7th Grade: A History of US (A)

World War I Inventions

By August Bartlett The 20th century was a time of innovation for the United States.

Right off the bat, the first airplanes and cars were invented. The U.S. was thrust into an industrial era. When the First World War rolled around, people around the world were ready to make new inventions for the war.

The wartime inventions of World War I changed the wars after it. Here are just some of the inventions: tanks, poison gas, synchronized machine guns for planes, bomber planes, sonar, the Nissen Hut, the Lewis Gun, the breech loading rifle, chemical weapons, the Big Bertha, and the advancements of submarines. This paper is about five specific inventions that made a great impact.

U.S. recruiting poster from World War I..

These inventions are: the tank, advancements on airplanes, the Nissen Hut, poison gas, and sonar. Let’s start with the tank. Gunter Burstyn, from Korneuburg, Austria, is credited with the invention. The idea was that these machines would be used for trench warfare. Many things blocked the way of advancing infantry: shell holes, mud, and of course trenches. Later on, William Tritton started work on perfecting the “demo” that had been made by Burstyn. He started filing patents, and didn’t stop until he had eight. The one thing that they all had in common was the idea to use “caterpillar tracks”, the endless rubber rolling system found on tanks and construction equipment today. Tritton was working for the British at this time, and in December of 1915, the final model was complete and ready for action. These machines could cross ten-foot trenches. Right off the bat, the English army ordered one hundred of these tanks. (The reason they were called tanks was because the British were calling them water tanks for security.)

Many may think that the tank would have dominated the First World War, but that is not the case. It was more useful as propaganda than a fighting machine.

Tank from On November 20th of 1917, at the Battle of Cambrai, World War I four hundred seventy four tanks went into action.

This was the most the tanks were ever used. Most of them broke down. The war might have been much different if the Germans had used Burnstyn’s early idea. They did not really believe in the concept. In World War II, everyone had learned about the tank and tried to perfect it. It now is one of the most deadly and important war machines around.

Next on the agenda is the Nissen Hut. Many have probably never heard of this innovation. It was invented around 1916 by Peter Norman Nissen. Nissen was born in America, but invented the Hut in France, while working for the British. It is a portable house. It was pretty good at deflecting shrapnel and bombshells, too. He sensed that there was no easyto-build housing for the troops, so he started out on designing one. Nissen later claimed that he got the idea from the roof of his university’s skating rink!

To make it, you must first lay out wooden beams on the ground to make a grid. Many half-circle steel ribs are then bolted to the beams, and horizontal wood beams are then attached to these beams. After that, a wooden floor is screwed to the beams. Next, an inner lining of light corrugated iron is attached behind the joints of the steel and wooden ribs.

A second covering, with its own corrugations, is placed on an outer skin.

Lastly, vertical wooden boarding is put up at each end. One end has a door, windows and a vent grill.

The Nissen Hut

The Nissen Hut allowed six soldiers to create shelter in four hours, and it could be carried on the back of a truck. Over 100,000 were built by the end of the war. The parts were shipped from England. They were twenty seven feet long, sixteen feet wide, and eight feet high.

Nissen Huts continued to be produced in World War II. Americans had their own version called the Quonset Hut or Q-Hut.

The airplane was invented in 1906, by the Wright brothers. But it was not until the First World War that people started adding things to it to make it a deadly war machine. One advancement made to the airplane was synchronized machine gun fire. This seemed like a pretty hard task to do, getting the gun to fire at a different time than the propeller’s movement.

At this time, fighter planes were still young. The only thing the pilot could do was have an observer who would shoot a very heavy machine gun from the back of the plane. This was a difficult task because they already had bombs in their lap. Then, when they tried putting the machine gun in the front, Frenchman Raymond Saulnier tried to find a way to use interrupter gears, but he couldn’t do it. Eventually, he decided to just attach steel plates to the propellers to deflect the bullets. This worked, but the pilot was at risk of being shot. German Franz Schneider is credited with finding a way . At first, both Britain and Germany had patents on this idea, but they did not notice them gathering dust in a library. This invention had a

Shrapnel Bomb, mine or shell fragments Corrugations A ridge or groove of a surface that has wrinkles or folds

Interrupter gears A way to target opponents without damaging yourself

very large impact on airplane combat in the First World War. It might have won the war for Germany, too.

Fun Story On Christmas Day, in 1914, there was a random stoppage of the war all around the Western Front. The British and German troops (there were also some Scottish) decided to stop the battle and have a Christmas celebration! It was also a celebration of the brotherhood of man.They gathered at No Man’s Land (the area between front lines) and gave each other small gifts.

Some were given boxes of chocolates, some buttons, and some cigarettes. At one part of it, they even decided to play soccer. It is now known as the “Christmas Truce”. A movie was made about it in 2005; the title was “Joyeux Noel” (Merry Christmas).

Planes also started to be used for bombing. Before the war, many countries were making plans for a plane that could drop bombs. Sikorsky (an American plane manufacturing company) had a plane, the Ilya Maurometz aircraft, built in 1914. It was the first known heavy bomber. Bombers became a new aircraft class. Another plane, the Handley-Page O/400, could carry a bomb that weighed about one ton. This innovation did not prove to be quite as deadly as the next one, though.

Poison gas is one of the most gruesome forms of warfare. Fritz Haber, of Germany, invented many artificial fertilizers and explosives.

Sometime around World War I, he invented poison gas. It was first introduced at the Battle of Ypres (a municipality in Belgium). Its effects were great at first, because there was no defense for them until respirators were invented (ironically Fritz Haber was involved in this too). When there was an unexpected amount of trench warfare, everyone tried to end the stalemate. Poison gas could be launched in bomb shells or grenades.

Within seconds of inhaling the vapor, the human respiratory organs would be destroyed, and it brought on choking attacks. It killed many people.

This next thing was not as essential in the Great War.

Diagram of how sonar works Sonar was invented in 1906 by Lewis Nixon, an Ameican. At first, it was used for detecting icebergs. Then when the war rolled around, people drew interest in it. They started using it to locate submerged objects and measuring distances underwater. Sea warfare occurred more often than people expected. The Germans developed the UBoat, a cheap, fast and destructive boat that almost gave them the victory at sea. In World War II, sonar became much more effective. It was the only way the Allies could defend themselves from the U-Boat. It sends out a subsurface sound wave and then it listens for returning echoes. Then the data is given to the humans by way of a loudspeaker. The name “sonar” comes from SOund, NAvigation, and Ranging.

Some of these weapons did not have much effect in World War I. One thing that is for sure is that they changed the wars after it. Take the airplane, for example. It has improved to be one of the most important pieces of modern warfare. There are also many different kinds. Same with the tank. Even poison gas, the Nissen Hut, and sonar were used very often in the Second World War. All in all, the inventions of World War I proved to be a giant step forward in warfare.

Works Cited Books Farwell, Byron. Over There. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1999.

Turvey, Peter. Timelines Inventions. Danbury: Franklin Watts, 1992.

Van Dulken, Stephen. Inventing the 20th Century. New York: New York University Press, 2000.

Internet Sites “Great Weapons Of World War 1.” Old Magazine Articles. April 25, 2012.

“New Technologies.” World War I- New Technologies. April 25, 2012.

Pictures http://apush-wikimarlboroughschool.wikispaces.com/Neutrality+and+World+War+I+America's+Involvement http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanks_in_World_War_I http://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/ww1-aircraft.asp http://www.nissens.co.uk/ http://www.safetysupplywarehouse.com/DANGER_POISON_GAS_SAF ETY_SIGNS_p/10960.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonar

The Korean War BY: Leonard Brkanac The Korean War was a very deadly, bloody, and pestilent war.

There were many sad casualties resulting from this awful conflict between North Korea plus the Soviets and the United Nations (UN). Another devastating fact is that after the war, the veterans and the remaining soldiers were almost given NO CREDIT for their very difficult and burdensome fighting. This made them very mad and it was very very unfair to those poor soldiers who risked their lives for the safety of South Korea’s and the United States. Also another very sad fact is that most people don't even know what the Korean War is, let alone ABOUT.

KIM IL SUNG was the first North Korean dictator

HARRY S. TRUMAN was the 33rd president of the United States.

The way the Korean War started is that after World War Two, Korea split into two different sections, the communist North Korea and the capitalist South Korea. North Korea was backed by the Soviet Union and South Korea was backed by the United States. Both of the two very different countries dreamed of one day having a united country. But both had many different perspectives on how to run the country. There was also a power imbalance. North Korea had tanks and artillery while South Korea didn’t have almost anything except some artillery. Meanwhile the tension between the two countries was getting much stronger to a point where war would seem inevitable. Finally, after many bloody frontier battles, North Korea took the SYNGMAN RHEE initiative and invaded South Korea on June 25, was the president 1950. Over 100,000 troops poured over the 38th of South Korea. parallel, the border between South and North Korea. The South Korean forces were shocked and didn't know what to do. They called the United States for help and the US didn't have many options so they sent a small reinforcement. The US troops arrived to help stiffen the resistance toward the rapidly advancing North Koreans. The British along with some other countries also responded, however the reinforcement fared very badly against the North Korean troops. The US troops were clearly outnumbered and they were killed though some escaped. So the North Korean troops were still rapidly advancing into South Korea and things weren't looking good for South Koreans.

