Sentinels on the Desert: The Dugway Proving Ground and Deseret Chemical Depot

SENTINELS ON THE DESERT: The Dugway Proving Ground (1942-1963) and Deseret Chemical Depot (1942-1955)

BY LEONARD J. ARRINGTON AND THOMAS G. ALEXANDER

When it became apparent early in World War II that the enemy (Germany, Italy, and Japan) possessed a capability for chemical warfare, the War Department began planning for expansion of its capacity for chemical warfare defense. The Edgewood Arsenal in Maryland, situated in a well-populated area, could offer little room for further development with housing tracts pressing on its boundaries and other defense industries sapping the local labor market. The Chemical Warfare Service needed a location with elbow room; and from a study made by the Federal Grazing Service, the government knew that the desert area in western Utah offered advantages of climate, altitude, and space for expansion which it could not find in other locations.

After reconnoitering the area for several days early in 1942, Major John R. Burns, of the United States Army, selected a large, arid tract of land partly in the Great Salt Lake Desert about 85 miles southwest of Salt Lake City. The site lay bounded on the northeast by the Onaqui Mountains, on the southeast by the Dugway Range, and on the west by the desert. It was ideally isolated for the type of classified and toxic tests which the Chemical Warfare Service planned to conduct. A local anecdote portrays Granite Peak (7,100 feet), one of the prominent landmarks on the reservation, as a site used by several very successful moonshiners during the Prohibition Era. The operators of distilleries could see dust trails on all four sides of the Peak for 20 to 30 miles in any direction.

Prior to the "roaring twenties," Dugway had served the early pioneers for more legitimate activities. The Dugway Mountains got their name from the serpentine trenches or "dugways" which early emigrants used to transport their wagons over the passes. The Pony Express later used Simpson Springs, located about 45 miles west of St. John, as a way station. During New Deal days, Simpson Springs served as a Civilian Conservation Corps camp; and the old Lincoln Highway threaded its way through the reservation. With the construction of Highway 40, 30 miles to the north, however, the Dugway area was again preempted by the jackrabbits, coyotes, and deer which had inhabited it in historic times.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE BASE

On January 14, 1942, immediately after Major Burns submitted his report, the chief of the Chemical Warfare Service requested the acquisition of a tract of 126,720 acres. On February 6, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the order transferring land from the public domain to the Chemical Warfare Service. In April, after construction had begun, he transferred an additional 138,180 acres. While most of the land, including later withdrawals, had come from the public domain, the government also purchased land from the Hatch Brothers and the State of Utah. Today Dugway controls about 850,000 acres of land, with an additional area of approximately 300,000 acres adjacent to the installation available for certain operations. The Proving Ground now encompasses an area larger than the State of Rhode Island.

Despite several difficulties which had to be overcome, construction went ahead at a feverish pace. Major Burns, who was assigned as Dugway's first commander, established preliminary headquarters in the CCC camp at Simpson Springs. Until April 30, the only contact with the outside world consisted of radio communication with Fort Douglas in Salt Lake City. Because of the desert sand dunes and high winds, the contractors had to spread two inches of gravel over 130,000 yards of ground. Later, 300 acres of grass were planted, and picket fences were erected in staggered patterns to stop wind erosion. Unfortunately, the wind proved too strong for the grass to take root. By April 1, the roads had been completed and the construction of buildings begun in Dog Area, about 10 miles west of the present administration area. And by mid-May these wooden barracks were well on the way to completion.

After starting the original construction, the Chemical Warfare Service began a series of expansion projects which continued through the second World War. The first of these, a toxic gas yard with magazines for explosives, was originally planned as a yard of 180 by 400 feet, but by the summer of 1944 the area had expanded to 100 acres. The base expanded its warehouse facilities also; and by the end of World War II, the installation had a total of 49,060 square feet of warehouse space.

Though the CWS planned target locations at the same time as the cantonment area, these were not begun until July 1942. As with the gas yard, the target area, originally only five-miles square, grew as the mission of the installation expanded until it included 10 smaller target areas for various special tests. In a canyon on Granite Mountain, a special target area was designated for the study of cloud behavior under various conditions. One of these ranges was used in the development of one of the nation's most effective weapons during World War II — the 4.2-inch chemical mortar.

Work had to start early on such essential facilities as laboratories and a machine shop. By August 1942, laboratories for chemical, physical, and photographic experiments and processes had been completed. Fortunately, the CWS found a fully-equipped machine shop in Salt Lake City which it bought and shipped to the base in June of 1942. After the machine shop was installed, the Proving Ground began the construction of its own mensuration instruments and the designing of its own machines.

