Grandeur of Chola Temples of India by Center for Art and Archaeology

An Exhibition of Archival Photographs of the Chola Temples of India

March 2015 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

AIIS Photo No. 3983/35.31 The Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu: General view from south-east; built in the reign of Rajaraja I from 985-1014 CE. In Sanskrit, the temple is known as Brihat Esvaram or the Big Temple.

Inscriptions in Tamil mention the temple as Sri Rajarajeswaram; it is also referred to as Dakshina Meru. The greatest of the Chola temples, 2015 marks the completion of over 1000 years of the consecration of this â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;living templeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.

AIIS Photo No. 3096/35.73 Ganesha on the south wall of the frontal hall (Ardhamandapa) at the Brahmapurisvara temple at Pullamangai, Tamil Nadu: Large panels of gods have attendant figures accompanying them.

Message By Mr Ravindra Singh, IAS Secretary, Government of India Ministry of Culture

sincerely congratulate the High Commission of India in Kuala Lumpur for organising the exhibition of ‘Archival Photographs on the Chola Temples of India’ through March 2015, as a part of the Festival of India in Malaysia - Citra India Culture of the Heart. It is also a matter of pleasure to learn that the High Commission of India is actively participating in the ‘Year of Festivals 2015’ announced by the Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Malaysia. In today’s time and globalizing age, an event of this nature is a timely reminder of our identities, both Indian and global. India, as a civilization in the vast sub-continent, has been an integral part of South-east Asia; across the millennia our religions and its adherents, our traders and entrepreneurs, our teachers and students have been crisscrossing these lands and building bonds which have proved to be both strong and timeless. India and Malaysia, in particular, and its neighbouring lands in general, have been networked for centuries. In the 21st century, the challenge for us is to keep reinvigorating and revitalising these ageold connections. We need to ensure the new generations of Indian and Malaysians can carry forward the torch of friendship, peace and prosperous ties for both our countries.

As the Chola Temples exhibition unfolds in Malaysia, it is also an opportune moment to recall the development of Tamil civilizastion and culture under the great Chola Kings who ruled for 400 years from the 8th to the 12th centuries, particularly their exceptional architectural wonders. The Chola Temples, a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1987, represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the Dravida type of temples (characterized by a pyramidal tower). The Cholas were the second great historic dynasty of the Tamil Nadu which was the home of the ancient Dravidian culture and whose influence was considerable in the whole of south-east Asia. The great temple of Thanjavur was built in a few years, from 1003 to 1010, during the reign of the King Rajaraja (985-1014 CE), the legendary founder of the Chola Empire which spread throughout the whole of southern India, part of Ceylon and the Maldive and Laccadive archipelagos. It is fitting that we should be celebrating the 1000th Year of the establishment of the Thanjavur temple.

The World Heritage site, aptly referred to as ‘The Great Living Chola Temples, includes three 11th- and 12th-century temples: the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram. The Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram, built by Rajendra I, was completed in 1035. The Airavatesvara temple complex, built by Rajaraja II, at Darasuram also exemplifies the brilliant achievements of the Cholas in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting. In this context, I am also happy to mention that the Indira Gandhi National Centre of the Arts, New Delhi, an autonomous institution under this Ministry, recently brought out a research based DVD titled ‘Thanjavur Brhadiswara Temple’ on the architectural excellence and vibrant living traditions of this spectacular temple complex. The Ministry of Culture, Government of India, in association with the Center for Art & Archaeology, American Institute of Indian Studies (AIIS), India, and the National Visual Arts Gallery, Malaysia, is putting on view a set of archival photographs for this Exhibition. We acknowledge the contribution of AIIS in sharing its archival resources and academic expertise in the creation of this Exhibition.

The present Exhibition may highlight the centuries old exchange of ideas, knowledge systems, resources, skills and materials among the people of India and South-East Asia, Malaysia in particular, who have left a lasting legacy in various spheres of human experience, a dialogue that involved a rich exchange of religions, literacy, aesthetic and artistic ideas and forms across the two regions with cultural under-currents impacting on each other. The archival photographs have benefitted from modern digital technology and are now being displayed in large printed formats for this global audience. To showcase the brilliance of Chola temple architecture, no effort has been spared and we sincerely hope that visitors to the National Visual Arts Gallery would be suitably value and enjoy the magnificence of Indian history on display. We wish to record our grateful thanks to the National Visual Arts Gallery and to the Ministry of Tourism and Culture of the Government of Malaysia for all their help and assistance in making this Exhibition a reality. On this occasion, we also extend the best wishes of the people of India for the success of the Festival of India in Malaysia.

India and Malaysia: Bonding through culture and art By Mr T.S. Tirumurti H.E The High Commissioner of India to Malaysia

he Festival of India in Malaysia 2015 is being held in Malaysia for the first time. The Festival of India in Malaysia 2OI5 promises to be a veritable feast of culture and art, including Dance Drama by the world renowned Kalakshetra of Chennai, Bharatanatyam by Padma Bhushan Alarmel Valli, Folk Dances and Music from Punjab and Guj arat, “Digital India: IT and Space” exhibition, photo exhibition of Chola Temples, photo exhibition “Chennai Nalla Chennai” by SA Ramesh, “Bollywood Over The Years” multimedia exhibition, IndiaMalaysia Links from the National Archives of India, exhibition on Islamic Calligraphy, Tamil Literary Festival, Malayalam Film Festival, Indian dance by Prathibha Prahlad’s Prasiddha Foundation, “Sarod and Bharatham” by Padma Vibhushan Amjad Ali Khan and Shankar Kandasamy, “Make in India” seminar, Food Festival and International Day of Yoga. To cater to a variety of interests in Malaysia, the Festival of India 2OI5 showcases India’s pluralistic fabric, democratic polity, modern scientific temper, spiritual tradition, vibrant culture and delectable cuisine. The Festival of India 2Ol5 is being held in all major cities of Malaysia to bring together the people of the two countries through bonds of culture and art. It underscores the significant role that culture, both traditional and modern, plays in uniting people across geographical boundaries. It is, as the logo of the Festival suggests, the “Culture of the Heart.”

India and Malaysia share civilizational bonds and nowhere is it more manifest than in the field of art, culture and tradition. In recent past, the common fight against colontzation brought our countries even closer, where Indians and Malaysian fought side by side. In this shared tradition, the impact of the Chola dynasty, over four centuries, and its wide-ranging influence over South-East Asia, resonates till date, including in Malaysia. Remnants of Chola dynasty’s imprint on Malaysia bear testimony to that period of history. The photo exhibition on “Grandeur of the Chola Temples of India” sponsored by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Government of India, and created by the Center for Art & Archaeology, American Institute of Indian Studies, is a glorious celebration of that shared chapter in our history. The archival photographs on display have been digitally restored and specially printed for viewing by Malaysians, underscoring the importance of archiving and preserving film negatives and photogiaphs as part of our historical resources.

India and Malaysia have forged a strategic partnership, which encompasses a range of political, economic and commercial, trade and investment, defence, educational, health, cultural and people-to-people ties. The meeting of the Prime Ministers of the two countries in November 2OI4 has brought about greater understanding and provided an impetus to our bilateral ties. Malaysia also has one of the largest communities of Persons of Indian Origin in the world, numbering around 2 million. It continues to send one of the largest contingents to the annual Pravasi Bharatiya Divas in India right since its inception. This year, we also celebrate the fifth Anniversary of the Indian Cultural Centre in Kuala Lumpur, which was inaugurated in 2010. Over the last five years, the Indian Cultural Centre has become the fulcrum of Indian ethos and culture in Malaysia.

