Deep Creek Range, was identified at most of the sites.

Four sites (42JM48, 42JM65, 42JM67, and 42JM75) were selected for test excavation based on the following criteria: 1) Subsurface cultural deposits were either visible or assessed as likely to be present. For example, site 42JM67 contained looter's pits exposing cultural material about 0.5 m below the surface, while 42JM65 was thought to contain some depth because of apparent alluvial soils and abundant surface materials.

2) Several vegetation zones and differing topography were represented at the various sites. Site 42JM48 is in the canyon mouth while others are upcanyon in sage, pinyon/juniper, or montane vegetation.

3) Several cave/rockshelters affording varying degrees of protection and various cultural affiliations were represented.

4) Differing degrees of modern disturbance were observed. Signs of modern camping were evident at Coal Shovel Shelter (42JM48) while Scribble Rock Shelter (42JM67) had been partially looted. The remainder were essentially undisturbed.

Test trenches were initiated at each of the four sites. Stratigraphy which allowed excavation by natural levels was identified only at Scribble Rock Shelter.

Coal Shovel Shelter contained only a single depositional component. Sites 42JM65 and 42JM75 are essentially limited to surface deposition.

ADDITIONAL RECONNAISSANCE The identification of "seasonal use" sites in the Deep Creek Mountains prompted a selective search for possible associated "village" sites in valley locations. A reconnaissance of marsh locales (consistent with the definition of principal Sevier culture adaptation [Madsen and Lindsay 1977]) was conducted at Trout Creek and Salt Marsh in Snake Valley. Informants provided information on the location of larger sites subsequently visited. None of the valley sites were tested for subsurface cultural deposition.

+

*VS^*T

Fig. 2 The Deep Creek Mountains from the base of the Fish Springs Range (looking west)

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING LOCATION The Deep Creek Mountains (60 km north-south by 10-15 km east-west) are located adjacent to and southwest of the Great Salt Lake Desert in the eastern portion of the basin and range province (Fenneman 1931), about 55 km south of the town of Wendover and 10 km east of the Utah/Nevada border. They are found between 113째 15' 00" and 114째 05' 00" west longitude and 39째 35' 00" and 40째 15' 00" north latitude. The range on the north rises abruptly out of the 1,300-meter salt plain to elevations approaching 2,440 m. On the southern portion, the mountains rise above Snake Valley, reaching elevations over 3,660 m (Fig. 2). Gravelled piedmont slopes are present below the eastern escarpment of the mountains where prominent terraces, spits, and bars of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville occur. Coalesced alluvial fans (bajadas) form the slopes below the western escarpment. The Snake Range (elevation approx. 3,500 m) is the dominant land form to the south, however for the most part the surrounding terrain consists of a number of lesser volcanic mountains and lava flows which like the "Deeps," run primarily north-south.

The wide alluvial valleys of the southern portion of the region are less saline than those of the northern desert.

The region's scant water supply, consisting of mountain streams, valley springs, and marshes derived from snowmelt, is the dominant determinant of the diverse nature and distribution of local flora and fauna and the present location of sparse human settlement. In this sense, the "Deeps," the highest range in western Utah, represent an "oasis" in an otherwise

parched midlatitude, saline desert environment. The mountains contain numerous canyons formed by both perennial and ephemeral streams which are derived from snowmelt on the peaks and high mountain meadows. The springs of these meadows insure continuous flow of the Deep, Spring, and Fifteen Mile creeks which originate on the west side of the range.

Numerous others flow into Snake Valley to the east, but these are limited to the southern half of the range.

The more prominent creeks located in the general survey area are (from north to south) Tom's, Indian Farm (Figs. 3 and 4), Cedar, Cottonwood, Granite, Trout, and Birch. These supply water to the farms at nearby Callao and Trout Creek. During prehistoric times, they no doubt contributed to the formation of marshes in the valley basin.

GEOLOGY The diverse geology of the Deep Creek Mountains bears directly upon the location and nature of water sources, variable soil deposition, and the abundance of flora and fauna. These factors directly influenced aboriginal subsistence and settlement patterns.

The mountains are an asymmetric tilted block with escarpments on the east and west. The range is composed of five distinct geomorphic areas (from north to south): Clifton Hills, Willow Springs block, Ibapah stock, Spring Creek block, and the Southern hills section (Thompson 1970). Only the Ibapah and Spring Creek sections are represented in the survey area.

The Ibapah stock, from Tom's Creek and Goshute Canyon on the north and Granite Creek on the south, consists mainly of intrusive granite. The gentle, highly

desiccated, and jointed slopes on the east side of the range differ considerably from the extremely steep west face (Thompson 1970). Ibapah (3,685 m) (Fig. 5) and Haystack (3,665 m) peaks occur in this section. Glacial moraines and cirques (above 3,350 m) at the base of the peaks provide water for the major creeks (Bick 1966).

The Spring Creek block lies between the granite intrusive and the Pleasant Valley escarpment (south of Birch Creek). The latter separates the range from the Kern Mountains to the south. Erosion-resistant metamorphic quartzite and schist form the extremely steep topography of the block (Thompson 1970). Red Mountain (3,530 m), at the head and south of Granite Creek Canyon, is the dominant peak in this section.

The geologic stratigraphy of the Spring Creek section consists of a large number of formations which include metamorphic Precambrian rocks and Paleozoic sedimentary beds (Thompson 1970). The intrusive Ibapah stock is composed of a biotite granite which extends completely across the range. The major constituents are plagioclase and alkali feldspar, quartz, and biotite. Muscovite, magnetite, apatite, and zircon are present in trace amounts. The effect of metamorphism, limited to the north and south contact zones of the intrusive, is minor (Bick 1966; Thompson 1970).

Two distinct Pleistocene geomorphological phenomena, glaciation and lake-shore terracing, are evident in the Deep Creek Mountains. However, the dated relationship of the two phenomena has not been directly established. Both bear directly upon the assessment of any potential traces of early man in the region.

Glacial cirques and terminal or recessional moraines have been reported, suggesting two distinct glacial episodes (Bick 1966). Although these are undated, the more recent event probably represents early Pinedale

glaciation predating 20,000 B.P. (Morrison 1965; Currey and Madsen 1974). Bick (1966) estimates a 3,110-m Pleistocene snowline in the Deep Creek Mountains, based on a latitude/snowline relation between the Snake Range on the south and the Ruby Mountains to the northwest and on the presence of cirque floors between 3,050 and 3,350 m in the "Deeps".

Glacial features are primarily confined to the east side of the range because of prevailing winds, larger catchment areas, and more moderate terrain. According to Bick (1966:97), "glaciated areas are exactly where they would most naturally form if major storm tracks at that time were the same as today." Late Quaternary lake-shore terracing by Pleistocene Lake Bonneville is evident in the forms of wave-cut and -built terraces, benches, bars, and spits, on the piedmont on the east side of the range. This evidence is entirely lacking on the west except to the north where the range formed a peninsula (Bick 1966) suggesting the range effectively served to block further westward migration of lake maxima waters. Strand lines are present in at least two locations in Snake Valley. One at the 1,525 m contour runs northwestward from the northern end of the Confusion Range to just south of Birch Creek in the "Deeps." The other occurs at the 1,460-m level just south of Granite Creek. These placements correlate well with Lake Bonneville's maxima (1,555 m) and the Provo shoreline (1,466 m) respectively from the eastern Jordan Valley on the east side of the lake (Morrison 1965). The Sandy Mammoth site (Madsen, Currey, and Madsen 1976) provides a minimum radiocarbon date of approximately 9,000 B.P. on mammoth bone from a 1,330 m east shore lake level. This places the southwestern shore line at the time somewhat below the approximate present outline of the Great Salt Lake Desert (Fig. 1).

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Indian Farm Creek Canyon (looking west).

Indian Farm Creek Canyon (looking east).

Fig. 5 Ibapah Peak showing Alpine and Krumholz vegetation (looking south). The top of a glacial cirque is toward the bottom.

CLIMATES: PAST AND PRESENT

ately extreme. Snow may fall anytime from September to May, and during years of heavy snow pack and cooler than normal summers, snow may remain in shadowed locations the year around (Bick 1966).

Winter snows would likely have limited aboriginal Deep Creek Mountain site occupance to summer and fall months of the year.

Although no paleoclimatological studies exist for the Deep Creek Range and despite the difficulties of inferring past climates from the data of adjacent locales (Bryan and Gruhn 1964), a tentative climatic sequence is postulated from extant reconstructions of the northern and northeastern Great Basin. Antev's (1955) model of sequent postglacial (Neothermal) phases (Anathermal-Altithermal-Medithermal) is generally regarded as valid insofar as it represents a "temperature curve without fixed dates and in which conditions in differing ecologic areas are yet to be determined" (Bryan and Gruhn 1964:309).

The variable humid microthermal Deep Creek Mountain climate contrasts with surrounding arid desert and steppe types (Burnham 1950). This variability is the result of differences in elevation. Precipitation in the region is principally derived from Pacific cyclonic storms (Burnham 1950) with the greatest amounts falling during the spring. Annual rainfall surrounding the range at Gold Hill and Ibapah on the west and at Callao and Partoun on the east is highly variable. For example, annual totals have varied at Callao, on the lee side of the range, from about 2.5 to 22.5 cm per year. Totals have varied from 6.2 to 67.5 cm per year at Ibapah on the windward side (U.S. Weather Bureau Climatic Census 1957, 1965, 1961-70). Mountain precipitation is proportionally higher with respect to altitude, with estimates ranging in excess of 75 cm per year at higher locations (Burnham 1950). The differential between Ibapah and Callao indicates that the Callao area, adjacent to the "Deeps" lies in a rain shadow. This deficiency is partially compensated by the winter snows which are locked up in the high mountain basins, predominantly found on the east side of the range, resulting in a higher runoff during the spring and summer months.

The withdrawal of Wisconsin ice occurred in northern Utah no later than 12,000 B.P. (Bright 1966; Mehringer, Nash, and Fuller 1971; Madsen and Currey 1977), thus ushering in the Holocene. There is no clear evidence for an event coincident with the (ca 11,400 to 10,700 B.P.) Valders readvance of continental ice (Flint 1964); although, there is every indication that the climate remained cool and moist during the interval in the northern Great Basin and continued so until the onset of the ca 8000 B.P. Altithermal (Bright 1966; Swanson and Muto 1975; Madsen and Currey 1977). At Swan Lake in southeastern Idaho, Douglas fir gradually replaced limber pine at lower montane locations by ca 10,000 B.P. suggesting

Temperature variance between the warmest and coldest months at valley locations averages more than 106 C, with temperature dropping below -20° C during December and January, and exceeding 38° C in July and August. The annual mean is about 7° C. The average number of frost-free days is about 80 (U.S. Weather Bureau Climatic Census 1961-1970).

Temperatures at mountain locations are proportion10

a general warming continued which led to the arid Altithermal interval (Bright 1966).

Altithermal climatic desiccation is well represented in pollen and geomorphological records throughout the Great Basin and surrounding regions (Bright 1966; Mehringer 1967; Swanson and Muto 1975; Currey 1976a, 1976b; Madsen and Currey 1977). This period of extreme aridity (beginning ca 8000 B.P.) continued with only minor fluctuations, the largest occurring about 6700 B.P. (Currey 1976b; Lindsay 1976a), to the ca 5000 B.P. onset of Neoglaciaton (Denton and Porter 1970; LaMarche 1974; Currey 1976a). These minor fluctuations are thought to be shifts in the periodicity of rainfall (cf Madsen 1973) — when the moist westerly atmospheric circulation pattern shifted north and was replaced by the present continental anticyclone (Aschmann 1958). An extensive warm/wet interval may have occurred towards the end of the Altithermal in the northeastern Great Basin (Madsen and Currey 1977). Precise dating and areal extent of this phenomenon are not yet well understood. In general however, the deteriorating climatic conditions during the Altithermal resulted in "the virtual desiccation of Lake Bonneville" (Morrison 1966:91) and the retreat of vegetational zones some 500 to 1000 m from Late Pleistocene levels (Mehringer and Ferguson 1969).

are thought to represent periods of cooling with only minor changes in absolute amounts of precipitation (Madsen and Currey 1977). Alternate cooling and warming on the Wasatch Plateau resulted in recessions and reoccurrences of alpine vegetation (Madsen and Currey 1977) and Lake Bonneville levels were correspondingly lowered and raised (Eardley, Gvosdetsky, and Marsell 1957; Morrison 1966).

The impact of postpluvial climatic change on Great Basin cultures is only partially understood (see Cultural and Research Contexts). In the Deep Creek Mountain area the recession of postpluvial Lake Bonneville (ca 12,000 to 8000 B.P.) would have offered marsh habitats to surviving Pleistocene megafauna and consequently Early Man. However, there is no direct association of man and mammoth in the eastern Great Basin (cf Madsen, Currey, and Madsen 1976).

During the subsequent (ca 8000 to 5000B.P.) period of general desiccation, the "Deeps" no doubt provided a relatively optimal adaptive setting for hunter-gatherer populations. They would also have remained attractive during the mid-Neoglacial stadial (ca 3000 B.P.) when lake-shore resource zones were flooded and lakeside sites were abandoned (Madsen and Berry 1975). The occurrence of cultigens by 1500 B.P. (cf Marwitt 1970) did not substantially alter the heavy reliance by Great Basin populations on wild foods (Madsen and Lindsay 1977). The "Deeps" would have continued to provide resources during this and the subsequent period of Paiute-Shoshoni occupance. In sum, the range would have offered an abundance of various resources at all times for Great Basin peoples, but it would have been particularly attractive during both the Altithermal and the mid-Neoglacial when resources were severely limited elsewhere.

The ca 5500-5000 B.P. onset and widespread occurrence of the Neoglacial is apparent in various records from both the Great Basin and adjacent Colorado Plateau (Bright 1966; LaMarche 1974; Swanson and Muto 1975; Currey 1976; Lindsay 1977; Madsen and Currey 1977; Madsen 1973, 1976b; Mehringer and Warren 1976). Three stadials (5500 to 4520 B.P., 3390 to 1790 B.P., and 650 to 100 B.P.) (Currey 1976)

Fig. 6

Marsh setting at Mile Pond (Trout Creek) in Snake Valley.

11

• - m-f

--l-9Lm%i^Lmm-\VI-^Lm-mm»\\-^mS»mmmmmmmmmmmmmW^

m^ESm-mmf

S 'Y^f"-

' t ^ R t H ^ R f e

Fig. 7 Pinyon/Juniper Woodland, Sagebrush, Riparian Zones in Granite Creek Canyon.

WATER RESOURCES

conditions prevailed and marsh resources may have been limited elsewhere (Madsen and Berry 1975). In sum, the Deep Creek Mountains must have been one of few relatively stable optimal settings when the region's scant water resources were no doubt severely limited.

Perennial Deep Creek Mountain streams are found both on the west and in the southeastern portion of the range. Although many creeks are reduced to mere trickles during the late summer months, those which originate in the igneous intrusive Ibapah stock, from which the greatest amount of water is discharged, maintain a substantial flow throughout the year (Thompson 1970). The "Deeps" afford the only substantial water within a radius of 35 km, with the exception of a few springs in the region. The ponding of water at Trout Creek (Fig. 6) and the springs at Salt Marsh 10 km to the south likely offered additional resources to Deep Creek populations. Fish Springs, about 35 km east, is a fairly large, somewhat saline, marsh developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. However, its natural state during prehistoric time is difficult to assess. The number of archeological sites in the immediate vicinity of Fish Springs (site reports on file) indicates water and marsh resources may have been utilized during much of the time including during the Neoglacial stadials when cooler

FLORA The Deep Creek Mountain area provides a wide variety of flora (Fig. 7) the distribution of which is contingent upon a number of factors including elevation, available sunlight, general lithology, and soils — all bearing at least in part on available effective moisture. Gross vegetation zones (Bureau of Land Management Plant Checklist) are plotted for average elevations (Fig. 8). Zonal boundaries as such do not represent actual variations between north and south facing slopes or riparian vegetation communities which crosscut these zones. The lower limit of the pygmy conifers is shown because of its apparent importance to the location of archeological sites. Each 12

zone, depending on location and soil, may also be represented by several plant communities or associations (McMillan 1948), further emphasizing the diversity of Deep Creek Mountain flora and its potential importance to prehistoric human settlement.

SAGEBRUSH (1,675-1,980 m) Sagebrush {Artemisia tridentata and Artemisia nova) extends up the alluvial fans to the base of the mountains and in montane locations along the creeks.

Sage growth is prolific where the soils are deep, particularly along Granite Creek. Various shrubs, including rabbitbrush, Mormon Tea, bitterbrush {Purshia tridentata), and currant {Ribes aureum), are either abundant or locally common. Grasses, in addition to the few identified in the shadscale zone, include wheatbrush {Agropyron spp.), cheatgrass {Bromus tectorum), blue-grass {Poa secunda), and curly grass {Hilaria jamesii). A larger number of forbs occur in association with sage, including sego lily {Calochortus nuttallii), curly leaf dock {Rumex crispus), buttercup {Ranunculus spp), locoweed {Astragalus spp), squaw bush {Rhus trilobata), evening primrose {Oenothera spp), Phlox {Phlox spp.), coyote tobacco {Nicotian attenuata), balsam-root {Balsamorhiza sagittata), and fleabane {Erigeron spp.). This increased number of forbs, many of potential utility, has implications for aboriginal settlement and the location of archeological sites.

SHADSCALE (1,520 m) Several desert shrub communities are variously represented throughout the zone (McMillan 1948).

Pickleweed {Allenrolfia occidentalis) is in the strongly alkaline soils in valley bottom areas formerly occupied

by Lake Bonneville. Greasewood {Sarcobatus vermiculatus) occurs in the higher areas where the soils are only slightly less alkaline, but the water table is low. In still less alkaline soils, shadscale {Atriplex confertifolia) predominates (McMillan 1948). Various shrubs which commonly occur in desert shrub associations include four-winged saltbush {Atriplex canescens), Mormon tea {Ephedra nevadensis), white sage or winter fat (Eurotia lanata), and snakeweed {Gutierrezia sarothrae). Grasses include Indian ricegrass {Oryzopsis hymenoides), Alkali sacaton {Sporobulus airoides), and needle-and-thread {Stipa comata). Russian thistle {Salsola kali), Eriogonum {Eriogonum spp.), and Halogeton {Halogeton glomeratus) are predominant forbs. Desert riparian woodland communities, consisting principally of willow {Salix cordata and Salix exigua) and cottonwoods {Populus angustifolia), crosscut desert shrub communities along the stream channels in the valley bottom. Rabbitbrush {Chrysothamnus spp.), sagebrush {Artemisia spp.), and rose {Rosa sp.) are also present along the watercourses.

SAGEBRUSH/PINYON-JUNIPER (1,980-2,130 m) The transition from sage to the pygmy conifers — pinyon {Pinus monophylla) and juniper {Juniperus scopulorum and Juniperus utahensis) — is somewhat irregular (Fig. 8). Sagebrush extends to higher elevations on exposed slopes and along watercourses well into the pinyon-juniper and montane zones.

Some differences exist in the distribution of the pygmy conifers between the igneous intrusive Ibapah stock and the metamorphic rock. In general, the lower limit of the tree line conforms to the top of the alluvium or mountain base, however dense growth was observed well downward on the alluvial fans to the south particularly in the mouths of Trout and Birch Creek canyons. Such is not the case at Tom's and Granite Creek to the north. Also, the abundance of juniper to pinyon appears greater to the south.

Tules, rushes, arrow and salt grasses, milkweed, and cattail are common at Fish Springs, Mile Pond (at Trout Creek) and Salt Marsh. Marshes, among the most productive of known plant communities (Odum 1963), were likely also present elsewhere in Snake Valley during prehistoric times. This would have been an added attraction for aboriginal populations to the diversified resources of the Deep Creek Mountains.

SHADSCALE/ SAGEBRUSH (1,520-1,675 m)

PINYON-JUNIPER (2,130-2,280 m)

The transition from shadscale to sagebrush occurs toward the lower limit of the alluvial fans at the base of the mountains, except where sage extends further into valley locations along the watercourses. Some differences were observed between vegetation on the alluvium derived from the igneous intrusive Ibapah stock and that of the metamorphic rock south of Granite Creek Canyon. Toward the south, shadscale tends to extend further up the slope of the alluvium, and salt-tolerant plant species are more abundant.

This is probably attributable to less effective moisture of the more southerly facing slopes in this part of the range.

The pinyon-juniper association is found in dry, rocky areas at intermediate elevations. The understory includes a variety of shrubs such as rabbitbrush, bitterbrush, Mormon tea {Ephedra viridis), snakeweed, ocean spray {Holodiscus dumosus), snowberry {Symphoricarpos spp.), elderberry {Sambucus spp.), and river birch {Betula fontinalis), the latter found in the canyon bottoms. Grasses include wheatgrass, cheatgrass, blue-grass, short-awn foxtail {Alopercurus aequalis), tall manna grass {Glyceria elata), orchard grass {Dactylis glomerata), and wild rye 13

TABLE I

Range of Elevations

Quadrat

on

g .2 #

Zones

Vegetation

Quadrat Locations and Description

3 ยง

I

Shadscale

1,520 m (5,000 ft)

1

SE'/4

31, T. 12 S., R. 17 W.

1,460-1,480m

II

Shadscale/ Sage

1,520-1,675 m (5,000-5,550 ft)

1 2

NE'/4

3, T. 13 S., R. 18 W.

1,585-1,675 m 1,570-1,620 m 1,570-1,630 m 1,650-1,770 m

NE'/4 35, T. 12 S., R. 18 W. SW'/4 24, T. 12 S., R. 18 W,

3 4

SW'/4 23, T. 12 S., R. 18 W. NE'/4 6, T. 12 S., R. 17 W. NE'/4 30, T. 11 S., R. 17 W.

5 6 III

Sagebrush

1,675-1,980 m (5,500-6,500 ft)

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

1 2 3 4

SW/ 4

1,520-1,580 m 1,560 -1,630 m

4, T. 12 S., R. 18 W.

5

NE>/4 1, T. 12 S., R. 18 W. NW/4 30, T. 11 S.} R. 17 W.

1,690-1,780 m 1,700-1,790m 1,770-1,930 m 1,650-1,900 m 1.630-1.940 m

SW'/4 14, T. 12 S., R. 18 W. SW'/4 11, T. 12 S., R. 18 W.

Sage/

1,980-2,130 m

PinyonJuniper

(6,500-7,000 ft)

1 2 3

NE'/4 29, T. 12 S., R. 18 W. NW'/4 22, T. 12 S., R. 18 W. NW!/4 15, T. 12 S., R. 18 W.

2,000-2,380 m 1,830-2,070 m 1,850-2,240 m

Pinyon-

2,130-2,280 m

I

NE'/4

9, T. 12 S., R. 18 W.

2,030-2,380 m

Juniper

(7,000-7,500 ft) 1 1 3

NE'/4 19, T. 12 S., R. 18 W. NW'/4 9, T. 12 S., R. 18 W. SW/ 4 5, T. 12 S., R. 18 W.

2,030-2,350 m 2,330-2,710m

1 2

SE'/4 SE'/4

2,520-2,990 m 3,120 -3,560 m

3

SE'/4 20, T. 11 S., R. 18 W.

Pinyon-

2,280-2,440 m

Juniper/ Montane

(7,500-8,000 ft)

Montane

2,440-3,350 m (8,000-11,000 ft)

Alpine

3,350 m (11,000ft)

2,190-2,600 m

13, T. 12 S., R. 19 W. 30, T. 12 S., R. 18 W.

3,110-3,350 m

None fully sampled

{Elymus canadensis), in addition to the rice and needle grasses found associated with sage. Forbs include yarrow {Achillea millefolium), locoweed, balsam-root, golden aster {Chryopsis villosa), fleabane, buckwheat, eriogonum, scarlet gilia {Gilia aggregata), gum plant {Grindelia squarrosa), and hymenoxys {Hymenoxys richardsonii).

from 2,280 to 2,895 m, as well as serviceberry {Amelanchier spp.) and deer brush {Ceanothus velutinus) and other of the more mesic species mentioned above.

Scrub oak {Quercus gambelii) prevalent in the Wasatch Mountains (eastern Great Basin) is conspicuously absent (McMillan 1948). Submontane associations predominate on north-facing slopes and extend well downward into the pinyon-juniper.

PINYON-JUNIPER/MONTANE (2,280-2,440 m)

MONTANE (2,440-3,550 m)

The transition from pinyon-juniper to montane species includes those associated with pinyon-juniper and montane types, but more particularly the submontane shrubs (McMillan 1948), predominantly mountain mahogany {Cercocarpus ledifolius), found

Several components, in addition to the submontane shrubs, are represented in the montane zone. These include the montane conifer associations, montane riparian, canyon floor woodland, and mountain mead14

ow (McMillan 1948). The montane coniferous forest occupies north-facing slopes, canyon floors and mountain pockets from about 2,130 to 3,350 m. White fir (Abies concolor) and aspen (Populus tremuloides) are predominant up to 2,440 meters. Alpine fir {Abies lasiocarpa) and Engelmann spruce {Picea engelmanni) I NEVAbA

|UTAH[

dominate the upper part of the coniferous belt from 2,440 m to the timberline. Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxifolia) is found interspersed throughout the sprucefir forest, and limber pine {Pinus flexilis) is present on south-facing slopes extending to the timberline. Limited bristlecone pine {Pinus longaeva), which essentially

M'

ÂŤJbN>4

Fig. 8 Location of quadrats, archeological sites, and vegetation zones.