The North Koreans goals were trying to take over South Korea so they could become bigger and expand. Also, they wanted to unite the whole Korea under communism. The South Koreans goals were to defend their own country and make sure that communism did not spread to even more places, at all costs! Also the United States had to ask the United Nations for approval to fight the war. The United Nations is a peace organization that consists of the United States, United Kingdom, Canada,

Turkey, Australia, Thailand, Philippines, France, Greece, New Zealand, Netherlands, Columbia, Belgium, Ethiopia, South Africa, Luxembourg and a few other countries. But the point is whenever there is a war that involves those countries they will have to discuss it with the whole United Nations before deciding what to do. But back to the US’s question. After some discussing the UN agreed that they would help the US. This was good because now the US had the support of all those countries listed COMMUNISM: A way of above. Meanwhile the North Koreans really wanted to take over South Korea social organization in for once and for all so they asked Soviet which all wealth is Russia to supply them with valuable shared with the arms, tanks and artillery and some other community. The rich will miscellaneous things. The Russians share their wealth with agreed, so North Korea was going to be the poor a hard country to defeat.

Most people forgot about the Korean War because they thought it was small and didn't do much. Those people were wrong because the Korean War mattered a lot. If the This is a map of North and South Korea. The war wasn't fought then there wouldn't be a South Korea Arrows are the movements of soldiers. RED is and then North Korea would have expanded, with North Korea. BLUE and GREEN is the UN. communism. That would make the situation worse.

Maybe at a later point there would be a World War Three because communism was getting too big. All in all, about five million people died in the Korean War, including civilians. But compared to a huge war like World War Two, which had about 50-70 million casualties also including civilians. The Korean War was like comparing a seed to an apple.

Here are the some of the main battles of the awful and devastating Korean War. One of the first major battles ends up being the Naktong offensive. It was held on the fifteenth of September 1950. In this battle the United Nations had to try to hold North Korea away from Busan, a port which was near the end of South Korea. That also proved Capitalism: An economic that the United Nations had pretty close call in the war. If the system in which all North Korean army went any farther they would have technically wealth and property is won the Korean War because it would be way harder for the UN maintained by private to invade South Korea. In the Naktong offensive there were individuals and many casualties on both sides but after a grueling two weeks the Corporations.

UN was able to hold off North Korea's army. After that battle, the Naktong offensive the tides of war would change. For the UN, things were looking better. Another major and bloody battle was the battle of Inchon.

On September 15, 1950 70,000 UN troops surrounded Seoul and took over. This was a major victory because they just took back a very big city. After that Truman, the United States president told MacArthur, the general of the battalion to stop advancing. But the General felt the need to keep going. He wanted to invade North Korea. Truman thought this was stupid but MacArthur was confident he could keep advancing; he knew he would have to go up against China, North Korea's new ally. But that didn't take away his confidence. He would also often say “home by Christmas” but that would not be the case for the UN. When the UN engaged China in North Korea, there was a nasty surprise. The This was Mao Xinyu. He was the leader of Chinese outnumbered them and they had a the Chinese army. geographical advantage on top of that! The UN pretty much had no chance against the Chinese. It was a massacre... A lot of UN troops fled back to South Korea.

In the end not very many soldiers were alive. This was all mainly General MacArthur's fault. If he wasn't trying to be that aggressive this wouldn't have happened. Truman even though about relieving MacArthur of command. After this massacre, the Chinese proceeded to South Korea and they took over Seoul. This was a loss because the UN worked very hard to take Seoul in the first place. The UN would have some catch up work to do. The UN was going to take back Seoul but first they established a defensive line at the thirty seventh parallel on January 1951 now they could move up from there and took back Seoul. On March 18 the UN takes back Seoul and they finally were gaining some upper ground.

Another major thing is that on the eleventh of April Truman relieved MacArthur of his command and that made the public mad because he was very famous and popular, everyone knew him. This act made Truman very unpopular. Lucky for him he was not going to run for president next year. But after a while people understood why he was relieved and they weren’t as mad.

Now back to the war, the Chinese were going to launch an offensive and after a couple days the UN stopped it from getting out of control. On June 13 the UN would stop fighting and they would try to make peace and they would have peace negotiations. This talk would continue for slightly less than a month and on July 10 the truce talks stopped. There wasn’t much hope for those poor soldiers on the battlefield. After that the awful and bloody fighting would continue for two years. Finally after all that time an Armistice was signed July 27, 1953. The war was finally

This was General Douglas MacArthur. One of the main generals of the Korean War.

over and the soldiers could return home. They also worked very hard.

However here is a one sad thing in this victory. In World War Two there were parades and a lot of festivals to celebrate the soldier’s arrival.

That was not the case for the Korean War. When the soldiers came back to the US there was almost no recognition for their fighting whatsoever. The public just shrugged it off. The hard working soldiers didn't deserve that.

Even with that, the war didn't accomplish much. The Koreas are still separated even today, but the border was moved slightly north. Most of all that hard fighting was pretty much just taking back land that the North Koreans took. The UN was on the defensive.

The Korean War was a hard fought war. There were a lot of casualties in this bloody war, but they weren't in vain. The conflict between the Soviet backed, North Korean army versus the United Nations was going to change Korea forever. Also the poor soldiers weren't even awarded by the public's attention, hence its nickname, “The Forgotten War” hopefully something awful like this never happens again, ever.

A memorial honoring the Korean War vetarans.

A group of veterans from the Korean War.

Citations 1.Catchpoole, Brian, The Korean war 1950-1953, London, Constable & Robinson, 2000 2.Reece, Richard, The Korean War, Edina , ABDO, 2011.

3. Korean War, The history channel website, May 14 2012,http://www.history.com/topics/korean-war 4.Hickey, Michael, The Korean war an overview,BBC.co.uk,BBC,2011/03/21,2012/04/30.http://www.bbc.c o.uk/history/worldwars/coldwar/korea_hickey_01.shtml Picture citations.

Kim Il Sung http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2046285_ 2045996_2046020,00.html

Syngman Rhee http://countrystudies.us/south-korea/11.htm

Douglas MacArthur http://www.communitywalk.com/map/list/356457?order=0

Harry S. Truman http://surftofind.com/33 http://www.communitywalk.com/important_events_in_the_korean_war/ important_events_in_the

Mao Xinyu http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/7921655/Chair man-Maos-grandson-becomes-Chinese-army-general.html

Memorial http://www.ga.wa.gov/visitor/korean/koreanwar.htm

Veteranshttp://www.kwva.org/memorials/mn/p_mem_mn.htm

Homosexual Rights: The Matthew Shepard Case By: Clara Cimino The Matthew Shepard case was a huge turning point in homosexual rights and a very interesting topic to cover. When this horrendous act was announced people were devastated by this act of public abuse and hate, but had the desire to learn more. Even after the crime was committed, so many different acts of getting rights and equal treatment for homosexuals were to follow. It was the basis of so many protests and it really opened the eyes of the public to what hate for someone Someone mourning different could drive someone too.

Shepard at the fence Even after all that had happened to where he was killed Matthew, people still protested against gays and lesbians. It is interesting how some people could be alright with someone dying in such a brutal way just because he was of a different sexuality. The topic and Matthew himself have so many different and interesting points; it makes it an amazing topic to cover.

Laramie, Wyoming. The Before, after, and during Matthew’s life and place where Shepard was death he was never really accepted. In 1995, Matthew killed Shepard was beaten and raped on a trip to Morocco, causing depression and panic attacks.

After this, Shepard was diagnosed with HIV. Because of this horrific event, Matthew turned to drugs. Matthew’s killers were also druggies. Matthew was killed by Russell Henderson and Aaron McKinney. After Shepard and his killers met in a bar, Matthew asked for a ride home. After a moment they replied with a simple yes, but Homosexual their plan was not to take him Adjective home, but to rob him. They led of, pertaining to, Matthew to believe they were gay and when, according to killer Aaron McKinney, or noting the same Aaron McKinney and Shepard made a pass at him he pulled over. sex Russell Henderson Russell was commanded to tie Shepard to a nearby fence. Aaron pulled out a large pistol and started beating Shepard with it until he was bleeding badly. After he was beaten, Henderson and McKinney stole Shepard’s wallet and shoes, and then they quickly drove away. Shepard was left on the fence for 18 hours before he was found by a biker, still tied to a fence and just grasping to his life. His facial injuries were so severe he

was completely covered in blood and his face was almost unrecognizable, even to his mother. It was so horrible the only areas of his face visible through the blood were the parts of his face which had been partially cleansed by his tears. After being found FUN FACT: and rushed to a hospital, Shepard was still in coma.

Shepard and McKinney Five days later he died. both claimed they had never met, but friends claimed they had. Reports were made that they most likely met when they were both high on drugs.

When someone hears news on a “hate crime” they may wonder the difference between a hate crime and murder. First off, murder can be random. Murder is basically just killing someone because you can. A hate crime is against a characteristic, while murder is against the person. Hate crimes go after a certain group, in other words, prejudice. Hate crimes are when someone is selected because that person hates one thing about who that person is.