I thank the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Malaysia, State Governments of Malaysia, and all other organizations and sponsors for their strong support in ensuring the success of the Festival of India in Malaysia 2015. I sincerely hope that the Festival of India in Malaysia 2015 will bring our two countries and peoples even closer, strengthen further our friendship and enhance our mutually beneficial cooperation.

The Center for Art and Archaeology American Institute of Indian Studies

he Center for Art and Archaeology of the American Institute of Indian Studies is honored to present the exhibition on ‘Chola Temples’ for the Festival of India in Kuala Lumpur. The exhibition is drawn from the vast Photo-archives of the Center for Art and Archaeology, which has been built, by the Center’s own scholars, photographers and draftsmen during last forty-eight years. For many years the Center for Art and Archaeology (CA&A) as part of the American Institute of Indian Studies has been dedicated to developing knowledge about India’s rich visual traditions. The CA&A is an internationally recognized presence in the documentation of Indian and South East Asian art and architecture, having covered photographic records and architectural plans of more than 7000 monuments and ancient buildings from all regions of India. More than 3000 archaeological and historical sites are represented in the Photo-archives of the Center, and 350 museum collections are documented. The AIIS surveyors and draftsmen have prepared some 6000 detailed measured line-drawings and sketches of the buildings in the Architectural archives based on their on-the-spot surveys and measurements. These documents were made for scholarly purposes, and have been the basis of the Center’s best known product, multi volume Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, and many other significant publications including the highly regarded two-volume catalogue of the Allahabad Museum. Expertiise: The CA&A has also proven expertise in the management and maintenance of its photo archives which houses 2,00,000 photographs of Indic

art and architecture. The documentation, cataloging, maintenance and dissemination of these records are done according to highest known international standards, by its own team of experts. AIIS makes copies of its photographs to make it freely available for scholarly publications. More than 3000 publications as well as Ph.D. dissertations acknowledge AIIS’s contribution. These photographic records have been also digitized and placed online together with documentation details (http://dsal.uchicago.edu/images/index. html). The photographic collection is supported by a library that has been characterized as one of the finest collections of studies of Indian art in the subcontinent. This open – stack library, houses an extraordinary collection of 75,000 books, Journals and maps. The bibliographic catalog of the library is available in electronic form and on-line. The Center has organized more than 50 international seminars, conferences, workshops and lectures for scholars in the field. A series of exhibitions have been organized in order to disseminate the knowledge and visual resources gathered by the CA&A over last four decades. Exhibitions on, for instance, “How to understand temple architecture”, “Ashoka and Making of Modern India” and “River Goddess Ganga” were organized for experts and non-experts as well in order to create awareness about several aspects of art and cultural of the country.

CA&A has proven expertise in the management and maintenance of its photo archives housing 2,00,000 photographs of Indic art and architecture

Training programs for professionals and students in the areas of Documentation, Archival Management and Digitization of visual collections are regular features of the Center’s activities.

Projects: The continuing mission of the CA&A is to support the importance of preserving and fostering knowledge about the visual traditions of India. The Center’s archive is a demonstration of significant visual traditions, and finding ways to make it better used and known is one important task. As the Center cannot be comprehensive, enriching its already strong areas of architectural documentation has been the high priority for any further documentation projects that have been undertaken. In addition to new material, accumulating further information about that already in the archive is considered essential.

The campus of CA&A in Gurgaon, Haryana.

Recent grants have allowed Center staff to document some of the amazing Islamic monuments created in India over the last eight hundred years. In addition, the Center has recently begun a series of documentation projects underwritten by State governments. The first of these, contracted with the state government of West Bengal, is completed. Besides creating documentation (visual and textual) of monuments under state protection, the staff has engendered amazing support and enhanced awareness of the value of heritage in the region

through their high level of operation and their true enthusiasm. They have proved wonderful ambassadors of the importance of preserving the achievements of the past. The aim of this documentation has been to make available to scholars and other from all over the world fundamental documentation data on Indic art in the form of impeccable and detailed photographs of each object and core research data. This has also proved invaluable for practical use in cases where monuments crumbled and antiquities were looted or damaged. There are evidences of monuments and museums of Kachha region damaged in the earthquake of Gujarat, brick temples of West Bengal, destruction of Bamiyan and Kabul Museum that have suffered irreparable damage in recent history due to manmade and natural disasters. A recent project of the CA&A, the ‘Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds’ (VMIS) is undertaken with the objectives of (a) creating greater awareness about the visual traditions of the country and (b) giving broader access to related materials housed in the archives of the Center for Art & Archaeology (CA&A) to users and visitors across the globe. The CA&A’s image collection of 200,000 visuals of monuments and museum objects are being made available on the VMIS’s website through an ongoing digitization program. The Center for Art and Archaeology is located in Gurgaon, Haryana, India. More information about the location and timing is available at the AIIS’s website http://www.indiastudies.org/artarcheology

AIIS Photo No. 3782/32.90 Shiva as Ardhanari on the western wall of the Nagesvarasvami temple shrine at Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu: The figureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s right side represents Shiva, with his one hand bearing an axe and the otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s elbow rests on his bull; his consort Parvati has one hand in which she carries a mirror.

AIIS Photo No. 3526/33.62 The Amman shrine: In the Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram, Tamil Nadu, built during the reign of Rajaraja II.

India and South-east Asia: Through the ages

Map ÂŠ The Temples and Sculpture of Southeast Asia, L.Frederic, published by Thames and Hudson, 1965. pp 12

The map showing the later Chola kings of south India and their contemporaries of the Sena dynasty of eastern India: There were many cultural exchanges between these two dynasties. Map ÂŠ A Historical Atlas of South Asia, J. Schwartzberg (ed.), published by University of Chicago Press, 1978. plate XIV.3

Chola Temples of India: Introductory Note by Dr K L Mankodi, Consultant for Research Project for Indian Cultural Studies, Franco-Indian Pharmaceuticals, Mumbai

AIIS DR-Map01236: Early Chola temple sites.

his exhibition of photographs introduces the temple architecture, sculpture and bronzes created during the rule of the Chola dynasty, from the late 9th to the late 11th century, a period of about two hundred years. If the later Chola kings, Kulottunga I and his successors, who were not directly descended from the main Chola line, are counted, then the Chola period extends to the late 13th century CE. Countless temples and religious monuments were built all over India during the last two thousand years, caves were excavated from the living rock, wood, brick and stone were employed in the creation of religious architecture and sculpture. A look at any map showing the distribution of religious monuments in India will reveal a remarkable fact. While elsewhere in the country such monuments are spread more or less sparsely, in Tamil Nadu, where the Cholas had ruled, hundreds of them crowd the map. One reason for this is that, situated far in the south of the country, Tamil Nadu remained free of foreign invasions for long that destroyed a large number of sacred monuments in the northern parts of India. Another reason is that the Chola dynasty was one that ruled from the second half of the 9th century to late 11th century or over three centuries; indeed, a collateral Chola line continued for two centuries beyond this date. Cholamandala South India, or Dakshinapatha as it was known since ancient times, consists of three principal regions, known from north to south as Tondaimandalam, Cholamandalam and Pandyamandalam. Tondaimandalam at the northern end of this general area was the territory where the Pallava dynasty ruled in earlier times, from the 6th to the middle of the 9th centuries CE. Pandyamandalam was at the extreme south of the peninsula and was ruled by the Pandyas (and other smaller ruling houses as well) also during the same period. The Cholas had been feudatory to the one or the other dynasty. However, from the