15

_r_niin:

prefers conditions similar to that of limber pine, dominates ridgelines and stone outcrops at the head of Goshute Canyon to the north of the survey area. A small, rather enigmatic ponderosa pine {Pinus ponderosa) community is present along Tom's Creek between 2,315 and 2,620 m (Nelson 1976). The more xeric ponderosa may be a remnant of a more extensive distribution developed during the Altithermal (see Climates).

The transition to montane riparian and canyon floor woodland species occurs gradually from the 1,980-m desert riparian vegetation. Cottonwoods are replaced by aspen and a greater variety of willows are represented. River birch, chokecherry {Prunus virginiana) and wild rose {Rosa woodsii) are also present. Mountain meadows are infrequent because of the steep terrain, however, boggy conditions exist at the heads of a few streams (e.g., Tom's and Indian Farm creeks). These meadows support stands of willows and a variety of sedges {Carex spp.) and rushes {Juncus spp.) (McMillan 1948). In general, a large variety of trees and shrubs occupy the montane zone in addition to those mentioned above such as barberry {Mahonia repens), bitterbrush, raspberry {Rubus spp.), serviceberry {Amelanchier spp.), maple {Acer glabrum), buffaloberry {Shepherdia canadensis), red osier {Cornus stolonifera), bearberry {Arctostaphylos patula), and elderberry {Sambucus coerulea).

Grasses include brome, fescue {Festuca ovina), hairgrass {Deschampsia spp.), and alpine timothy {Phleum alpinum), in addition to many of those found at lower elevations. Forbs are represented in the largest number of any zone, and include, to mention a few, iris {Iris missouriensis), coral root {Corallorhiza spp.), mountain sorrel {Oxyria digyna), bistort {Polygonum bistortoides), starwort {Stellaria spp.), larkspur {Delphinium spp.), whitlowgrass {Draba spp.), rockcress {Arabis spp.), stonecrop {Sedum spp.), saxifrage {Saxifrage spp.), alumroot {Heuchera spp.) and cinquefoil {Potentilla spp.). The montane zone with its larger variety of flora, would have been particularly attractive to various wild game species and for aboriginal gatherers of wild plants.

timberline is approached. The timberline is at about 3,350 m on north-facing slopes and 3,500 m on those facing south. Above this, dwarfed annuals and perennials exist in small pockets of soil amid the rocks of glacial tills and talus slopes (McMillan 1948).

FAUNA Most faunal species representative of the Great Basin faunal area (Durrant 1952) are present in the Deep Creek Mountains, by virtue of the geological and floral diversity. Principal game species are mule deer and prong-horned antelope, both of which occur in fairly large numbers. Deer occupy the range above 2,440 m during the summer, with the winter habitat from 1,830 to 2,440 m. Antelope are distributed below 1,830 m throughout the region (G. Middaugh, BLM, 1976 personal communication). Bison and mountain sheep were probably present during prehistoric times (Barnes 1922; see Faunal Analysis).

Carnivores include coyotes, foxes, weasels, badgers, lynx, ring-tailed cat, bobcat, and mountain lion. The latter, though extensively hunted during the present day, are nevertheless abundant. Cat populations are apparently substantial in the igneous intrusive, such as Granite Creek Canyon, where water is abundant, and caves are common. The deer population, according to the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, is particularly extensive in the high meadows at the head of Tom's Creek. During prehistoric times, carnivores may also have included wolves, which are today found in the Raft River Mountains to the north, and bear which were sighted in the region during early historic times (Durrant 1952). Other species include skunks, porcupines, jack and cottontail rabbits, squirrels, chipmunks, and various species of gophers, mice, rats, and bats (Durrant 1952).

Small mammal populations may be somewhat limited in the southern portion of the survey area because of the exposed dark Fish Haven dolomite, which is apparently attractive to predatory reptiles. In sum, the range provides a variety of fauna some seasonally peculiar to specific resource zones. Aboriginal hunters would have been attracted to particular species • at differing times of the year, and no doubt all zones were subject to hunting during one season or another.

ALPINE (3,350 m) Montane conifers become dwarfed and bent and are discontinuously distributed, forming copses as the

+ 16

CULTURAL AND RESEARCH CONTEXTS We can adjudge the health of Great Basin archeological research by the prevalence of disagreement and at times dispute. Controversy pervades all temporal and conceptual levels of basin cultural development. Research continues to generate as many questions as answers with each major study conducted.

Questions remain regarding: (1) Great Basin PaleoIndian/ Archaic contemporaneity; (2) the nature of Archaic subsistence and the applicability of contemporary hunter-gatherer analogues; (3) Sevier/Fremont origins and subsistence distinctions; and (4) the contribution of the Paiute-Shoshoni to Sevier/Fremont demise. Basic to the lack of agreement of many of these issues is the understanding of changing environmental constraints and the availability of resources whether or not this was fairly uniform over time for each locale.

The undisputed association of fluted points and Pleistocene megafauna in the Southwest (e.g. Haury 1953; Haury, Sayles, and Wasley 1959) and the Plains (e.g. Figgins 1933, Roberts 1962) is absent in the Great Basin. The sequence Clovis (or Llano, after Sellards 1952) (ca 11,500-11,000 B.P.) Folsom (ca 11,000-9000 B.P.); and Piano (after Jennings and Norbeck 1955) (ca 10,500-8500 B.P.) (Haynes 1971; Irwin 1971) is constructed from sites peripheral to the basin. Fluted points in the northeastern Great Basin and adjacent plateau were limited to surface finds (cf Madsen, Currey, and Madsen 1976). Dated "full blown" Paleo-Indian assemblages reminiscent of the Plains and Southwest are absent.

Sites interpreted as roughly the same age, but with distinctive artifact assemblages, were similarly identified in the Great Basin, for example at Gypsum Cave (Harrington 1933), Pinto Basin (Campbell and Campbell 1935), Borax Lake (Harrington 1948), and Danger Cave (Jennings 1957). Subsistence focus at most sites was based both on hunting, primarily small game, and collecting wild plants. This feature, in the context of abundant hunter-gatherer ethnographic data (Steward 1938), was, in large measure, responsible for Jennings' concept of the Desert Culture: i.e. basin populations more or less uniformly engaged in the total exploitation of desert environs (Jennings and Norbeck 1955; Jennings 1957). Scholars, beginning with Heizer's (1956) identification of lacustrine adaptation in the lower Humboldt Valley, Nevada, have long since argued against the merits of a unifying basin-wide Archaic subsistence scheme.

Sources which review or attempt to resolve the controversy are O'Connell 1975; C. Fowler 1977; Bettinger 1977; and Aikens 1978. Most arguments which challenge the utility of the Desert Culture concept point to evidence of variable local adaptive settings in the

context of paleoenvironmental change. However, only a few paleoenvironmental studies are available and subsistence reconstructions are either incomplete or highly inferential. The onset of Archaic assemblages in the Great Basin has generally been regarded as ranging from ca 11,500 to 8500 B.P. (Fry 1970; Irwin-Williams and Haynes 1970; Aikens 1970). However, an early developmental sequence similar to that of the Plains is just as plausible as the suggested contemporaneous occupance of the basin by Paleo-Indian and Archaic hunter-gatherer groups. Unit D-I at Danger Cave (11,500 B.P.) is, as Jennings (1964) indicates, more likely the product of Paleo-Indian. This is also true at Borax Lake where Folsom points are dated by obsidian hydration at ca 9000 B.P. (Meighan and Haynes 1970). The inception of the Archaic more closely corresponds to 8500 B.P. (cf Madsen, Currey, and Madsen 1976). Although Paleo-Indian evidence in the Great Basin is sparse by Southwestern and Plains standards, its presence is unmistakable. Other Great Basin assemblages provide evidence of man's antiquity, though all appear to postdate the PaleoIndian.

The terminal dating of preceramic Archaic assemblages and hence the development of subsequent agricultural groups in the Great Basin is controversial. The long-held notion of continuous development from the Archaic to subsequent agricultural groups (Jennings 1978, Aikens 1970, Marwitt 1970) has been challenged (Madsen and Berry 1975). This is based on evidence of Mid-Neoglacial stadial (Currey 1976) flooding of lakeshore resource zones which resulted in the ca 3000 B.P. abandonment of lakeside sites in the northeastern Great Basin. Why lakeside sites were not similarly abandoned during the ca 5500-5000 to 4500 B.P. Early Neoglacial stadial (Denton and Porter 1970; cf Lindsay 1977) is unknown. Perhaps the "virtual desiccation of Lake Bonneville" (Morrison 1964:91) during the Altithermal precluded the filling of lake basins much beyond present-day levels during the early stadial.

An equivalent hiatus is also evident at several sites on the northwestern Colorado Plateau (cf Lindsay and Lund 1976) and possibly at Cowboy Cave on the central Colorado Plateau (Jennings, Schroedl, and Holmer 1977). Multiple origins for horticultural groups gain some support from a number of hypotheses (D. Madsen 1976a) including in situ derivation from the Archaic (Jennings 1978), the Southwestern Basketmaker (Gunnerson 1969; Berry 1975), and the Great Plains (Aikens 1966). Importantly, the concept of the hiatus and/or multiple origins, suggests that Archaic adaptations were neither spatially nor temporally uniform throughout the region.

17

Madsen and Lindsay (1977) have recently reordered the extant data of Fremont cultural regional variations (Marwitt 1970) to include three agricultural groups in the Intermontane Region north of the Colorado River. The"Fremont" designation is retained for groups who occupied the Colorado and Green River drainages, while the "Sevier culture" identifies interior Great Basin groups who relied heavily on marsh resources. A third, as yet unnamed agricultural component possesses certain Plains characteristics such as paddle-and-anvil-manufactured pottery, saucer-shaped, shallow basin pit structures, and a subsistence focus which included bison hunting. They are generally restricted to the Great Salt Lake and central Green River drainages. The definition of a Plains-related agricultural complex has temporal implications because of the overlay of masonry at certain sites such as Whiterocks Village (Shields 1967) in the Uinta Basin. This trait may have been derived from the Pueblo area postdating 1150 B.P.(Lindsay 1976b).

Fremont/Sevier agricultural groups abandoned Utah by 650 B.P. for reasons not yet understood. However, several investigators (e.g. Aikens 1970, Berry 1974; Madsen 1975) have suggested that the Fremont demise resulted from the influx of Paiute-Shoshoni into the Great Basin. The "Fremont" may have simply failed to compete for available wild resources with the recent arrivals. This explanation, proffered for the Great Basin, seems (in light of the redefinition of Sevier subsistence) more likely to be applicable to the Fremont of the Colorado Plateau where both groups may have utilized the same upland resources during periods when Fremont crop yields were low. The Great Basin Sevier culture, primarily adapted to marshes, would have been forced less directly into competition with the Paiute-Shoshoni.

Numic (Paiute-Shoshoni) speakers arrived in northern Utah by 750-650 B.P. (Gruhn 1961; Madsen 1975) having departed from a southwestern Great Basin "homeland" by 1000 B.P. (Lamb 1958; Miller, Tanner, and Foley 1969). Paiute-Shoshoni and Archaic subsistence systems appear similar although the former seems less specialized than that of the previous occupants of the region. However, this may in part be due to the differences in archeological and ethnographic data. The Paiute-Shoshoni engaged primarily in hunting and gathering in various Great Basin ecozones including marshes. (Steward 1938; Kelly 1964). They seem to have focused primarily on hunting and supplemental gathering on the northwestern Plains (Frison 1971). There is also limited evidence of PaiuteShoshoni agriculture, although its existence before white contact is questionable. The Southern Paiute, near the Anasazi, apparently practiced aboriginal agriculture, (Kelly 1964; Euler 1966) and Goshiute informants have indicated that they too had acquired agriculture before white arrivals (Steward 1938). In any event, the role of domestication appears to have

been minimal. More important are the variations in subsistence foci and in the amount of hunting versus gathering. The flexibility of the Paiute-Shoshoni subsistence system may have been the result of their rapid spread into diverse local ecologic niches throughout the region and possibly the competition with the Fremont.

The archeology of the eastern Great Basin (eastern Nevada and western Utah) was pioneered by Reagan (1929), Harrington (1921), Steward (1936), and more recently Osborne (1941). A number of sites have since been excavated which show a considerable temporal range containing the entire basin archeological sequence. However, several of these sites were either dug in arbitrary units (e.g. Shutler and Shutler 1963) or they remain to be fully reported (e.g. Bryan 1972; Gruhn 1972), hence their significance cannot be adequately assessed. Radiocarbon dates of 11,680±160 and 9940±160 B.P. are associated with stemmed "Mojave" points from Smith Creek Cave in the Snake Range (Touhy, 1977 personal communication). The early date generally corresponds with Level D-I at Danger Cave (Jennings 1957). Both apparently represent PaleoIndian occupations.

The early portion of the Archaic sequence is demonstrated at Deer Creek Cave in northwestern Nevada where Pinto Series points were recovered. Radiocarbon dates of 10,085±400 and 9670+300 B.P. mark the initial occupation of the cave (Shutler and Shutler 1963), but associations are unclear. Pinto points are dated 9789±630 B.P. from Level D-II at Danger Cave (Jennings 1957) and 8400 B.P. at Hogup Cave (Aikens 1970). They appear at O'Malley Shelter in the southeastern Great Basin before 4500 B.P. (Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori 1973). They are also dated to 6310±240 B.P. at Sudden Shelter (Jennings, Schroedl, and Holmer 1976) and to 6200±190 B.P. at Joe's Valley Alcove (DeBloois, 1976 personal communication) on the western Colorado Plateau. Humboldt Concave Base series points appear at Swallow Shelter between 5400 and 3500 B.P. (Dalley 1976) and they were recovered from Amy's Shelter (Gruhn 1972) where the initial occupance of the cave is dated at 4950+110 B.P. (Touhy, 1977 personal communication). The series is dated 5470±400 B.p. at Newark Cave in east-central Nevada (Fowler 1968a), and they appear before 4500 B.P.at O'Malley Shelter. Gypsum points, recovered from Amy's Shelter, appear by 4630 B.P. at O'Malley, and they are dated from 4520±210 to 3390±170 B.P. at PintSize Shelter (Lindsay and Lund 1976), and 4670±140 to 3360±85 B.P. at Sudden Shelter (Jennings, Schroedl, and Holmer 1976). The dates of 4510±60 and 3720+70 B.P. at Amy's Shelter (Touhy, 1977 personal communication) should date these points although this is not presently indicated. Elko Series points appear by 8400 B.P. at Hogup Cave and by 7000 B.P. at O'Malley.

However, the series' occurrence both during the Archaic and the subsequent agricultural period precludes 18

its use as a time marker. Elko Series points have been recovered from Amy's Shelter, Deer Creek Cave, and from Newark Cave where they are dated at 2035Âą 315 B.P. Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori (1973) and Madsen and Berry (1975) have reviewed the evidence for the ca 1450 B.P. appearance of arrow points in the central and northeastern Great Basin. The Rose Springs and Eastgate Series are dated from 1350 to 650 B.P. (Lanning 1963; Clewlow 1967) which generally coincides with the appearance of pottery in the region (Marwitt 1970). In the eastern Great Basin, the advent of pottery occurs with domestication and the development of the Fremont culture (Marwitt 1970). The reordering of Fremont regional variation based on differing subsistence (Madsen and Lindsay 1977) rather than pottery (Marwitt 1970) does not ignore variations of the latter in the Great Basin. Snake Valley, Sevier, and Great Salt Lake pottery, all of which appear by 1450 B.P., are variously associated with arrow points at sites including Newark Cave, O'Malley Shelter, Swallow Shelter (Dalley 1976), the Garrison Site (Taylor 1954), and possibly at Smith Creek and Kachina Caves (Touhy, 1977 personal communication).

Desert Side-notched points are dated at 840 B.P. at Newark Cave, post 680Âą70B.P. at Kachina Cave and 890+100 B.P. at O'Malley. They increase significantly in the subsequent stratum at O'Malley Shelter where they are associated with Paiute-Shoshoni pottery. The 840 B.P. date at Newark Cave may be slightly early.

Baumhoff and Byrne (1959) have suggested that the Desert side-notched point may be used as a (ca 650 B.P.) time-marker in the western Great Basin.

The full typological/archeological sequence is represented in extant data from surveys and limited test

excavations in the region. Osborne (1941) identified both the Sevier and Paiute-Shoshoni in Elko County, Nevada. Intensive occupance (suggested hunting encampments) by Sevier and Paiute-Shoshoni groups was identified from limited test excavations on the west side of the Deep Creek Range (Malouf 1946, 1950) where Sevier, Great Salt Lake, and Paiute-Shoshoni wares were identified. Rudy's (1953) report on the archeology of western Utah (and eastern Nevada) represents a milestone for ceramic typology and distribution in the region. The varieties of Sevier culture ceramics and Paiute-Shoshoni wares are shown to occur widely throughout the central and eastern basin. Additional surveys including Fish Springs (Anderson 1962), northern Nevada and southwestern Idaho (Touhy 1963), White Valley, southeast of the "Deeps" (Berge 1964), and eastern Nevada (Fowler 1968b), similarly demonstrate both Sevier and PaiuteShoshoni occupance. The wares associated with these cultures appear to co-occur at a number of sites; however, the significance of this has yet to be demonstrated in light of extant data. Most of these surveys identify portions of the Archaic sequence as well.

In sum, we anticipated that all phases of Great Basin human development would be represented in a sufficient sample of Deep Creek Mountain archeological sites and in adjacent Snake Valley. Also, the excavation of selected sites should provide dated evidence of the basin typological sequence. Lastly, given the identification of archeological sites, the wellstratified vegetation of the Deep Creek Mountains provides a ready-made laboratory for cultural ecological studies for which Steward (1955) pleads (cf Steward, J. C. and Murphy 1977).

+

19

SURVEY ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES

juniper, one in the pinyon-juniper/ montane ecotone, and five in exclusively montane vegetation (Table II and Fig. 8). The sites are variously distributed in all types of terrain including one in the valley bottom, one at a valley/ creek location, six at creekside locations on the piedmont, nine in the canyon mouths, eight in the canyon bottoms, one on the canyon side' one in a montane basin, and one on the mountain side.

Mountain sites are predominantly close to canyon streams. However, the markedly steep terrain throughout this part of the range would have dictated the location of sites in the canyon bottoms.

The following is a summary of the sites identified in the southeastern portion of the Deep Creek Mountain area. See Figure 8 and Table I for site locations.

42JM48 is a rockshelter near the upper limit of the sagebrush zone in the mouth of Indian Farm Creek Canyon. The dual-component site consists of Great Salt Lake Gray (Sevier) pottery, arrow points, ground stone, and a scatter of obsidian flakes. Apparent depth dictated subsequent test excavations (see Excavations — Coal Shovel Shelter).

42JM49 is an open-campsite in the sagebrush zone in the mouth of Indian Farm Creek Canyon (III-5).

The site consists of Paiute-Shoshoni pottery and a few obsidian flakes. Depth is not apparent.

42JM50 is an open-campsite in the sagebrush zone in the mouth of Indian Farm Creek Canyon (III-5). The site consists of a few Paiute-Shoshoni pottery sherds and a large variety of obsidian, chert/ chalcedony, and dolomite flakes. Depth is not apparent.

42JM51 is an open-campsite in the sagebrush zone near the mouth of Indian Farm Creek Canyon (III-5).

The site consists of Paiute-Shoshoni pottery and several, predominantly obsidian, lithic flake concentrations. Depth is limited.

42JM52 is a rockshelter in the sagebrush zone near the mouth of Indian Farm Creek Canyon (III-5).

The site consists of Great Salt Lake Gray (Sevier) pottery and a variety of obsidian and chert lithic flakes. The site may have limited depth.

42JM53 is an open-lithic site in shadscale/sagebrush on the piedmont below the mouth of Red Cedar Creek Canyon (II-5). The site consists of a scatter of obsidian flakes. Depth is not apparent.

Cultural affiliation is unknown.

42JM54 is an open-campsite in the sagebrush zone in the mouth of Red Cedar Creek Canyon (III-4). The dual-component site consists of Sevier Black-on-gray and Paiute-Shoshoni pottery and a variety of obsidian and chert lithic flakes. Depth is not apparent.

42JM55 is an open-lithic site in the sagebrush zone in the mouth of Red Cedar Creek Canyon (III-4). The

Deep Creek Mountain archeological sites are identified by type (cave/rockshelters, open-camps, and lithic sites), cultural affiliation, and the likelihood of subsurface cultural deposition. Cave/rockshelters are loosely defined by the presence of cultural debris in caves or near overhangs, cliff faces or stone outcrops — any natural stone features which may be interpreted as having afforded some measure of protection from the elements. Campsites in open setting are identified by indications of semipermanent or seasonal occupance such as ground stone or midden material.

Lithic sites are those which contain abundant worked flakes and debitage although one isolated projectile point find is also recorded. Sparse lithic scatters of less than 10 flakes are not identified as bonafide sites.

These are discussed in the following section on limited cultural indications. The cultural affinities of many sites can be determined by diagnostic projectile points and pottery. Points generally may only be typed as being either atlatl dart points (Archaic) or arrow points (post-Archaic). Therefore, pottery is the principal diagnostic (see Table II). The nature of subsurface cultural deposits at the untested sites is difficult to determine. An assessment of apparent depth is based on observed deposition in potholes, spoil from rodent burrows, and where erosion has occurred.

Also, abundant surface-campsite debris including charcoal/ ash midden material suggests semipermanent occupance and a likelihood of at least some site depth.

Twenty-eight sites are reported from the survey of the southeastern portion of the Deep Creek Mountain area (Fig. 8). These include 16 identified by the Antiquities Section and two reported by the Bureau of Land Management. Thirty-four cultural components are represented at seven cave/rockshelters, eight opencampsites, and 13 open-lithic sites one of which is apparently an isolated projectile point find. Cultural affiliation is determinable at 17 sites which contain pottery and/or diagnostic projectile points. The number of identifiable components includes one possible Paleo-Indian, six Archaic (including one possible), seven Sevier, and eight Paiute-Shoshoni. Four components which contain nondiagnostic arrow points, are identified only as post-Archaic. Six sites are dualcomponent including two Sevier/Paiute-Shoshoni, three Archaic/ Sevier, and one Archaic/Post-Archaic.

Cultural affiliation of most lithic scatters is indeterminate.

The sites occur in all vegetation zones except high alpine locations. Two are in the shadscale zone, one in the shadscale/ sagebrush ecotone, 13 in sagebrush, one in sagebrush/pinyon-juniper, five in pinyon20

TABLE II Summary of Archeological Sites Site

Site-Type

Cultural Affiliation

42JM48 42JM49 42Jbl50 42Jbl51

Rockshelter Open-campsite Open-campsite Open-campsite

Sevier Paiute-Shoshoni

42Jbl52

Rockshelter

42Jbl53 42Jbl54

Open-lithic Open-campsite

42Jbl55 42JbI56 42Jbl57

Vegetation Zone/Quadrat

Location Canyon mouth

Paiute-Shoshoni

Sagebrush Sagebrush (III-5) Sagebrush (1II-5) Sagebrush (III-5)

Sevier Unknown Sevier/ Paiute-Shoshoni

Sagebrush (III-5) Shadscale/ Sagebrush (II-5) Sagebrush (II1-4)

Canyon mouth Piedmont/creek

Open-lithic Open-campsite Open-campsite

Unknown Archaic/Sevier

Sagebrush (III-4)

Canyon mouth

Sagebrush (III-4) Sagebrush (III-2)

Canyon mouth

42Jbl58 42Jbl59 42Jbl60

Open-lithic Open-lithic Open-lithic

Archaic/ Post-Archaic

Piedmont/creek

Post-Archaic Unknown

Sagebrush (III-2) Sagebrush (III-2) Sagebrush (III-2)

42Jbl61 42JM62

Open-lithic Open-lithic

Unknown Unknown

Sagebrush (III-2) Sagebrush/ Pinyon-juniper (IV-3)

Piedmont/creek

42Jbl63 42Jbl64 42Jbl65

Open-lithic Open-lithic Rockshelter

Possible Piano Unknown Archaic/Sevier

Shadscale (1-1) Shadscale Pinyon-Juniper

Valley bottom Valley/creek Canyon bottom

42Jbl66

Cave/Rockshelter

Paiute-Shoshoni

Pinyon-Juniper(V-l)

Canyon bottom

42Jbl67

Cave/ Rockshelter-

Archaic/ Sevier

Pinyon-Juniper (V-i)

Canyon bottom

Canyon bottom

Paiute-Shoshoni Paiute-Shoshoni

Post-Archaic

Canyon mouth Canyon mouth Canyon mouth

Canyon mouth

Piedmont/creek

Piedmont/creek Piedmont/creek

Canyon mouth

Pictographs 42Jbl68 42Jbl69

Rockshelter Open-campsite

Archaic Paiute-Shoshoni

Pinyon-juniper (V-1) Pinyon-Juniper (V-l)

42Jbl70

Open-campsite

Sevier

Pinyon-Juniper/ Montane (VI-2)

Canyon bottom Canyon

42Jbl71

Open-lithic

Unknown

Montane

Mountain basin

42Jbl74

Open-lithic Rockshelter

Post-Archaic Unknown Paiute-Shoshoni Possible Archaic

Montane (VI-2) Montane (VI-2) Montane (VI-2)

Canyon bottom Canyon bottom Canyon bottom

Montane

Mountain

42Jbl75 42Jbl76 42Jbl77

Open-lithic Open-lithic

42Jbl59 is an open-lithic site in the sagebrush zone on the piedmont below the mouth of Granite Creek Canyon (III-2). The site consists of three arrow points, a biface fragment and numerous obsidian flakes.