Different people of different religions took Sheperd’s death in different ways. One of the most famous reactions was that of the radical Baptists from the Westboro Baptist Church. These people protested against homosexuals at the funeral of Matthew Shepard. They were led

by Pastor Fred Phelps. The protests were so bad that it caused Shepard’s friends to dress up as angels with huge wings to block protesters from the view of the people attending the vigils. Many preachers disapproved of Phelps’ protests and held vigils for Matthew themselves. Shepard’s death triggered year long conversations in several Laramie churches; the Newman Center, The Episcopal Church, and the UnitarianPastor Fred Phelps Universalist Fellowship each began to discussion groups devoted to protesting at Matthews’s questions of sexual funeral orientation and religious doctrine. A catholic priest named Father Roger Schmit organized a vigil, he A memorial for Matthew Shepard

thought it was a powerful opportunity for people to come together and

discuss hate. He became an advocate for homosexual tolerance.

Courage Noun The quality of mind or spirit that enab les a person to face difficulty, danger, pain, etc., without fear; bravery.

Obsolete. The heart as the source of e motion.

What elements came together to make this trial a landmark for the homosexual rights movement? Well, the beating and death of Matthew Shepard was so brutal that it shocked the nation. It became a flash point because we could all see it so clearly that the nation made it an excuse for vigils and marches for both Shepard and all homosexual rights. It became not only a symbol of homophobia, but also a plea for hate crime laws. During the time of the case lot of people had gotten off during other trials using something called the “Gay Panic Defense” but in this case the judge didn't allow Hate crime them to use the offence. One reason this all was so iconic for the Noun gay and lesbian community was because he was so young and also when his killers strung him up to the fence it was almost in a A crime, usually violent, crucifixion pose when, with the added effect of the tears coming motivated by prejudice down his face, led people to compare him to Jesus..The more or intolerance toward a attention it got, the more awareness it made. member of a gender, racial, religious, or It took people from the time of the crime (1998) until 2009 social group. to change any legislation concerning hate crime prevention. The Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, also known as The Matthew Shepard Act, is an American Act of Congress, passed on October 22, 2009 and signed into law by Barack Obama on October 28, 2009. The bill was conceived as a response to the murders of Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. The bill was introduced many times between 2001-2008, FUN FACT: before it was passed in 2009. On July 11, 2007 Matthew Shepard’s Kennedy attempted to introduce the bill as an parents begged for mercy amendment to the Senate Defense on Matthew’s Killers.

Reauthorization Bill. The bill referred to the full Judiciary committee, where it passed by a vote of 15-12 on April 23, 2009.

The death of Matthew Shepard was a shocking topic and his heartrending story touched many people of the world and changed the world forever. His life and death proved that hate could drive people to do horrid things. Matthew never was truly accepted by the public.

People felt like they could take advantage of him just because of his sexual orientation. His death was a hate crime, not a murder. He was killed because his killers did not

Matthew Shepard memorial program

like the aspect of him being a gay man. Different people took Shepard’s death in so many different ways. Churches reacted differently to both his death and showed both support and hate to the homosexual community.

Some held touching vigils, while other made hurtful signs and protested Matthew and all like him. Shepard was killed at such a young age, in such a brutal way, that it showed the nation the truth behind what people could do.

Citations: Kaufman, Moises. The Laramie Project. New York: First Vintage Books, 2001 Loffreda, Beth. Losing Matt Shepard. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.

Judy Shepard. "Matthew Shepard Foundation" Matthew Shepard. www.matthewshepard.org/.

"What Made Matthew Shepard So Important." Personal interview. 9 May 2012.

ABC News 20/20 The Matthew Shepard Case. DVD.

The Cuban Missile Crisis

By Ben Colvin

FIDEL CASTRO This is fidel castro. He claimed he wasn’t a communist> He was the leader of the Cubans Communist :a communist is a person who is regarded as supporting leftist or subversive causes.

The Cold War began shortly after World War 2 and went on because the Soviet Union and the USA were afraid of each others power. The fighting started when the Russians launched Sputnik and we countered it with our own space adventure. The two societies that are the Soviets and the Americans had always had a sort of dislike toward each other. Later the Soviets took this quarrel to Cuba and that is where Blockaid th[Type a quote from the document or the summary : a blockaid is a thing of an interesting point. You can position the text box that is set up to block anywhere in the document. Use the Drawing Tools something for example a tab to change the formatting of the pull quote text blockaid of ships. box.] e missile crisis began. This crisis was really just a war of word backed up by the threat of a nuclear war. The Cuban missile crisis only lasted for thirteen days in October before the countries retreated and took their weapons with them. The Cubans let the Soviets in because they wanted to protect themselves from socialism. The Cuban missile was very important for politics and the nation's security.

The Cuban missile started when the USA sent a U-2 plane over Cuba. The plane photographed several missile bases, The worst part was the bases were Soviet nuclear bases. This was on October 15th and the missiles where SS-4 nuclear technology. This missiles were located 90 miles of the Florida coast and were aimed right at the United States. In defence we stationed our nuclear weapons in Turkey. The United States where unaware of how much the odds favored us. The USA had more than 8x the nuclear warheads.

President, John F Kennedy set up many things to keep the soviets at bay. (Here is the president and his advisers met to discuss the issue of what actions to take against the soviets). “There isn't any doubt that if we announced that there were missile sites we would secure a great deal of support. This reality would put the burden on the soviets” later on in the conversation on what actions to take Mr. McNamara suggested “ you have to put a blockade up following up on any action taken” Robert F Kennedy said “ Then we have to sink the Russian ships Here is a map of were whether we the missile were located should get on cuba. into it and takes our

losses” this conversation was recorded by JFK himself.

A few of the other ways he kept the soviets out was to blockade the route between the way the soviets were sailing and Cuba. This was because if this precaution were not taken the soviets would be able to transport more weaponry and more supplies to the Cuban missile bases. The Bay of Pigs invasion was discussed over a period of time and was put off till later. He concluded that if the USA invaded that the basses would fire at least some of the missiles at the major cities.

This is the u-2 spy plane The I1-28 was the first bomber airplane. This plane was obsolete that photographed the almost as soon as they were finished manufacturing. The reason was missile basses. that they carried so much weaponry but they paid for that in speed.

They were discontinued soon after the Cuban missile crisis even though they were the ruler of the skies at that time in history. The Cuban would be able to shoot them down in a blink of the eye.

Nuclear machine : nuclear is a thing that runs on atomic power.

This leads into the invasion of the Bay of Pigs.

The Bay of Pigs invasion was planned by the CIA to overthrow Castro’s government. The CIA planned over 1400 anti Castro exiles. Fidel Castro was not expecting this because he thought that john f Kennedy would be more forgiving. The exact opposite was true JFK was even more ruthless toward the Cuban than the previous president Eisenhower had ever been. The CIA wanted to use a large-scale invasion with an army of air force backup.

The invasion failed in all the ways that it could fail. The air force was shot down and the Cubans fought very brave and willingly to protect Cuba. The invasion was a total failure to overthrow Castro. Castro was still is in power long after the cold war.

Deal was made with the soviets because they both had missiles directly threatening the other side. On October 19 JFK met with the foreign minister Mr. Andrie Gromyko to discuss if the soviet would make a deal with the USA to remove any missiles. JFK demanded the destruction of any nuclear technology, which could harm the United States of America. The missiles also affected the soviet ruler. The United States had missiles in turkey and a few in Italy aimed right This si a missile in for the soviet capital. A deal was soon made so that the soviets Russia that is identical would leave Cuba in piece and take all the nuclear missiles and to the missiles in cuba. knowledge back to soviet Russia. But in return we had to retract all of our missiles from turkey and Italy.

In conclusion the cold war was one of the longest wars in history but the Cuban missile crisis only 18 days in which the political

FUN FACT :the I1-28 bomber was the first bomber plane used in the Cuban missile crisis. This plane at its time was the king of the skies. Production of these planes was short lived because they were too slow.

government was tested greatly. It was in these 18 days that president John F Kennedy led the government into peace with the soviets in the nuclear war epidemic. This paper has gone over some of the aspects of our political view and our nations security.

References Books: 1: the Cuban missile crisis Editor: loreta m medina Internet sites: 1. Battresa park, London, UK http://cubanmissilecrisis.info/.

1.

1. JFK library, government, finished in October 20, 1979, organized in

December 5, 1963

http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/JFK-in-History/Cuban-Missile-Crisis.aspx 2.

5:http://www.historytoday.com/john-swift/cuban-missile-crisis Written by john swift Published in history review 2007 3. sno

4.

isle

library

http://access-proxy.snoisle.org/login?url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?inPS=tru e&prodId=GVRL.histgeo&userGroupName=sirls_main&docId=GA LE%7CCX2450900031&contentSegment=&searchId=R1&tabID= T003&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&currentPosition=1e library

The 1960 San Francisco Hippies Erin Devereux The hippies were a group of young Americans who wanted to change the values of American culture. They wanted to move away from their parents and start anew. While the Hippies and the flower power movement took place over a long period of time, and of course in many different places, San Francisco was where the movement thrived. There, the hippies changed America.