middle of the 9th century, the heart of the whole of South India, between the Kaveri and the Colledoon rivers, was ruled by the Imperial Cholas of Vijayalaya’s line. Dynastic history and Chronology The Cholas were an ancient people who are mentioned in the inscriptions of the Mauryan Emperor Asoka of Magadha or Bihar in the distant past, as early as the 3rd century before Christ. The literature of the Tamil Sangam period in the 3rd century CE also knows the Cholas as a ruling house in the Kaveri valley with Uraiyur as their principal seat; but for a long time thereafter, they were superseded by other powers. Specialists on Chola art have divided the development of architecture, sculpture and bronzes into several periods. They speak of a first phase from 866-940 CE when Aditya I was ruling, a second Phase from 940-970 CE when Parantaka I had been on the throne, then a third phase from 970-1014 CE during which the dowager queen Sembiyan Mahadevi was commissioning her foundations, followed by the period of Rajaraja I, etc. We however may take a synthetic view of the art without going into any technical analysis of the evolution of the style. Vijayalaya c. 850-871 CE The Chola dynasty came into prominence only in the second half of the 9th century CE with Vijayalaya Chola. Vijayalaya himself ruled over a rather small kingdom, as a minor potentate. However, his descendants within fifty years expanded their territory, subjugated the Pandyas, Pallavas, Irukkuvels and Muttaraiyars who had been powerful earlier, and became an independent ruling house. Aditya I c. 871-907 CE Vijayalaya’s son and successor was Aditya I, in whose time the Pallava kingdom, hitherto dominant in the Kaveri valley, was weakened because of internal dissensions and battles. Aditya I started as a Pallava feudatory, but expanded his power, became master of Tondaimandalam as well as Cholamandalam, perhaps even the region far to the west. Aditya I’s son and successor was Parantaka I, who ruled from 907-954 CE. In the course of the Chola expansion northwards Parantaka I had defeated Rashtrakuta Krishna II and his feudatories. He continued to maintain a strong military contingent in the north. Parantaka I also vanquished the Pandya king Rajasimha II. After his many martial achievements, Parantaka assumed the title of Vira Chola, the Heroic Chola. After Parantaka I, the Chola line of succession is somewhat blurred, and there was a crisscrossing of kings. Between Parantaka’s death in 957 CE and the ascension of Rajaraja I in 985 CE, many kings intervened, namely: Rajaditya, Gandaraditya (949-957 CE), Arindama (956-960 CE), Parantaka II Sundara Chola (957-973 CE), Aditya II (960-965 CE), and Uttama Chola (971-988 CE). They all ruled with greater or less achievement, even extending their power to Sri Lanka. Especially notable was the life and career of Sembiyan Mahadevi, widow of Gandaraditya and mother of Uttama Chola; for, as the dowager queen after the death of her husband,

this pious lady created many religious foundations, so much so that one phase of Chola art style of the tenth century is named after Sembiyan Mahadevi. Rajaraja I, 985-1014 CE Rajaraja I succeeded Uttama Chola in 985 and ruled until 1014 CE. The Chola dynasty that ruled South India for over two hundred years produced many illustrious kings, but Rajaraja was the most distinguished ruler by any reckoning. He subjugated the southern powers of the Pandyas and Cheras, controlled his northern neighbours the Rashtrakutas, who had by then become weak, and the Later Chalukyas, who were yet still a new house. Rajaraja initiated vigorous activity of building temples and making donations to them. Rajaraja I compares very favourably with his contemporary kings elsewhere in India, such as Paramaribo Bhoja of Malwa and Solanki Bhima I of Gujarat. He greatly enlarged the Chola Empire in every direction, and protected his territories with the help of a strong army and navy. He also extended his influence beyond the sea to Sumatra and Java to the maritime Shailendra Empire of Shri Vijaya. Rajaraja also invaded Sri Lanka where he established his power in the northern province of the island. Rajendra Chola I, 1014-1044 CE Rajendra Chola had already been helping his father Rajaraja I as Yuvaraja or crown prince since some years, and succeeded to the throne in 1014 CE on Rajaraja’s death. He had a long reign of about thirty years. He founded a new capital city, which he named as Gangaikondacholapuram, or the “City of the Chola who conquered the river Ganga”, after his victory over the Pala king Mahipala of Bengal, whose kingdom lay beyond the river Ganga in the north.

King Rajaraja I with his spiritual guru: Mural at the Brihadisvara temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. © FIP/EFEO

Rajakesari Rajadhiraja, 1044-1054 CE During his reign, wars with the Western Chalukyas of Karnataka took place. Such wars continued later on also, during the reigns of the later Chola kings also, namely Rajendra Deva II 1052-1064, Vira Rajendra 1063-1068 CE and Adhirajendra 1068-1070 CE. Finally, Kulottunga Chola (1070-1122 CE) of Vengi, who was related to the Cholas on his mother’s side, then occupied the Chola throne of Thanjavur, ending direct Chola sovereignty forever. Kulottunga’s line, however, ruled from Thanjavur until the last decades of the 13th century CE. Temples, Sculptures and Bronzes Hundreds of temples and other monuments, sculptures, bronzes, mainly of the Shaiva faith, crowd the maps displayed in this exhibition. Their spread over the Cholas territory gives us some idea of how many thousands of such monuments would have been built in the rest of India as well, though few are preserved in the northern parts of the country. One common practice of Chola kings was to reconstruct or enlarge with fresh additions in more durable material temples built by earlier kings; and they carefully preserved and reengraved the earlier donations and honoured them. Thus, many brick temples were converted into granite structures, but they still have records of earlier times.

Most of the temples illustrated in this exhibition are Hindu, and among them Shiva temples dominate, since the Chola kings were devout Shaivas. Temples of other faiths were fewer. An important centre of Buddhism was the medieval port town of Nagapattinam, which has yielded sculptures and bronzes datable to the eleventh century. From the late 9th to the late 11th century CE, when the main Chola dynasty built temples, and thereafter when the later Cholas continued the activity, the temple form evolved. The monuments of the early phase are provided with a sanctum (vimana) usually square and a frontal hall (ardhamanapa) with moulded base; the walls have niches (devakoshthas) for images and pilasters at regular intervals. There may even be subsidiary shrines an enclosure for bathing the divinity known as snapanamandapa. The superstructure (shikhara) is usually of one storey, but often it was reconstructed later. Earlier rulers built in bricks, but their successors restored the temples in the more durable material of stone. Later temples show a gradually evolving plan. The sanctum can be either square or apsidal (known as gajaprishtha, â&#x20AC;&#x153;curved like an elephantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s backâ&#x20AC;?). The superstructure had more storeys, often two (dvitala) and sometimes even three storeys (tritala). Imperial monuments, with greater resources, have very elaborate plans, with many additional structures and small shrines even for divine consorts and for the regents of the directions of Space (Dikpalas).

AIIS DR-Map01237: Chola temple sites of the middle phase.