Depth is not apparent. Cultural affiliation is postArchaic.

42Jbl60 is an open-lithic site in the sagebrush zone on the piedmont below the mouth of Granite Creek Canyon (III-2). The site consists of a scatter of obsidian waste flakes and numerous quartzite cobbles.

It has very limited depth. Cultural affiliation is unknown.

42JM61 is an open-lithic site in the sagebrush zone on the piedmont below the mouth of Granite Creek Canyon (III-2). The site consists of a scatter of obsidian flakes. Depth is not apparent. Cultural affiliation is unknown.

42Jbl62 is an open-lithic site in sagebrush and pinyon/juniper in the mouth of Granite Creek Canyon (IV-3). The site consists of worked and unworked obsidian, chert/chalcedony, and basalt flakes.

site consists of a biface fragment and a variety of obsidian and chert flakes. Depth is not apparent.

Cultural affiliation is unknown.

42JM56 is an open-campsite in the sagebrush zone in the mouth of Red Cedar Creek Canyon (III-4).

The dual-component site consists of Great Salt Lake Gray (Sevier) pottery, atlatl, and arrow points. Several manos, a hammerstone, a biface fragment, and obsidian flakes were also observed. Depth is not apparent.

42JM57 is an open-campsite in the sagebrush zone on the piedmont below the mouth of Granite Creek Canyon (III-2). The site consists of an arrow point, a biface fragment, and a variety of obsidian and chert/ chalcedony flakes. Depth is not apparent. Cultural affiliation is post-Archaic.

42JM58 is an open-lithic site in the sagebrush zone on the piedmont below the mouth of Granite Creek Canyon (III-2). The dual-component site consists of an atlatl point, two arrow points and numerous obsidian flakes. Depth is not apparent.

21

Depth is not apparent. Cultural affiliation is unknown.

42JM63 is an open-lithic site in the shadscale zone in Snake Valley. It is on the edge of a playa between Trout and Granite creeks (1-1). The site consists of a possible Cody knife fragment, an unidentified atlatl point, and numerous scattered worked and unworked chert, and obsidian flakes. Depth is unknown. Cultural affiliation is possible Piano Paleo-Indian.

42Jbl64 is an open-lithic site in the shadscale zone on Tom's Creek in Snake Valley. The site consists of a biface fragment and a sparse obsidian and chert scatter. It has been severely disturbed by road construction and Civilian Conservation Corps' camp activities. Depth is not apparent. Cultural affiliation is unknown.

42Jbl65 is a rockshelter in pinyon/juniper in the bottom of Granite Creek Canyon. The site consists of Ivie Creek, Emery Variety, Black-on-white pottery, several atlatl and arrow points, a blade fragment, and numerous obsidian, chert/chalcedony, and quartzite flakes. The site contains both Archaic and Sevier components. Test excavations were conducted and depth is limited (see Additional Excavations).

42Jbl66 is a cave/rockshelter in pinyon/juniper in the bottom of Granite Creek Canyon (V-l). The site consists of Paiute-Shoshoni ware from at least two vessels and numerous obsidian lithic flakes. Depth is apparent.

42JM67 consists of one large and two small cave/ rockshelters in pinyon/juniper in the bottom of Granite Creek Canyon (V-l). Great Salt Lake Gray (Sevier) pottery, a metate fragment, and sparse obsidian and quartzite scatters were observed. The large shelter contains a number of red pictographs on the overhead at the rear. Depth is apparent and test excavations were conducted (see Scribble Rock Shelter).

42JM68 is a rockshelter in pinyon/juniper in the bottom of Granite Creek Canyon (V-l). The site consists of an atlatl point and worked and unworked obsidian flakes. Depth is limited. Cultural affiliation is Archaic.

42JM69 is an open-campsite in pinyon/juniper in the bottom of Granite Creek Canyon (V-l). The site consists of Paiute-Shoshoni pottery, an arrow point, ground stone, and numerous obsidian and chert/ chalcedony flakes. Depth is limited.

42Jbl70 is an open-campsite in pinyon/juniper and montane vegetation in Granite Creek Canyon (VI-2). The site consists of Sevier Gray pottery, a projectile point preform, and obsidian flakes. Depth is not apparent.

42JM71 is an open-lithic site in the montane zone at the head of Granite Creek Canyon. The site consists of a large bifacial knife and chert/chalcedony and obsidian flakes. Depth and cultural affiliation are unknown.

42JM74 is an open-lithic site in the montane zone

in the bottom of Granite Creek Canyon (VI-2). The site consists of an arrow point and a number of chert/ chalcedony flakes. Depth is not apparent. Cultural affiliation is post-Archaic.

42JM75 is a rockshelter in the montane zone in the bottom of Granite Creek Canyon (VI-2). The site consists of few obsidian lithic flakes. Although the shelter is in an ideal setting for limited or seasonal occupance, no subsurface cultural deposits were encountered during subsequent test excavations (see Additional Excavations).

42JM76 is an open-campsite in the montane zone in Granite Creek Canyon. The site consists of 13 Paiute-Shoshoni pottery sherds from a single vessel.

Depth is not apparent.

42JM77 is an open-lithic (isolated find) in the montane zone above Birch Creek in the southern part of the range (not shown in Fig. 8). The site, reported by the BLM, consists of a possible atlatl point. Other cultural indications and depth are unknown. Cultural affiliation is possibly Archaic.

LIMITED CULTURAL INDICATIONS Sparse cultural debris has been identified throughout the igneous intrusive Ibapah Stock in the southeastern portion of the Deep Creek Range. Thin veneers of lithic flakes were encountered in and below the mouths of Indian Farm Creek (II-6) and Cottonwood canyons and at the head of Granite Creek (VI-3). A Sevier Black-on-gray pottery sherd was observed at a spring location (elevation 2,255 m) in Granite Creek Canyon. In all cases, cultural debris was widely scattered and the identification of site loci was impossible. Artifacts, principally projectile points, have been reported near the head of Indian Farm Creek (Geoffery Middaugh, 1976 personal communication). Worked bone was apparently recovered from one of the smaller caves at 42JM67.

Limited time prevented pursuit of these reports.

ADDITIONAL RECONNAISSANCE The definition of the seasonal nature of Deep Creek Mountain site occupance prompted selective reconnaissance of Snake Valley locations. Given heavy Sevier cultural occupance of the mountains and the emphasis of Sevier marsh adaptation in the Great Basin (Madsen and Lindsay 1977; Nielson 1978), the reconnaissance was limited to likely valley settlement locations.

Four archeological sites (42Jb3, 42Jb202, 42Jb203, and 42Jb205) were identified in the vicinity of marshes at Trout Creek (Fig. 9) and one (42Jb204) was investigated at Salt Marsh seven miles to the 22

south. Five additional sites (42Jb4, 42Jbl5, 42JM6, 42Jb74, and 42Jb75), unvisited in the vicinity of Trout Creek were previously recorded (site inventories on file).

42Jb3 is an open, Sevier (possible village) site in a large sand dune in what was once a marsh location in Trout Creek. The site consists of Great Salt Lake Gray, Sevier Gray, and Black-on-gray, and Snake Valley Gray pottery, obsidian and abundant chert/ chalcedony flakes, a side-notched arrow point, but only limited ground stone. Several depressions may indicate pit structures.

42Jb202 is an open-campsite scattered across sand dunes adjacent to a large pond/ marsh just south of Trout Creek. The site consists of Great Salt Lake Gray pottery, an arrow point, a variety of obsidian and chert/chalcedony flakes, and fire-cracked rock.

Cultural affiliation is Sevier.

42Jb203 is a highly disturbed open-campsite in a large blowout at Trout Creek. The site consists of Great Salt Lake Gray pottery, several atlatl and arrow points, ground stone, worked slate, abundant obsidian and chert/chalcedony flakes, and fire-cracked rock. The site contains both Archaic and Sevier components.

42Jb204 is an extensive open-dune campsite on the periphery of a large salt marsh about seven miles south of Trout Creek. The site consists of a large scatter of obsidian and chert/chalcedony flakes, ground stone, and fire-cracked rock. Cultural affiliation is unknown.

42Jb205 is an open-Sevier campsite along the lower Trout Creek drainage in the valley bottom. The site consists of Great Salt Lake Gray (Sevier) pottery, an arrow point, ground stone, obsidian and chert/chalcedony flakes.

42Jb4 is an extensive open-campsite in sand dunes in the vicinity of Trout Creek. It consists of unidentified projectile points, pottery, and ground stone.

Cultural affiliation is post-Archaic.

42Jbl5 is an extensive campsite at a pond location in the vicinity of Trout Creek. It consists of abundant unidentified lithics and fire-cracked rock. No pottery is indicated and cultural affiliation is unknown.

42Jbl6 is an open-campsite at a pond location in the vicinity of Trout Creek. It consists of unidentified pottery, arrow points, ground stone, and abundant obsidian and chert/chalcedony flakes. The suggested Paiute-Shoshoni cultural affiliation is unconfirmed.

42Jb74 is a large open-campsite in sand dunes about 2.4 km south of Trout Creek. It consists of ground stone, abundant fire-cracked rock, and quartzite cobbles. No pottery was identified and cultural affiliation is unknown.

42Jb75 is a large open-campsite in sand dunes near Trout Creek. It consists of hammerstones, ground stone, obsidian flakes, and abundant fire-cracked rock.

No pottery was identified and cultural affiliation is unknown.

jr

^^~~~~~\

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v

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I

°/

o

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)Sf«aJb4 Z J b 3

/

/r

\J

^

i A

J \ f /

J

J

42Jb205vA^^i^ 42Jb203v' ^

42JMS

C ^ i 4 2Jb16 42Jb202*i-J^

• / ^ /

i 1!

ti

h\

l

)\ \\ ! V / \ \

A

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t

Fig. 9 Location map of Trout Creek archeological sites (stippling indicates probable marsh location).

SITE SUMMARY Archeological sites are found in all sampling areas of the Deep Creek Mountains except south of Granite Creek on the "piedmont and in Trout Creek Canyon.

No sites were identified at alpine locations. The piedmont south of Granite Creek is principally strewn with Fish Haven dolomite and has very little soil or eolian sand cover. The faces of the slopes below this part of the range are more directly exposed to the south, hence, they retain considerably less moisture. The absence of sites in Trout Creek Canyon can probably be attributed to the lack of cliff-forming strata, because the canyon is somewhat narrower and more Vshaped in cross section than those to the north, and unstable talus is considerably more abundant. Still, Trout Creek must have provided subsistence for aboriginal populations because of the perennial stream flow and abundant biota. Proximity to water is the common denominator for all site locations including 42JM63. Since this site is possibly 9,000 years old, it would have been near remnants of then-receding Lake Bonneville. The absence of sites in the alpine zone cannot be explained (see Faunal Analysis), although many potential site locations are under snow during much of the year. This would also have been true particularly at the close of the Pleistocene and during Neoglacial stadials. However, the 3,050-m elevation of 42JM71 provides some indication that higher montane resources were utilized.

Although archeological sites were variously identified everywhere but in the highest resource zone, the majority are clustered about the mouths of canyons of the Ibapah stock and in the canyon bottoms.

Near the perennial streams, riparian species occur, and 23

vegetation zones are depressed. In addition, the greater effective moisture of north-facing slopes produces broader ecotones. In sum, a wide variety of vegetation (sage — pinyon/juniper — montane associations cross-cut by riparian species) and associated fauna occur within a very limited area. The distribution of archeological sites follows suit, with the majority found in the canyon bottoms throughout the zones with a variety of edible or otherwise useful plant species. A few sites are also found along water courses below the canyons. Although a ca 8500 to 650 B.P. time span is well represented, (ArchaicSevier-Shoshoni occupances occur in about equal numbers) site types and locations lack any correspondence with cultural affiliations.

Six sites identified in Snake Valley are essentially at existing or past marsh/pond locations; the remainder (four) are reasonably close to marshes.

Sevier occupance, definite at four valley sites, is likely at the two additional sites. Only one site visited (42Jb3) is potentially a "full-blown" village site although several (e.g. 42Jb4) that remain unvisited, may have provided permanent Sevier habitation. All of the sites contain ground stone and fire-cracked rock was observed at most, indicating at least semipermanent occupance.

The value of the 10% stratified sample as a predictive model for the location of Deep Creek Mountain sites requires some qualification. The 10% sample

provides a fair estimate of where archeological sites are likely to be found. However, because of the diversity of the range (e.g. igneous versus metamorphic exposures, windward versus leeside locations) and the limitation of our sample to only the southeastern portion of the range, the predictive value is likewise limited. Based on the sample, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1) Archeological sites are principally located in the igneous intrusive Ibapah stock offering numerous caves, overhangs, and outcroppings which served as shelters. They tend to cluster along perennial streams where varieties of vegetation are abundant. Also, the steep terrain tends to limit habitation elsewhere in the canyons.

2) Sites are few to the north and south of the intrusive where metamorphic features are exposed.

These canyons either have considerable talus or else cliff strata are insufficient for shelter formation. North of the intrusive, water is less abundant.

3) Sites are also located at marsh locations in the valley where the potential for Paleo-Indian sites is great. Permanent Sevier habitation sites are also expected in the valley where marsh resources were available and alluvial soils were adequate for agriculture.

Lastly, the much reported Paiute-Shoshoni, present during ethnographic times, is expected to overlie earlier cultural deposition everywhere.

+

24

EXCAVATIONS INTRODUCTION Four rockshelter sites at varying elevations in the mountains were test excavated in the fall of 1977.

Three sites (42JM65, 42JM67, and 42JM75) are in Granite Creek Canyon (Fig. 10); the fourth (42JM48) is in Indian Farm Creek Canyon (Fig. 11). The sites were selected to determine the nature and extent of subsurface cultural deposition and to provide specific information on the times and sequences of cultural occupation in the eastern Great Basin. They were also selected because they are representative of other sites identified during the survey.

The survey indicated a possible 8,500-to-l0,000 year occupation span: from the Paleo-Indian to Archaic, Sevier, and Paiute/Shoshoni groups. While

the full possible chronological and cultural span was not confirmed by the excavations, a very lengthy occupation span by Sevier groups was identified.

Dates of 1700±150 B.P. and 680+180 B.p. from Coal Shovel and Scribble Rock shelters essentially bracket the chronological range of the Sevier culture. Scribble Rock Shelter (42JM67) presented the most complex stratigraphy of the four sites. Coal Shovel Shelter (42JM48) contained only one cultural depositional component. Sites 42JM65 and 42JM75 were mainly limited to the surface.

SCRIBBLE ROCK SHELTER SITE SETTING

U K . \o Fig. 10 Location map of Scribble (42JM67).

Rock

i

Shelter

42JM49 3148

Fig. 11 Location map (42Jbl48).

Scribble Rock Shelter (42JM67) is in Granite Creek Canyon approximately 3.2 km from its mouth (39° 47' 35" latitude and 113° 52' 45" longitude).

The site is in the NE'/4, SW'/4) NEl/4, Section 9, T12S, R18W (U.S.G.S. Ibapah Park 7.5 Minute Quadrangle). An open sage park lan^ extends below to the south. Pinyon/juniper, sagebrush, snakeweed, rabbitbrush, prickly pear, and various grasses grow about the site. More mesic species such as cottonwood and willow grow along Granite Creek, within 100 m to the southwest. The rockshelter faces south and is on a moderate slope in the lower pinyon/juniper zone (Fig. 12). It is at an elevation of 2,072 meters.

The cave/rockshelter is formed by a cluster of large boulders embedded deeply in the soil. There are several entrances to the cave between the boulders — on the east, west, and south (Figs. 12 and 13). The main entrances to the cave are on the southwest and south center. The cave is approximately 15 meters east-west by 6.5 meters north-south. Its maximum height at the south-central entrance is 5.0 meters. The deposits within the cave slope downward at these openings to the outside terrain.

The two front entrances to the cave are 25 cm (southern) and 1.3 meters wide (south-central) at the surface of the deposits, and widen towards the ceiling. An extremely large, sloping "boulder" forms both the rear and the ceiling of the shelter. The surface area within the shelter is fairly level. There is a slight upward slope to the east and also to the north (rear) of the cave (Fig. 14).

of

Coal

Shovel

Upon arrival at the site it was evident that further vandalism had taken place since the site had been recorded the year before. In addition to modern campfire remains noted during the survey, the back of the shelter had several recent pot holes.

Shelter 25

Fig. 12 Scribble Rock Shelter, facing North.

Fig. 13 Scribble Rock Shelter contour and site plan map. Base of rock boulders represented only. Northernmost boulder extends out over others (dashed line).

26

The rear shelter wall contains a number of pictographs, mostly red and orange (Fig. 15). One element was applied in white ('A' Fig. 15). Stylistically, this conforms to Heizer and Baumhoffs (1962) Great Basin painted style, "characterized by circles and parallel lines done in red or white mineral pigment" (p. 207). They consider this to be the most recent of Great Basin rock art styles, postdating A.D. 1000. Their argument seems to be based principally on the supposition that pictographs would not endure weathering for great lengths of time. As such, the limited time depth attributed to this style is speculative until data on rates of weathering are available. The pictographs at Scribble Rock Shelter are also similar in design to Schaafsma's (1971) Great Basin curvilinear style.

Stratum II is a medium coarse, tannish-brown deposit and contains limited cultural debris. The cultural material was primarily confined to the upper half of the deposit. The layer is highly laminated and serves as the level of origin for a small charcoal pit (Pit 1) which intrudes Stratum I below. The laminae, which were better defined in the northern half of the shelter, consist of strikingly uniform, alternating, 2-cm-thick bands of fine granitic sand and coarse, granular deposits. The origin of the laminae is unclear and they may represent seasonal, annual, or cyclical depositional episodes of several years. Stratum II is absent from the western half of the excavation in the interior of the shelter.

Stratum III is a discontinuous fine, powdery, light gray ash devoid of artifacts. The stratum is at roughly the same depth as Stratum I but is limited to the west-center and rear of the shelter. Its thickness varies from 45 cm in the shelter front (south) to 10 cm toward the rear, where it is truncated by rodent disturbance. The stratum overlies Stratum II in the front of the shelter.

Stratum IV is a tightly consolidated, dark ashy layer containing coarse gravel and limited cultural material. The discontinuous stratum which varies from 6-19 cm thick is above Stratum III.

EXCAVATION AND STRATIGRAPHY An exploratory trench was initiated from one meter south of the main entrance to the rear of the shelter. Excavation proceeded north by 1-m2 horizontal grids, expanding 1 m east and west inside the cave.

Vertical proveniencing followed the natural stratigraphy except for the initial 1.5 m2 which were excavated by 30 cm levels. Materials were processed through !4" mesh screen. All stratigraphic deposits encountered were wet.

Stratum 1 is the basal culturally sterile, coarse, yellowish-brown deposit of decomposed granite. It is overlain by Stratum II throughout most of the excavation.

Stratum V is the principal cultural deposit at the shelter. It is a moderately consolidated, dark ashy layer with coarse granular sediment, overlain by a few centimeters of loose surface gravel. Thickness ranges from about 80 cm in the front of the shelter

Fig. 14 Interior of Scribble Rock Shelter, looking east.

27

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Fig. 16a

East-west profile near front of shelter

to 12 cm in the rear. It overlies Stratum II in the front and east of the shelter and Stratum IV in the west and at the rear. The stratum has two associated small ash/charcoal pits. Pit 2 originates from the bottom of Stratum V and intrudes into Stratum II. Pit 3 is wholly within the stratum. Strata III and IV were identifed as distinct from Stratum V once inside the shelter (Figs. 16 and 17).

Only one cultural unit is identified from the four strata. These strata do not differ so much in artifact content as in amounts found. Artifacts increase from none in Stratum III, to limited occurrence in Strata II and IV, to relative abundance in Stratum V. Chipped stone, ceramics, and bone debris were recovered from Strata II, IV, and V. Ground stone was limited to Strata II and V. Although one pottery sherd came from both Strata II and IV, the clear majority of provenienced pottery is from Stratum V. It is possible that the two sherds were either derived from the contact point with Stratum V or were intrusive. If so, Strata II, III, and IV may represent an Archaic occupation. However, no clear diagnostics of this time period were recovered from these levels.

Stratum V also contained the only subsurface, provenienced arrow points (see Artifacts), Strata II and IV are problematic in that no diagnostic artifacts were recovered other than the single sherds.

Three cultural features (charcoal pits) were encountered during the excavation. Pit 1 is associated with the initial deposition of Stratum II and Pits 2 and 3 are within or originate from Stratum V. These features were encountered within a meter, horizontally, of each other immediately inside the entrance of the shelter. This may indicate main activity areas, a reasonable conclusion since this area provides maximum headroom as well as the most suitable location for maintaining a fire. Only Pit 3 is in a direct line with

Fig. 16b 29

East-west profile of site.

Fig. 17a

Extent of excavation in shelter interior.

the opening of the shelter; the other two are slightly to each side, in the lee of the entrance boulders.

The limited cultural material and discontinuity in Strata III and IV may be the result of prehistoric disturbance or displacement in the shelter entrance.

The runoff of heavy rains and consequent silting, as well as rodent disturbance in this part of the shelter no doubt contributed to irregularities.

Pollen samples were taken but were too poorly preserved for identification.

The main occupation was during the deposition of

Stratum V. The large amount of bone and lithic debris and the relatively small amounts of ceramics and ground stone indicate that hunting and subsequent game processing were the principal activities of the rockshelter inhabitants. Pinyon may also have been exploited, but there is no direct evidence for this. Seasonal, fall occupations would have been most likely for both hunting and gathering since deer migrate to these lower elevations with the first snows of winter.

i

modern surface

Fig. 17b

North-south profile of site. Profile on right is one meter east of that on the left.

30

I

L

^°c

(Gypsum) point attributed to Stratum V is of questionable provenience though the occurrence of an Elko-eared projectile point (Type III) from the same level adds validity to its provenience. It is concluded that some mixture of deposits, and hence artifact associations, may have taken place but would have to have done so in a thorough but selective manner for all the provenienced atlatl and arrow points to occur in the main cultural stratum while allowing pottery to filter into the lower two levels.

In sum, alternative hypotheses are possible to explain the association of Archaic and Sevier materials.

We interpret the site to represent an occupation by transitional peoples as well as later Sevier groups.

Scribble Rock Shelter is a late Archaic/Sevier site without evidence of a hiatus. Subsistence focus was on the hunting of mountain sheep and deer, and as such, this site was probably occupied seasonally over an extensive period.

SITE SUMMARY AND INTERPRETATION The nature of artifacts recovered (Tables IV and V) implies two temporal components. Elko side-notched, Elko split-stem, and Gypsum points mainly occur during the late Archaic while ceramics and arrow points indicate subsequent Sevier groups. This site poses problems in the relationships between the two. Four culture-bearing strata were discerned. The only diagnostic projectile points, both atlatl and arrow points, were recovered from the upper, continuous cultural layer (Stratum V). Although Strata II and IV occur at about the same depth (Fig. 16 and 17), they are not contemporaneous.

The postulated sequence is deposition of Strata I and II; erosional washing; followed by deposition of Strata III and IV. The nature of Strata III and IV is puzzling since they are discontinuous, even spotty towards the rear of the shelter. Although both are ashy, Stratum III contains no artifacts and Stratum IV contains only a small amount of nondiagnostic material. These strata were then blanketed by the deposition of Stratum V. The large amount of rodent disturbance, the looting noted in the upper 20 cm in the rear; and the root disturbance in the front of the shelter made the stratigraphy uncertain at times. The interpretation of the cultural sequence in the shelter is difficult due to the preservational factors mentioned above and the discontinuity of Strata II, III, and IV. Although the depositional sequence in the lower levels is not entirely clear, the associations of Archaic and Sevier materials in the main occupational layer (Stratum V) cannot be refuted. Possibilities which account for the mutual occurrence of artifacts representative of the two cultural periods include: 1) the shelter was occupied by transitional Archaic/Sevier groups and into terminal Sevier times; 2) the occurrence of the two artifact assemblages is due to mixture from the disturbed nature of the deposits, from rodent activity and/ or washing of sediments through the shelter.

The first alternative, which is the most direct and therefore the simplest, is also the most intriguing in light of current hypotheses on the cultural succession in the eastern Great Basin. The question of a hiatus between the Archaic and subsequent Sevier (Fremont) groups within this area has been one of some debate (Madsen and Berry 1975; Aikens 1970, 1976; Madsen 1978). The hypothesis of direct and continuous development of Sevier groups from the eastern Great Basin Archaic groups receives support from the evidence at Scribble Rock Shelter. The second alternative, though the less likely of the two, is also possible. Due to rodent activity and root intrusion, disturbance of site deposits was noticeable during excavation. Additionally, stratigraphic distinctions between the various layers were not always clear. This may have resulted in the misproveniencing of some artifacts. The Type IV

COAL SHOVEL SHELTER SITE SETTING Coal Shovel Shelter (42JM48) is located in the mouth of Indian Farm Creek Canyon in the SW'/i, SW'/4, SW!/4, Section 19, T11S, R17W (U.S.G.S. Indian Farm Creek 7.5 Minute Quadrangle). It is at latitude 39° 51' 15" and longitude 113° 49' 15". The site is approximately 300 meters north of Indian Farm Creek at the base of rock outcrops on the north side of the canyon (Fig. 18). Vegetation in the vicinity includes pinyon/juniper, sagebrush, and grasses. Elevation is approximately 1,645 meters. The mouth of Indian Farm Creek Canyon marks the lower limit of pinyon/juniper and is fairly wide with open sage and saltbush flats. The presence of recent debris on the site indicates that it has served as a campsite during historic as well as prehistoric times.