Before the 1960’s Hippies, there was the Beat Generation in the 50’s. This mostly took place in San Francisco. This generation was filled with people who “...came to the conclusion that society sucks” --Amiri Baraka. The people in the Beat Generation were called ‘Black Mountain Poets’. Many of these people became famous poets. They wanted to be free from any type of censorship. They stood for many of the same things that the hippies stood for; equal rights, anti-war, anti-school, and anti-family. Also like the hippies, the Black Mountain Poets wanted to get rid of marijuana and other drug laws.

Marijuana: A drug smoked in cigarettes. It can change your attitude, opinions, and sight.

But the Black Mountain Poets were only a starting point for the 1960 hippies.The Hippies believed in a few other things. Like the Poets, the Hippies wanted equal rights, but they took it to a new level. They were everything their parents weren’t. Most were sacrilegious, and relaxed when most young adults at the time were strictly religious, and very uptight and proper. The Hippies were anti-war and pro-choice. They believed that the people of the U.S. should vote on war or not. That you should choose your own house and lifestyle. They were all strongly against the Vietnam War and wanted to put a stop to it. The Hippies also liked to be relaxed and the use of marijuana, heroin, and cocaine helped them achieve total relaxation at all time.

“My generation was told marijuana caused acne and blindness.” --Alana Anderson. The government was trying to keep ‘her generation’ from joining the Hippies. Most people thought that the hippie movement was getting way too out of hand, even in the early stages. The older generation had a hard time seeing eye to eye with the hippies so they tried to discourage it.

The Hippies also stood for free sex. They wanted to sleep with any man, women, or both at anytime. They didn't think that people had to raise a baby with its father or they didn't have to raise the baby at all. But the Hippies were not all about drugs and sex. They liked music. The Beatles, Grateful Dead, and Bob Dylan were famous among the hippies. They also liked to listen to any type of folk rock and psychedelic rock. Some of the previously listed singers were considered the voice of the movement.

Many of their songs spread the word of the Hippies and what they stood for.

Grateful Dead: A band in the sixties that later had a musical with them featured in it (Hair)

Many Hippies lived on Haight Street in Haight Ashbury. It had cheap rent which was very important since most Hippies’ jobs (if they had one) didn't pay very well. In Los Angeles and New York the rent was expensive and hard to find, making Haight Ashbury a popular place for the Hippies. Haight Street was the center of the San Francisco movement. It What Haight Street looks like expressed the drug culture and Rock n’ now Roll lifestyle better than any other place.

They could live free and express the ‘anything goes’ motto, well. That's why many people believe the Summer of Love was held there.

College communities later turned to Haight Street and places near there. Max Sher got his inspiration from the Hippies on Haight street to start the Berkeley Barb. The Berkeley Barb was an underground news stand. It was made by students and was pro-student, anti-war. Max wrote about the things going on, on Haight Street and later moved there to write the paper. But don’t be fooled: Haight Ashbury was a very dangerous place. With all those people high on drugs and carrying around weapons, you would not want to get lost there. Violence was very popular there.

One time a young girl went to Haight Street to see if she wanted to join the movement, but was raped by a group of four men on April 16th, 1965.

Many people would tell you that on Haight Street ‘an armed man is a free man’.

It is easy to see why now, but the Hippies were at a loss for reason on why it was so hard to keep the movement from going down the drain.

While many people believed in what the Hippies did, they just weren’t as interested in taking a stand and taking down authority as others. Also, with the amount of drugs they were using, keeping a level head when protesting

Jimi Hendrix represented the Hippie ‘look’ and style perfectly.

and marching was difficult. Not many people took the Hippies seriously and it made them appear less professional. But some people liked that.

Some people liked to be rebellious and stand up for their rights. Somehow, the movement kept moving. Singers like Jimi Hendrix and Bob Dylan helped spread the word. And, when the Vietnam War started, many more people joined the revolution. Almost all anti-war people went to San Francisco, LA, or New York. Not only that, but around the same time, there was the Summer of Love (the summer months of 1967). The Summer of Love was when 100,000 people gathered in Haight Ashbury for the Hippie movement. That was when the movement was at its peak. But little did they know the hippie movement would soon crumble.

After the Summer of Love things started to recede.

The people were being too intense and using drugs too much. Too much violence, too much drug use, and too much sex. People were losing babies, and having trouble keeping a family together. Marijuana, cocaine, and heroin uses sky rocked and caused many deaths so the government cracked down hard on the laws against substance abuse. People were being Only a small part of the crowd raped and shot more than usual. But the main cause of the movement during the Summer of Love dying was because they (the Hippies) lost their voice. Music was so important to the movement’s survival that everybody knew it wouldn't last without their artists. So all they did was hope for the best.

Hope that the musicians would stay on their side and help spread the word.

But no one thought that they would all die. Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, and Jim Morrison all died from substance abuse in 1970. All of these artists were why and how they had a movement, and the reason the movement kept moving.

Without them they Hippie movement crashed and burned, oh, so quickly. People left San Francisco During the Summer of and went home. Los Angeles and New York cleared Love (1967), the out pretty quickly too. But while their cause died Monkeys recorded the away, and so did they, we will never forget them. song ‘I’m a Believer’ and While many people want to erase all that the Hippies it was top of the charts. did, they just can't. Some people believed it’s because Later, in 2001, Smash there are still some Hippies. You can find them Mouth made a cover of anywhere really. But most people think its because the song for the first the Hippies were America at its best. Maybe the Shrek movie. cause wasn’t, but the fight was. They reminded America that if you want change, make it happen.

That we vote for what we want. Thomas Jefferson wrote ‘we the people’, because we are the ones who will make a difference. The American youth is trying to make a difference today. Right now as we speak even.

Protesting for gay and lesbian rights (like the Black Mountain Poets) and

to legalize marijuana (like the Hippies). The fight is everywhere, making sure that the Hippies won't be forgotten. They made change. They reminded us of change, and we need to keep it going. The fight is out there, the American people just need to make it happen.

Work Cited WEBSITES Keith Parkins. “Beat Generation”. Heureka.clara.net. 2005. 4-27-12 <www.heureka.clara.net/art/beat-generation.html> PBS “The Sixties” pbs.org. 2005. 5-1-12 <www.pbs.org/cpb/thesixties> “The End of the Sixties”. rockandecology.blogspot.com. 2007. 4-28-12 <www.rockandecology.blogspot.com/2007/10/end-of-the-sixties-rockdiversities-hippies.html> BOOKS Marc Jacobs. More San Fran ‘60’s. San Francisco. Escallonia. 2009 Barry Miles. Hippie. New York. Sterling. 2003 PICTURES http://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-guitarists-of-alltime-19691231/jimi-hendrix-19691231 http://www.drinkeatlove.com/2009/08/how-san-francisco-does-a-musicfestival.html http://vietnamartwork.wordpress.com/hippies-anti-war/ http://www.wanderingeducators.com/best/stories/california-dreamin.html http://mcmanuslab.ucsf.edu/SF

Bruce Springsteen

By Ingrid Fiebig Bruce Springsteen is a rock and roll legend and one of the most influential musicians in American history. He is able to connect to people by writing songs about American experiences which relate to people’s everyday lives. His target audience is working-class America. As described by Dave Marsh, Springsteen’s official biographer, in Two Hearts, “There’s love in those words, and understanding, for precisely those people who are ordinarily shut out of American life: commonplace, anonymous Americans, undistinguished by ethnicity or other cultural memory. These are the sort of people who are romanticized, depicted as the backbone of democracy, but almost never allowed to speak for themselves.”

Bruce Springsteen

Springsteen was born September 23, 1949. He did not become interested in music until he was 7 years old. His mom, Adele Springsteen, was watching an episode of The Ed Sullivan Show with Elvis Presley performing on the guitar. Springsteen was mesmerized. That is the moment when he knew he wanted to play guitar. He became obsessed with the idea, but his parents were initially appalled. His mom, after seeing how much he loved the idea, bought him a guitar for his 9th birthday. Springsteen had an amazing ear. He would listen to a record and learn how to play the songs all by himself. After about a year, he stopped playing and didn’t start up again until he was 13. He played in the same manner as before, playing off of records and making up his own licks on the guitar. During this period, he found himself A lick is a small without friends and felt like an outcast. Many of his riff played on the songs express feelings of solitude and isolation from this guitar. It can also period in his life. be defined as a i l Bruce Springsteen’s inspiration came from many different sources: his own parents struggle to make ends meet, American movies and novels, especially the Grapes of Wrath, and the influence of multiple different musicians. He loved the rock and roll artists like Elvis, Chuck Berry, The Beatles, and The Rolling Stones. “My favorites change. Sometimes it’s Buddy Holly, sometimes it’s Elvis.” As he got older, Bob Dylan had a huge impact on him. They worked together multiple times and Bruce really liked him. After a while, people started to compare their music saying Springsteen sounded a lot like Dylan. Bruce was a very individual person and did not want to be compared to others. He wanted his own sound. Eventually the comparisons stopped and Springsteen felt validated.