Still later structures became extremely ornate; in fact, they became independent temple towns in their own right, with increasing number of mandapas, which have their own antechambers. The outer walls of the shrines have two rows of niches for divine images. Because of all this, rare forms of divinities came to be introduced, for example, the SuryaShiva blend of Martandabhairava at Darasuram. Some imaginative builders introduced wheels and horses at the base of the monument, as for example the Amritaghatesvara temple at Melaikkadumbalur.

A typical early Chola temple consists of a shrine or vimana with a hall or ardhamandapa in front; it may be contained within an enclosure. Many Chola temple complexes include towering Gopuras, but the Gopuras were added later, during the Nayaka period. The vimana may have projections and recesses, carried out along the walls upwards; the projections are known as Bhadras and Karnas, and the recesses in the walls are called Salilantaras. The niches or devakoshthas on a temple’s walls are the places where divine images are installed. Since the majority of Chola temples were dedicated to Shiva, most often we come across sculptures illustrative of Shaiva myths and legends. Shiva is the lord of the Dance and Music or Nataraja, great expounder of Yoga and Sacred Learning or Dakshinamurti. As Ardhanari, Shiva and his consort Uma are blended into one; and as Harihara, Shiva and Vishnu are combined, having the attributes of both the gods. He is the wandering ascetic begging for alms, in his Bhikshatana form. Shiva, as Kala, or Time in his aspect as Devourer or Destroyer, is once even combined with the Solar-Sun god Martandabhairava, as at Darasuram.

AIIS Photo No. 3743/60.58 Indra or Skanda on the superstructure of the ‘King’s’ shrine at the Muvarkoil shrines at Kodumbalur, Tamil Nadu, built in the early 10th century CE.

The divine images in the niches in the shrine or vimana are: Dakshinamurti, Bhikshatana or Vinadhara in the niche or devakoshtha on the south side; Ardhanari, Lingodbhava or Harihara in the niche on the west side; rarely Vishnu may also appear here. The north side niche was usually reserved for the priest god Brahma. Just as there were conventions about the images on the three wall niches of the shrine, the niches on the small frontal hall or ardhamandapa also had their preferences for images, which were the goddess Durga in the north side and Ganesha in the south. In the best monuments, such as the Nagesvarasvami temple at Kumbhakonam, these gods and goddesses were not by themselves, but are surrounded by related figures, such as sages attentively looking up to Dakshinamurti or Ganas surrounding their master Ganesha. Other than the principal nodal points or niches, often semi-divine figures such as heavenly dancers or apsaras, or hermits would be represented. The best examples are again the Nagesvarasvami temple at Kumbhakonam and the Muvarkoil at Kodumbalur. In the mid-10th century CE, Agastya began to be placed in the south wall of shrines. Agastya is a venerable sage in the Indian tradition. According to legend, as Agastya was crossing over the Vindhya Mountains that form the natural boundary between the north and south of India, the great Mountain prostrated before the sage; Agastya commanded him to remain in that position until he returned from his sojourn. He never returned, and the mountains that divide north and south India ever remained stunted. Previously there was considerable variation in the position of statuary, the niche in the south wall having Dakshinamurti, or the Mahabharata’s Kiratarjuniya story (when Shiva disguised as a hunter fought with the Pandava hero Arjuna over a wild boar), or Shiva Vinadhara, and the northern niche having Bhikshatana; the rear wall could have Lingodbhava, Vishnu, Ardhanari or Subrahmanya .

An example of the classic type of early temple is the Umamahesvara temple at Konerirajapuram built by Sembiyan Mahadevi around 970 CE. In this and other temples commissioned by this dowager queen the standard statuary on the sanctum is Brahma on the North side, Dakshinamurti on the South and Shiva emerging out of the Cosmic Linga to assert his superiority over Brahma and Vishnu, on the East or West side, depending on the templeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s orientation. The Agastyesvara and Cholisvara at Kilaiyur are two monuments built by Chola feudatories of the Paluvettaraiyar house in their idiom but in the general Cholanadu style. There are many inscribed records on the temples, the earliest being of 884 CE, period of Aditya I. In these inscriptions, the original nomenclature of the temples is Avanikandarpa-isvara graham. The temples are dedicated to Shiva and they face the west. The larger southern one is called Agastisvara, with its subsidiary shrines; the smaller northern one Cholisvara. Agastisvara has Shiva, Skanda and Brahma in the south, east and north central niches. The superstructure has beautiful sculptures of Shivaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bull mount, meditating on his Lordâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s presence in the shrine, illustrated in this exhibition. The Cholisvara has Dakshinamurti in the outh, Skanda-Kartikeya in the east and Brahma in the north niches. The superstructure of Agastisvara is square, and that of Cholisvara is round. The Nagesvarasvami at Kumbhakonam (also Kumbakonam) is a monument of the first phase of Chola architecture. It is a very beautiful monument, though sometimes its date and attribution are disputed. On its base mouldings, small narrative panels illustrate scenes from the Indian epics. On the walls are apsaras, and Ardhanari in the central niche on the west, Brahma in the south in the same central position. The north niche on the frontal hall has Durga. The walls are further embellished with beautiful female figures at regular intervals. The Brahmapurisvara temple at Pullamangai, of early years of Parantaka I, is acknowledged as one of the most articulate example of early Chola architecture and sculpture. It is of

AIIS DR-Map01239: Chola temple sites of the later phase.

AIIS Photo No. 3930/37.40 The Koranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur, Tamil Nadu: View from the south-east. The dating of this elegant structure is controversial, third quarter of 9th century or early 10th century CE. Note the well-formed front hall or Ardhamandapa.

special importance also because it carries many inscribed records of that king’s time under his title of Parakesari. The base mouldings and surface decoration are crisply chiselled. The sanctum walls have corner projections or Karnas and central Bhadra projections. A singular feature is that even the front hall has lateral projections flanking its niches. The base mouldings have mythological panels illustrating episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The central niches have elaborate figural arrangements in that the divinities are not by themselves but have elegant companion figures. They are Dakshinamurti, Shiva’s Lingodbhava form with Brahma and Vishnu acknowledging Shiva’s supremacy, and a sculpture of Brahma. The frontal hall or ardhamandapa’s two walls have Ganesha accompanied by his Ganas, and Durga. The ardhamandapa and shrine both have attractive door guardians. The Koranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur is no less important. There is a difference of opinion whether it should be attributed to Parantaka I or his predecessor Aditya I, but general expert opinion favours Parantaka, about 925 CE or his 20th regal year, though the superstructure appears to be later still. The shrine has central and corner projections. The structure is justly famous, the surface decoration such as the arches over the sculptures creating a pleasing appearance. Among the sanctum’s images are Dakshinamurti flanked by sages (south side) and Brahma (north side); the western niche is empty. The Kadambavanesvara temple at Erumbur is a rather small structure, the upper parts being restored later. The central projections have Dakshinamurti in the south, a rare form of Shiva Arunachaleshvara in the West, and Brahma in the North. The temple is datable by inscriptions of Parantaka I, but it does not reflect the same achievements as the Brahmapurisvara and Nagesvarasvami. The Naltulai Isvaragriham at Punjai is one of the finest of early Chola monuments though less elaborate: the shrine has no central and corner projections; but in spite of that, the architectural appeal is not diminished. Dakshinamurti is in the south niche, Lingodbhava in the