Fig. 18

31

Coal Shovel Shelter, looking west. The site is in the center and right of photograph.

IGNEOUS : ROCK

W

/

f "'-â&#x20AC;˘â&#x20AC;˘â&#x20AC;˘

Fig. 19 Coal Shovel Shelter site plan and contour map.

EXCAVATION AND STRATIGRAPHY

naturally occurring burned tree) suggests the site, west of the erosional channel, saw only casual use.

The larger eastern portion of the site in the vicinity of the rockshelter yielded more positive results. Trench 2 (Fig. 20), one by ten meters, was excavated northward into the upward sloping deposits of the rockshelter. Deposits were tested to within four meters of the north wall of the shelter and revealed a single, thick cultural deposit (Stratum II), which contained solely Sevier materials. A sterile deposit (Stratum I) directly on bedrock underlies the cultural component (Fig. 21).

Two test trenches, oriented north-south, were placed through the main artifact concentrations on either side of a shallow north-south erosional channel (Fig. 19). Trench 1 was initiated on the lower west side of the site and measured one by nine meters. It was excavated northward toward the rock outcrop.

Ground stone and two Great Salt Lake Gray pottery sherds were recovered from the surface (the original survey record noted the presence of Paiute-Shoshoni pottery, however none was seen at this time.) Though three strata were identified below the surface gravel, none of these contained cultural materials. The first one meter square on the south was excavated to bedrock then expanded one half meter to the east.

Expansion of the original one meter square to the north consisted only of the removal and screening of loose surface gravel because the underlying deposits were sterile. The northernmost one meter square was excavated to 40 cm deep. No artifacts were recovered from the screened surface deposits. The lack of artifacts and the absence of any charcoal (other than a

Stratum I consists of a sterile layer of gravelly clay overlying bedrock in the southern half of the trench. The stratum, which varies from 10 to 15 cm thick, is similar to the basal deposits of Trench 1.

Stratum II is continuous throughout the excavation and constitutes the Sevier component. It consists of a dark brownish-gray soil containing decomposed granitic gravel and abundant charcoal and ash.

It varies from 40 cm to 95 cm thick, becoming progressively deeper northward toward the rockshelter.

32

Great Salt Lake Gray Ware (Sevier) and arrow points were recovered from the stratum.

SITE SUMMARY AND INTERPRETATION Coal Shovel Shelter is a single component Sevier culture site. The primary diagnostics are the two arrow points and Great Salt Lake Gray ceramics.

(See Artifacts).

The artifact inventory indicates occupation of this site occurred within the mid to latter part of the temporal occupation at Scribble Rock Shelter. This is confirmed by the 1700±150 B.P. (A.D. 250) (RL857) radiocarbon date. This is admittedly an early date for the Sevier culture which is generally given a span from ca 1300 B.P. to 650 B.P. (Madsen and Lindsay 1977). However, it corresponds closely to the 1790±100 B.P. date on the Fremont from PintSize Shelter (Lindsay and Lund 1976) and dates of 1574±35 B.P. and 1620+195 B.P. from the Burke site (Cal Jennings 1978 personal communication).

Extensive occupation at this site appears to have been confined to the area immediately below the, rockshelter. Though only a small amount of bone was recovered, hunting is inferred from the presence of a moderate amount of lithic debris and available species, such as antelope, in the immediate vicinity of the site (see Fauna). Indian Farm Creek and associated riparian vegetation would have attracted game. Location of the site at the base of the pinyon/ juniper zone and the presence of several grinding slabs implies the collection of floral resources. In sum, the placement of Coal Shovel Shelter allows the exploitation of a number of faunal and floral resources.

ADDITIONAL TEST EXCAVATIONS Test excavations were conducted at sites 42JM65 and 42JM75 but with limited results. Both are located on the west side of Granite Creek Canyon, within a 1-km radius of Scribble Rock Shelter.

Fig. 20

Excavated Trench 2 looking north toward rockshelter.

N

MODERN SURFACE^

———"*

STRATUM II

/

^ • • ^ • y - i ^ ' - - ^ ' - - '

^M^MP

:

V

. : . " .

."•

';'.': • - - •• :•-: \~ ^ v •- - \ - - - ' r - \ " - '

"

M^MP^-

.

-;'"-; V- 7-'c- 'c-'V-V-'

: '^;'yX00^ •

•

•

'

•

'

.

-

•

~ i .

j

:

,

r

-

•• » , > > , ' . ;• , v ;•.'•.;•,-, J , , ; , • . - ; , , - , - . : ; , - . : , , , ' , ; / j , - , V - , V ^

.

•

;

-

'

;

- ' • . . - ' . -

- : • •

- . ' • •

- . ' ; . - .

r^^v^rjA'Sijfiai

Fig. 21 Coal Shovel Shelter site stratigraphy.

33

;

".-'-' - '•":• .v -,,"-''." - v : ' ; - ::- v- ',"•' v' v-'"-'-, •'--'"-'; f'-''''>-','^'k .

:;;!;}i~}x/

-

yrrrr

,

i

. - • : • .

~

•

' ; • • i <;i,

m iVj?

t

STRATUM 1

;;-^'^^';;-;-i';-Vvi^-;vL-"^l-'c-l-l^^lvl-^,-.^,^^^^^T:

BEDROCK

'

.

'

•

,

•

"

^ # ^ ft .; " Fig. 22

Site 42JM65, looking north-northwest. The site is in the pinyon/juniper along the base of the cliff.

42JM65 Site 42Jbl65 is about 2.8 km from the mouth of Granite Creek Canyon. Elevation is 2,060 meters.

Its latitude is 39° 47' 30" and longitude 113° 52' 45". The site, which consists of an amorphous lithic scatter, is situated in the pinyon/juniper zone among the boulders at the base of a sheer cliff in the NE'/4, NW'/4, SE'/4, Section 9, T12S, R18W (U.S.G.S. Ibapah Peak 7.5 Minute Quadrangle) (Fig. 22). Sparse sagebrush, prickly pear, and grasses are present. The terrain slopes to the southeast where the trees thin out into a sage flat. Granite Creek is approximately 150 meters to the northeast. The site surface consists of granitic gravel with a cover of pine needles, pine cones, and dead sagebrush. The denser scatter of debris on the higher portion of the slope, near the cliff base, suggests the site is eroding down the slope. There was a surprisingly sparse amount of artifactual scatter present in contrast to that noted at the time of the survey.

One test unit was excavated in each of the two artifact concentrations. Deposits were screened through lA" mesh. Test Pit 1, measuring 1 by 2 m, was excavated to a maximum depth of 75 cm below the surface. Three flakes were recovered from the upper 30 cm. Only the northern square meter was

excavated to bedrock because of the limited cultural materials.

Test Pit 2 was excavated to a depth of 50 cm.

No stratigraphy was discernible. A greater amount of cultural debris was found though not enough to warrant further testing.

Surface deposits were underlain by an extremely gravelly, undifferentiated, dark brown soil to a depth of 60 cm below the surface. Beneath this was an extremely hard, fine, light gray, decomposed bedrock (about 15 cm thick) immediately atop the bedrock. Cultural materials were concentrated in surface deposits but were found sporadically in the upper 30 cm of the dark soil. The lack of any concentration of charcoal within the deposits precludes direct dating of the site.

Little subsurface remains were identified, in contrast to what was expected from the survey, and these are representative only of the Archaic period. The survey indicated that a Sevier occupation was present, as well as the Archaic component confirmed by the test excavations. The main locus of activity seems to have been around Pit 2 among the boulders at the base of the cliff. Cultural materials subsequently washed downslope.

34

In lieu of absolute dates for this site, the earlier Archaic occupation is dated 8350 B.P. to 2600 B.P., based on the projectile point types (Aikens 1970; Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973). The I vie Creek Black-on-white sherd suggests a time range of approximately 1500 to 750 B.P. (D. Madsen 1970; R. Madsen 1977). This site probably saw intermittent use over an extended period. Its sheltered location within the heavy pinyon/juniper belt, its proximity to the stream to the northeast, and the open sage flat on the south and southeast make this a favorable location. Since only lithic debris and a few bone fragments were found, hunting is suggested as the principal activity at the site.

42Jbl75 Site 42JM75 is in the NW'/4, SElA, NW'/4, Section 9, T12S, R18W (U.S.G.S. Ibapah Peak 7.5 Minute Quadrangle). The rockshelter is at the base of granitic cliffs 2.4 km from the mouth and on the south side of the canyon (Fig. 23). It is at latitude 39° 47' 30" and longitude 113° 53' 15". The site is approximately 50 meters south of and 20 meters above the creek at an elevation of 2,121 meters.

The shelter is under an overhang which measures

12.5 meters east-west and 4 meters deep with a maximum height of 3 to 3.5 meters. Wild rose brambles, Douglas fir, rabbitbrush, and sagebrush grow in the vicinity. A pinyon forest with a few junipers covers the northfacing slope, while willow, chokecherry, and cottonwood grow along the stream. The west end of the shelter and the slope below are strewn with large boulders, leaving only a small area of testable deposits on the east end of the site. Though a few obsidian flakes had been noted during the survey, none were found at the time of excavation. Only historic campfire debris was evident on the surface.

Due to the limited area of possible occupation, only one test pit (1 by 2 meters) was excavated. Deposits were removed to a depth of 25-30 cm (bedrock) below the surface and were processed through !4" mesh screen. Three natural soil strata were identified above the highly irregular bedrock. Two obsidian flakes were recovered from the surface deposits. Occasional flecks of charcoal were the only other cultural evidence.

Neither cultural affiliation nor the chronological period of use can be determined. It is concluded that occupation of this shelter was very sporadic or of short duration. It may have served only as a brief

Fig. 23 42JM75. Looking south: Site is in overhang to the right of the center two trees.

35

TABLE HI Radiocarbon Dates From Excavations

Site

Provenience

Scribble Rock

Pit 3

Shelter (42Jb 167)

(Upper Stratum V)

Lab Designation

RL-855

Pit 2 (Base of Stratum V)

Sample

..

D Radio, carbon .

Age

Charcoal

680±180 B.P.

Charcoal

Insufficient sample

Charcoal

Insufficient sample

Charcoal

1700+150 B>.

MASCA* _ Corrected _ . . . .

Calendrical Age A.D. 1260±150

—.

Pitl (Base of Stratum II) Coal Shovel Shelter(42Jbl48)

Stratum II

RL-853

A.D. 270±170

^Museum for Applied Science Center for Archeology (Newsletter 1973)

shelter because of the large irregular boulders immediately below the surface. The north-facing exposure of the shelter may be another factor for limited use. An advantageous view can be obtained from the shelter and, due to its favorable location in proximity to the stream, sage flats, and pinyon/juniper forest, it may have served as an occasional observation post by hunters in prehistoric as well as recent times.

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF THE EXCAVATIONS The four excavated sites varied considerably in the nature and extent of the materials recovered.

Site 42JM75 yielded little cultural remains. Site 42JM65 revealed limited occupation by Archaic and Sevier groups. Evidence for the latter occupation is from the earlier survey. Coal Shovel Shelter is a single component Sevier site. Scribble Rock Shelter is the most intriguing of the four sites because of the association of late Archaic projectile points with Sevier ceramics and early arrow points (see projectile point Discussion). This suggests a direct transition from late Archaic to Sevier groups. It has been posited that Sevier occupation of the eastern basin occurred after a ca 2500-1500 B.P. hiatus following the earlier Archaic occupation (Madsen and Berry 1975). However, more recently, Madsen and Lindsay (1977:91) note that "the similarity in subsistence orientation between eastern Basin Archaic and Sevier cultures suggests an in situ development", but that this has not been fully demonstrated. Evidence from Scribble Rock Shelter may fill this requirement. Possible occupational hiatuses are also present on the Colorado Plateau at Pint-Size Shelter (Lindsay and Lund 1976)* and possibly other sites in the vicinity — Sudden Shelter (Jennings, Schroedl and Holmer 1976), Joe's Valley Alcove (see Lindsay and Lund 1976; Schroedl 1976) and Clyde's Cavern (Winter and Wylie 1974).

Identification of the Archaic component at Pint-Size Shelter, (radiocarbon dated ca 4400-3300 B.P.) was based in part on the presence of a Gypsum point, but a Gypsum point was also recovered from a pit in the upper Sevier component (ca 1800 B.P.). Perhaps part of the problem is in the clearcut termination of the use of "Archaic" points with the end of the Archaic period. The reuse of earlier artifacts found by later Sevier groups may as Lindsay and

DATING Three charcoal samples from Scribble Rock Shelter and one from Coal Shovel Shelter were collected and submitted for radiocarbon dating. The four samples were obtained from Pits 1, 2, and 3 (stratigraphic Units II, IV, and V respectively) at Scribble Rock and from Stratum II at Coal Shovel. Only two samples, (RL-855) from Pit 3, which originates from the top of Stratum V, at Scribble Rock and (RL-857) from Coal Shovel were dated (Table III).

The sample from Scribble Rock (680±180 B.P.) is associated with predominantly Great Salt Lake Gray pottery (Knolls Variety), a few Sevier Gray sherds, and both large and small projectile points. The sample very nearly marks the end of Sevier occupance of the shelter. The sample from Coal Shovel is associated with Great Salt Lake Gray pottery and both large and small projectile points. It marks the onset of Sevier occupation (1700+150 B.P.) and supports an in situ transition from the Archaic (see Excavation and Artifacts).

The two radiocarbon dates indicate Sevier presence in the Deep Creek Mountains for nearly 1.000 years. This is considerably greater than the time spans suggested by Marwitt (1970) for the southern Sevier area (Sevier and Parowan Fremont variants) but closely coincides with that of the Great Salt Lake area (see Madsen and Lindsay 1977).

36

Lund (1976:43-44) suggest, in some instances account for the association of Archaic and Sevier materials.

Evidence for the presence of Gypsum points in a post-Archaic context is also documented at O'Malley Shelter, in southeastern Nevada, where they were recorded in appreciable numbers to 850 B.P. or later (Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori 1973). In this instance, they occurred in two Sevier (Fremont) levels separated by a hiatus from the lower Archaic component where they had been found in even greater numbers. This projectile point may not be particularly diagnostic and in some cases is associated with a late Archaicearly Sevier/Fremont transition. This is further supported at Cowboy Cave where Gypsum points were recovered from an Archaic-Fremont transistional context dated to ca 2000 B.P.-1600 B.P. (Jennings, Schroedl, and Holmer 1977).

The presence of Great Salt Lake Gray pottery dated at ca 1550 B.p. to 600 B.P. and Sevier Gray pottery which dates to a similar period (1450 B.P. to 700 B.P.) (D. Madsen 1970; R. Madsen 1977) sets limits on the Sevier occupation. Gypsum points generally date between 4000 B.P. to 2000 B.P. (Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori 1973; Holmer 1977). Elkoeared points are dated at 3200 B.P. and earlier at Hogup (Aikens 1970) and Danger caves (Jennings 1957), and O'Malley Shelter (Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973) though the Elko series occurs later in time in the western Great Basin (O'Connell 1967). At Scribble Rock Shelter the provenienced specimens of these dated types all occur in Stratum V, and an occupation is posited beginning during late Archaic times (40003000B.P.) and continuing into the later Sevier (680B.P.).

The relatively early date on Sevier materials at Coal Shovel Shelter is consistent with this interpretation.

Archaic and Sevier exploitation in the Deep Creek Mountains cannot be compared because explicit information is lacking. However, similar subsistence

strategies seem reasonable, especially in light of the dual occupation at two of the sites investigated. Since the rigors of a mountain climate would have made year-round habitation infeasible, larger settlements were likely occupied at valley locations.

The large amount of lithics and bone recovered from Scribble Rock Shelter contrasts with limited ground stone, indicating that hunting of the larger artiodactyls was the primary subsistence activity.

Both mountain sheep and mule deer were identified from the shelter and since both species migrate to lower elevations and congregate in the fall and winter (Wilson 1968; Barnes 1922), hunting was seasonal.

Fall would seem to be the more favorable time since later snows at lower elevations would have made occupance improbable. The gathering of floral resources as a related subsistence activity undoubtedly also occurred.

The excavations validate some of the inferences made from the survey. Occupational time depth from Archaic (possibly as early as ca 8500 B.P.) to late Sevier (680 B.P.) times is further suggested. While evidence of later Paiute/Shoshone groups was indicated at several of the surveyed sites, no subsurface material was encountered at the four sites tested. The dating of Coal Shovel and Scribble Rock shelters indicate a lengthy 1700 B.P. to 680 B.P. Sevier occupation although no specific dates are available on the Archaic occupations. The early date from Coal Shovel Shelter is significant because of the apparent association of late Archaic and Sevier materials at Scribble Rock Shelter. This view is supported by the fact that Rose Springs Corner-notched, which is the earliest type arrow point in the region (Holmer and Weder 1978 and 1979), is the most common arrow point from the survey and excavations.

uffl^p*"*

37

ARTIFACTS The artifact typologies are constructed from specimens recovered from survey and excavations.

Specimens tabulated for both the survey and excavations, as well as a few specimens collected from sites in Snake Valley are represented in Table IV. The artifacts provenienced from the survey data include some that were identified in the field but were not collected. Generally, only diagnostic artifacts — primarily projectile points and ceramics — were recovered during the survey. The four tested sites are noted with an asterik. Artifacts recovered from the excavations at Scribble Rock Shelter and Coal Shovel

Shelter are shown in Table V and VI respectively. Few artifacts were recovered from 42Jbl65 while there were none from 42JM75. Materials and measurements for all chipped stone recovered and those specimens observed in the Russell Hoffman collection (Site 42Jb203) are given in Tables VII-X11.

Chipped stone comprises the largest "category of artifacts from both survey and excavation. Chipped stone classes include projectile points, drills, bifaces, unifaces, and utilized/waste flakes. Projectile points (and one drill) were separated on the basis of form and assumed function (atlatl or arrow point). They TABLE IV Artifact Provenience

UNIFACES

PROJECTILE POINTS BIFACES

GROUND STONE

SITE Mhl48 3+(l)

JbUt JblSO JM5I Jbl52 Jbl53 Jbl54 JMS5 Jbl?6 Jbl57 Jbl58

(X)

JbI59 J h i 60 Jbl61 Jbl62 Jbl63 Jbl64 *Jbl65 Jbl66 *Jbl67 JM68 .lb 169 Jbl70 Jbl71 Jbl74 Mb 175 Jbl76 Jbl77

ft

13

!0

(1)

4+<l>

(1) (1)

(I)

SITES IN SNAKE VALLEY Jb3 Jb202 Jb203 .lb 2 (14 Jh2<)5 TOTAL

1 l-NI)

13

2

A

1

(1)

(2)

4

13

3

(X) (1)

(X)

1 9

(I) (I) (X) X 19+

4

3

2

1

6

3

2

4

I

Tabulations include Materials from both Sui\e\ and Lxca\ation, •indicates tested sites.

( ) indicates observed but not collected.

X indicates one or more, but no specific number.

38

5

7

21

4

8

(1)

11

were further subdivided into morphological types generally corresponding to named types common to the eastern Great Basin. Bifaces and unifaces were roughly grouped by traits as form, degree of reduction, and cross-sectional proportions. Most specimens are fragmentary making classification into types difficult. Flakes recovered from both Scribble Rock and Coal Shovel shelters were examined microscopically for evidence of retouch or utilization scars. Ground stone, the smallest artifact category, includes metates, manos, and one hammerstone.

Ground stone was recovered only from the excavations although a few specimens were noted during the survey. The ceramic typologies consisting of Sevier/Fremont and Paiute-Shoshoni wares conform to those standardized for the region (D. Madsen 1970; R. Madsen 1977). Reference to Sevier

culture ceramics versus Fremont wares is based upon work done by Madsen and Lindsay (1977).

While a few bone splinters were found at 42JM65 and 42JM48, Scribble Rock Shelter yielded the only faunal sample adequate for analysis. Much of this material is unidentifiable and some skeletal elements (generally postcranial) were not identified due to the lack of adequate reference collections. However, it is unlikely that those few unidentified elements would change the estimated number of individuals from that site.

CHIPPED STONE PROJECTILE POINTS Type I No. of Specimens: Eight complete, four fragmentary, (plus one observed) (Fig. 24, d-g; 25, a-e; 26, b-d) Description: Large corner-notched projectile points with excurvate to straight blade edges. Bases range from convex to concave. The cross section is lenticular to plano-convex. Complete specimens average 3 cm in length and range from 2.1 to 2.4 cm in width. Corresponding named type: Elko Corner-notched.

Comparable Types: Lanning 1963, Plate 13, i; Heizer, Baumhoff, and Clewlow 1968, Fig. 2, a-t and Fig. 3, a-h; Lindsay and Lund 1976, Fig. 15, d and g; Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973, Fig. 10, 1-u; Aikens 1970, Fig. 20, a-f; Holmer 1978, Fig. 7, a-f; Dalley 1976, Fig. 12, a-d.

Mbl48 Jbl49 Jbl5(l JblSl JM52 Jbl53 Jbl54 Jbl55 JM56 Jbl57 Jbl58 Jbl59 JbI60 Jbl6l ,1b 162 Jbl63 Jbl64 MM65 Jbl66 *Jbl67 JbI68 Jbl69 Jbl70 ,11.17) Jbl74 *Jbl75 Jbl76 Jbl77

.a â&#x20AC;˘ * -

ÂŤ

_^' 0 m*

m*\ J!

=

24

Paiute-Shoshoni

SITE

IvieCr.B/W Emery Variety

CERAMICS

(X) 1 (X) I

TOTA1 48+ 1 1+ 1

1+

(X) I

1

0 6+ 2

1

1 2 54

Type II No. of Specimens: Two fragmentary (Fig. 24, h; 25, f) Description: Large, side-notched projectile points with slightly concave bases. The more complete specimen has straight blade edges. Corresponding named type: Elko Side-notched.

Comparable Types: Aikens 1970, Fig. 19, a-f; Holmer 1978, Fig. 8, a-c.

1 2

10 (X) 1

13

5 4 0 U t) 3 0 9 2

Type HI No. of Specimens: Two complete (Fig. 25, g-h) Description: Blade edges are fairly straight; bases are corner-notched, producing straight, square shoulders. Basal notches produce an eared appearance. Corresponding named type: Elko-eared.

Comparable Types: Aikens 1970, Fig. 20, g-r; Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori 1973, Fig. 10, a-h; Heizer, Baumhoff and Clewlow 1968, Fig. 1, 1-q; Lanning 1963, Plate 6, k.

141 + 1 3 3 0 1 0 13 1

SITES I N S N A K E V A L L E Y Jb3 Jb202 Jb203 Jb204 Jb205 TOTAL

1 1

7

3

I 1

l+(3) 2 88+

IS

4

1

1 2 22+

TypeIV No. of Specimens: One complete (Fig. 25, i) Description: This specimen has a contracting stem with jutting shoulders. The edges are excurvate at the tip, curving inward near the bottom. The contracted base may have been concave or notched. Corresponding named type: Gypsum.

Comparable Types: Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori

14+ 3+ 12+ 1 5+ 284

39

TABLE V

Ceramic Types

1

Surface Prov. Unknown

3

Stratum V

1

Stratum IV

1

II

III

IV

v

1

1

1

1

VI

VII VIII

2

3

2

1

llnique Lg.pt.

Spec. 1-rag.

IB

11

1

1

1

1

3

IDA 1MB

1

IV

2

â&#x20AC;˘

II

1

2

1

3

5

1

2

2

45

5

UNIFACE i TYPES 1

B I F A C E TYPES IA

Sevier Gray

Scribble Rock Shelter

D R I L L

GSLCray Knolls Variety

PROJECTILE P O I N T TYPES

Great Salt Lake Gray

acriDOieis.ut;K orient r r i u vemence^nari

V

6

VI

9

1

Stratum III

1

Stratum II

I

1

2

1

1

2

1

1

3

1

2

2

2

3

7

13

3

6

1

Stratum I 2

1

4

-

4

1

1973, Fig. 9, a-t and Fig. 12, a-g; Lanning 1963, Plate 6, f; Lindsay and Lund 1976, Fig. 15, a-c.

3

2

Comparable Types: Aikens 1970, Fig. 23, a-f, Fig. 21, g-h; Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori 1973., Fig. 8, h-u.

TABLE VI Coal shovel shelter

Coal Shovel Shelter

1

II

III

IV

v

VI

VII V I I I

1 ii iq ut

Spec.

10

D R I Lg. pt. L h'rag. L

,Ceramic Types

venience Chart

UNIFACE! TYPES 1

BIFACE TYPES IA

IB

II

IDA NIB

IV

V

VI

I

-

-

II

Surface Prov. Unknown Stratum II

49

Type VI No. of Specimens: Seven complete, four fragmentary (plus two observed) (Fig. 24, k-m; 25, j-m; 26, e-f) Description: All specimens are small and are corner-notched in varying degrees. The most extreme example is represented by the specimen in Fig. 25, j .

Specimens average about 2 cm in length, and approximately 1.5 cm in width. The Rose Springs Cornernotched and Eastgate Expanding Stem points intergrade (Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973) and the two are not distinguished in this study. Holmer and Weder (1979) separate Eastgate expanding stem by "the parallel-sided notches in the points' convex base."