Springsteen’s career in music started when he was in high school.

A man named George Theiss was in a band called The Castiles that was

looking for a guitar player. George had heard about Bruce and invited him to jam with the band. Tex Vinyard, the band’s manager, was there with his wife, Marion. When Bruce played, Tex was astonished. He really wanted Bruce in the band.

After a few days of practicing with them, Bruce asked George, “Am I in?” George said yes and Tex was very excited. Tex and Marion became surrogate parents.

They loved everyone in the band and treated them as their own children, allowing them to This is Bruce Springsteen in high school with his eat, sleep and band the Castiles. practically live at their house. Tex not only booked the gigs and handled the finances, but held the band together and kept them strong. He was so supportive that he would often buy the band new equipment with his own money.

After high school, everyone in the band wanted to split up and get on with their lives. Everyone except Bruce. He wanted to keep playing music and make a career doing it. Those hopes were almost diminished when he was drafted for the army. He reported for the physical and all the way there was thinking “I don’t want to do this.” Over and over, that was all he had in his head. Once again, he felt the injustice of being an outsider. Having dropped out of college, he was subject to the draft and, in his mind, deemed expendable. Springsteen just wanted to play music. He got his wish after failing his physical as a result of having had a concussion from a motorcycle accident.

In the late 1960’s to 1972, Springsteen played solo acoustic gigs at nightclubs and also played in different bands named Earth, Child, Steel Mill, Dr. Zoom and the Sonic Boom, Sundance Blues, and the Bruce Springsteen Band. He became famous locally, becoming known to two managers, Mike Appel and Jim Cretecos, who got him a deal with Columbia Records. After signing with Columbia Records, he released his first studio album in 1972, “Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J.”

Fact When Bruce was in high school he had very long hair. His father hated it and kept on telling him to cut it. Bruce said no and continued to deny his father. Later, when Bruce was in a motorcycle accident he was knocked unconscious and got a concussion. While in the hospital, his father had a barber come in and cut his hair while Bruce couldn’t do anything about it being knocked out in the hospital bed.

The album “Born to Run was released in 1975.

One year after the release of Springsteen’s first album, he released his second album, “The Wild, The Innocent & The E-Street Shuffle” as the leader of the E Street Band. In 1975, Springsteen released the album “Born to Run.” This album skyrocketed him to fame. The popularity of the E Street Band increased rapidly with concert tickets selling faster than ever. It was then that one of the most famous quotes about Bruce Springsteen was written. Jon Landau, a critic for the magazine Rolling Stone, went to one of his shows and loved it. In his article, he wrote, “I saw the future of Rock and Roll and its name is Bruce Springsteen.” Jon and Bruce became very close over a period of time and wanted to record together. Mike Appel, who was Bruce’s manager and also known for being very hot-headed, was threatened by this. He went to court and tried to prohibit Bruce and Jon from recording together based on Bruce’s contract with Columbia. Appel lost the lawsuit and Landau became Springsteen’s new manager. Springsteen and Landau continue to be very close friends. This experience was life-changing for Springsteen. To him, it was another example of the injustices of the world, specifically how the greed of the big corporations can stomp down the common man.

Later, in 1978, after the lawsuit, Springsteen released an album called “Darkness On the Edge of Town.” This album was very popular and increased ticket sales. In 1980, he released an album that everybody loved called “The River.” He became famous internationally because of this album. He started to book larger concerts and a wider range of tour performances. His biggest exposure to rock superstardom came in 1984 when he released “Born in the USA.” People related to this album and he became known as a rock symbol more widely. When he released “Tunnel of Love” in 1987, it was the album that showed his separation from the E Street band.

At the height of his popularity, he disappointed his fans with his decision to split from the band and go on his own for a while. They still loved and This is Bruce performing live at a concert.

supported him, however, they preferred the old band. “Human Touch,” “Lucky Town,” and “The Ghost of Tom Joad” were all recorded while he was separated from the band. “The Ghost of Tom Joad,” a reference to a character from Grapes of Wrath, was released in 1995. Later in 1999, Bruce was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Finally, in the year 2000, Bruce got back together and toured with the E Street band.

After the tour, they recorded “The Rising” in 2002 which was inspired by the 9/11 attack. It was in 2007 that Bruce recorded his last album with the E Street band called “Magic.” He has released two other albums, one in 2009 called “Working on a Dream” and the other released more recently in 2012 called “Wrecking Ball.”

In total, Springsteen has released more than 22 albums and sold 120 million albums worldwide.

The music from all of these albums has been a big inspiration to many Americans. As Dave Inducted is to be offered Marsh states in Two Hearts, membership into a group.

“Springsteen’s mythos was When Bruce was inducted the very thing that enabled into the hall of fame he him to recast the rock and was offered membership. roll version of the old American dreams.” His This is Bruce Springsteen songs relate to life events and people relate to and the E Street band. him. He is a cultural symbol and people look up to him. His record “Born to Run” alone relates to the standard every day working-class American. According to Dave Marsh, also from Two Hearts, “...there are references to wealth or lack of it. But Springsteen’s art is not socialist realism; he speaks so much of working because jobs are the overwhelming concern of the lives he writes about.” Also, as Magnus Lauglo, a writer for www.greasylake.org, stated, “By recognizing the problems facing the nation, and his willingness to confront them head on, Springsteen proved to be a far more representative symbol of America than Elvis ever was.”

His ability to relate to people and help them when they are in need is what makes him one of the most influential musicians in American history. In Bruce’s own words, “Tough music for folks in tough circumstances.”

“Tonight I’ll be on that hill, cause I can’t stop I’ll be on that hill with everything I got I’ll be there on time and I’ll pay the cost Of wanting things that can only be found In the darkness on the edge of town.”

Words from “Darkness on the Edge of Town,” Bruce Springsteen

Work Cited Books ● Marsh, Dave. Bruce Springsteen On Tour 1968-2005. New York: Bloomsbury, 2006. ● Marsh, Dave. Bruce Springsteen Two Hearts The Definitive Biography, 1972-2003. New York: Routledge, 2004.

Internet Sites ● “Bruce Springsteen.” www.Biography.com. 24 April 2012. http://www.biography.com/people/bruce-springsteen9491214 ● “Bruce Springsteen.” www.guitarmasterclass.net. 2009. 22 April 2012. http://www.guitarmasterclass.net/wiki/index.php/Bruce_Sprin gsteen ● Lauglo, Magnus. “Bruce Springsteen - American Legend.” www,greasylake.org. 6 May 2012. http://www.greasylake.org/articles_record.php?Id=54&releas e_title=&concert_date= Pictures ● http://www.lastfm.es/music/Bruce+Springsteen/+images/446 1551 ● http://www.myfreewallpapers.net/music/pages/brucespringsteen.shtml ● http://10cities10years.com/2012/03/01/new-band-of-themonth-march-bruce-springsteen-and-the-e-street-band/ ● http://www.amiright.com/album-covers/born-to-run-parodies/ ● http://www.allgoodseats.com/bruce-springsteen-the-e-streetband-tickets.html

The Watergate Scandal

By Aidan Fong Watergate refers to the events that led up to the scandal, the scandal itself, and the even the events after that led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon.

Originally Watergate was simply The Watergate Hotel which was a very classy Hotel located in Washington D.C.

The Watergate Hotel

Wiretap: The act of tapping a telephone or telegraph line to get information and record conversations

The Watergate Burglars after the arrest

The Watergate Scandal happened when five men broke into the office of democrat Lawrence F. O’Brien who was head of the DNC(Democratic National Committee) in the Watergate Hotel to wiretap his phones.

The men who broke into the office were Virgilio Gonzalez, Bernard Barker, James W. McCord, Jr., Eugenio Martinez, and Frank Sturgis. This was a large event in a series of events and press leaks that led up to Nixon’s impeachments.

DNC (Democratic National Committee) in the Watergate Hotel to fix surveillance equipment they had placed on an earlier trip. A passing security guard named Frank Willis noticed that the latches of a few doors had been taped closed so the doors could not lock. Because the cleaning crew did this from time to time and because they had left hours ago he untaped the doors and continued on his rounds. Later when he came back he noticed that the door had been re-taped. He called the police and the burglars were promptly arrested. Investigators found out that the burglars were trying to copy important documents from the DNC and plant microphones to record conversations The investigators soon found out that two of the burglars(Bernard Barker and Eugenio Martinez) had the phone number of E. Howard Hunt who was a former CIA agent and a consultant to the White House. Hunt and G.Gordon Liddy were part of the Special Investigation Unit nicknamed the Plumbers.

This made some of the CRP(Committee for Re-election of the President[Nixon]) officials nervous. The Plumbers were a secret group put together for the purpose of stopping “leaks” of sensitive documents or information that could further damage Nixon’s public image as well as sabotaging Nixon’s political enemies, using illegal surveillance measures, or any other means they needed to accomplish their missions.

This was in response to the media getting hold of information about about his covert bombing program in Cambodia, a massacre in Vietnam and finally a group of documents that were supposed to be classified and were very damaging called the Pentagon Papers.