At first, "merely clearing a little sagebrush" sufficed for an airstrip; but after the first winter, wind and water erosion undermined this temporary expedient. As an airport was necessary to conduct some operations, the post built a 5,200-foot runway in February 1943 which it extended to 7,200 feet in September. Later, a decontamination yard and a turnabout were added to the landing surface; and in 1944, a 54-foot control tower reached toward the sky. The airport is known today as Michael Army Airfield.

In this dusty, arid section, one of the base's major problems was the supply of water. At first, the base used a 30,000-gallon water storage tank; but as the installation grew, the water storage capacity was expanded to 298,000 gallons by May 1945. Originally, three miles of pipelines were designated as a sewage system to accommodate 1,500 persons, but by August of 1944 the system proved inadequate. In early 1945 the post constructed a primary treatment plant with sludge beds capable of treating sewage for 2,000 persons.

Dugway met the same expansion problems with both its electric power supply and its operations headquarters. It originally used a 20-kilowatt generator. Then in September 1943 it replaced this with two 300-kilowatt generators, and in 1944 an additional 148-kilowatt generator was acquired. In July of 1944, a newly constructed operations headquarters made possible centralized planning and coordination of tests and personnel. The center contained offices, a technical library, a printing room, a vault for classified material, a briefing room, and drafting rooms.

Considering the distance from civilian facilities and the danger of accident from the toxic chemicals used at the installation, Dugway found it necessary to have extensive medical facilities available. Original plans called for an infirmary, which was later expanded to a 25-bed ward. Early in 1943, the post constructed a 75-bed ward with nurses' quarters, mess halls, enlisted men's barracks, and a medical research building. The entire facility was built as an integrated unit with covered walks and a central heating system connecting all buildings.

ACTIVITIES DURING WORLD WAR II

After preliminary construction had been completed, Dugway began the large-scale testing and evaluation of chemical munitions. During the second World War, the base's duties consisted primarily of tests with toxic agents, flame throwers, and chemical spray systems. Besides these chemical projects, the post performed biological research consisting of veterinary experiments and other biological warfare activities. In addition to carrying on these research projects during the war, in mid-1945 the installation converted four CCC barracks and a lavatory building into a 150- man prisoner-of-war barracks.

Some of the most important experiments during the war included the development of incendiary and flame-throwing weapons. It was at Dugway that the incendiary bombs, which were used with telling effect by the Air Force against enemy centers of production, were first dropped experimentally on simulated German- and Japanese-type buildings in the middle of the desert. For this purpose, Dugway constructed a village consisting of 24 Japanese and six German full-scale dwellings and a bomb shelter capable of withstanding 500-pound bombs. The flame throwers and fuel thickeners used in the Pacific Theater were also tested at Dugway, as were toxic chemical munitions and protective equipment that could have been effectively used in either theater of operations. To develop flame throwers for shooting around corners, the post constructed Japanese redoubts in the mountains, simulating the caves used on the Pacific atolls. Through similar experiments Dugway perfected the M-2 and M-4 chemical mortars, which were fired with great success in all theaters of war.

Immediately following the war, the Army began to phase the installation out. On January 16, 1947, the Secretary of War established the Western Chemical Center which consolidated the operations of Deseret Chemical Depot and Dugway Proving Ground. Shortly thereafter, the government deactivated Dugway until the outbreak of the Korean War.

THE DESERET CHEMICAL DEPOT

Meanwhile, in July 1942, the Army had commenced construction in Rush Valley, about 20 miles south of Tooele, of a depot so secret that Utah citizens knew nothing of the purpose of the base beyond the fact that it was to serve as a storage depot. Even the size, number, and nature of the buildings on this 4,100-acre installation were kept secret. It was not until its dedication, on July 11, 1943, that Utahns learned that the Deseret Chemical Depot was designed for the storage and shipment of all types of chemical warfare material, especially poisonous gases, chemicals, and chemically-filled ammunition.

Since the Deseret Chemical Depot was the only one of its kind in the nation, the arid climate and isolation from centers of population were primary factors in determining its location. The excellence of transportation facilities to points throughout the West was also an important consideration.

The construction proved to be one of the most difficult Utah projects of the World War II period. As soon as work crews broke ground, the wind seemed to lift the sand and dust as if gravity had no effect. Brigadier General Ralph Talbot, Jr., of the Quartermaster Corps, on an inspection tour of the Depot late in November 1942 found that less than 1,000 of the 4,000 men employed during the preceding four months still remained on the job. Following a particularly severe dust storm, 200 men quit in one day. The cost of the original plant was in excess of $15 million.