Most of the specimens resemble Rose Springs Cornernotched points. Some from Scribble Rock Shelter are intermediate, but are closer to Rose Springs in the steeply angled and triangular notching.

Comparable Types: Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973, Fig. 11, h-i and r-cc; Aikens 1970, Fig. 18, d-k;

TypeV No. of Specimens: Three fragmentary, one complete (Fig. 24, i-j; 26, a) Description: Specimens are lanceolate with contracting, concave bases and are lenticular in cross section. These points fall within the range of Humboldt concave and Pinto sloping shoulder points. The two named types intergrade and may represent only one type (Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori 1973). The specimen from 42Jb3 (not figured) has similarities to the Silver Lake series but is also within the range of this type.

PROJECTILE POINT TYPES

4

Sevier Gray

1

GSLGray Knolls Variety

5

Great Salt Lake Gray

TOTAL

6

3

2

2

I

2

1

2

4

1

1

15

4

1

I

21

Stratum I TOTAL

3

- â&#x20AC;˘

-

2

-

2

40

-

-

-

Fig. 24

Projectile Points from Survey: (a-c) Untyped Specimens one, two, and three; (d-g) Type I; (h) Type II; (i-j) Type V; (k-m) Type VI; (n-p) Type VII; (q-t) Type VIII.

Madsen and Lindsay 1977, Fig. 39, a-j; Lindsay and Lund 1976, Fig. 15, h-1; Dalley 1976, Fig. 15, a-c and f-i, Fig. 33, k-1; Fig. 42, f-i; Fig. 54, o-p; Fig. 58, a; Holmer and Weder 1979, Fig. 3, a-f.

Corresponding named type: Cottonwood triangular.

It has been suggested that this type is a preform for eventual arrow points (Marwitt 1970:85).

Comparable Types: Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori 1973, Fig. 11, n-q; Aikens 1970, Fig. 19, m-o; Madsen and Lindsay 1977, Fig. 22, n-p; Dalley 1976, Fig. 13, l-o.

Type VII No. of Specimens: One complete, two fragmentary (Fig. 24, n-p) Description: These are small, finely worked projectile points with side notches. Extent of notching varies from the minimal notches of points recovered from the original survey (Fig. 24, n-o) to the deep notches on the specimen from 42Jb3 (Fig. 24, p).

Corresponding Named Type: See Discussion below.

Comparable Types: Madsen and Lindsay 1977, Type I a, Fig. 22, 1; Dalley 1976: Fig. 13, d-e; Fig. 49, c-d; Fig. 54, g; Aikens 1970, Fig. 18, e; Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973, Fig. 11, d.

Unique Specimens and Miscellaneous Four specimens (three from the survey, one from excavations at 42JM67) do not readily fit existing types. Three were recovered from the survey, one from Scribble Rock Shelter.

Specimen 1 is of black obsidian (Fig. 24, a). The edges are almost serrate from the manner and size of flakes that have been struck off. Downward tangs are present but the incomplete base precludes determining whether -this is a corner- or side-notched specimen.

The cross section is plano-convex and there is a vague resemblance to Gypsum series points. It is also possible that this is not yet in its final form, due to its rough appearance.

Specimen 2 (Fig. 24, b) is black basalt and also presents a somewhat crude appearance. A wide side

Type VIII No. of Specimens: Three complete, five fragmentary (plus one observed) (Fig. 24, q-t; 25, n-q) Description: Triangular to vaguely rectangular in shape; base straight to convex. One specimen (Fig. 24, r) is better formed and has a slightly concave base.

41

TABLE VII Survey Projectile Point Materials and Measurements Tool Type Type I

Figure 24, d

Material Gray quartzite

Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Thickness (cm)

Weight (gm)

2.05

2.2

0.6

2.3

2.1

0.4

2.3

(3.2) 24, e

Gray chert

3.2 (3.5)

24, f

Gray chert

3.4

2.3

0.3

2.8

24, g

Gray obsidian

2.85

2.3

0.45

2.7

Black obsidian

2.8

2.6

0.6

3.0+

Type II

24, h

Black obsidian

-

2.05

0.4

0.6+

Type V

24, i

Black obsidian

1.2

2.0

0.5

0.8+

24J

Black obsidian

1.8

0.6

1.7+

26, a

Gray quartzite

1.8

0.7

5.4+

(-) 1.5

(-) 3.9 (4.7)

Type VI

—

Black obsidian

2.9

1.4

0.5

1.5

24, k

Gray obsidian

2.0

0.7

0.4

0.7

24,1

Black obsidian

2.0

1.2

0.2

0.5

24, m

Black obsidian

1.5

1.4

0.5

0.7

(-)

(-) 0.3

0.5+

Red-brown chert

Type VII

1.8

1.5

(-)

(-)

—

Tan chert

2.3

0.9

0.3

0.4

24, n

Black obsidian

1.5

1.55

0.3

0.8

1.7

0.5

0.6

(2.4) 24, o

Black obsidian

24, p

Gray obsidian

2.0

1.2

0.2

0.4

24, q

Black obsidian

1.5

1.6

0.4

0.7

24, r

White chalcedony

1.45

0.5

1.3

24, s

Black obsidian

1.55

0.4

0.8

1.1

(-)

Type VIII

(2.1) 2.0 (2.75) 1.9 (2.2) 24, t

Black obsidian

1.3

0.85

0.3

0.2

24, a

Black obsidian

3.0

2.0

0.6

2.6

No. 2

24, b

Basalt

3.9

2.1

0.6

4.8

No.3

24, c

White quartzite

2.5

2.4

0.5

3.9

Untyped Specimen No.l

(3.3)

(4.0) ( ) indicates estimated total length for incomplete specimens.

42

TABLE VIII Scribble Rock Shelter: Projectile Point Materials and Measurements.

Tool Type

Figure

Type I

25, a

Black obsidian

25, b

Black obsidian

25, c

Black obsidian

Material

Width (cm)

Thickness (cm)

Weight (gm)

2.4

0.5

2.9+

2.7

2.25

0.4

1.7

2.35

1.6

0.4

1.1+

(2.9)

(-)

Length (cm) 2.5 (3.6)

25, d

Black chert

2.7

2.25

0.5

2.4

25. e

Gray& white chert

2.8

2.15

0.5

2.2

Type II

25, f

Black obsidian

2.8 (3.8)

1.7

0.55

2.4+

Type III

25, g

Dark gray basalt

4.2

2.2

0.5

3.1

25, h

Black chert

3.5

2.25

0.55

3.8+

(2.4)

Type IV

25, i

Gray chert

3.6

2.0

0.6

2.9

Type VI

25;j

Black obsidian

1.5

1.5

0.3

0.5+

1.4

1.3

0.3

0.3+

(1.9)

Type VIII

25, k

Black obsidian

(2.0)

(1.5)

25,1

Black obsidian

1.7

1.4

0.3

0.4

25, m

Black obsidian

2.7

1.65

0.35

0.9

25, n

Black obsidian

1.7

1.6

0.4

0.9+

0.6+

(-) Black obsidian

1.6

1.5

0.3

25, p

Black obsidian

(-) 2.1

1.9

0.4

1.3

25, q

Black obsidian

1.3

0.3

0.6+

2.6

0.6

6.2

25,o

2.35 (2.6)

Untyped Specimen No. 4

28, i

White chalcedony

5.6

_L (

) indicates estimated measurements in cases of incomplete or fragmentary specimens.

43

Fig. 25

Scribble Rock Shelter Projectile Points, (a-e) Type I; (f) Type II; (g-h) Type III; (i) Type IV; (j-m) Type VI; (n-q) Type VIII.

TABLE IX Coal Shovel Shelter: Projectile Point Materials and Measurements.

1

Tool Type Type I

Figure

Material

Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Thickness (cm)

Weight (gm)

26, b

White chert

3.3

2.4

0.5

2.7

26, c

Black obsidian

3.0

2.6

0.5

2.9

26, d

Black obsidian

2.2

2.5

0.5

2.3

(3.0) Type VI

(

26, e

Gray obsidian

3.1

1.5

0.35

1.1

26, f

Black obsidian

1.9

1.1

0.35

0.5

) indicates estimated complete measurement.

notch is evident on one side while only an indentation is present on the other. The blade is small in relation to the hafting element. Closest resemblance is to Elko Side-notched points.

Specimen 3 (Fig. 24, c) is a basal fragment of white quartzite. Blade edges are straight. The base appears contracted on one side, but on the other is almost corner-notched.

Specimen 4 recovered from Scribble Rock Shelter, (Fig. 28, i) is morphologically similar to Type I projectile points but differs in its much larger size. It is also proportionately more elongate. The corner notches are nonsymmetrically placed and the blade edges are of unequal length. Its cross section is lenticular.

In addition to the four "untyped" points, three fragments recovered from the survey are from one large and two smaller projectile points. These were not

included in the typology. Two basal fragments of larger projectile points were also recovered from Scribble Rock Shelter, again these were too fragmentary to type.

DISCUSSION OF POINTS Based on morphological traits, the typology is comparable to named Great Basin types as follows: Type I Elko Corner-notched.

Type II Elko Side-notched.

Type III Elko-eared.

Type IV Gypsum.

TypeV Humboldt concave base/Pinto sloping shoulder.

Type VI Rose Springs Corner-notched/ Eastgate Expanding stem.

Type VII Small side-notched points (cf Rose Springs and Uinta) Type VIII Cottonwood triangular.

Based on size and weight, Types I-V may have functioned as atlatl points while Types VI-VIII are probably arrow points (cf Thomas 1978). Though it is quite possible that the larger projectile point types (I-V) were multifunctional tools, such as knives, they are with the exception of Type I, generally assumed to have been used as dart points during the ca 8500 to 2500 B.P. Archaic period in the eastern Great Basin (Madsen, Currey, and Madsen 1976).

Elko Corner-notched points (Type I) occur over too broad a span to serve as time markers. They have been dated in contexts of 3300 B.P. to 1400 B.P. (O'Connell 1967), but eastern Great Basin sites, Danger Cave (Jennings 1957), Hogup Cave (Aikens 1970) and O'Malley Shelter (Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973), (cf Holmer 1978), date from 8000 to 600 B.P. Elko Corner-notched points were apparently used as hafted knives (Wylie 1973), in post-Archaic contexts.

Type II and III points from Hogup Cave have been dated ca 8350 B.P. to 3200 B.P. (Aikens 1970).

Fig. 26 Coal Shovel Shelter (b-f) and 42JM65 (a) Projectile Points: (a) Type V; (b-d) Type I; (e-f) Type VI. 45

TABLE X Survey Biface and Uniface Materials and Measurements.

Tool Type BIFACE Type IA

Figure

Material

Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Thickness (cm)

Weight (gm)

27, d

Black basalt

4.1

2.1

0.9

6.8

Type III A

27, a

Black basalt

2.7

3.0

0.5

4.6

Type 1MB

27, c

Brown/Gray chert

2.3

2.9

0.7

4.9

27, f

Black basalt

4.0

2.65

0.55

6.3

UNIFACE Type 11

( ) indicates estimated total dimension for incomplete specimens.

Gypsum points (Type IV) occur from 7000 to 1000 B.P. but are more commonly dated from 4000 B.P. to 2000 B.p. (Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori 1973). Type V projectile points have been dated from 8350 B.P. to 2600 B.P. (Aikens 1970; Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973). These four projectile point types may generally be used as relative time markers for the Archaic period.

Types VI, VII, and VIII are post-Archaic arrow points. Although these have been dated as early as 4450 B.P. at Hogup Cave (Aikens 1970), they are generally dated from 1300 B.P. to post-1000 B.P. (cf Madsen and Berry 1975; Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973; Lanning 1963; Clewlo.w 1967; Hester 1973).

Holmer and Weder (1978 and 1979) suggest that the Rose Springs Corner-notched is the earliest, dated to ca 1700 B.P. Regression analysis of dated samples shows the greatest number occur early with gradual replacement by other types ca A.D. 850-950. Most specimens from the Deep Creek Mountain sample are Rose Springs Corner-notched as distinguished from Eastgate Expanding Stem points (Holmer and Weder 1978; 1979). t h e Type VII point collected from 42Jb3 in Snake Valley (Fig. 24, p) has some similarities to Bear River side-notched points which have deep horizontal notches and straight to concave base. This is associated with Great Salt Lake Gray ceramics which was the dominant ware at 42Jb3. It is more similar to the Uinta side-notched point with low, asymmetrical sidenotches though this is associated with Uinta Gray pottery. The distribution of both types is near or includes the study area and is dated post A.D. 750 (Holmer and Weder 1978 and 1979). While the other, fragmentary Type VII specimens are similar to Rose Springs Side-notched, the arrow point from 42Jb3 is not. No Type VII points were recovered from the excavations.

DRILLS Only one drill (Fig. 28, j ; Table XII) was recovered from the Deep Creek Mountains. This was from Stratum II at Scribble Rock Shelter. It is made of pale green-gray chert and has an elongate blade with shallow corner-notching which forms the hafting element.

The cross section is convex. The base, which is straight, has been thinned. Flake scars are prominent and medial ridges are present on both surfaces.

Comparable Types: Madsen and Lindsay 1977, Types I and 11 A, Fig. 24, a-b; Marwitt 1970, Type II drills, Fig. 54, d-f (these have wider hafting elements); Aikens 1970, Fig. 33, d; Taylor 1957, Fig. 52, u.

Fig. 27 Survey and Coal Shovel Shelter Bifaces and Unifaces. (a-b) Biface Type IIIA; (c) Biface Type IIIB; (d-e) Biface Type IA; (f) Uniface Type II; (g) Uniface Type I. 46

Fig. 28 Scribble Rock Shelter Drill, Bifaces and Unifaces. (a-c) Biface Type IA; (d-e) Biface Type II; (f) Biface Type IIIA; (g-h) Biface Type IB; (i) Projectile Point Untyped Specimen 4; G) Drill; (k) Uniface Type II; (1) Uniface Type I. TABLE XI Coal Shovel Shelter Biface and Uniface Materials and Measurements.

Tool Type BIFACE Type IA

Figure

Material

-

White chert

27, e

Gray chert

Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Thickness (cm)

Weight (gm)

3.2

2.2

0.6

3.4

2.1

2.2

0.7

2.8

3.1

0.5

2.90

(-) Type IIIA

27, b

Black obsidian

2.5

(-) TypeV

UNIFACE Type I

-

Brown chert

6.8

5.2

3.1

98.9

-

Black obsidian

4.0

3.2

1.5

11.7

-

White chert

3.7

3.6

1.9

32.6

27, g

Brown chert

1.7

3.0

0.8

4.8

(-) (

) indicates estimated total dimension for incomplete specimens.

47

TABLE XII Scribble Rock Shelter Drill, Biface and Uniface; Materials and Measurements.

Tool Type

Figure

DRILL

Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Thickness (cm)

Weight (gm)

Green chert

5.2

1.5

0.7

4.1

28, a

Black obsidian

4.8

3.5

0.6

9.0

28, b

Tan chert

2.8

2.8

0.5

5.8

3.8

2.0

15.5

28,j

BIFACE Type IA

Material

(-) 28, c

Brown chert

4.2

(-) TypeIB

Type II

28, g

Black obsidian

3.1

1.9

0.65

3.2

28. h

Brown chert

3.8

2.3

0.7

5.7

28, d

Gray basalt

2.7

3.6

0.95

10.1

1.3

10.2

3.0

0.5

2.4

2.3

0.45

1.6

(-) Type IIIA

28, e

Brown chert

-

28, f

Black obsidian

-

—

Black obsidian

2.1

(-)

(-)

Red chert

2.3

3.1

1.2

10.2

Brown chert

—

2.8

1.0

7.7

-

Quartzite

15.0

13.0

6.0

1591.1

-

Red-brown chert

3.1

1.8

1.0

5.7

-

Black obsidian

-

-

-

0.5

-

Black obsidian

-

-

-

2.9

-

Gray chert

-

3.3

0.4

2.7

-

Brown chert

2.8

1.7

0.4

2.1

-

Gray chert

3.3

2.9

0.4

4.8

—

Gray basalt

3.1

3.2

0.3

4.5

2.9

1.1

7.7

1.2

6.2

TypeIV

-

TypeV

(-) UNIFACE Type I

28,1

Gray-brown chert

2.1

(-) —

Type II

White chert

-

Black obsidian

—

Black basalt

-

-

(-)

-

- '

0.7

2.3

3.2

4.1

0.5

2.1

(-) -

Gray quartzite

-

3.0

0.4

2.4

-

Black obsidian

2.8

1.7

0.5

1.0

-

Brown chert

-

-

0.5

2.1

-

Black obsidian

3.8

2.4

0.5

4.2

28, k

Black basalt

3.9

4.0

0.8

11.5

( ) indicates estimated total length. (—) indicates unknown length.

48

dome-shaped and may merely be the remains from flake removal. The cross sections are plano-convex.

One is extremely large.

BIFACES Type IA No. of Specimens: One complete, five fragmentary (Fig. 27, d-e; 28, a-c) Specimens range from thin to thick and from ovate to triangular in form. All are roughly chipped with little or no retouch on the blade edges. Cross sections are primarily lenticular.

Comparable Types: Similar to the Class 1 bifaces of Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori (1973) in the crudeness of flaking; similar to Madsen and Lindsay (1977), Type II.

TypeV No. of Specimens: Seven These are flake tools which are unmodified except for bifacial flaking on the edges. The flakes themselves are larger and are modified to a greater degree than those discussed in the utilized/retouched flake category.

Type VI No. of Specimens: Twenty-one These are miscellaneous biface fragments. little remains to be typed.

TypeIB No. of Specimens: Three complete (Fig. 28, g-h) These are small, thick, crudely chipped bifaces.

They give the impression of still being in the process of reduction and may very well be preforms for projectile points.

Comparable Types: Madsen and Lindsay 1977, Type VI; Marwitt 1968, Fig. 53, i-j; Aikens 1967, Fig. 24, o; Fig. 38, s-t.

Too

UNIFACES Type I No. of Specimens: Four (Fig. 27, g; 28, 1) These are unifacial cores whose cross sections are plano-convex in varying degrees. The edge angles are fairly steep.

Type II No. of Specimens: Two fragmentary (Fig. 28, d-e) These specimens are thick and very plano-convex in cross section with steep edge angles. Since only the midsections are present, they do not readily compare with the other types. Though they are bifacially worked, their form would suggest they were used for scraping.

Type II No. of Specimens: Eight (Fig. 27, f; 28, k) These are flake tools which have been unifacially retouched. Except for one blade, recovered from the survey, most of the specimens have been minimally flaked except for their edges.

Type IIIA No. of Specimens: Four fragmentary (Fig. 27, a-b; 28, f) Specimens are thin and narrowly lenticular in cross section. The flaking is fine and even, and they have either angled or single-shouldered blades.

Comparable Types: Madsen and Lindsay 1977, Type IB (Fig. 25, g-j)

UTILIZED AND WASTE FLAKES The lithic debitage from Scribble Rock and Coal Shovel shelters was examined microscopically to separate flakes which had been used or retouched.

(Tables XIII and XIV). Criteria for tabulation within this category include edge damage, flaking, extensive polish, or patterned striation, all of which denote use.

Edge damage or notching and striations from use are most distinctive on obsidian flakes. While the harder rocks like basalt and quartzite were less likely to show these characteristics, repeated use produces a distinctive polish.

The majority of the used flakes in the samples are thin with sharp edges. Several flakes have polished sharp points suggesting they were used for perforating or incising. Several flakes are minimally flaked as if to sharpen an edge or point. While the number of flakes categorized as utilized may be misleading due to the ease with which obsidian is scratched or chipped, an obsidian flake does provide a sharp edge with a minimum of modification.

Two hundred and forty-two (242) utilized or retouched flakes were identified out of a total 333 flakes from Scribble Rock Shelter. The majority of utilized flakes are obsidian (89.3%) (Table XIII). This is in contrast to 65.9% of the nonutilized flakes. Several of these flakes have been dulled or backed on one edge

TypeHIB No. of Specimens: One fragmentary (Fig. 27, c).

This specimen differs from Type IIIA by having a collateral flaking pattern. It is possibly a fragment of a Cody Knife (Wormington 1957: Fig. 41, 42 and 70, No. 5; Jennings 1968: Fig. 3.37). This PaleoIndian knife is characterized by a transverse blade often with a single, offset shoulder as well as oblique and collateral flaking (Wormington 1957). Tentative identification has been based primarily on the latter characteristic. The fragment is from the midsection with the single shoulder. It was made of translucent gray and brown chert. The cross section is lenticular and the flaking is fine and ribbonlike. This artifact type is associated with C-14 dates from 8650 B.P. at the Hell Gap Site to 9026+118 B.P. at the Finley site (cf Frison 1978).

Type IV No. of Specimens: Five These are corelike bifaces, crudely reduced and 49

TABLE XIII Scribble Rock Shelter Utilized and Waste Flakes

2

Stratum III Stratum IV Stratum V Strata 11/V TOTAL

-

-

-

2

100%

-

-

-

-

0

-

-

-

-

11

64.7%

125

113

8

3

-

—

19

4

1

3

— —

27.6%

98

-

2

-

-

-

-

0

10

-

-

—

-

10

-

2

1

-

72.7%

30

4

9

90%

1

242

72.7%

60

for greater ease in use. Obsidian comprises 82.9% of all flakes recovered from Scribble Rock Shelter. The other rock types from this site include chert, basalt, quartzite, and schist in decreasing order of occurrence.

The 13 flakes from Trench I at Coal Shovel Shelter are all from the surface and are largely disregarded in this discussion. Of the 134 flakes recovered from the eastern trench, 86 (64.2%) show evidence of utilization (Table XIV). As at Scribble Rock Shelter, obsidian is the dominant rock type, especially in the retouched and utilized flake category. Obsidian constitutes 75.4% of all the flakes in Trench 2. Utilized flakes are principally obsidian (84.9%) as opposed to 58.3% of waste flakes. Minor rock types again include chert, basalt, quartzite, and schist.

Obsidian is by far the dominant rock type at archeological sites in the Deep Creek Mountains. This is confirmed by the results of the excavations at Scribble Rock and Coal Shovel shelters. Since obsidian does not occur naturally in the Deep Creek Mountains (Thompson 1970; Lindsay and Sargent 1977), and none was observed other than at archeological sites, it was a favored import.

Obsidian flake samples submitted for analysis from Scribble Rock Shelter in the mountains, 42Jb3 in the valley, and 42JM79 at Fish Springs are all from the vicinity of Topaz Mountain in the Thomas Range, approximately 40 miles east of the Deep Creek Mountains (Nelson and Holmes 1979). The other rock types (chert, basalt, quartzite, and schist) can be found locally (Thompson 1970).

27

-

—

3

2

14

—

3

7

31.25%

32

0

-

2

-

0

-

0

-

6

35.3%

17

47

27.3%

172

1

10%

10

91

27.3%

333

4

-

Total Flakes per unit

1

Schist

68.75%

9

Basalt

22

2

Quartzite

-

-

Chert

100%

Obsidian

2

-

3

216

-

-

8

9

-

17

7

7

GROUND STONE While several metate fragments and manos were observed during the initial survey, none were recovered. Table IV indicates those sites containing ground stone. Pottery is present at all of these sites as well.

Four metates were recovered from Scribble Rock Shelter. All are irregular, minimally shaped slabs or blocks (Fig. 29) and are of igneous materials. None exhibit a great deal of use.

TABLE XIV Coal Shovel Shelter Utilized and Waste Flakes 4> Ct .*

V

kTy

a. o

as Obsidian

50

ifi

fa

a

•M M

'•C

o>

&06

o> .tt

Tot IFIa

Strata I/II

1

72.4%

% Waste

19

-

71

Total Waste

Stratum II

-

_

teFl

2

—

zed »uch

Stratum I

Util./Ret.

1

Total Util./Ret.

7

Schist

Quartzite

63

WASTE

Basalt

Chert

Surface Provenience Unknown

Obsidian

UTILIZED/RETOUCHED

*

IK C8

ca

*

73

72.3%

28

27.7%

Chert

6

42.9%

8

57.1%

14

Quartzite

1

50%

1

50%

2

Basalt

6

40%

9

60%

15

2

100%

2

48

35.8%

134

Schist

-

TOTAL

86

0% 64.2%

,

101

Fig. 30 Fig. 29 Scribble Rock Shelter Milling Block.

Scribble Rock Shelter Grinding Stones, (a-b) Type I; (c) Type III; (d-e) Type II.

The specimen recovered from the surface of the second trench is of andesite and has been bifacially chipped on the edges. The interior portion is the thinnest (2 cm), and a slight concavity of both sides indicates use of both surfaces. The fragment remaining is 16 cm by 11 cm.

The third specimen, the most fragmentary, is of green igneous rock and was recovered from the cultural stratum in Trench 2. It is apparently a trough metate, with the most shaping of the three specimens and also the most concave grinding surface. The fragment recovered is 6.6 cm by 10.2 cm.

Three fragmentary cobbles may have been used as manos. Two, which are of quartzite, were recovered from the 20 to 40 cm level of Stratum II in Trench 2, while the third specimen, of igneous rock, was recovered from the general provenience of that level. All three are unshaped cobbles.

One small, semicircular igneous rock appears to be a hammerstone. The ends exhibit battering. It is approximately 4 cm in diameter and 2.5 cm thick.

This also was recovered from Stratum II of the second trench.