The bombings started March 18 of 1969. Nixon ordered bombings on Cambodia, a country neighboring Vietnam, hoping to hinder the North Vietnamese war effort. Nixon had not informed congress of the decision and even the bomber pilots flying the planes were misdirected and made to think they would be bombing Vietnam.

Brigade:

The massacre (later referred to as the My Lai Massacre) took place at the South Vietnamese village of My Lai(Pronounced Mee-lie) on March 16th 1968. Soldiers from Charlie Company, of the 11th brigade, entered the village in search of any North Vietnamese soldiers or any who would help them. They found only women, children, or those too old to work.

Many of Charlie Company had been injured or killed by landmines in the area, so they were on edge. This might have been the reason for their actions. Whatever the reason they proceeded to round up and shoot the unarmed civilians. As many as five-hundred and four villagers were slaughtered on that day.

(B) A group of people organized for acting together <a fire brigade>

(A)A body of soldiers consisting of two or more regiments

The previous leaks were bad for the Nixon administration, but they were not nearly as damaging or extensive as the Pentagon Papers. The papers were a study put together by the government under Lyndon B. Johnson, although he was not aware of the fact.Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara had the the study done to have a record of the war for historical purposes. They concerned the United States’ relations and eventually the war effort in Vietnam. They also contained plans for an invasion of Vietnam which went directly against what President Johnson had implied. They also showed that the military did not think the war could be won. It also revealed that projected casualties were much higher than was ever told to the public.

Perhaps worst of all was the fact that the leaders did not seem at all affected at all by the horrendous loss of life.

Nixon’s next move was to try to fix this leak. The This is a map of Plumbers first assignment was to discredit Daniel Ellsberg who the bombings. The orange was the man responsible for the leak of the Pentagon Papers. This is where the bombs were would prove difficult as Ellsberg and his wife went off the grid dropped the moment the first article was published. The FBI never found him. He turned himself in on June 28 of the same year. He was then charged with several felonies totaling up to 115 years in jail. The first target for the Plumbers, after Ellsberg was apprehended, was to break into the office of Lewis J. Fielding. Fielding was Ellsberg’s psychiatrist so the Plumbers must have been looking for any information on Ellsberg to make

him look unstable. It turned out to be a fruitless search as the medical file was not there. There was an extreme last ditch effort to stop Ellsberg and that was to “incapacitate” him. The mission was aborted because there were too many witnesses. The leader of the Plumbers at that time, Egil Krogh, had resigned in protest to some of the G.Gordon Liddy, a Plumber and former FBI agent, approached CRP member and Attorney General John Mitchell for a large amount of money to fund a massive espionage program. Mitchell gave him a quarter of what he asked for to fund a smaller project. One of the goals of that project was to bug the DNC.

Woodward and Bernstein

Impeachment: A formal document charging a public official with misconduct in office.

Two Washington Post publishers, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, had suspicions that the White House’s statements of denial had little fact behind them, especially when the phone number of Hunt was found with the burglars. They had gotten a tip from a friend that the burglars were hired by the administration to spy on Nixon’s political enemies. By August they had a solid connection between the burglars and CRP. They had found evidence of a check of $25,000 that was supposed to go to the re-election campaign that ended up with one of the burglars. They traced this back to Mitchell who was in charge of the CRP’s money. Later after the trials of the burglars and Nixon’s re-election, one of the burglars confessed that a White House member had ordered the burglary. After this news went public many of the important former CRP officials either resigned or started cooperating with the prosecution. John Dean, Nixon’s advisor, had thirty hours of testimony linking Nixon to the cover up. On its own it would not have had such a massive impact as it did. But when a former secretary of Nixon’s A picture of The made it public that he had taped all of his calls Pentagon Papers, volume and conversations there was suddenly a way to one. prove if Nixon was guilty or not. After several legal battles, Nixon had the lead prosecutor fired as well as several people who would not fire the lead members suggested impeaching him. When the tapes were turned over it was obvious that they had been tampered with. When Nixon refused to hand over other tapes that the Supreme court had demanded. Congress passed not one but three different articles of impeachment. Instead of being forced out of office Nixon resigned and was the first President to do so.

This was a scandal that rocked America to its core. It made people question whether or not they could trust the government. It was the reason for the first resignation of a President. It also made the war very unpopular

among the public. Finally it reduced the chances of Republicans to be elected for a few years after. This was the Watergate scandal.

Important people in Watergate: Richard Nixon the current president.

Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward were the reporters that published multiple press leaks that helped topple Nixon.

Alexander Butterfield, Nixon's schedule manager. Revealed that he taped all his conversations Daniel Ellsberg, he leaked the Pentagon Papers regarding the Vietnam War Mark Felt A.K.A. Deep Throat. Gave Woodward and Bernstein valuable information about what he knew about Watergate G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt were high up in the Plumbers

Works

Cited

Olson, Keith W. Water Gate, University Press of Kansas, 2003 Tracy, Kathleen The Watergate Scandal, USA:Mitchell Lane Publishers, 2007 Malcolm Farnsworth http://watergate.info/-1995-2009 4/24/2012 Online Highways LLC. United States HISTORY http://www.u-shistory.com/pages/h1791.html, 4/25/12 Pictures: 1. http://voices.washingtonpost.com/reliable-source/2009/07/rswatergate21.html-Watergate Complex 2.

http://publicdiplomacypressandblogreview.blogspot.com/2008/10/joeplumber.html-Plumbers http://www.esri.com/news/arcwatch/0708/feature-sidebar.htmlBomb map http://riverdaughter.wordpress.com/2010/12/29/wikileaks-vs-thepentagon-papers/ http://www.mediabistro.com/fishbowldc/woodstein-how-it-felt_b1084

The Battle Of Berlin

By Siraj Hamade

This essay is about the Battle of Berlin.The Battle of Berlin was the last major battle of World War II in Europe and signified the end of World War II in Europe.Before this battle, Europe and the battle from World War II. After this battle Hitler in Europe and around the world. This also ended World War II in Europe. This paper has a lot of information on the battle of Berlin.

German Marching Army

Fun facts If a statue of a person on a horse has both front legs in the air, the person died in battle; if the horse has one front leg in the air, the person died as a result of wounds received in battle; if the horse has all four legs on the ground, the person died of natural causes.

The two countries that fought in the battle of Berlin were Russia and Germany. This battle was the last stand for Hitler and Germany in World War II. One of the big reasons this battle was not between America and Germany is because Russia wanted to take Berlin before America so they could get Germany’s nuclear weapon knowledge.

Germany, at the time, had very advanced nuclear weapon technology and the Russians goal of fighting the Battle of Berlin was to get this nuclear weapon knowledge before America. By taking Berlin they could bolster their own nuclear weapon technology and make their weapons even stronger than America's nuclear weapons. The Russians plan succeeded.

After the battle of Berlin, Germany was in ruins and most Germans were starving to death.

The battles that happened during the Battle of Berlin include the Battle of Halbe,and the major Battle of Berlin. The Battle of Halbe was an important battle to lead up to the battle of Berlin because after the Battle of Halbe the Russians realistically ended Hitler's chances of winning the battle of Berlin because he was so out manned and outgunned. Even after this Hitler still went on to fight the Battle of Berlin. The Battle of Berlin happened after English warplanes dropped bombs on Berlin and set of the fight in Berlin. The English used the fact that the Russians needed nuclear weapon technology to make them fight the Battle of Berlin. The actual Battle of Berlin started on the 16th of April 1945 April 16th, 1945 when Russian soldiers crossed into Germany to start the battle.

The number of people that fought in the Battle of Berlin in all is about 3,500,000 soldiers. The Russian army had 2,500,000 trained soldiers and the German army had 1,000,000 fighters which were a mix between trained soldiers, young kids and elderly citizens. The Battle of Berlin was fought in a very weird way by both Russian generals Zhukov and Konev.

Instead of fighting like most armies would have done, Zhukov and Konev fought at a rapid pace. They took their army to fight with almost no

strategy just to use their man power over the Germans.The reasons they did this was, of course, because they wanted Germany's nuclear weapon program so they sped up the battle,but by doing so they killed vast amounts of their soldiers.By the end of the battle the Russians lost 80,000 men and had lost most of their wide range of advanced artillery due to their speedy approach to the Battle of Berlin.

The weapons and artillery used in the battle of Berlin were vast.The aerial weapons and plains include the At6 Harvard, Fairchild pt 26 trainer, Douglas TBD devastator torpedo bomber, Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bomber, Curtiss wright SNC 1 falcon,Curtiss p 40,Bell p-39 airacobra, Max Holste 20 fighter, Latecoere Late 298,and the Mitsubishi ki 15. These were the most used aircrafts in the battle of Berlin. Some infantry weapons used in the battle include the Alfa 44, Arisaka type 38, Arisaka type 44, Arisaka type 99, allester molina, Beretta 38, Bergmann mp18,Bska mp3 and many more.These are some of the weapons that were used in the Battle of Berlin.The Germans had their own make of weapons with their allies and the Russians had their own make of weapons with their allies.The German allies included Italy, Japan, Spain, Slovakia, Romania, Croatia, Finland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Denmark and Albania.Russia's allies included England, China, United States, France, Australia and more.Different allies in different countries helped make weapons.