west, and Brahma in the north. This temple has impressive door guardians. The frontal hall, of nearly same width as the shrine, has Ganesha, Agastya and Durga. The temple is datable to the mid-tenth century CE. The Visamangalesvara temple at Turaiyur has an inscription of a Rajakesarivarman, identified with Gandaraditya, or mid-10th century CE; the style matches the regnal period of Gandaraditya. The pilasters on the structure are variegated. The niches have interesting images, though the iconographic forms are sometimes a little unusual, such as Umasahita Shiva in the west. Vinadhara is in the south niche and Brahma in the north. On the frontal hall, Sri is on the north side and Sarasvati on the south. The celebrated triple temples known as Muvarkoil at Kodumbalur were built by Bhuti Vikramakesari, a feudatory of the Cholas belonging to the Irukkuvel house. The Muvarkoil is the clearest expression of the style of this part of Cholanadu. Bhuti Vikramakesari built three shrines for the religious merit of himself and his two queens, who are both named in the inscription; however, only the king’s shrine and the one on the south are preserved, the northern shrine having been destroyed. There are also sixteen subsidiary shrines (known as Parivara Devata shrines), and a large mandapa in front. The superstructures or shikharas of the two surviving shrines are in two storeys, where the miniature shrine models and bull figures at the corners make for a strong visual impression. The statuary of the two surviving shrines is interesting, even if a little unusual. On the central shrine, the king’s shrine, Ardhanari Shiva and Bhikshatana are in two of the niches, one being vacant. Among superstructure figures are Umasahita Shiva, Vishnu, UmaMaheshvara, Shiva’s Linga, and an image that cannot be satisfactorily identified, one that can be Indra or Shiva’s son Skanda.

AIIS Photo No. 4228/92.46 Saraswati, the goddess of learning at the Visamangalesvarar temple, Turaiyur, Tamil Nadu: Adorning the south side of the front hall (Ardhamandapa) of the temple built during the reign of Gandaraditya in the mid-10th century CE.

Muvarkoil’s southern shrine, the queen’s shrine, has Gangadhara, Shiva and Bhikshatana in the three devakoshtha niches; and Shiva killing Yama (Shiva as Yamari), Harihara, Tripurantaka and Gajasuravadha on the superstructure. The Gangadhara form, as is well known, represents the epic story when the heavenly stream of the Ganga descended on earth to liberate the dead sons of king Sagara. Shiva’s Yamari form refers to the episode when the god destroyed the god of death himself for taking the life of his devotee Markandeya; and the Tripurantaka and Gajasuravadha aspects are when Shiva vanquished the demon of the “Three Cities” and the elephant demon, respectively. In terms of size, scale, opulence, the number of inscriptions on it, the Brihadisvara temple complex at Thanjavur, the Chola capital, marks the highest stage of developed Chola art. It was commissioned by Rajaraja I, whose original name as prince was Arumoli, in his 19th year. Together with the Gopura, which is a later addition, the total area covered by the temple complex is nearly 1200 x 800 feet. An enclosure nearly 800 feet by 400 feet, with a late Gopura in the east, surrounds the main temple structure, the Rajarajesvara

vimana. A Nandimandapa stands at some distance from the entrance of the shrine, within the enclosure. The shrine itself is 25 feet square and is provided with an ambulatory. Symbolic doorways are provided on all four sides; hence, it can be described as being of the Sarvatobhadra class. There are huge four-armed door guardians. Above the shrine or vimana, there is a second storey, once again complete with offsets and protected by guardian figures. Internally, the two storeys, upper and lower, are common, and they accommodate a huge Linga of Shiva. The ground floor (aditala) has Shaiva imagery such as Bhikshatana, Virabhadra, Yamari, Nataraja, Harihara, Lingodbhava, Ardhanari and Gangadhara. The inner wall of the lower story also has images of Shiva, Nataraja and Devi. The walls of the upper sanctum were covered with paintings of the Chola period, but they were superimposed later by Nayaka period paintings. The walls of this upper storey also have sculptured panels of Nataraja, “lord of the dance”, demonstrating 81 out of 108 dance postures (Karanas) of the Natyashastra. The remaining 27 were left unfinished. The main entrance is guarded by two great door guardian figures. The ardhamandapa in front of the structure is of three storeys, and is as wide as the vimana. Its devakoshtha niches have Ganesha, Vishnu with his consorts, Durga, Virabhadra, Gajalakshmi and Sarasvati. The Brihadisvara temple complex at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu: Section drawing. © FIP/EFEO

The temple’s great hall or mahamandapa is of an oblong shape and has 24 pillars. In front is a huge monolithic Nandi, 12 feet tall. Around the enclosure is a string of sub-shrines. Eight sub-shrines for the Regents of the Directions of Space (Dikpalas) are among them, on the shikhara of each are their respective mounts.

The majestic complex of Rajarajesvara with its high base and towering pyramidal shikhara crowning it is a perfect example of mature Chola art of the 11th century. The Shiva temple known as Gangaikondacholisvaram at Kullambandal was built by Ishana Shiva, the spiritual preceptor of Rajendra Chola in 1034 CE. It has a sanctum or Vimana (principal niches: Dakshinamurti in the south, Lingodbhava in the west and Brahma in the north). The Amritaghatesvara temple at Melaikkadumbalur originally a very early foundation was reconstructed much later during Kulottunga I’s time in the early 12th century CE. The sanctum (Vimana) and frontal hall (Ardhamandapa) originally were of Uttama Chola’s period. The monument is built as a chariot (Ratha) complete with wheels and pulled by horses. The Vimana’s devakoshtha niches have Dakshinamurti in the south, Vishnu in the west and Brahma in the north. There are also figures of Shaiva saints (Nayanars) and Puranic stories. The Ardhamandapa has Ardhanari, Ganesha and Agastya on the south side, and Shiva-Parvati embracing (Alingana), Bhikshatana, Gangadhara and Durga on the north side. The Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, built in the new capital of Rajaraja’s son and successor Rajendra (ruled from 1012-1044 CE) is a somewhat smaller version of the Brihadisvara/Rajarajesvara at Thanjavur. The new capital together with its many other buildings and palaces were begun simultaneously with the temple. Unlike Rajarajesvara, in the enclosure within which the structure is set there is only one Gopura, which is now in a damaged condition. One more entrance provides entry to the monument from the north of the enclosure wall. The outer boundary of the complex is much wider, 600 x 350 feet, which must have been to provide for space for building two lateral shrines on the north and south of the temple’s vimana.

The vimana is of the sandhara class, that is, having an ambulatory for the worshippers to walk around the sanctum, and there are offsets on the walls. It has two storeys, the outer walls of which have a variety of Shaiva statuary in keeping with the dedication of the temple. Thus, the lower or first storey has such statues as Shiva’s Dakshinamurti form, Vishnu with his two wives, and Brahma in the principal niches on the three sides. In the corners and elsewhere there are Shiva’s Kankalamurti (skeletal form), dancing Ganesha, Ardhanari, Harihara, Nataraja, Gangadhara, and Shiva destroying Kala or Yama. On the upper storey also, there are similar figures; in addition, in the corners are the Dikpalas or Regents of the Directions of Space. The Linga within the shrine is almost 13 feet tall, by far the tallest in South India. Some of the sculptures and the way they are rendered are suggestive of northern influence or mannerism. On the south and north of the vimana, but not in perfect alignment among themselves, are an Uttara Kailasa and a Dakshina Kailasa shrines, that were probably built by Rajendra’s two queens. The Pralayakalesara temple at Pennadam of the time of Rajadhiraja I is datable to the third quarter of the 11th century CE, facing west. The apsidal shrine and its ardhamandapa have columns and latticed windows as surface decoration, but no niches for images. The original superstructure has been replaced by a modern one decorated with stucco. Layout of the Brihadisvara temple complex at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. © FIP/EFEO

The Airavatesvara temple, in the inscriptions known as Rajarajesvara temple, was built by Rajaraja II, of Kulottunga’s line, who ruled from 1146 to 1172 CE. It is one of the greatest monuments, and the last Chola enterprise included in this exhibition.