Ten cobbles found at this site are probable manos (Fig. 30). Only one has been extensively shaped. The other nine have been less carefully modified in varying degrees. The fragmentary nature of many specimens makes them difficult to type. They may be roughly grouped into those having only one grinding surface (seven) and those with two (three). A couple of these have sporadic battering on one or more surfaces and may have been used for hammering or pecking as well.

The one specimen in Group III is not a mano per se.

It is small, oblong, and unshaped, and is heavily smeared with red pigment. Pitting on the ends shows this was also used for pecking or pounding. From the large amount of red pigment, the specimen likely was used to grind pigment. The extensive red and orange pictographs on the rear wall of the shelter strengthen this likelihood. One of the Type I manos and two of the Type II manos also bear faint traces of red or orange pigment. Dimension ranges are as follows: Type I: 11 cm or more in length by 8 cm wide and 4-6 cm thick (Fig. 30, a-b).

Type II: 10-15 cm in length by 6-10 cm wide and 3-7 cm thick (Fig. 30, d-e).

Type III: 11 cm in length by 4 cm wide and 3 cm thick; irregular in shape (Fig. 30, c).

All of the manos have relatively flat grinding surfaces. The use-surface of the one complete Type I specimen (Fig. 30, a) is the least flat, but this is not especially convex or rocker-shaped.

Three grinding slabs were recovered from Coal Shovel Shelter. Two were surface finds. The one recovered from the surface of Trench 1 (Fig. 31) consisted of two fragments and is of dark gray, finegrained basalt, shaped by bifacial flaking. Only one surface appears to have been utilized, which is indicated by a slight depression of the interior portion with longitudinal striations. Pecking marks are evident on the smoothed grinding surface. This is the thinnest (2 cm) of the three specimens. The portion remaining is 21 cm wide by 23 cm long.

Fig. 31 51

Coal Shovel Shelter Grinding Slab.

In summary, only a small collection of ground stone was recovered from both of the excavated sites.

The metates from Scribble Rock Shelter correspond more to "milling blocks" (Aikens 1970). They are irregular stone blocks with little or no shaping and minimal grinding depressions. Those recovered from Coal Shovel Shelter are more carefully formed and appear to have been more used. Both sites yielded cobble manos. In general, grinding implements are a small component of the total artifact assemblage at both sites, especially at Scribble Rock Shelter.

The distribution of Paiute/Shoshoni and Sevier wares is roughly comparable at thirteen sites (based on presence/absence) with dual occurrence at two of the sites. Only Sevier culture ceramics were recovered from the excavated sites.

Paiute/Shoshoni ware was identified at eight sites, in the Deep Creek Mountains. In addition, a possible Paiute pottery sherd was recovered from 42Jb203 (Table IV). This ware is characterized by paddle-andanvil construction and a rather crude appearance.

Color varies from brown to reddish-brown and the sherds often have fingernail-incised decoration. Due to the overlap of some characteristics with Great Salt Lake Gray and Promontory Gray, some of the Paiute/Shoshoni sherds are tentatively identified.

The recovered sherds (Fig. 32, a-f) have undulated surfaces and coarse, granular temper. The thickness is variable within individual sherds, and several are fingernail-incised. Two rim sherds were recovered, but are insufficient to reconstruct vessel size or shape.

The Paiute-Shoshoni pottery is postdated 850 B.p.

(D. Madsen 1975).

CERAMICS Six ceramic types were recovered from the survey and excavations in the Deep Creek Mountain area. These include varieties of Sevier/Fremont pottery: Sevier Gray, Sevier Black-on-gray, Ivie Creek Black-on-white (Emery Variety), Great Salt Lake Gray, Snake Valley Gray and Paiute/Shoshoni ware.

These pottery types have been variously described (Euler 1964; Baldwin 1950; D. Madsen 1970; R. Madsen 1977; Madsen and Lindsay 1977). Ceramic tabulations include specimens which were observed but not collected during the survey (Fig. 32 and 33).

Sevier Gray Plain ware was identified at only one surveyed site (42Jbl70), but several sherds were recovered from 42Jb3 in the valley. Sevier Gray is

Fig. 32 Ceramic Types. Paiute/Shoshoni (a-f); Sevier Black-on-gray (g); Ivie Creek Black-on-white Variety (h).

52

Emerv

identified by basalt tempering and differs from Emery Gray in its coarser temper. Eight Sevier Gray sherds were recovered from 42Jb3. One has been ground on the edges; another is a handle fragment (Fig. 33, c). This ware is generally dated ca. 1150 B.P. to 700 B.P. (D. Madsen 1970; R. Madsen 1977). One Sevier Black-on-gray sherd (Fig. 32, g) was recovered from 42JM54 and two sherds (Fig. 33, d), both bowl rim fragments, are from 42Jb3.

One sherd of Ivie Creek Black-on-white, Emery Variety, (Fig. 32, h) was recovered from 42JM65.

Emery Gray is differentiated from Sevier Gray by a finer igneous temper. This is the only Fremont ware (cf Madsen and Lindsay 1977) found and is also the only pottery recovered from 42JM65. Excavation of this site yielded no further evidence for a postArchaic component. This ware dates ca 1500 B.P. 600 B.P. (D. Madsen 1970; R. Madsen 1977,) Great Salt Lake Gray is the most common Sevier ware found during the survey and excavations. This type was present at four mountain sites and at 42Jb3 and 42Jb205 in the valley. In addition, this was the dominant ware recovered from excavations at Scribble Rock Shelter and the only ware from Coal Shovel Shelter. Great Salt Lake Gray ware is characterized by diverse tempering, generally sand and quartz. Great

Salt Lake Gray proper grades into Knolls Gray variety which contains a large percentage of mica. This ware is generally dated ca 1550 B.P. -600 B.P. (D. Madsen 1970; R. Madsen 1977). Due to the variability of this ware, in small samples it is often difficult to distinguish between Great Salt Lake Gray and Paiute/Shoshoni wares.

Snake Valley Gray ware was recovered in the valley from 42Jb3 and tentatively 42Jb205. Snake Valley Gray is well-made, sand-tempered, and has a smooth-to-polished surface. No specimens of this type were recovered from the mountain sites. The sherd recovered from 42Jb3 (Fig. 33a) is a rim fragment from a small-necked jar with relatively straight sides. The vessel orifice diameter (inside) would have been 6.5 - 7.0 cm with walls 3.5 - 4.0 cm thick. This ware is dated ca 1050 B.P. to 750 B.P. (D. Madsen 1970; R. Madsen 1977).

Two pottery types, Sevier Gray and Great Salt Lake Gray (after D. Madsen 1970) were recovered from Scribble Rock Shelter. Most of the Great Salt Lake Gray sherds are Knolls variety, distinguished by the greater quantity of mica temper. Fifty-three sherds are Great Salt Lake Gray, Knolls variety, and four are Great Salt Lake Gray proper. Two Great Salt Lake Gray vessels, one with a cross-hatched rim,

Fig. 33 Ceramic Types (a) Snake Valley Gray; (b-c) Sevier Gray; (d) Sevier Black-on-gray; (e-f) Great Salt Lake Gray; (g-h) Great Salt Lake Gray, Knolls variety.

53

the other plain, are represented. The latter vessel has at least one small hole near the lip. Both appear to have been jars with slightly everted rims and with estimated orifice diameters of ca 30 cm. Ten Sevier Gray sherds were also recovered with only one from a rim. This ware type would represent a third vessel.

The majority of the ceramics are from Stratum V (Table V).

Only Great Salt Lake Gray ceramics (21 sherds) were recovered from the excavation of Coal Shovel Shelter (Table VI). The general variability of the sherds recovered from this site is characteristic of Great Salt Lake Gray ware. Specimens range from thin with large tempering particles to thick sherds with much sand-tempering. Two of the sherds recovered have been ground on one or more edges. The number of vessels represented is unknown. The only two rim sherds fit together, which indicates a single vessel. The two sherds from the surface of Trench 1 are brown and also thicker than most of the other sherds. This, and their spatial separation from the rest of the sherds, may indicate an additional vessel.

The ceramic types recovered indicate use of the Deep Creek Mountain area during both Sevier/Fremont and Paiute/Shoshoni periods. Their dual presence at some of the sites may suggest overlap in occupation of the area. Since Numic pottery probably postdates 850 B.P., and the Sevier wares range from 1550 to 600 B.P., concurrent use of this area is quite possible within the overlapping 250 years.

Except for the presence of one painted Emery Gray sherd, (Fremont) all of the Sevier ware is within expected distribution (D. Madsen 1970:70, 71; R. Madsen 1977). The one sherd of Ivie Creek Blackon-white, Emery variety, probably represents tradeware from the Colorado Plateau. The other anomaly

in ceramic distribution is the presence of Snake Valley Gray sherds at two valley sites, but none was identified from the mountains. Since Snake Valley Gray dates later (1050-750 B.P.) than the other Sevier wares, it may be that there was less emphasis on the exploitation of montane resources in the later Sevier period. The very early (1700 B.P.) Sevier occupation at Coal Shovel Shelter might support this suggestion, but the limited ceramic sample makes such a conclusion tentative at best.

FAUNAL ANALYSIS Scribble Rock Shelter was the only tested site which yielded identifiable faunal remains. A very few unidentifiable splinters were recovered from site 42JM65. A somewhat larger amount, 13 grams, was recovered from Coal Shovel Shelter. Little can be said other than these splinters appear to be from larger fauna.

Scribble Rock Shelter faunal materials consist of highly fragmented bone debris much of which is unidentifiable. Faunal remains include mountain sheep, mule deer, ground squirrel, jackrabbit, pygmy rabbit, and woodrat. The identification of the smaller species is tentative. The identification of the larger artiodactyls is firmer since a greater number of elements such as teeth and antler/horn were recovered.

Some elements could not be identified since the University of Utah reference collections contained only partial mountain sheep and no antelope postcranial skeletons.

Identifications were further complicated by the extreme fragmentary nature of the bones. Few elements were recovered intact, and those that were are limited to smaller mammal teeth, and podial bones.

No skull fragments were noted. Most species identification is based on external features of living animals and skeletal diagnostics are primarily confined to the skull (Olson 1973:3). Therefore, identification of the fragmented postcranial materials presented difficulties.

The identifiable elements (Table XV) and distribution of bone fragments (Table XVI) show that the majority of faunal remains are from Stratum V. Seventy percent of the unidentified bone debris is also from this layer.

Though the small femur and humerus from Stratum I strongly resemble those of prairie dog specimens, its range is not known to have included this general area (Durrant 1952:106). It is generally associated with grassland habitats (Gilbert 1973:61) making identification as Cynomys unlikely. Since several other genera of squirrels with similar humeri and femurs, (Olson 1973:121-122, 110-112) have ranges which include the general area and whose habitat preference is more comparable to the site area, identification must lie within this group. The occur-

TABLE XV

Number of Species per Unit

X

Sylvilagus idahoensis

Surface Provenience Unknown

Neotoma sp

Provenience

cf Citellus sp

Sl

—

—

—

—

X

2

—

—

X

-

X

2

-

-

-

-

1

3

Odocoileus hemionus

a

a

Ovis canadensis

--

Scribble Rock Shelter Identified Fauna

Stratum I

-

Stratum II

X

Stratum III

-

-

-

—

-

-

0

Stratum IV

X

-

-

-

—

—

1

Stratum V

X

X

X

-

X

-

4

Number of Units in which species occur

4

1

1

—

•

1

1

2

54

TABLE XVI Scribble Rock Shelter Unidentified Bone Debris Burned gm

Surface Provenience Unknown

4.6

Stratum I

-

Stratum 11

7.6

Stratum I/II

-

Stratum III

8.7

Stratum IV

-

Stratum V

92.3

Stratum 11/V TOTAL

113.2

Unburned

%

gm

Burned

% Unburned

Total gm

%bf Total Bone by Weight

3.7%

161.9

97.3%

166.5

12.9%

0%

1.1

100%

1.1

0.01%

5.6%

127.8

94.4%

135.4

10.5%

0%

15.7

100%

15.7

1.2%

20.5%

33.7

79.5%

42.4

3.3%

0%

8.9

100%

8.9

0.7%

10.5%

788.7

89.5%

881.0

68.4%

0%

37.3

100%

37.3

2.9%

8.8

1,175.1

91.2%

1,288.3

100%

rence of prairie dogs far outside their normal range would necessitate either human introduction or drastic environmental change. No cultural remains were found in this stratum and the only other faunal associations are Sylvilagus. The range of Cynomys parvidens is nearest to the Deep Creek Mountains (Durrant 1952: 106). The suggested limit of its range is approximately 80 miles away and does include areas of high elevation. It is conceivable that the species range includes or had included this area since distributions are often defined on the basis of small, isolated populations. In addition, Cynomys parvidens was identified at Hogup Cave (Aikens 1970:244) approximately 60 miles to the north. A likelier explanation is that the individual represented is probably of the genus Citellus, or ground squirrel, several species of which occur in the Deep Creek Mountains such as Citellus lateralis (golden-mantled ground squirrel), and Citellus townsendii (Townsend ground squirrel).

noted by Durrant as in this area. The three bones from this animal were all charred. This, and its occurrence in Stratum V, the main cultural stratum, is evidence for predation by man. This is strengthened by rabbit hunting demonstrated at other Great Basin sites (Aikens 1970).

Mountain sheep presently occur in limited numbers, primarily in the mountains of eastern and southeastern Utah, but their past range could have reasonably included western Utah. Durrant (1952) notes the species as present in mountains of the southern UtahNevada border, while Jennings (1957:4) lists them in the Wendover area prior to 1910. It is likely that mountain sheep existed in intervening areas such as the Deep Creek Mountains. Based on teeth size and the horn core, one juvenile or small ewe and a larger more robust individual are represented in the archeological sample.

Odocoileus hemionus (mule deer) is limited to Stratum V. All species would have been found in the immediate vicinity of the site. The majority are from Stratum V. Ovis, Odocoileus, and Lepus were subsistence species. Based on the quantities of fragmented bone and the species recovered, this site's primary function was procuring and processing large game. The highly fragmentary nature of the bone is probably the result of processing for marrow extraction, and possibly for grease-rendering. This seems to have been the case at other Sevier sites, such as Median Village (Marwitt 1970). It has been suggested that small mammals were quantitatively a more relied

The identification of Sylvilagus idahoensis, the smallest rabbit in Utah, within Stratum I is strengthened by its known distribution since specimens have been recorded from the Deep Creek Mountains (Durrant 1952). That these two small mammals are nearly the only faunal remains in an otherwise culturally sterile stratum implies that they occupied the cave independently of human activity.

The radius and ulna from Stratum V are probably Neotoma lepida, the desert wood rat, whose range includes this area.

The Lepus remains are most likely Lepus californicus (blacktailed jackrabbit) - - the only Lepus 55

Fig. 34

Bone Artifacts from Scribble Rock Shelter.

upon resource with some seasonal engorging on large artiodactyls (Madsen and Lindsay 1977:74). Based on the scarcity of small mammalian remains, it appears that Scribble Rock Shelter was a seasonal hunting/ butchering camp, oriented towards the procurement of mountain sheep and deer. The extremely fragmented nature of the bone may have been a result of boiling crushed bone to obtain grease (Vehik 1977; Leechman 1951). This receives some support from the large amount of fire-cracked rock noted during excavation.

While the recovered bone is shattered rather than crushed as would be the case to produce grease, this may be a reflection of recovery techniques since highly crushed bone would pass through !V-mesh screens.

calculations are made per excavated stratum, the estimate for mountain sheep increases to four. Based on the conservative numbers, slightly more than 300 pounds of usable meat were procured at the site (White 1953). It is possible more individuals are represented but cannot be identified due to the extreme fragmentation of the bone. Butchering marks are present on many of the bones (see Fig. 34, a-b).

BONE ARTIFACTS Four bone artifacts were recovered, all from Stratum V at Scribble Rock Shelter. Two are split and flaked metapodial fragments (Fig. 34, c-d); one appears to be a pelvic fragment that exhibits edge battering (Fig. 34, a). One fragment from a long bone appears to have been used in a smoothing or scraping activity, since its edge is both smooth and polished (Fig. 34, b).

A conservative estimate of the fauna at the site is two mountain sheep, one deer, one squirrel, one jackrabbit, one pygmy rabbit, and one wood rat. If

+ 56

DEEP CREEK MOUNTAIN AREA SETTLEMENT AND SUBSISTENCE tures are where they should be given the principal focus on marsh resources. This is consistent with the lacustrine subsistence focus in the lower Humboldt Valley (Heizer 1956; Cowan 1967; Napton 1969) and potentially consistent with that of the western Great Basin during portions of the Archaic (O'Connell and Hayward 1972; O'Connell 1975; Bettinger 1977).

The predominantly seasonal hunting sites in the Deep Creek Range indicate a subsistence focus similar to that interpreted for Surprise Valley in the western basin (O'Connell and Hayward 1972; O'Connell 1975) except for the ca 5000-4000 B.P. subsistence shift to smaller mammals which is undetected because of the limited time depth of the excavated Deep Creek sites. A subsistence shift from big game animals also occurs in Owens Valley, but not until after 950 B.P. (Bettinger 1977). Large ungulates were the major source of game in the "Deeps" during the late Archaic and this focus apparently continued into Sevier times.

Archeological sites identified in the southeast portion of the Deep Creek Mountains are predominantly open/lithic scatters and campsites which indicate semipermanent or seasonal occupance. This essentially agrees with Maloufs (1950) interpretation of sites on the western portion of the range. The recovery of Archaic atlatl (Types I-V) and postArchaic arrow points (Types VI-VIII) and the identification of Sevier and Paiute-Shoshoni pottery virtually assures a ca 8,500-year sequence of occupation of the range. The addition of a possible PaleoIndian (Piano stage) artifact from adjacent Snake Valley extends the sequence to ca 10,000-9000 B.P. This further extension is particularly feasible in light of the antiquity established at Danger (Jennings 1957) and Smith Creek Caves (Touhy, 1977 personal communication) and because of the artifact's location on a playa associated with early Holocene Lake Bonneville.

No correspondence exists in the range between site types, their locations, and cultural affiliations.

Archaic, Sevier, and Paiute-Shoshoni groups are about equally represented and the three groups occupied cave/rockshelters and open sites in a broad array of settings. These were predominantly canyon mouths and bottoms, but the piedmont, montane basins, and mountain sides were also utilized. They apparently exploited the biota of all vegetation zones, particularly large ungulates, from the shadscale on the valley floor to the montane zone at higher elevations. Only the alpine zone is devoid of archeological sites, however this may be misleading because of the apparent exploitation of mountain sheep (See Excavations and Faunal Analysis).

The common denominator for the location of Deep Creek Mountain sites appears to be proximity to perennial streams. Twenty-four of the 27 sites (not including 42JM63) identified in the Deep Creek Range are near Indian Farm, Red Cedar, and Granite Creeks. The remainder are exclusively high-elevation lithic sites directly associated with hunting.

The Deep Creek Mountain sites provide only a fragment of the local late Archaic/Sevier settlement and subsistence scheme. However, with the identification of what are possibly village sites in nearby Snake Valley, the aboriginal calendar is more complete. Sevier subsistence elsewhere in the eastern Great Basin is essentially an adaptation to marsh plants with occasional hunting and the overlay of traits associated with horticulture (Madsen and Lindsay 1977; Nielson 1978). Larger sites containing abundant Sevier pottery, lithics, and possible struc-

The identification of Pinto points (ca 8500-6200 but as late as ca 3000 B.P.), Elko-eared (ca 85003500 B.P.), and possibly Gypsum points (ca 45001500 B.P.) (cf Holmer 1978) suggests the presence of an earlier Archaic component in the Deep Creek Mountains. However, precise dating and the nature of settlement and subsistence remains speculative.

No essential difference in settlement pattern is detected in the few Archaic sites hence they are likely the product of a subsistence scheme similar to that of the transitional late Archaic/Sevier sites. Large ungulates were no doubt present in the mountains in numbers varying only minimally with changing Altithermal and Neoglacial climates (see Past Climate).

The considerable height of the Deep Creek Mountains would have thus allowed vegetation and presumably fauna to advance and retreat with long term changes in effective moisture â&#x20AC;&#x201D; most species present today were probably available throughout the Archaic â&#x20AC;&#x201D; without significant replacement.

B.P.,

A similar pattern of Archaic, Sevier, and PaiuteShoshoni settlement and subsistence may have been possible in this locale where subsistence choices were varied and constraints due to climatic change were few. Archaic, Sevier, and Paiute-Shoshoni sites are present both in the mountains and at valley marsh locations. They also occur at Fish Springs 56 km to the east where Steward (1938) noted large PaiuteShoshoni winter settlements during ethnographic times. Fish Springs is intermediate between the Deep Creek Mountains and the Thomas Range, a major 57

source for obsidian for populations of both mountain and valley locations (See Artifacts; Nelson and Holmes 1979). The identification of seasonal hunting and an apparent focus on marsh resources, possible late Archaic/Sevier continuity, and a common obsidian source for the three populations suggest a similar seasonal round for at least the past two millenia and possibly more in this locale.

The utility of a "Desert culture" concept as proposed by Jennings (1957; and Norbeck 1955) (see

arguments and ensuing reviews e.g. Heizer 1956; Baumhoff and Heizer 1965; also, C. Fowler 1977; Aikens 1978; Jennings 1973) finds support in the Deep Creek Mountain area. However, we are inclined to agree with O'Connell's (1975:51) observation that variations in prehistoric subsistence in the Great Basin are "a matter of degree, rather than kind." The limitations of the Deep Creek data preclude an accurate assessment of the degree to which prehistoric subsistence varied.

+

58

REFERENCES Aikens, C. Melvin 1966 Fremont-Promontory-Plains Relationships in Northern Utah. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 82. Salt Lake City.

1967

Excavations at Snake Rock Village and the Bear River No. 2 Site. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 87. Salt Lake City.

1970

Hogup Cave. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 93. Salt Lake City.

1976

Cultural Hiatus in the Eastern Great Basin?

American Antiquity, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 543-550.

Salt Lake City.

1978

Archaeology of The Great Basin. Annual view of Anthropology, No. 7. Palo Alto.

1975 An Archeological Survey of the Northeast Portion of Arches National Park. Antiquities Section Selected Papers, Vol. 1, No. 3. Salt Lake City.

Bettinger, Robert L. 1977 Aboriginal Human Ecology in Owens Valley: Prehistoric Change in the Great Basin. American Antiquity, Vol. 42, No. 1. Washington.

Bick, Kenneth L. 1966 Geology of the Deep Creek Mountains, Tooele and Juab Counties, Utah. Utah Geological and Mineralogical Survey Bulletin, No. 77. Salt Lake City.

Re-

Bright, Robert C. 1966 Pollen and Seed Stratigraphy of Swan Lake, Southeastern Idaho: Its Relation to Regional Vegetational History and to Lake Bonneville History. Tebiwa, Vol. 9. Pocatello.

Anderson, Keith M. 1962 Archeological Survey of Fish Springs National Wildlife Refuge. Miscellaneous Papers No. 6, University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 60. Salt Lake City.

Bryan, Alan L. 1972 Summary of the Archeology of Smith Creek and Council 9911 Caves, White Pine County, Nevada 1971. Nevada Archeological Reporter, Vol. VI, No. 1. Reno.

Antevs, E. 1955 Geologic-Climatic Dating in the West. American Antiquity, Vol. 20, No. 4. Salt Lake City.

Arnow, Lois A. 1971 Vascular Flora of Red Butte Canyon, Salt Lake County, Utah. University of Utah Printing Service. Salt Lake City.

Bryan, Alan L. and Ruth Gruhn 1964 Problems Relating to the Neothermal Climatic Sequence. American Antiquity, Vol. 29, No. 3.

Salt Lake City.

Aschmann, Homer 1958 Great Basin Climates in Relation to Human Occupance. University of California Archaeological Survey Report, No. 42. Berkeley.

Burnham, Robert C. 1950 The Climates of Utah. Master's Thesis, University of Utah. Salt Lake City.

Bye, Robert A., Jr. 1972 Ethnobotany of the Southern Paiute Indians in the 1870's: With A Note on the Early Ethnobotanical Contributions of Dr. Edward Palmer.

Great Basin Cultural Ecology: A Symposium.

D. Fowler (ed.). Desert Research Institute Publications in the Social Sciences, No. 8. Reno.

Baldwin, Gordon C. 1950 The Pottery of the Southern Paiute. American Antiquity, Vol. 16, No. 1. Menasha.

Barnes, Claude T. 1922 Mammals of Utah. University of Utah Bulletin, Vol. 12, No. 15. Salt Lake City.

Baumhoff, M. A. and J. S. Byrne 1959 Desert Side-Notched Points as a Time Marker in California. University of California Archaeological Survey Report, No. 48. Berkeley.

Campbell, Elizabeth W. Crozer and William H. Campbell 1935 The Pinto Basin Site. Southwest Museum Papers, No. 9. Los Angeles.

Chamberlain, Ralph V. 1911 The Ethno-Botany of the Gosiute Indians of Utah. Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences Proceedings, Vol. LXIII. Philadelphia.

Baumhoff, M. A.andR. F. Heizer 1965 Postglacial Climate and Archaeology in the Desert West. In H. E. Wright and D. E. Frey, The Quaternary of the United States. Princeton University Press. Princeton.

Clewlow, C.William, Jr. 1967 Time and Space Relations of Some Great Basin Projectile Point Types. Papers on Great Basin Archaeology, No. 10, University of California Archeological Survey Report, No. 70. Berkeley.