As with the Dugway Proving Ground, the Deseret Chemical Depot lay so far from other villages and towns that the Army was forced to construct a complete new town. Accommodations were built for 1,000 people — dormitories to house 600 persons and 154 three-, four-, and five-room houses. To provide for other phases of life, the government constructed theaters, shops, stores, laundries, and cafes. The government-owned facility was virtually a self-contained community. Estimates of the exact number of persons employed at the base are hard to come by, but there were perhaps 700 to 1,000 guards, laborers, machinists, auto mechanics, painters, truck drivers, storekeepers, nurses, typists, and stenographers employed at the base during most of World War II. Workers could either live in the Depot village or commute from other cities. Following the war, the Depot remained a military chemicals storage facility with a staff for maintenance and inspection.

THE KOREAN WAR

Both the Deseret Chemical Depot and the Dugway Proving Ground were reactivated in the summer of 1950, and work was resumed on many activities which had been commenced during World War II. At the Deseret Chemical Depot more than $4.2 million worth of new construction took place, including 150 housing units, 76 apartments, and 32 warehouses. After the end of the Korean War, in March 1954, the Depot cut back its operations and reduced the number of personnel. Deeming it uneconomical to operate the Depot as a separate facility, the Army placed the Depot under the jurisdiction of the Tooele Ordnance Depot (now Tooele Army Depot) where it has remained since July 1, 1955, under the name Deseret Depot Activity.

The far more important Dugway Proving Ground served the nation's cause during the Korean War by a stepped-up program of testing material and equipment for the Research and Development Command of the Army Chemical Corps (formerly the Chemical Warfare Service). New weapon systems developed included flame throwers, smoke generators, and flame bombs. In addition to these combat weapons, Dugway began tests in micrometeorology which have since been expanded. In this project a system was developed to determine the toxic quality of the air up to 100 feet and the movement of air currents over relatively small areas.

As the Korean War continued into 1952, the United States saw the need for the development of new and more efficient chemical, bacteriological, and radiological systems (usually referred to as CBR). To this end, Dugway was granted funds to begin construction of new dwellings and administration buildings in the present administration area known as Easy Area. Prior to this time, the base administration had been centered at Dog Area about 10 miles from the main gate. By June of 1952 construction had begun, and residents began moving to Easy Area in December. Additional new housing was completed in 1953, 1956, and 1959; and the last project of 50 Capehart housing units cost $700,000. In 1960 the government began the renovating and remodeling of 500 housing units at a cost of $1.6 million, and in July 1963, construction began on 33 duplex units on the west side of Easy Area.

With the reactivation and expansion of the installation, the government realized that Dugway would, for the foreseeable future, be home to the employees and their families. To make Dugway as much like a normal town as possible, the government expanded the existing facilities. One of the major problems was the isolation of the installation. In an attempt to alleviate this condition, the government constructed a shopping center, two schools, several churches, clubs and other recreational facilities, including a ninehole golf course, over half of which was donated by private citizens. At present, Easy Area resembles a small town, with television antennas sprouting from comfortable housing units and housewives in toreador pants rushing in and out of the shopping center.

Nothing demonstrates that these Dugwayites feel themselves to be permanent residents as much as an incident which took place in 1960. Because the civilian employees lived on a government reservation, about 1,800 otherwise eligible electors had been barred from voting by Tooele County. One of the citizens, John Rothfels, brought suit against the county for himself and other voters to force the registrar to allow them to register. In September of 1960, the Utah State Supreme Court in a three to two decision ordered the county to permit Dugwayites to vote. Unquestionably, these engineers, scientists, and technicians have made a fine addition to Utah society.

TESTING ACTIVITIES IN RECENT YEARS

Since the beginning of expansion following the start of the Korean War, Dugway employees have performed a number of essential services for the United States defense effort. In addition to toxic gas tests, meteorological tests, and bacteriological tests, activities were expanded to include ecological systems surveys, radiation tests, off-base services, and a chemical-bacteriological-radiological orientation course. One of the off-base services consisted of environment test divisions staffed with 15 to 20 men at sites as far away as Fort Greely, Alaska; Thule, Greenland; and Fort Clayton, Canal Zone.

The ecological systems survey, a project of international interest, includes biological inventories of various areas and the study of diseases of animals. The project has attempted to learn the relations of various animals to vegetation, animal disease pathways, and the control of diseases. To carry out this project, Dugway boasts a large wildlife colonization laboratory. At present, there are about 10,000 native animals, including 4,000 rodents of nearly every species and a coyote named Susie who howls every time the phone rings. In August of 1959, the government granted the University of Utah $244,000 to test diseases of ticks, rodents, fleas, carnivores, and arthropods under the supervision of the U.S. Public Health Service.