The temple faces the east. There is an open court, a doublestoreyed cloister with just a single entrance in the east. There was an outer enclosure but it is totally vanished. There is a Nandimandapa, and a Balipitha or platform for offerings. The main temple consists of a vimana, ardhamandapa, a transept, a closed large hall or mahamandapa and a mukhamandapa. Wheels of stone at regular intervals are suggestive of the divine chariot of Shiva. The basement mouldings are beautifully adorned with carvings of animals, vyalas, Shaiva panels and creeper motifs, as also Shaiva saintsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; life stories. There is an attractive pranala spout for draining out the bath water from the shrine. The ground storeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bhadra projections have Shiva divinities: Dakshinamurti in the south, Lingodbhava in the west and Brahma in the north. Elsewhere on the structure there are other forms and episodes of the god Shiva. The ardhamandapa has Ganesha and Durga on its south and north sides. At other places on the ardhamandapa are Bhikshatana, the Kiratarjuniya and Ravana shaking the Kailasa peak to terrorize Shiva and Parvati, and failing. There is an exceptionally interesting Shaiva sculpture with three heads and eight arms. It has sometimes been identified with Martandabhairava, a blend of Shiva with the Sun god.

AIIS DR-TN-01181: Drawing of the adhisthana, or base supporting the temple wall, at the Airavatesvara temple complex of Darasuram, Tamil Nadu.

The stairs leading up to the mandapa have parapets of decorated elephants on their balustrades. The pillars of the mandapa have three superposed blocks interspersed with medallions with floral and amorous figures, and another with dancing figures at regular intervals.

Temple Inscriptions Informative about Administration Thousands of inscriptions are preserved all over India. The Chola period is especially rich in such inscriptions, whether on stone, on copper plates or on temple walls. These inscriptions record grants of lands and other endowments to temples and religious monuments. They are very important sources for Chola dynastic history and chronology; they are the reason why we know so much about individual Chola monarchs.

Inscribed copper plates with their official seal of the Chola period. The copper plates and stone inscriptions record grants of lands made by kings in favour of the temples. Sometimes, whole villages were donated to the temples by the kings; they also record gifts for oil for lamps, garlands, incense. Future kings were exhorted to respect these donations. Often the records of their predecessors were re-engraved by later kings on the walls of temples reconstructed by them. © FIP/EFEO

Chola temples varied in size and scale from small village shrines to grand monumental complexes such as Thanjavur and Darasuram; these large establishments were like independent townships in their own right. The inscriptions are a rich source of information about temple administration and their affairs in general, down to very small details. They record donations of whole villages to the god on the one hand; and on the other hand, they record even small details such as donations of garlands, perpetual lamps in the shrines and many other such matters. A special feature of Chola temples is the care given to the preservation of these inscribed records. Many shrines had been at first small structures built of non-permanent materials like bricks. When they were weather worn, they were restored and enlarged by them using the more durable granite. However, these later benefactors took the care to honour their ancestors’ gifts and re-engraved the earlier records on the walls of the reconstructed monuments, preserving for posterity the foundation inscriptions and donations that would otherwise have been lost. Where would we be without such invaluable records of attribution? Bronzes Which lover of art who happens to cast a glance at bronzes created during the Chola period can remain unmoved by the dynamic image of the dancing Shiva or Nataraja, the portly elephant-faced Ganesha, or the youthful goddess Parvati cast in bronze? Along with sculptures, which normally formed part of structural or rock-cut temples, bronzes have always been popular in India since very early times. Bronze casting was practiced across the length and breadth of the country, but the artists of Cholamandalam were the most prolific, and their creations were exquisite. Thousands of bronzes of this period are in existence, many of them still in worship in ancient temples, others safely removed to museums such as the Madras Government Museum or the Tanjore Art Gallery. Dance and Music are known to be the earliest forms of Art, to be found among all the cultures of the world even where no other arts are practised. The concept of Shiva as expounder of Music and Dance runs through Indian art since the earliest period, and it will be found in the photographs displayed in this exhibition. Nataraja, Lord of the Dance, became a pre-eminent motif in Chola art. Artists and devotees saw deeper meaning in the dance: the deformed figure under Nataraja’s foot is personified slothfulness; the flames destroy Avidya or ignorance. The Dance has “cosmic” significance inasmuch as Shiva “dances the world out of existence, in

The royal seal of the Chola Kings. © FIP/EFEO

the burning ground” before a new Creation can happen. The symbolic import of the image was further enhanced by the inclusion in Shiva’s matted hair of a tiny figure of Ganga suggestive of the myth of the descent of the heavenly river to earth. Contrasting with the idealised Nataraja with his cosmic significance are the many stone sculptures of Shiva’s bull, Nandi, also to be found in this exhibition. They are placed facing Shiva’s Linga within the sanctum, or they adorn the superstructures of shrines, where they are installed at the four corners. They have an “earthly” character, seated or reclining naturalistically as they contemplate on their divine master. Among the shapeliest bronzes are those of the goddess Parvati, the consort of Shiva. Sembiyan Mahadevi, widowed queen of Gandaraditya, was the mother of Uttama Chola. This pious lady constructed many temples and commissioned images of Parvati; in fact, an entire style or series of Chola temples of the 10th century is named after her. From the pious acts of Sembiyan Mahadevi of consecrating temples, we are reminded of the ancient myth of Sati and Shiva: Sati, daughter of Daksha Prajapati, married the wandering god Shiva against the wishes of her father and she was disowned by him. Once, when Daksha was performing a great Vedic sacrifice, Sati attended it uninvited, was insulted, and because of that she threw herself into the sacrificial flames. She was reborn as daughter of Himalaya, the King of the Snowy Mountains, performed great austerities known as the “Five Fires penance”, by standing in the middle of four fire altars and gazing at the sun in the sky as the fifth fire, in order to be reunited with her husband. It became a custom with Hindu widowed queens to erect memorial temples or dig stepped wells as meritorious acts, or consecrate images of Parvati, in order to assimilate their own condition to Parvati in mythical time and to express their own yearning for a future reunion with their late husbands. Perhaps Sembiyan Mahadevi was expressing the same yearning by commissioning bronzes of Parvati? Another pair of bronzes exhibited here is from Tiruvenkadu and is datable to the early 11th century CE, when Rajaraja I was ruling, and is now preserved in the Tanjore Art Gallery. It represents Shiva as Vrishabhantika, or as if leaning on his bull mount, accompanied by his consort Parvati. This expressive work of art invites the viewer to imagine the figure of the absent bull.

AIIS Photo No. 81268/648.86 Lakshmana in bronze: From a group of images of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita from Vadakkupaniyur, Tamil Nadu dating to 975 CE.