Berge, Dale L. 1964 An Archaeological Survey of White Valley, Millard County, Western Utah. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Brigham Young University.

Provo.

Cowan, Richard A. 1967 Lake Margin Exploitation in the Great Basin as Demonstrated by an Analysis of Coprolites from Lovelock Cave, Nevada. University of California Archaeological Survey Reports, No. 70. Berkeley.

Berry, MichaelS. 1974 The Evans Mound: Cultural Adaptation in Southwestern Utah.

Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Utah. Salt Lake City.

59

Currey, Donald R. 1976a Late Quaternary Geomorphic History of PintSize Shelter. In Pint-Size Shelter, L. W. Lindsay and C. K. Lund. Antiquities Section Selected Papers, Vol. Ill, No. 10. Salt Lake City.

1968b Archeological Survey in Eastern Nevada, 1966.

Desert Research Institute, Technical Report Series in the Social Sciences and Humanities Publication, No. 2. Reno.

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64

TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF OBSIDIAN SOURCES AND ARTIFACTS FROM WESTERN UTAH by FRED W. NELSON and RICHARD D. HOLMES Department Department of of Chemistry Geology Brigham Young University

ANTIQUITIES SECTION SELECTED PAPERS Number 15

65

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract

67

Introduction

67

Obsidian Sources Methods Results of Analysis Obsidian Artifacts

67 67 68 72

Discussion ...

75

Archeological Implications Other Obsidian Analyses

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

75 75

References

79

mg?

We wish to thank the following people for collecta n d m a k i n g available to the authors, obsidian

from some of the geologic sources and archeological SitCS t h a t h a V e b e e n a n a l y z e d a n d r e

ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1. The relative concentration of rubidium, strontium, and zirconium in the obsidian sources 2. The relative concentration of iron/10, titanium, and manganese in the obsidian sources 3. The relative concentration of barium, titanium, and manganese in the obsidian sources 4. Location of sites from which obsidian artifacts have been analyzed 5. Map showing obsidian routes

Page

69

69

69 76 77

TABLES Table I. II. III. IV.

Instrument settings used X-ray fluorescence analyses Analyses of obsidian sources Results of the stepwise selection of the discriminating functions V. Obsidian artifact analyses VI. Geologic sources of obsidian artifacts VII. Comparison of pottery types

Page 68 68 70 72 73 74 74

66

Ported

here:

Wendell C. Bell Dale L. Berge John E. Clark Dee F. Green Galen R. Haugh Jeff Herrick La Mar W. Lindsay, Assistant State Archeologist of Utah Harold Mickel Fred W. Nelson, Sr. Greg Nielson Robert Carroll, Acting District Manager, Bureau of Land Management, Nevada

ABSTRACT Obsidian from 16 geologic sources in western Utah, Nevada and southern Idaho has been analyzed to determine their trace element composition. Also, obsidian artifacts from several archeological sites in Utah have been analyzed and their trace element composition has been compared to that of the geologic sources by use of discriminant analysis. By this means it has been possible to determine from which obsidian source the artifacts originated. The results of these analyses indicate that the people of the Sevier culture usually obtained most of their obsidian from the nearest geologic source. However, obsidian from more distant sources has also been found at sites such as those located in Tule Valley, Millard County, Utah. Also, obsidian was important enough that ancient people traveled long distances to obtain it if necessary. For example, the source of obsidian artifacts found at Provo, Utah County (42Utlll), was in the Black Rock Desert, Millard County, and near Malad, Idaho.

The analysis of obsidian, when combined with other archeological data, allows the archeologist to hypothesize about cultural contacts between different areas. It is hoped that eventually, as more data is obtained, actual trade routes will be determined.

INTRODUCTION Hopewellian culture of the Middle West (Griffin, Gordus, and Wright 1969); from Arizona (Jack 1971; from Western Asia (Renfrew and Dixon 1976); and from Mesoamerica (Stross et al. 1976; Nelson et al.

1977; Nelson, Sidrys, and Holmes 1978). Studies of this kind can be valuable in determining exchange patterns between different areas. Obsidian is particularly valuable because its source can be determined with relative ease and exactness (sometimes to within a few kilometers).

Obsidian artifacts from several archeological sites in Utah have been analyzed using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. The trace element composition of the artifacts has been compared to that of 16 geologic sources of obsidian located in western Utah and surrounding areas. Using this method it has been possible to determine the geologic source of the obsidian artifacts.

Recently several papers have been published which report the trace element composition of obsidian artifacts and sources from California (Jack 1976); the

OBSIDIAN SOURCES METHODS

(MnO); 2) ferric oxide (Fe203^, titanium oxide (Ti02i), and barium (Ba); and 3) sodium oxide (Na20).

Measured intensities were corrected for counter deadtime, background, long-term drift and, where necessary, spectral overlap (Norrish and Chappell 1977; Hutchison 1974:527). The corrected net peak data were then interpreted using two computational procedures: 1) a linear calibration of concentration to net peak intensity was used for Na20, Ti02, MnO, Fe 2 03, and Ba and 2) a linear calibration of concentration to the ratio of net peak intensity to the intensity of the coherently scattered radiation from the tungsten Lyii tube line was used for Rb, Sr, and Zr (Norrish and Chappell 1977; Jenkins and DeVries 1969; Bertin 1970). The accuracy of these methods is shown in Table II, which compares the results of the analysis

Sixteen geologic sources of obsidian in western Utah, Nevada and southern Idaho have been sampled and the obsidian analyzed. The analyses were performed using a wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The instrument is a Philips PW 1410 vacuum-path spectrometer equipped with a highprecision five-position crystal changer and a semiautomatic programmable goniometer controller.

Power to the X-ray tube is supplied by an ultrastable three-kilowatt generator. Table I lists the instrumental settings used for the analysis of each element and the precision obtained using these methods. The analyses were performed in three groups: 1) rubidium (Rb), strontium (Sr), zirconium (Zr), and manganese oxide 67

TABLE I Instrument settings used for the analysis of the obsidian sources and artifacts, the theoretical lower limits of detection and the precision of these methods.

Element Rb Sr Zr MnO Fe203 Ti02 Ba Na20

Analytical Line Ka Ka Ka Ka Ka Ka La Ka

IB

Analyzing Crystal

26.57 25.10 22.44 62.97 57.48 86.16 87.14 54.34

LiF (200) LiF (200) LiF (200) LiF(200) LiF (200) LiF (200) LiF (200) RAP

X-ray Generator Tube KV mA

w W

w w Cr Cr Cr Cr

50 50 50 50 50 50 50 40

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 60

Counting Time 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 100

sec sec sec sec sec sec sec sec

of nine international rock standards (G-l, GSP-1, AGV-1, GA, GH, NIM-G, GM, RGM-1, QLO-1) to the reported values of Flanagan (1973; 1976) and Fabbi and Espos (1976).

The samples were prepared for analysis by crushing 1.2 grams of obsidian in a hardened steel percussion mortar to minus 25 mesh and then pulverizing the resultant chips in an agate vial using a Spex 5100 mixer/mill. The chips were ground for 15 minutes to a powder of approximately 400 mesh or smaller.

Pellets were made by pressing 0.500 grams of obsidian powder under a pressure of 1,170 kg per cm2 using a Fabbi-type die and a Spex B-25 hydraulic press (Fabbi 1970). Whatman CF-11 cellulose powder was used for the backing and shoulders of the pellets.

All samples were analyzed in duplicate.

Rb ppm

Sr ppm

Zr MnO Fe,0, Ti0 2 ppm % % %

XRF Flanagan 1976

171 168

481 479

387 300

.036 2.78 .034 2.65

XRF Flanagan 1976

266 254

234 233

556 500

.039 4.23 .042 4.33

XRF Flanagan 1976

49 67

659 657

279 225

.093 7.53 .097 6.76

GA GA

XRF Flanagan 1973

174 175

303 300

137 140

.089 2.88 .09 2.86

.461 .38

869 3.49 850 3.55

GH GH

XRF Flanagan 1973

378 390

17 10

169 .053 1.35 160 .05 1.33

.070 .08

24 3.93 22 3.85

NIM-G NIM-G

XRF Flanagan 1973

330 340

15 12

260 260

.024 2.13 .02 1.96

.086 .09

118 3.46 210 3.32

GM GM

XRF Flanagan 1973

276 250

127" 143 135 145

.048 1.87 .04 2.02

.196 .21

332 3.80 330 3.76

RGM-1 RGM-1

XRF Fabbi & Espos 1976

147 154

105 117

227 212

.043 2.08 .037 1.95

.300 .293

866 4.09 827 3.92

QLO-1 QLO-1

XRF Fabbi & Espos 1976

58 68

343 329

189 175

.093 4.99 .097 4.42

.681 1.442 4.26 .635 1.392 4.07

. G-2 G-2 GSP-1 GSP-1 AGV-I AGV-1 â&#x20AC;˘

_ .

59 p p m 341 ppm 203 ppm .093% 4.98% .682% 1443 ppm 4.29%

63 ppm 350 p p m 217 p p m .092% 4.99% .679% 1460 ppm 4.24%

RGM-1 (A) 149 p p m 106 p p m 230 p p m .043% 2.09% .301% 868 p p m 4.07%

RGM-1 (B) 147 p p m 103 p p m 236 p p m .042% 2.08% .299% 859 p p m 4.09%

Table III lists the location of the obsidian sources discussed in this report and the results of the analysis of obsidian from 16 geologic sources in western Utah, Nevada, and southern Idaho. The geologic sources are located by township and range where this is known and have been assigned a source number; such as la, lb, 2, 3, etc.

Figures 1, 2 and 3 illustrate by means of triangular coordinate graphs the relative proportions of selected trace elements in each obsidian source. As can be seen in Figure 1 there is some overlap of the rubidium, strontium, and zirconium ratio for some of the sources. For example, Sources 2, 4 and 13 (Table III; Figure 1) and Sources 9 and 10 (Table III; Figure 1) have the same rubidium, strontium, and zirconium ratio. However, by using an iron, titanium, and manganese ratio and/or a barium, titanium, and manganese ratio (see Figures 2 and 3) the sources can easily be distinguished and the artifacts correlated to their sources.

The statistical validity of the correlation of the artifacts to their geologic sources has been tested by discriminant analysis. This has been accomplished by using the computer program SPSS subprogram DISCRIMINANT (Nie et al. 1975:434-467). Discriminant analysis combines the discriminating variables in a stepwise fashion in such a manner that the variables are used in the order of their value as discriminating functions. In this way the groups are forced to be as statistically distinct as possible.

The method used for controlling the stepwise selection of discriminant functions was the minimum Wilks' Lambda. Because the magnitude of variation between the values reported for the different elements is large, a logarithmic (base 10) transformation has been used to normalize the values. Table IV shows that, for this project, iron is the single best discriminating variable and that the next best discriminating variable in combination with iron is titanium, then manganese, etc. Sodium has almost no value in discriminat-

TABLE II

Source of Data

3 ppm 4 ppm 6 ppm .0002% .001% .002% 3 ppm â&#x20AC;˘02%

Precision

RESULTS OF ANALYSIS

Comparison of the results of X-ray fluorescence analysis of International Geologic Standards to their reported values.

Geol.

Stand.

Theoretical Lower Precision Limits of Detection QLO-1 (A) QLO-1 (B)

Ba Na,0 ppm %

.497 1.933 4.23 .50 1.870 4.07 .638 1,324 2.86 .66 1.300 2.80 1.125 1.262 4.09 1.04 1.208 4.26

68

Fig. 1 The relative concentration of rubidium, strontium, and zirconium in the obsidian sources.

See Table III on the following pages.

Fig. 2 The relative concentration of iron/10, titanium, and manganese in the obsidian sources.

See Table III on the following pages.

ing between the groups studied in this report. The relative discriminating power of these elements is not constant and will depend upon their relative concentrations and variations within a given suite of samples.

In addition to constructing discriminant functions for samples of known provenience the SPSS subprogram DISCRIMINANT can also be used to classify unknown samples and to calculate the probability that a given sample belongs to a given source. The program also reports the second most probable group to which a sample may be assigned. The probability that each sample belongs to the source to which it has been assigned is shown on Tables III and V. If the probability of a sample belonging to the "highest group" is given as 1.000 then the probability that the sample belongs to that group is between 0.9995 and 1.000. It can be seen that the groups formed by discriminant analysis correlate very closely to the groups shown in Figures 1, 2, and 3 with the exception of two or possibly three groups.

Groups la and lb (Table III) are separated in Figure 1, are identical in Figures 2 and 3, and discriminant analysis shows that they probably should not be separated. Sources la and lb are both from the Mineral Mountain Range (Figure 4) and are within 5 km of each other. In each case the probability that the sample belongs to either Source la or to Source lb equals 1.000. It is quite certain, therefore, that the Mineral Mountain Range is the source of the obsidian assigned to these two groups. The same is true for Source 7a and Source 7b (Table III). These sources are both from the Modena area and even though there is some possibility that a sample could belong to either Source 7a or to Source 7b the probability that a sample belongs to one or the other source is 1.000. Therefore, there is little or no possibility that the sample could belong to a source outside the Modena area.

It should also be noted that quite often obsidian sources which are very close geographically can be distinguished. The sources from the Black Rock area (Sources 8, 9, 10, 12, and 13 in Table III) are all very close together geographically and the probability that a sample belongs to a second group is very low. In each case the second group is also a source in the Black Rock area. Also, Sources 2 and 3 (Table HI) are easily distinguished from Sources la and lb even though all are from the Mineral Mountain area.

Sources 4 and 5 (Table III) are from the Topaz Mountain area and are easily distinguished graphically and by discriminant analysis. All other groups are clearly distinguished by graphical and statistical methods.

Therefore, in each case where there is a probability that a sample could be from a source other than the one to which it has been assigned, the probability

Fig. 3 The relative concentration of barium, titanium, and manganese in the obsidian sources.

See Table III on the following pages.

69

TABLE III Results of the analysis of obsidian sources from western Utah, Nevada, and southern Idaho.

Sample Number

Geologic Source

Source Location

Rb ppm

Sr ppm

Zr Mn ppm %

Fe 2 0 3

%

T1O2

%

Ba Na 2 0 ppm %

Highest Group Probability

2nd Highest Group Probability

Schoo Mine Schoo Mine Schoo Mine Schoo Mine Kirk Canyon Schoo Mine Cedar Gravel

Source la. Schoo Mine Area, Mineral Mountain Range, Beaver County , Utah SWVi, Secl,R9W,T27S 224 36 136 .053 .68 .137 171 3.52 225 42 127 .052 .64 SE'/4, Sec 2, R9W, T27S .133 164 3.22 SE'/4, Sec 2, R9W, T27S 216 42 119 .053 .65 .134 163 3.40 212 41 127 SE'/4, Sec 2, R9W, T27S .053 .67 .137 173 3.53 119 43 NE'/4, Sec 34, R9W, T27S 211 .053 .66 .137 171 3.53 SW'/4, Secl,R9W,T27S 202 58 91 .055 .69 .143 179 3.66 SW'/4, Secll,R9W,T27S 201 107 55 .054 .72 .136 172 3.49

la la la la la la la

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 .999

Schoo Mine Road Wild Horse Canyon Wild Horse Canyon Wild Horse Canyon Wild Horse Canyon

Source lb. Wild Horse Canyon Area, Mineral Mountain Range, Beaver County, Utah SE'/4, Sec 2, R9W, T27S 190 42 130 .053 .67 .137 171 3.47 lb SW>/4, Sec 22, R9W, T27S 181 47 128 .054 .67 .138 165 3.55 lb SW'/4, Sec 22, R9W, T27S 175 46 129 .053 .67 .138 174 3.53 lb SW'/4, Sec 22, R9W, T27S 178 42 149 .053 .66 .137 175 3.49 lb SW'/4, Sec 22, R9W,T27S 181 45 131 .054 .66 .138 169 3.55 lb

.992 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

__

100

Kirk Canyon

Source 2. Kirk Cany on Area, Mineral Mountain Range, Beaver County Utah SE'/4, Sec 27, R9W, T27S 339 8 123 .102 .45 .074 7 4.11

2

1.000

— —

101

Pumice Hole Mine

Source 3. Pumice Hole Mine Area, >Mineral Mountain Range, Beaver County, Utah NE'/4, Sec 2, R9W, T28S 166 63 150 .050 .76 .166 328 3.44 3

1.000

-

102 103 104 105 374 378 379 380

Topaz Topaz Topaz Topaz Topaz Topaz Topaz Topaz

Mountain Mountain Mountain Mountain Mountain Mountain Mountain Mountain

Source 4. Topaz Mountain A rea, Thomas Range, Juab County, Utah NW'/4 Sec 30, R11W,T12S443 11 158 .064 .91 .100 10 3.56 NW'/4 Sec 30, R11W,T12S441 9 161 .064 .89 .101 8 3.55 NW/4 Sec 30, R11W,T12S439 11 159 .064 .89 .105 10 3.51 NW'/4 Sec 30, R1IW,TI2S434 10 167 .064 .91 7 3.27 .101 SE'/4, Sec 30, R11W,T12S497 7 154 .065 .93 .104 13 3.63 NW'/i Sec 28, R11W,T12S499 8 155 .066 .92 .102 12 3.60 SW'/4, Sec31,RllW,T12S 492 7 160 .065 .94 .104 11 3.53 SW'/4, Sec31,RllW,T12S 494 154 6 .065 .91 12 3.21 .104

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

— —

375 423

Topaz Mountain Topaz Mountain

Source 5. Topaz Mountain A rea, Thomas Range, Juab County, Utah SE'/4, Sec 29, R11W,T12S 530 4 136 .069 .89 .088 8 3.77 SW'/4, Sec 6, R11W.T13S 546 2 123 .072 .93 .091 11 3.73

5 5

1.000 1.000

— — — —

3.56 3.61 3.50 3.48 3.60 3.58

6 6 6 6 6 6

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

491 491

3.47 3.35

7a 7a

504 506 497

3.47 3.50 3.47

7b 7b 7b

90 91 92 93 98 314 381

94 95 96 97 99

Source 6.

Canyon Canyon Canyon Canyon Canyon Canyon

418 419 420 439 440 441

Malad Malad Malad Malad Malad Malad

ElkH am ElkH arn ElkH arn ElkH am ElkH am ElkH orn

376 377

Modena Modena

Iron County, Utah Iron C ounty, Utah

305 306 309

Modena Modena Modena

Sec 12 , R19W,T35S Sec 12, R19W,T35S Sec 12 , R19W,T35S

lb

.001

la

.008

— —

-

—

w

Jk Horn Canyon Area, Oneida County, Idaho 118 95 48 .035 1.01 .067 1622 115 91 67 .035 .98 .069 1627 115 90 67 .035 .97 .068 1608 118 88 50 .035 .95 .066 1624 117 90 62 .067 1640 .035 .97 118 92 52 .035 .95 .067 1644

Source 7a. Modena Area Iron County, Utah 197 100 139 .045 .90 Ml 208 104 135 .046 .91 .136 Source 7b.

206 205 205

Modena 110 111 115

70

Area 109 103 90

Iron County, Utah .047 .92 .135 .047 .94 .133 .046 .89 .132

.

— — — — -

-

.956 .539

7b 7b

.044 .461

.811 .902 .765

7a 7a 7a

.189 .098 .235

TABLE III Continued

Sample Number

Geologic Source

Source Location

Rb ppm Source 8.

180 181 182 394 398 399 400

Zr MnO Fe 2 0 3 ppm % %

Utah .052 .051 .052 .055 .050 .058 .051

Black Rock Area, Millard County, .065 .87 27 17 16 34 .064 .88 13 43 .065 .90 16 25 .064 .88 13 50 .066 .89 60 .068 .88 12 59 .063 .97 26 12 81 .066 .87

Utah .053 .053 .052 .053 .053 .048 .057 .045

Highest Group 1Probability

2nd Highest Group Probability

12 9

8 8 8 8 8 8 8

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 .531 .999

—— —— —— —— ——

12 10 10 11 12 12 22 8

3.93 3.91 3.95 3.89 3.91 3.93 2.27 3.89

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 .850 1.000 .785

—— —— —— —— ——

8 14

4.00 4.04

10 10

1.000 1.000

—— —

White Mountain Arecr, Black Rock Desert, Millard County, Utah 34 4.08 .153 .081 2.11 213 304 40 304 29 120 .080 2.09 .145 35 4.18 28 124 .077 2.07 .141 38 4.10 303

11 11 11

1.000 1.000 1.000

- — ——

Black Rock Area Millard County, Utah .035 .077 .83 108 15

9

4.19

12

1.000

——

Black Rock Area Millard County, Utah .029 .079 .77 116 9

8

4.15

13

1.000

——

79 69

3.89 3.80

14 14

1.000 1.000

—— ——

Kane Spring Wash Area, Lincoln County, Nevada .121 105 145 .035 1.38 28 199 26 155 .039 1.38 .121 108 193 25 165 .035 1.37 .122 103 189 23 83 .034 1.33 .118 103 189 192 24 87 .034 1.37 .119 102 20 93 .034 1.34 .120 103 186

3.58 3.58 3.55 3.55 3.54 3.51

15 15 15 15 15 15

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

— — —— —— —— ——

Area, Humboldt County, Nevada 28 .270 .071 4.03 595 567 .069 4.10 .279 29 611 .070 3.98 .271 25 640 .059 3.79 .238 17 664 .061 3.89 .249 18 .059 3.87 .244 18 901 677 .059 3.84 .243 19 584 .072 4.04 .275 36 553 .071 4.04 .273 31

4.18 4.20 4.22 4.28 4.40 4.25 4.39 4.21 4.29

16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

—— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— ——

SE'/4, Sec 10, R10W, T24S SE'/4, Sec 10, R10W, T24S SE>/4, Sec 10, R10W, T24S SE'/4) Sec 11, R9W, T24S NW'/ 4 ,Sec31,R8W,T23S SW'/4, Sec 11, R9W, T24S SW'/4, Sec 3, R9W, T24S

Black Rock Black Rock Black Rock Black Rock Black Rock Black Rock Black Rock Black Rock

SE'/4, Sec 35, R9W, T23S SE'/4, Sec 21, R8W, T23S NW'/ 4 ,Sec2, R9W,T24S NE'/4, Sec 14, R9W, T24S NE'/4, Sec 17, R7W, T23S SEW, Sec 10, R8W, T24S SE'/4, Sec 10, R8W, T24S NW'/4l Sec 35, R9W, T23S

259 252 259 258 267 270 248 294

Source 10.

Black Rock Area, Millard County , Utah .041 39 .073 .85 9 289 8 50 .072 .84 .043 294

323 325

Black Rock Black Rock

SE'/4, Sec 26, R9W, T23S NE'/4, Sec 10, R9W, T24S

330 373 382

White Mountain White Mountain White Mountain

NE'/ 4 ,Secll,R6W,T22S NE'/ 4 ,Sec 11,R6W,T22S NE'/4, Sec 11, R6W, T22S

397

Black Rock

SW/ 4 ,Sec35, R9W,T23S 331

396

Black Rock

SW'/4, Sec 35, R9W,T23S 348

334 335

Marysvale Marysvale

Sec 24, R4W, T27S Sec 24, R4W, T27S

331 332 333 349 350 351

Kane Spring Kane Spring Kane Spring Kane Spring Kane Spring Kane Spring

Sec 20, R63E,T11S Sec 20, R63E,T11S Sec 20, R63E,T11S Sec 20, R63E,T11S Sec 20, R63E,T11S Sec 20, R63E,T11S

Humboldt Humboldt Humboldt Humboldt Humboldt Humboldt Humboldt Humboldt Humboldt

Source 16. Sentinel Peak 1 SW'/4, Sec 18, R36E, T44N 205 2 SW'/4, Sec 18, R36E, T44N 192 3 SW'/4, Sec 18, R36E, T44N 198 5 SW'/4, Sec 18, R36E, T44N 220 2 SW'/ 4 ,Secl8, R36E,T44N 213 0 NE'/4, Sec 19, R36E, T44N 212 0 NEW, Sec 19, R36E, T44N 206 0 NE'/4, Sec 3, R35E, T43N 198 0 NE'/4, Sec 3, R35E, T43N 206

Source 12.

Source 13.

Source 14. Marysvale Area, Piute County, Utah .131 .091 .90 64 131 351 65 121 .090 .86 .123 347

Source 15.

384 385 386 387 388 389 390 421 422

Ba NaiO ppm %

3.70 3.84 4.06 3.78 3.79 3.88 3.86

Black Rock Black Rock Black Rock Black Rock Black Rock Black Rock Black Rock

Source 11.

TKh %

Black Rock Area, Millard County, .064 .89 112 17 276 18 112 .064 .89 281 14 116 .065 .90 280 15 151 .063 .90 276 12 195 .063 .88 268 16 75 .060 .91 247 13 103 .065 .87 265

Source 9.

321 322 324 326 327 328 329 395

Sr ppm

71

10 10 9 13

/

9 9

.469 .001

10

.147

—— 8

—

.201

•

exists only between sources within a very small geographical area. For example, there would be no problem in distinguishing obsidian from the Mineral Mountains, the Black Rock Desert, Modena, or any other sources.

Because of the similarity in trace element composition and the geographical proximity of Sources la and lb, Sources 7a and 7b, and the sources in the

Black Rock Desert; it may be that at some future time the sources from each of these areas will be combined to form a single source from each area. From an archeological standpoint this would probably be acceptable because there would be fewer sources but the same number of geographical areas from which to determine exchange routes.