By 1963, in response to statements of Soviet military leaders, the United States Army Chemical Corps had developed a capability to deal effectively with a possible enemy chemical or biological attack. The public statement of Marshal Zhukov, Soviet Minister of Defense, in 1956, that "the next military conflict would be characterized by the massive use of rocket forces, thermonuclear weapons, chemical and biological weapons," gave impetus to an increased developmental program for C & B defense. This increased program, in turn, resulted in an acceleration of testing activities at Dugway.

Among the biological systems rated by the Soviets as having potential application in combat were those built around such naturally occurring organisms as those which cause anthrax, bubonic plague, tularemia, and various encephalitic diseases. Demonstrations at Dugway were conducted on rabbits, dogs, cats, goats, and other animals which revealed how potent the newly appearing chemical and biological agents were, and effective steps were taken to improve defenses. Protective clothing and equipment, decontamination techniques, neutralization solutions, and detection instruments were subjected to stepped-up evaluation tests at the Proving Ground. Employees clothed to work with toxic materials look like something out of Jules Verne with protective outfits completely covering their bodies and heads. In July 1961 a group of Dugway stalwarts tested a type of protective "skivvies" called Hycar Absorbent Protective Underwear. These items have been designed to give optimum protection against radiation, vapors, dusts, and aerosols. To disseminate the knowledge learned in these projects, Dugway provides safety support for test operations for the Armed Forces Special Weapons Projects wherever needed.

Russian literature also revealed that work in the chemical agent field had advanced to the point where nerve (anti-cholenesterase) agents offered distinct advantages. Gas systems of two types had been developed. The first category included those which attack the nervous system, and the second type were known as psychochemicals. An example of the first, known as GB, worked like a super-insecticide. It could be disseminated through aerosol sprays, and was so lethal that a drop the size of a pencil dot could kill a man in 15 minutes. The psychochemicals, which have been developed since 1955, are not lethal, but do their damage by changing the personality of those who come in contact with them. In one test at Dugway, a cat subjected to a psychochemical fled in terror from a mouse which researchers had introduced into its cage. Dugway has tested and evaluated defenses against both types of gas.

The advent of the nuclear age and the possibilities of the use of radioactive materials in warfare also influenced Dugway's growing mission, and facilities were constructed for the safe handling, storing, and using of such materials. As a side line, tests on radioactive preservation of food and effects of ionizing radiation on mice were also carried out.

In October 1958 the United States Army CBR Weapons Orientation Course was established at Dugway to brief key military and civilian members of the defense establishment of CBR operations, plans, and techniques. The three and one-half day orientation, which includes a field demonstration for its high-ranking students, has graduated over 2,500 of the nation's key military planners, including over 100 general officers and civilian members of the federal government.

Because operations at Dugway and other installations working on CBR defense have been so restricted, the public has been relatively uninformed on the CBR systems and their potential use and danger. An informed citizenry is essential in the event of a war in which CBR weapons are used, and Dugway has tried, particularly since 1960, to educate the public through a program of public information releases, public speeches, and educational displays. On occasion, newsmen have been invited to witness tests and report them to the public.

Dugway today is a far cry from the wooden barracks originally built in Dog Area. In 1963 the installation had about 600 buildings and was valued at about $50 million. In that year Dugway had a payroll of approximately $12 million and purchased approximately $4 million worth of supplies annually, a sizeable portion of which came from Utah sources. The installation had a work force of nearly 3,000 military and civilian personnel. With almost 4,000 residents, Dugway was the second largest city in Tooele County and the fourteenth largest in the state.

THE FUTURE

Given Dugway's isolation, the base is ideal for the test and evaluation of materiel and equipment vital to the nation's defense from enemy chemical and biological attack. Both the University of Utah and Utah State University are at present working on projects in conjunction with Dugway, and in the future Dugway should continue to draw top talent and research money to the state.

Dugway's contribution to Utah's economic development has differed from that of such supply and repair depots as Tooele Army Depot and Utah Army Depot. Though research of the type in which Dugway has engaged is costly and has pumped millions of dollars into Utah's economy each year, Dugway's main contribution appears not to have been in this realm. Since before the Great Depression of the 1930's Utah has been a net exporter of scientific, engineering, technical, and other highly educated talent. By undertaking projects where basic scientific research is required, as in the meteorological, ecological, chemical, and microbiological projects, Dugway has attracted talented men and women to work not only on assignments at the installation, but to engage in related research at Utah institutions of higher learning. The voting episode partly demonstrated that these men and women are politically and intellectually alert and are desirous of contributing to their local communities. If in the future Utah could, either through private or governmental expansion, continue to hold and attract these high-calibre people, its future economic, cultural, and political growth would be enhanced.

Deseret News, August 3, 1959, February 3, 1962.

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