The effect that the Battle of Berlin had on World War II was massive. Not only did it signify the end of World War II it also signified the end of Hitler and his reign over Europe. But Germany paid the price for this. After the Battle of Berlin the whole city was in ruins. From the standing 245,000 buildings which had existed before the battle only 170,000 were still standing. An estimated one third of all privatley owned buildings were destroyed.The transportation network in Germany was also destroyed so people could not go anywhere for a long period of time. All of Berlin’s supply of electricity, gas and water were destroyed. The biggest problem in Berlin was people starving to death. Any remaining rations that were left after the battle were all taken by Russian soldiers.The black market played a huge role in the rebuilding of the econemy in Berlin in 1945.After the battle many Germans were taken to prisoners of war camps. German woman also paid the price as mass rape was going on all over by Russian soldiers. German women also helped tremendously to rebuild Berlin as 60,00 women from ages 15 to 65 were summoned to rebuild Berlin. Women ended up helping rebuild Berlin over 12 years.This had a major affect on the world but in the end Germany managed to get through these tough times. As for Russia they got the labor of German prisoners of war and all the nuclear technology from Germany.

Russian army in Berlin

German boats

Definitions Battle: a combat between

two persons Weapon: An instrument of attack or defense in combat, as a gun, missile, or sword.

Without the battle of Berlin the world may have been very different now.

If the battle of Berlin had never happened Hitler would have still been alive for a longer time and World war 2 in Europe may have not ended and the world could be so different.All in all this battle was very important to the world and signified the end of Hitler and Nazi Germany

German tank

German Bunker

Adolf Hitler

Works Cited Websites: www.historylearningsite.co.uk/battle_for_berlin.htm www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/berlin_01.shtml www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/berlin.htm

Pictures: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler http://www.militaryphotos.net/forums/showthread.php?60166-Battle-of-Berlin1945/page9 http://www.panzergrenadier.net/forum/viewtopic.php?f=9&t=9385&p=90231 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Berlin_bunker.jpg

Horses and Native Americans By: Deena Kennedy Horses were very important to life in the Western United States. They were used by cowboys to help herd cattle. Farmers used them to help with plowing and getting supplies. Horses were, and still are an important mode of transportation. For example, people got out West on wagon trains. Horses were also used to get messages from one side of the country to the other through the pony express. Horses were also important to the settlers in helping to farm the land. Horses had a special relationship to cowboys on the lonely frontier. Horses were very important to the new Americans who were making the western United States their home. Not only were horses important to farmers and cowboys, the introduction of horses by the Spanish changed Native American culture and life.

A horse decorated for war

Horses were a huge part in Native American life, but they are not native to the United States. When the Spanish conquistadors invaded Mexico, the Pueblo tribe got introduced to horses in the 1520’s.

Later in the 1640’s -1770’s the conquistadors slowly started to drive the horses close to the Rocky Mountains in the U.S and the Shoshones used them to get over the Rocky Mountains. Then the Nez Perce and other tribes became involved in horses. The teaching of horseback riding was passed down and down from each tribe to the next and from father to son.

Travois: A travois is a frame The Nez Perce were the original tribe to that is used to carry heavy loads breed horses. Horses with a spotted coat are a from one place to another. breed of horse called Appaloosa. The Nez Perce Pueblo: The Spanish Native bred these horses and were one of the only tribes American word for village that knew how to breed the Appaloosa. The Appaloosa was bred so they had decoration, camouflage and they were a little bit bigger and slimmer than a quarter horse. Ranchers used American quarter horses because they wanted their horses to be strong and weaken their enemy but some Native Americans used smaller horses to be faster and took better care of them so they would be in better shape.

Wild horses are a beautiful sight, and the Nez Perce would steal the fastest horses or prized horses from other tribes and let the other horses free. Doing this showed everyone in your tribe that you had a lot of courage and strength. Horses were used for work and war but also carrying furs, pelts, and hunting. Indians did not only use horses for war to play games like “throwing each other off their horses”.

Hunting Buffalo

Horses changed the Nez Perce culture forever because it gave them mobility and power so they could hunt bigger animals like buffalo. Once a tribe was introduced to horses the old hunting methods were forgotten. They used bows and arrows instead of using guns because it was easier to use when riding horses. Before horses they would use horses more because they are faster than dogs. Horses were strong also and could carry more goods faster from place to place. A dog could carry up to seventy five pounds, but a horse could carry two hundred pounds on its back and three hundred on a travois. A travois is a frame that is used to carry heavy loads. It gave mobility to the Indians so they could travel long distances faster than on foot, and a rider could attack another Indian in a war more fiercely or attack their prey. They trained the fastest horses to hunt buffalo .

Horses were so important that there would be stories about them and horses sometimes show up in legends. An example of this is a book called “The Girl Who Loved Wild Horses” It is about a girl from the Navajo tribe and she loved the wild horses; people said she was the caretaker of the wild horses. She knew everything to know about horses from how to care for them if they got hurt to how to keep them safe if there snow blizzard. One day the girl was walking with the herd and laid down to rest her eyes and listen to them graze and play. All of a sudden a bolt of lightning hit, then a clap of thunder and the horses got scared. She thought quickly and jumped on a horse’s back and the herd galloped away. She called out to them to stop, but they could not hear her under the sound of thunder and their hooves. Once the storm had stopped so did they, but the girl realized they were lost. Once a year had passed, the tribe was worried and started looking for her and when they found her she did not want to go so the hunters went home and told The only reason they caught her was because her horse stumbled and they took her home.

Two wild foals (wild baby horses)

Everyone was happy to see her but she wanted to go back with the horses. When her people let her go back with the horses she would come back every year and bring her parents a foal as a gift.

One year she did not come back. One group of hunters saw the herd and saw a beautiful black horse but no girl so now everyone believes she is now a horse.

There are also Native American legends about horses. One is called “The ghost stallion” which is about an old man. What the man's name ● ● ● was, no one knows now, and so they call him "The A Native American girl Traveler”. Long ago, The Traveler was a wealthy with her pony chief and a warrior in his young days. He had many horses, and lots of other trophies of value.

He was very mean and would do things like taking advantage of poor people and gambling with younger men who were no match for his cleverness. His tribe admired his bravery but instead of sharing what he, had freely, like he would make things making this more expensive if they were getting sick. Or in a hard time make everything really expensive or keep it to himself. He did not care about anything except one thing, he cared for his horses. His horses were the most beautiful strong, swift and, he kept only the best. If another tribesmen had a beautiful horses he would make sure he would get it and did not take no for an answer.

The appaloosa were almost extinct because during a war most of them were slaughtered

One night The Traveler went alone to the place where his horses were kept to check on them. He loved his horses, but he loved only the ones that were young, beautiful, and healthy. He would abuse the horses that were old, sick, or injured. One morning when he was checking on his horses he found an ugly white stallion. He was old, with crooked legs, a matted coat, thin, and tired looking. The Traveler was so angry; he caught the poor old horse. He beat him as hard as he could with the club and the animal fell to the ground The Traveler broke his legs with the club, and left him to die. The Traveler did not have any mercy or regret for the horse but he decided to go back and get the skin of the horse and returned to the place where he had left him. But the white stallion was gone.

That night The Traveler had a dream and the white stallion appeared and slowly turned into a beautiful horse, shining white, with long mane and tail. The Stallion said "If you had treated me kindly I would have brought you more horses but you were beyond mean to me, so I shall take away the horses you have!" When The Traveler woke up his horses were gone. He walked and searched, but had found no trace of them. In his dreams, the White Stallion came again, and said, "Do you wish to find your horses? They are North, by a lake. You will sleep twice, before you come to it." The next morning The Traveler went northward. After days he

came to the lake but there were no horses. That night, the Ghost Stallion came again. "Do you wish to find your horses?" he said. "They are East, in some hills. You will sleep twice before you come to the place.” When the sun had gone down on the third day, The Traveler had searched the hills, but had found no horses.

Night after night this would happen and he would set off to find his horses but never did. It is told to this day that The traveler is still out looking for his horses and every once in awhile, on a windy autumn night above the wind, you may hear a rush of running horses and the stumbling footsteps of an old man still trying to find his horses.

A ghost horse from the story “The Thanks to the conquistadors we now have horses living in Ghost stallion” America. Ever since the introduction of horse to Native Americans, they both have had a special relationship as shown in the legends and stories horses make Native American lives easier by giving them mobility, so they can carry more things, and help them hunt. Horses have truly changed the culture of Native Americans forever.

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Work Sited Books: Crosby, Jeff and Shelly Ann Jackson Harness Horses, Bucking Broncos, and Pit Ponies. Tundra Books New York 2011.

Elliot. The last Indian War, The Nez Perce Story Oxford University Press. New York,NY 2009.

Hinshaw, Dorothy. The Buffalo and the Indian a Shared Destiny, Clarion Books New York, NY 2006 Marrin, Albert. Sitting Bull and his World. Dutton Books, New York, NY 2000, Ruby, Robert and John Brown, Indians of the Pacific Northwest.