OBSIDIAN ARTIFACTS The geologic sources of the obsidian artifacts from several archeological sites in Utah have been identified by comparing their trace element composition to that of obsidian geologic sources by means of X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and discriminant analysis.

The obsidian artifacts from Tule Valley (White Valley) were excavated by Berge (1964). He surveyed the valley and reported 76 sites (42Mdl03 to 42Mdl78). These sites belong to the Sevier culture and probably date to A.D. 800-1200. Obsidian artifacts have been analyzed from 35 sites in Tule Valley and the results reported here (see Table V). Figure 4 shows the location of the sites within Tule Valley from which obsidian artifacts have been analyzed and Table VI gives the number of artifacts from each obsidian source. The majority of the artifacts (68%) came from the two Topaz Mountain sources (51% from Source 4 and 17% from Source 5). This is probably because the Topaz Mountain sources are only about 40 to 50 km from Tule Valley. Another twenty percent of the obsidian came to Tule Valley from the Black Rock Desert area (Source 8, see Figure 4). This source is about twice as far (80 k m ) from Tule Valley as the Topaz Mountain obsidian sources.

Also, small amounts of obsidian were being used in Tule Valley from the Mineral Mountain Range (Source la, 6% and Source lb, 3%) and from the Modena area (Source 7a, 3%).

The obsidian artifacts from the G. M. Hinckley Farm site in Provo, Utah (Site 42Utlll) were excavated by Green (1961). This site dates to A.D. 8001300 (Green 1961:79) and was part of the Sevier culTABLE IV

ture. The obsidian arrived at the Provo site from both the north and the south. Five artifacts were analyzed and three (60%) came from Source 8 (see Table V) in the Black Rock Desert and two (40%) came from Source 6 near Malad, Idaho. Two artifacts from Grantsville, Tooele County, Utah have also been analyzed and both came from Source 6 near Malad, Idaho. The Grantsville obsidian artifacts came from a construction excavation and were found in association with Great Salt Lake Gray pottery.

Obsidian artifacts have also been analyzed from four sites in western Juab County: Granite Creek Canyon in the Deep Creek Mountain Range (42JM67) and Trout Creek (42Jb3) (Lindsay and Sargent 1979); Fish Springs (42JM79) (Madsen n.d.); and Simpson Springs (Berge n.d.). All of the obsidian from these sites came from the Topaz Mountain source area (see Table VI). The obsidian artifacts from the Deep Creek, Trout Creek, and Simpson Springs sites probably date to the time period of the Sevier culture and the obsidian from Fish Springs to the ShoshoniPaiute period.

Analyses have also been completed on obsidian artifacts from Backhoe Village in Richfield, Sevier County (42Sv662) (Madsen and Lindsay 1977); PintSize Shelter Site, Emery County (42Em625) (Lindsay and Lund 1976); a site located in Trough Hollow, Sevier County (42Sv386) (Berge 1974); and a site near Mud Springs, in Salina Canyon, Sevier County (42Sv931) (Berge 1977). Also, surface artifacts found by campers along Skyline Drive, east of Spring City, Sanpete County have been analyzed. The Richfield artifact dates to about A.D. 900 and is from the Sevier culture. It came from Source 9 (see Tables V and VI).

The artifact from Pint-Size Shelter in Emery County (42Em625) may date to the Archaic period (25001000 B.C.) and indicates that obsidian was used and transported over long distances in very early times in Utah. This artifact came from Source 12 (see Tables V and VI) in the Black Rock Desert area. The artifacts from the sites in Trough Hollow and Salina Canyon came from Source la (Table V) in the Mineral Mountains. These sites were occupied during the Sevier culture period or between A.D. 650-1300. The artifacts from Sanpete County came from the Black Rock Desert area and also from the Mineral Moun-

Results of the stepwise selection of the discriminating functions and their relative value in classifying the obsidian samples into groups as computed by the SPSS Subprogram Discriminant.

Discriminating Function Fe Ti Mn Ba Rb Zr Sr Na

Eigenvalue 1042.93282 408.36365 208.29655 24.02431 13.78984 2.50748 1.39670 0.11144

Relative Percentage 61.30 24.00 12.24 1.41 0.81 0.15 0.08 0.01

Wilks' Lambda 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0003 0.0072 0.1070 0.3754 0.8997

Chi-square 1825.570 1345.968 930.961 562.242 340.072 154.190 67.602 7.290 ,

72

TABLE V Results of analysis of obsidian artifacts from several archeological sites in western Utah.

•

Sample Number

50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 167 168 171 172 173 174 307 308 310 311 312 313 383 391 392 393 424 425 426 443 444 445 472 473 512 513 514 526 527

Archeological Site

42Utlll 42UU11 42Utlll 42UU11 42Utlll 42Mdlll 42Mdll2 42Mdll4 42Mdll5 42Mdll9 42Mdl20 42Mdl21 42Mdl23 42Mdl25 42Mdl26 42Mdl27 42Mdl29 42Mdl31 42Mdl33 42Mdl34 42Mdl39 42Mdl40 42Mdl41 42Mdl43 42Mdl44 42Mdl45 42Mdl46 42Mdl47 42Mdl48 42Mdl50 42Mdl52 42Mdl61 42Mdl63 42Mdl66 42Mdl67 42Mdl68 42Mdl72 42Mdl73 42Mdl74 42Mdl76 Grantsville Grantsville Surface Surface Surface Surface 42Sv662 42Em625 42In231 421n232 42In229 42In223 Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface 42JM67 42Jbl67 42Jbl67 42Jbl79 42Jb3 Cedar Breaks 42Sv386 42Sv931 42Svl316 42Svl316

Site Location

Rb ppm

Provo, Utah Provo, Utah Provo, Utah Provo, Utah Provo, Utah Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley 'Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tule Valley Tooele County Tooele County Sevier Dry Lake Sevier Dry Lake Sevier Dry Lake Sevier Dry Lake Richfield Castle Valley M o d e n a Area M o d e n a Area M o d e n a Area M o d e n a Area Simpson Springs Southern W a h W a h Mts. Southern W a h W a h Mts. Southern W a h W a h Mts. Skyline Drive Skyline Drive Skyline Drive Deep Creek Mountains Deep Creek M o u n t a i n s Deep Creek Mountains Fish Springs Trout Creek SW'/4,Sec27, R9W,T35S T r o u g h Hollow Salina Canyon Mill Creek Mill Creek

302 166 268 297 149 452 439 508 465 453 217 446 496 201 449 189 242 335 454 329 474 466 448 477 460 311 459 467 464 534 454 294 479 320 513 312 274 468 502 497 154 176 276 280 287 320 284 334 204 205 206 207 498 192 194 209 195 282 195 494 496 494 515 546 192 194 197 193 267

Sr ppm

14 71 21 14 85 10 12 7 11 10 82 10 10 48 9 45 39 15 16 12 14 iO 14 10 24 17 13 II in 7 16 16 8 13 10 16 14 10 10 16 86 76 22 21 18 14 19 14 114 111 112 111 13 56 61 121 47 11 48 6 6 2 2 5 41 41 45 44 9

Zr |jpm

MnO

101 97 116 118 87 156 145 135 151 156 143 163 143 131 152 136 119 98 161 119 148 152 146 154 146 107 148 149 139 131 149 110 149 102 139 96 112 152 186 137 58 80 91 98 97 106 52 85 103 111 136 118 92 85 157 166 62 55 78 106 101 1!6 [17 1 19 93 100 45 81 59

73

%

Fe203

%

.82 .061 .033 .88 .060 .85 .065 .78 .035 .95 .064 .88 .064 .90 .068 .85 .064 .89 .066 .89 .044 .83 .063 .88 .070 .85 .053 .68 .88 .063 .053 .67 .64 .053 .80 .061 .89 .065 .79 .066 .89 .064 .064 .90 .064 .89 .064 .90 .064 .89 .061 .83 .89 .063 .89 .064 .064 .91 .068 .86 .94 .064 .83 .063 .88 .064 .82 .063 .069 .88 .83 .061 .062 .85 .064 .90 .87 .069 .070 ,89 .035 .95 .94 .035 .88 .064 .87 .065 .064 .89 .071 .84 ,89 ,064 .075 .84 .046 91 .046 .88 .90 .047 .047 .90 .96 .065 .71 .055 .71 .054 .90 .046 .74 .056 .90 .065 .71 .055 .066 .95 .97 .067 .067 .96 .96 .067 .94 .072 71 .055 .69 .055 .055 .72 .054 .69 .90 .063

TiO: %

Ba ppm

Na20 %

.049 8 .063 1,557 12 .054 5 .043 .067 1,614 12 .100 10 .100 .082 8 9 .100 .102 12 472 .125 11 .101 .084 9 .137 170 .099 12 172 .139 .137 164 .048 9 10 .106 .043 5 .108 9 .100 9 12 .100 9 .100 14 .102 .049 9 10 .099 10 .106 .100 9 .084 7 .104 9 .047 8 .099 8 11 .048 7 .085 .052 11 .049 8 14 .099 .086 10 .084 10 .068 1,631 .067 1,582 .053 10 8 .050 .052 9 .039 5 .052 9 .035 5 514 .133 .132 497 .133 506 .134 506 .105 11 .141 177 .142 176 .134 496 .146 182 .052 9 .141 176 .105 13 .106 12 .105 12 .103 13 .090 10 .144 187 .141 181 .143 185 .142 181 .047 12

3.71 3.53 3.74 3.83 3.44 3.58 3.56 3.59 3.54 3.58 3.34 3.57 3.69 3.55 3.52 3.55 3.52 3.75 3.61 3.85 3.57 3.55 3.58 3.61 3.58 3.69 3.59 3.58 3.58 3.62 3.59 3.81 3.56 3.81 3.70 3.73 3.78 3.58 3.62 3.66 3.52 3.47 3.73 3.74 3.77 3.89 3.93 4.05 3.45 3.48 3.46 3.52 3.60 3.57 3.66 3.52 3.66 3.90 3.61 3.61 3.69 3.53 3.56 3.81 3.66 3.74 3.73 3.75 3.95

Highest Group 1'robability

8 6 8 8 6 4 4 5 4 4 7a 4 5 la 4 lb| la 8 4 8 4 4 4 4 4 8 4 4 4 5 4 8 4 8 5 8 8 4 5 5 6 6 8 8 8 10 9 12 7b 7a 7a 7b 4

la la 7a la 9

la 4 4 5 5 5 la la la la 9

.998 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 .998 1.000 1.000 .983 1.000 .895 .973 1.000 .995 1.000 .998 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 .999 1.000 1.000 1.000 .999 .972 .998 1.000 1.000 .947 .976 1.000 1.000 .994 .998 .991 .931 1.000 1.000 .685 .669 .744 .544 .999 .978 .621 ,806 1.000 1.000 .998 .959 .845 .973 .999 1.000 .945 .787 1.000 1.000 1.000

2nd Highest Group Probability

9

.002

— — — — — —

— — — — — —

4

.002

— — — — 7b

.017

— — 4 lb

.105 .027

— — la

.005

— — 9

.002

— — — — — — — — — — —

— — — — — — — — — — —

4

.001

— — — — — — 9 4 9

.001 .028 .002

— — — — 4 4

.053 .024

— — — — 9 9 9 12

.006 .002 .009 .068

— — — — 7a 7b 7b

7a 5 tb lb 7b

.315 .331 .256 .456 .001 .022 .379 .194

— — — — lb 5 5 4 4

.002 .041 .155 .027 .001

— — lb

lb

.055 .213

— — — — — —

TABLE VI Obsidian artifacts from several archeological sites in western Utah and their geologic source.

i 25

al

33

§4 e 4> •_ U 4) O 41

O 41 CA pa

« -3

c

3! «rt O <u wf j u

s =

6%

3%

. o r* ( j

I 5

SB

o o tcA

o g en JS

3%

5£ 52

3

=

o £

= =

3

Efl E

20% 75%

=

a ft Cfl

25%

60%

33% 100% 100%

100% 100% 100%

67% 100% 100% 50%

33%

50%

67% 100%

10 15%

21 30%

tain source area. Two artifacts (67%) came from Source la in the Mineral Mountains and one artifact (33%) came from Source 9 in the Black Rock area. Also, analyses have been completed on two artifacts from near Mill Creek, Sevier County (42Svl316). One of these artifacts was found to have come from Source la in the Mineral Mountains and the other from Source 9 in the Black Rock Desert area (see Tables V and VI).

The obsidian artifacts from the southern part of the Wah Wah Mountain Range were collected during a geological survey and came from two areas. Two artifacts came from the Mineral Mountain area Source la) and one artifact came from Source 7a in the Modena area. The artifacts from the Modena area (42In223, 42In229, 42In231, 42In232) came from Sources 7a and 7b (Table V) which are also in the Modena area. The obsidian from 42In223 was found at a quarry site and the obsidian from 42In229, 42In231, and 42In232 are from lithic sites (La Mar W. Lindsay, personal communication).

One artifact was analyzed which came from the Thunder Ridge Scout Camp which is about three miles north of Cedar Breaks National Monument in Iron

9 13%

4 6%

33% 50%

50%

4 6%

2 3%

13 19%

3 4%

1 1%

1 1%

69

TABLE VII Comparison of pottery types.

Tule Valley Sites (42Mdl03-42Mdl78) rcent

Provo Site <42Utlll)

umber

Pottery Types

ercent

Wah Wah Mountains, Beaver County Modena, Iron County 42In223, 229, 231, 232 Cedar Breaks, Iron County Total Artifacts Percent

67%

. O O (j

.a —

umber

Richfield, Sevier County 42Sv662 Castle Valley, Emery County 42Em625 Skyline Drive, Sanpete County Trough Hollow, Sevier County 42Sv386 Salina Canyon, Sevier County 42Sv931 Mill Creek, Sevier County 42Svl 316

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Archeological Site Tule Valley, Millard County 42Mdl03-42Mdl78 Sevier Dry Lake, Millard County Provo, Utah County 42Utl 11 Grantsville, Tooele County

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Great Salt Lake Gray 2,078 77.9% Great Salt Lake Gray — Buff Variety 7.7% 205 Great Salt Lake Gray — Punched Variety 15 .6% Knolls Gray 8 .3% Promontory Ware — — Shoshoni Ware — — Sevier Gray 336 12.6% Snake Valley Gray 7 .3% Snake Valley Black-on-white 12 .5% Ivie Creek Black-on-white 5 .2% (Berge 1964:61; Green 1961:26)

10 55 69 151 81 2

2.7% 14.9% 18.8% 41.0% 22.0% .5%

County (SW'/4, Sec 27, R9W, T25S) (Dale L. Berge, personal communication). The obsidian came from Source la in the Mineral Mountains (Tables V and VI).

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DISCUSSION Figure 5 shows the direction and approximate routes over which the obsidian may have moved in western Utah. For example, evidence obtained by analyzing obsidian artifacts shows that the Hinckley site (42Utlll) in Provo, Utah County had contacts to the north with the area around Elk Horn Canyon

near Malad, Idaho and also to the south with the Black Rock Desert area. However, the specific route over which the obsidian moved and the type of exchange that took place cannot be determined with the small amount of evidence presently available.

ARCHEOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

It also appears that economic considerations were important in obtaining obsidian. The difficulty of transporting obsidian would have increased significantly with distance. This is probably the reason that inhabitants of the archeological sites studied in this report usually obtained the majority of their obsidian from the nearest geologic source. For example, the sites in Tule Valley received 68% of their obsidian from the Topaz Mountain sources, the sites in Juab County received all of their obsidian from the Topaz Mountain sources, the sites in Sevier County received the majority of their obsidian from the Mineral Mountains and Black Rock Desert area and the sites in Iron and Beaver Counties obtained obsidian from the Modena and Mineral Mountain sources.

Therefore, this study indicates that the people of the Sevier culture usually obtained obsidian from the nearest geologic source but it also indicates that obsidian was important enough that it was obtained from distant sources if necessary. The Provo site is an example of this. As more studies of this kind are conducted a much more clear picture should develop.

Obsidian data can be used in conjunction with, and to supplement, other archeological evidence in order to show cultural relationships. For example, both the Provo area and Tule Valley were located in the Sevier culture area (Berge 1964:3; Green 1961:79) as is shown by the pottery found in the two areas (see Table VII).

Both areas obtained obsidian from at least one common source in the Black Rock Desert area (see Tables V and VI). As can be seen in Table VII, some of the same pottery types appear in both areas with Sevier Gray being the most dominant. The core area of distribution of Sevier Gray pottery is east of Tule Valley and south of Provo; however, sherds have been found in much of western Utah and also north of Provo (Madsen, 1977:15). At the Provo site (42Utlll) 77.9% of the pottery was Great Salt Lake Gray and 12.6% was Sevier Gray. The sites in Tule Valley had 41.0% Sevier Gray and 22.0% Snake Valley Gray pottery but no pottery of the Great Salt Lake Gray varieties (see Table 7). Also, it appears from the pottery that the Provo site dates to about A.D. 800-A.D. 1300. The Tule Valley sites date to approximately this same period. However, the significant amounts of Promontory Ware and Shoshoni Ware at the Tule Valley sites indicate that they were also occupied in later times (Madsen 1977; Rudy 1952:52). Also, the presence of Ivie Creek Black-on-white pottery and figurines at the Provo site may indicate possible contacts with the Fremont, perhaps from Emery County or Boulder, Garfield County (Green 1961:81; Madsen 1977:35).

OTHER OBSIDIAN ANALYSES Other investigators have also studied Utah obsidian sources and artifacts. For example, Condie and Blaxland (1970) analyzed many obsidian artifacts from Hogup and Danger caves in western Utah and source samples from the Mineral Mountain Range and the Black Rock Desert. They reported the values for only three elements (rubidium, strontium, and zirconium). Because of this and the problem of correlating data between laboratories, it has been impossible to correlate their data to ours. The problem of correlating data between laboratories has existed since the beginning of archeological obsidian analysis and is only now beginning to be resolved (see for example Ives 1975; Yellin et al 1978).

Lipman et al (1978) have given a valuable description of the Mineral Mountain obsidian sources. However, they have also stated that the Mineral Mountain ". . . rhyolite is also the only known source of

This evidence suggests that the peoples from the Provo area were obtaining obsidian and other items from the south and that they were probably going to these areas to obtain obsidian. There is little evidence that the occupants of Tule Valley or the surrounding areas carried obsidian or other cultural items north.

These results were anticipated by Malouf (1940) when he described obsidian trade and indicated the possibility of obsidian from the Mineral Mountain area going north to Provo. Also, his map of the trade routes (Malouf 1940:116, Figure 13) shows obsidian from Idaho coming south.

75

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Fig. 4 Location of sites in Tule Valley, Millard County from which obsidian artifacts have been analyzed and also the location of the Topaz Mountain, Black Rock Desert, and Mineral Mountain obsidian sources 76

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Fig. 5 Map showing the approximate routes over which obsidian may have been carried from the geologic sources to the archeological sites.

77

implement-grade obsidian in the Southwest between eastern California and northern New Mexico" (Lipman et al 1978:133). It has been shown in this paper that there are at least five areas that have implementgrade obsidian (Modena, Mineral Mountains, Black Rock Desert, and Topaz Mountain in Utah; and Malad, Idaho). There are also large deposits of implement-grade obsidian near Flagstaff, Arizona

(Jack 1971). A useful description of the obsidian deposits in the Black Rock Desert area has also recently appeared (Haugh in press).

This preliminary study of obsidian artifacts has mainly included sites from western Utah. It is hoped that studies can be conducted on artifacts from other areas of Utah to obtain a more complete picture of obsidian trade.

+

78

REFERENCES Berge, Dale L. 1964 An archaeological survey of White Valley, Millard County, Utah. Unpublished Masters Thesis.

Department of Archaeology, Brigham Young University. Provo.

Haugh, Galen R. in press Late Cenozoic, Cauldron-related silicic volcanism in the Twin Peaks area, Millard County, Utah. Brigham Young University Geological Studies. Provo.

1974 An archaeological survey in the Castle Valley Area, central Utah. Publications in Archaeology, No. 1, Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, Brigham Young University. Provo.

Hutchison, Charles S. 1974 Laboratory Handbook of Petrographic Techniques. John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York.

Ives, D. J. 1975 Trace element analyses of archaeological materials. American Antiquity, 40:235-236. Washington.

1977 Cultural Resource Evaluation Along the Sigurd to Emery Transmission Line for Utah Power and Light Company. Report submitted to Utah Power and Light. Salt Lake City. n.d.

Jack, Robert N. 1971 The source of obsidian artifacts in northern Arizona. Plateau, 43:103-114. Flagstaff.

Simpson Springs: Historical Archaeology in western Utah, (in press). Brigham Young University Press. Provo.

Jack Robert N. 1976 Prehistoric obsidian in California I: Geochemical aspects, in Advances in Obsidian Glass Studies, edited by R. E. Taylor, pp. 183-217. Noyes Press.

Park Ridge, N.J.

Bertin, Eugene P. 1970 Principles and Practice of X-ray Spectrometric Analysis. Plenum Press, New York.

Condie, Kent C. and Alan B. Blaxland 1970 Sources of obsidian in Hogup and Danger Caves.

In Hogup Cave by C. Melvin Aikens. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 93, pp. 275281. Salt Lake City.

Jenkins, R. and J. L. De Vries 1969 Practical X-ray Spectrometry.

New York.

Lindsay, La Mar W. and Christian W. Lund 1976 Pint-Size Shelter. Antiquities Section Selected Papers, Vol. HI, No. 10. Salt Lake City.

Fabbi, Brent P. 1970 A die for pelletizing samples for X-ray fluorescence analysis. In Geological Survey Research 1970, Chapter B. U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 700-B. pp. B187-B189. Washington.

Lindsay, La Mar W. and Kay Sargent 1979 The Prehistory of the Deep Creek Mountain Area. Antiquities Section Selected Papers, Vol. VI, No. 14. Salt Lake City.

Fabbi, B. P. and L. F. Espos 1976 X-ray fluorescence analysis of 21 selected major, minor and trace elements in eight new USGS standard rocks. In Descriptions and Analysis of Eight New USGS Rock Standards. U.S. Geological Professional Paper 840. pp. 89-93. Washington.

Lipman, P. W., P. D. Rowley, H. H. Mehnert, S. H. Evans, Jr., W. P. Nash and F. H. Brown 1978 Pleistocene rhyolite of the Mineral Mountains, Utah â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Geothermal and archeological significance. Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey. 6:133-147. Washington.

Madsen, David B. n.d. Prehistoric Subsistence and Occupation in the Fish Springs Area, Utah. Antiquities Section Selected Papers, (in preparation). Salt Lake City.

Flanagan, F. J. 1973 1972 values for international geochemical reference samples. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 37:1189-1200. London.

1976

Springer-Verlag.

Madsen, David B. and La Mar W. Lindsay 1977 Backhoe Village. Antiquities Section Selected Papers, Vol. IV, No. 12. Salt Lake City.

1972 compilation of data on USGS standards. In Descriptions and analysis of eight new USGS rock standards. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 840. pp. 131-183. Washington.

Madsen, Rex E. 1977 Prehistoric ceramics of the Fremont. Museum of Northern Arizona Ceramic Series No. 6. Flagstaff.

Green, Dee F. 1961 Archaeological investigations at the G. M. Hinckley Site, Utah County, Utah 1956-1960. Brigham Young University Press. Provo.

Malouf, Carling 1940 Prehistoric exchange in the Northern Periphery of the Southwest. American Antiquity, 6:115-122.

Menasha.

Griffin, James B., A. A. Gordus, and G. A. Wright 1969 Identification of the sources of Hopewellian obsidian in the Middle West. American Antiquity, 34:1-14. Salt Lake City.

79

Marwitt, John P. 1970 Median Village and Fremont Culture Regional Variation. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 95. Salt Lake City.

Norrish, K., B. W. Chappell 1977 X-ray fluorescent spectrography. In Physical Methods in Determinative Mineralogy, Second edition, edited by J. Zussman. pp. 201-272.

Academic Press. New York.

Renfrew, Colin and John Dixon 1976 Obsidian in western Asia: a review. In Problems in Economic and Social Archaeology, edited by G. de G. Sieveking, I. H. Longworth and K. E. Wilson, pp. 137-150. Duckworth. London.

Rudy, Jack R. 1953 Archeological survey of western Utah. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 12. Salt Lake City.

Stross, Fred H., Thomas R. Hester, Robert F. Heizer, and Robert N. Jack 1976 Chemical and archaeological studies of Mesoamerican obsidians. In Advances in Obsidian Glass Studies, edited by R. E. Taylor, pp. 240258. Noyes Press. Park Ridge, N.J.

Nelson, Fred W., Kirk K. Nielson, Nolan F. Mangelson, Max W. Hill, and Ray T. Matheny 1977 Preliminary studies of the trace element composition of obsidian artifacts from northern Campeche, Mexico. American Antiquity 42:209-225.

Washington.

Nelson, Fred W., Raymond V. Sidrys, and Richard D. Holmes 1978 Trace element analysis by X-ray fluorescence of obsidian artifacts from Guatemala and Belize. In excavations at Seibal, Department of Peten, Guatemala. Artifacts, edited by Gordon R. Willey.

Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 153161. Cambridge, Mass.

Yellin, J., I. Perlman, F. Asaro, H. V. Michel, and D. F. Mosier 1978 Comparison of neutron activation analysis from the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and the Hebrew University Archaeometry, 20:95-100. Oxford.

Nie, Norman H., C. Hadlaie Hull, Jean G. Jenkins, Karin Steinbrenner, and Dale H. Bent 1975 SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Inc. New York.

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