These works of art, expressive, lively, were cast following a very simple process known as madhuchchhishta-vidhanam or the “drained wax” method. Using natural bee’s wax, the required figure, such as Nataraja, Devi, etc. was shaped by hand, coated with three or four layers of earth leaving outlets for the eventual draining of the molten wax. Then the desired metals (gold, silver, copper, lead etc.) were heated in a crucible and poured into the mould after it was heated, and the wax drained off. Finally, the bronze was given the final touches. In large bronzes, which were hollow cast to save metal, the wax figure was applied to clay figure. The conventional terms for such alloys were panchadhatu or ashtadhatu, “five-metal alloy” or “eight-metal alloy”; gold and silver would be present only in traces.

The Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu

Drawings reveal the intricacies of Brihadisvara temple architecture. Right: West elevation of the sanctuary-tower; and below: details of the south-west corner bay. ÂŠEFEO

AIIS Photo No. 3991/35.29 West view of the shrine (Vimana) of the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu marking the highest stage of Chola temple architecture and art.

The Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu

Drawings detail the elevation of the temple’s sanctuary-tower ©EFEO

AIIS Photo No. 3992/35.30 View from the north-west of the Brihadisvara temple.

Temple layout: The subsidiary shrines at Brihadisvara Temple. ©EFEO

AIIS Photo No. 9817/A7.26 Sculpture from Thanjavur temple complex.

Inner gateway to the main shrine of the Brihadisvara temple: Drawings and elevations. ÂŠEFEO

AIIS Photo No. 3983/35.31 Together with the Gopura, which is a later addition, the total area covered by the Brihadisvara temple complex is nearly 1200 x 800 feet. An enclosure nearly 800 feet by 400 feet, with a late Gopura in the east, surrounds the main temple structure, the Rajarajesvara vimana. A Nandimandapa stands at some distance from the entrance of the shrine, within the enclosure. The shrine itself is 25 feet square and is provided with an ambulatory. Symbolic doorways are provided on all four sides; hence, it can be described as being of the Sarvatobhadra class. There are huge four-armed door guardians. Above the shrine or vimana, there is a second storey, once again complete with offsets and protected by guardian figures. Internally, the two storeys, upper and lower, are common, and they accommodate a huge Linga of Shiva.

The early Chola temples at Kumbakonam, Pullamangai, Erumbur in Tamil Nadu

AIIS Photo No.3772/33.2 The Nagesvarasvami temple at Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu: Apsaras and ascetic figures adorn the rectangular wall niches of the late 9th century temple. View from the south.

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AIIS Photo No. 3773/32.89 Divine ascetic figure on the south wall of the Nagesvarasvami temple at Kumbakonam: This late 9th century figure, with ringlets of hair, and the hand forming the gesture of fearlessness, represents a sage.

AIIS Photo No. 3549/91.27 The Kadambavanesvara temple at Erumbur, Tamil Nadu: Built during the reign of Parantaka I, 907-955 CE. Shivaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Dakshinamurti aspect on the south side; seen here, a rare form of Yogic Shiva on the rear or west side and Brahma.

AIIS Photo No. 3889/42.17 The Brahmapurisvara temple at Pullamangai, Tamil Nadu: Built during the reign of Parantaka I in the early 10th century, a general view from the north-west of the Tri-tala or triple-storeyed structure.

AIIS Photo No. 3900/35.10 Brahma paying homage to Shiva emerging out of the Linga (Lingodbhava form): Along the west wall of the Brahmapurisvara temple at Pullamangai, Tamil Nadu, built during the reign of Parantaka I in the early 10th century CE. The legend of Lingodbhava: When Brahma and Vishnu claimed divine superiority a massive column of fire (the Linga) appeared challenging them to discover its top and bottom. Both gods unsuccessfully flew up in the sky or dug down into the netherworld. Then Shiva manifested himself out of the column and convinced Brahma and Vishnu he was the greatest. Figure of Brahma is a detail of the Lingodbhava panel.

AIIS Photo No. 3890/35.13 Ganesha on the south wall of the frontal hall (Ardhamandapa) at the Brahmapurisvara temple at Pullamangai: The large panels of gods have attendant figures accompanying them.

AIIS Photo No. 3901/35.11 Celestial female figure or Apsara in a wall niche of the Brahmapurisvara temple at Pullamangai, built during the reign of Parantaka I in the early 10th century. The wall ornaments are articulated with exquisite slender figures.

The early Chola temples at Punjai, Srinivasanallur, Kodambalur, Kilaiyur in Tamil Nadu

AIIS Photo No. 3904/35.64 The Naltulai Isvaragriham at Punjai, Tamil Nadu: West view of the sanctum (Vimana); Shiva’s Lingodbhava form is in the niche (Devakoshtha) in the centre. The temple was built during the reign of Parantaka I in the mid-10th century.

AIIS Photo No. 3908/35.72 Sage Agastya, a celebrated saint adorns the south wall of the front hall (Ardhamandapa): At the Naltulai Isvaragriham at Punjai. Legend of Sage Agastya: He prevented the Vindya mountains from rising high.

AIIS Photo No. 3917/35.75 Detail of Shiva’s Lingodbhava form in the Naltulai Isvaragriham at Punjai: In this elegant sculpture, Shiv is manifesting himself from the Linga to convince Brahma and Vishnu he is the greatest.

AIIS Photo No. 3915/35.74 Shiva’s Dakshinamurti form on the south side of the sanctum (Vimana) of Naltulai Isvaragriham at Punjai: Built during the reign of Parantaka I in the mid-10th century. Shiva’s Dakshinamurti form personifies the great teacher of Yoga, music and sacred learning.

AIIS Photo No. 20794/A18.71 Shiva as Dakshinamurti or Divine Teacher: In the south wall of the Koranganatha temple, Srinivasanallur, Tamil Nadu

AIIS Photo No. 3739/37.5 The Muvarkoil shrines at Kodumbalur: The ‘King’s’ shrine built by Bhuti Vikramakesari, an Irukkuvel feudatory of the Cholas in the early 10th century CE. Only two out of the original three shrines survive. The statuary on the superstructure includes divine figures and Shiva’s bull Nandi, adding to the shrine’s appeal.

AIIS Photo No. 6398/92.82 Standing Shiva in the south niche (Devakoshtha) of the Agastyesvara temple.

AIIS Photo No. 3698/36.96 The Agastyesvara temple at Kilaiyur, Tamil Nadu: View from the south with Shiva seen standing in the niche (Devakoshtha). Built during the reign of Parantaka I, 876-899 CE, in the early Cholanadu style.

The Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram in Tamil Nadu

AIIS Photo No. 3581/33.66 The Amman shrine of the Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram.

AIIS Photo No. 22514/B1.22 General view from south-west of the Brihadisvara temple, built in the reign of Rajendra I.

Subsidiary shrines at the Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram. ÂŠEFEO

AIIS Photo No. 3564/33.87 Shivaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Chandeshanugraha form: In the east side of the Brihadisvara temple.

AIIS Photo No. 3578/33.92 Vishnu being lauded by sages: At the Brihadisvara temple, Gangaikondacholapuram.

The Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, built in the new capital of Rajaraja’s son and successor Rajendra I (ruled from 1012-1044 CE), is a somewhat smaller version of the Brihadisvara/Rajarajesvara at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. The new capital together with its many other buildings and palaces were begun simultaneously with the temple.

AIIS Photo No. 3563/33.64 The sanctum (Vimana) of the Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram: View of the south side of the temple.

Drawings reveal the intricacies and elevation of the Brihadisvara temple‘s sanctuarytower: West elevation. ©EFEO AIIS Photo No. 3576/33.84 Sarasvati, the goddess of learning: At the Brihadisvara temple, Gangaikondacholapuram.

The Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram in Tamil Nadu

AIIS Photo No. 3509/33.49 A dancing celestial female adorning a pillar in the Airavatesvara temple.

AIIS Photo No. 3506/33.6 View of the intricately carved pillars in the Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram, Tamil Nadu: Built in the reign of Rajaraja II during the 12th century CE.

AIIS Photo No. 37652/255.48 Balustrade flanking the steps of the Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram: View from the east.

The Airavatesvara temple, in the inscriptions known as Rajarajesvara temple, was built by Rajaraja II, of Kulottungaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s line, who ruled from 1146 to 1172 CE. It is one of the greatest monuments, and the last Chola enterprise included in this exhibition. The temple faces the east. There is an open court, a double-storeyed cloister with just a single entrance in the east. There was an outer enclosure but it is totally vanished. There is a Nandimandapa, and a Balipitha or platform for offerings. The main temple consists of a vimana, ardhamandapa, a transept, a closed large hall or mahamandapa and a mukhamandapa. Wheels of stone at regular intervals are suggestive of the divine chariot of Shiva.

AIIS Photo No. 3495/33.9 The Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram: West view of the shrine (Vimana).

AIIS Photo No. 3503/33.74 Sculpture of a royal figure: Adorning the wall of Airavatesvara temple.

AIIS Photo No. 3532/33.12 Intricately carved pillars adorn the corridors of the Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram: Built in the reign of Rajaraja II during the 12th century.

Bronzes of the Chola period: From the Madras Museum collection

AIIS Photo No. 81137/649.3 Buddha with attendants: The 11th century bronze from Nagapattinam, a flourishing port town, has yielded many life-size stone and bronze statues of the Buddha from the 10th and 11th centuries CE. AIIS Photo No. 81213/649.9 Detail of the Buddha with attendantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; bronze.

AIIS Photo No. 10092 / 104.44 Saint Manickavachagar: 13th century bronze from Tiruvidaimarudur.

AIIS Photo No. 81228/648.72 Goddess Kali from Senniyanvidudi: 10th century bronze depicts Kali, a member of the pantheon of Shiva in his wrathful aspect. Kali personifies the attributes of Shiva, the trident, skull cup and noose, and has a flaming halo.

AIIS Photo No. 10396/ A6.59 Nataraja or Shiva as the Lord of the Cosmic Dance: From Tiruvelvikudi, 11th century bronze. Nataraja, Lord of the Dance, became a pre-eminent motif in Chola art. Artists and devotees saw deeper meaning in the dance: the deformed figure under Nataraja’s foot is personified slothfulness; the flames destroy Avidya or ignorance. The Dance has “cosmic” significance inasmuch as Shiva “dances the world out of existence, in the burning ground” before a new Creation can happen. The symbolic import of the image was further enhanced by the inclusion in Shiva’s matted hair of a tiny figure of Ganga suggestive of the myth of the descent of the heavenly river to earth.

AIIS Photo No. 10510/A6.33 Shiva Vrishabhantika, leaning on his bull: Early 11th century bronze from Tiruvengadu. A spare figure with a distinctive pile of matted hair, this bronze of Shiva and Parvati is a masterpiece. The bull is absent, but the viewer is invited to see its presence in his imagination.

AIIS Photo No. 81233/649.2 Devi standing with two attendant figures, a child and a female figure: From Singanaikuppam in the 13th century CE, this meditating ascetic figure in her crown suggests that it is a Jaina image.

The Amritaghatesvara temple at Melaikadambalur in Tamil Nadu

AIIS Photo No. 3836/37.98 and 3830/38.14 The Amritaghatesvara temple at Melaikkadambalur, Tamil Nadu: Views of the shrine (Vimana) and its ornate statuary, built in the late 11th century CE.

AIIS Photo No. 3845/38.2 Sculpture of Naga worshipper on the wall of the Amritaghatesvara temple, Melaikkadambalur.

AIIS Photo No. 3844/38.4 Shiva as Umasahita, accompanied by his consort Uma: At the Amritaghatesvara temple, Melaikkadambalur. Shiva and Parvati are sacred in their own right; but when united they form a couple (Dampati) their sanctity is multiplied.

AIIS Photo No. 3843/38.3 Shiva as Gangadhara, receiving the heavenly river in his matted hair: In a wall niche at the Amritaghatesvara temple. Legend of Gangadhara: The sons of King Sagara were burnt to ashes by a sage when they violated his penance. They could only be liberated by the river Ganga, which flowed in heaven. The kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s descendant Bhagiratha pleased Ganga to come down to earth, and persuaded Shiva to receive the mighty stream into his matted hair. Ganga then descended on earth and sanctified the ashes of the dead. This is a popular story all over India; and even bronzes of Nataraja have a tiny figure of Ganga in his hair. AIIS Photo No. 22089/162.50 Upper portion details of the Nataraja bronze, from Tiruvelvikudi in the 11th century CE.

AIIS Photo No. 3833/38.7 Sage Agastya on the frontal mandapa (Ardhamandapa) of the Amritaghatesvara temple, Melaikkadambalur, built in the late 11th century CE.

Nandis in Chola temples of Tamil Nadu

AIIS Photo No. 19358/172.38 Nandi at the Pushpavanesvara temple in Tiruppunturutti, Tamil Nadu. Exemplifying the Cholanadu style, it is dated to c. 850 CE. AIIS Photo No. 3858/36.13 Nandi at the Vijayalaya Cholisvaram temple at Narttamalai, Tamil Nadu: West view of the sanctum (Vimana) with Shivaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Lingodbhava form in the central niche (Devakoshtha). Built in the mid-9th century, representing the early Chola temple architecture.

AIIS Photo No. 3860/36.04 The Vijayalaya Cholisvaram temple at Narttamalai, Tamil Nadu: This is a sandhara temple, as seen from the north. It has an inner processional passage for going around the sanctum; and the sanctum or Vimana is tri-tala or three-storeyed. Built by a feudatory in the mid-9th century.

AIIS Photo No. 6252/95.55 and 6251/ 95.54 Nandi at Pushpavanesvara temple in Tiruppunturutti, Tamil Nadu c. 850 CE, and the detailing of its ornamentation.

AIIS Photo No. 4219/92.24 At the Visamangalesvarar temple at Turaiyur, Tamil Nadu: View from the south-east, detail of Shivaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sacred bull, Vrisha, on the sanctum (Vimana) superstructure. Built during the reign of Gandaraditya in the mid-10th century CE.

Chola temples at Pennadam, Kullambandal in Tamil Nadu

AIIS Photo No. 30800/A28.50 The Pralayakalesvara temple at Pennadam, Tamil Nadu: View of the shrine from west. The temple was built in the 11th century CE.

AIIS Photo No. 3767/41.23 Shiva temple or Gangaikondacholisvara at Kullambandal, Tamil Nadu: View of the temple built in the early 11th century CE during the reign of Rajendra Chola.