University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK 1981.

Images: • http://www.firstpeople.us/pictures/art/odd• • •

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Yosemite National Park

By Elena Kosh In nineteenth century America, settlers were just starting to move west. New inventions were being created. Big cities were starting to develop. It was a turning point in American history, but nobody thought to pay attention to the world around them, still unaltered by humans. No one cared about long-term environmental consequences and trying to preserve the beautiful landscapes. Until the US cavalry came to what is now Yosemite Valley, environmental conservation was the least of any white person’s worries. Yosemite National Park changed the way the American people looked at the natural world. But white people weren’t the first to find the valley.

The first people living in Yosemite valley were the Miwok.

Seven present day tribes descended from these people who first lived in the Yosemite area. Not many more than a few hundred people lived all year round in what is now Yosemite Park, but as many as 55,000 people may have lived on both sides of the Sierra Nevada range. Most of the tribes lived below an elevation of 4,000 feet; none of the more Waterfall in Yosemite Valley permanent settlements were at higher elevations. People only started living in the valley within the last 1,200 years. Spread throughout the Sierra Nevadas, human settlements were mostly along the bigger rivers and streams. The Miwok called Yosemite Valley “Ahwahnee”meaning “place of the gaping mouth”, and called themselves the Ahwahneechee. The Ahwahneechee lived in the valley peacefully and undisturbed for thousands of years. That is, until the first white men arrived at the valley in 1851.

The Mariposa Battalion entered Yosemite Valley on March 27, 1851. They did not come to befriend the native people though. They came as part of a punitive expedition linked to the Mariposa-Indian war, to drive the Ahwahneechee from their home.

A man named Lafayette Bunnell was so amazed by the beauty of the valley, he decided to name it “Yosemite”, thinking it was the name of the tribe. In the native language, however, Yosemite literally means

“among them are killers.” After this expedition, more and more white people came to the valley.

The first tourists came to Yosemite in 1855. By 1864, there were white people living in Yosemite valley all A conservationist is social or year long. Meadows in the valley and political activist whose cause is surrounding areas started to be used as to protect natural resources. grazing for livestock, ruining the land.

This is what started to get the attention of conservationists. As more and more people wanted to protect the area, the government started to take notice as well. In 1864, President Lincoln signed the Yosemite Grant to protect Yosemite Valley and several surrounding sequoia groves. The area was under control of the state of California, but it was only a State Park, not yet a National Park. Two men tried to claim the land, but Congress and the Supreme Court rejected their claims saying it was it public property. It probably would have stayed that way for a long time if not for a certain young man who was especially interested in the valley.

John Muir first came to the valley in the fall of 1869. He ran a sawmill for a man named James Hutchings. Muir was so struck by the beauty and vastness of the place, he became the most active protector of the valley. Muir wrote several articles and books about Yosemite. He wanted the park back John Muir at Yosemite Park under federal control, rather than state control, to protect it even further. Muir’s articles helped persuade Congress to create Yosemite National Park. Benjamin Harrison created Yosemite National Park on October 1, 1890.

But this still wasn’t enough for Muir. He wanted the Yosemite Valley and some of the larger When the US cavalry was still in sequoia groves incorporated into charge of the park, Captain Charles Yosemite National Park. In Young was made the first black man 1892, John Muir created the to be in charge of a National Park.

Sierra Club to bring attention to Under his orders, soldiers built a trail to protecting the area and to help Mount Whitney and protective fences create new National Parks. Muir around some of the bigger trees. invited President Theodore Roosevelt to visit the valley.

After a 2 week trip to the park, Roosevelt agreed the valley and Mariposa grove should be a part of the park, and the park was expanded in 1906. For a while, the park was being protected by the US cavalry. In 1916, the National Park Service was created, taking over the role of protecting the

park and future National Parks. The Parks Service had a big job protecting the park. After all, there was never a shortage of animals and plants that could be carelessly wiped from existence at the park at any time.

Yosemite Park has around 85 mammal, 150 bird, 22 reptile, 11 amphibian, and 6 native fish species. Wolves are completely gone in California.

Mountain lions and black bears are some of the very few larger predators in the park. Along with wolves, bighorn sheep, wolverines, and grizzly bears are completely gone in the area. Yosemite The black bear, one of the few Park has three sequoia groves, the Mariposa grove remaining larger predators at being the largest. In higher elevations, there are Yosemite many different types of pine and fir trees, along with the mountain hemlock. Forest fires are not uncommon, but not necessarily bad. Fire attracts beetles, which attracts certain species of birds. The park is at no shortage of water either, with 1,591 lakes. Perhaps the aspect of the park which attracts the most attention is how the valley was formed.

Most scientists in John Muir’s time though that the valley was formed by a sudden earthquake. Muir proposed that Yosemite was formed by gradually receding glaciers. Josiah Whitney, a very important scientist at the time, laughed at this idea, saying Muir was an amateur and didn’t know what he was talking about. Louis A sequoia grove at Yosemite Agassiz, however, possibly the most influential geologist of the time, said Muir was “the first man I have ever found who has any adequate conception of glacial action.” Muir’s theory started to become accepted when he found an active glacier near Merced Peak in 1871.

Muir was such a big influence in the conservation of wildlife that recently, in 2004, commemorative quarters were made in his honor. But Muir wasn’t the only one who had a part in the protection of Yosemite.

Ansel Adams, who photographed the valley, was described by one author as “the twentieth century’s most important interpreter of American nature.” John Muir didn’t mind that there were some tourist attractions, since they would get more people to visit the valley anyway. Ansel Adams, however, didn’t want any distractions from the landscape. He would physically move manmade things from view so that he could capture the valley as it naturally was. Adams joined the Sierra Club and became the main photographer. These photographs helped people see the beauty of the valley. Adams received a Conservation Service award in 1968, "in recognition of his many years of distinguished work as a photographer, artist, The presidential medal of interpreter and conservationist, a role in which your freedom is given by the president efforts have been of profound importance in the himself, recognizing “an especially conservation of our great natural resources." In 1980, meritorious contribution to the Adams was presented with the Presidential Medal of security or national interests of the Freedom. Jimmy Carter said that “it is through his United States, world peace, cultural foresight and fortitude that so much of America has or other public or private been saved for future Americans.” A year after Adams’ death in 1984, a mountain on the edge of endeavors.”

Yosemite was named Mount Ansel Adams.

A picture of the valley taken by Ansel Adams

Ansel Adams, John Muir, and so many others were captured by the beauty of Yosemite. They all had a big part in saving a lot of wildlife, but the park itself had a huge role. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, no one was very interested in saving nature. When people saw Yosemite, it opened their eyes to something amazing that wasn’t built by humans. It showed people that the wildlife might not be there forever, and that it could be worth saving. Yosemite National Park changed how Americans look at the natural world.

Works cited Books: Wuethner, George. Yosemite: The Grace and Grandeur. Voyageur Press, Inc. Minnesota, 2002 Scott, Amy, ed, Yosemite: Art of an American Icon. University of California Press, Berekely, 2006 Websites: “The National Parks: America’s Best Idea” pbs.org, 2009, 4/28/12 http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/yosemite/ “History & Culture - Yosemite National Park” nps.gov, 5/1/12 http://www.nps.gov/yose/historyculture/index.htm “History of Yosemite National Park: Yosemite Park” yosemitepark.com, 5/2/12 http://yosemitepark.com/cultural-history.aspx “Ansel Adams - Yosemite National Park” nps.gov, 5/5/12 http://www.nps.gov/yose/historyculture/ansel-adams.htm “Ansel Adams - History - Sierra Club” sierraclub.org, 5/5/12 http://www.sierraclub.org/history/ansel-adams/ http://www.nps.gov/yose/planyourvisit/spring.htm http://www.sfmoma.org/explore/collection/artwork/9933 http://www.nps.gov/yose/planyourvisit/directions.htm http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/people/historical/muir/ http://www.itsnature.org/wild-travels/yosemite-national-park/ http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/boreal.htm

The Seattle 1962 World’s Fair

by Allegra The 1962 Seattle World’s Fair was more than just a fair, it was a gathering of world cultures that left a big mark on Seattle. More than 190 countries participated and 73 million people came to the fair. April 21, 2012 was the 50th Anniversary of the Seattle World’s Fair.The Seattle Space needle was built entirely for the fair along with many other unique buildings and attractions. Some of these attractions and buildings are still in use today. The fair was important not only because it brought together world cultures but also the many cultures of Seattle and the many different people who live here.

World’s Fairs are much like Expositions, Expos for short. There is almost no difference, but the term “World’s Fair” is more traditional than “Expos”. Both are still world’s fairs.

The first world’s fair was held in 1851 in London, England. It gave the locals chances to explore other cultures without leaving London and people from other places a chance to see the world in one city. The primary goal of The Seattle Space a world’s fair is to entertain; there has to be good food, great attractions and exhibits and Needle in it’s original the best staff to manage it all. There hasn’t colors. been a world’s fair or expo in the US since the 1984 New Orleans World’s Fair, while the last one in North Fact! The Red Train on America was the one in 1986 in Vancouver. There have been 11 the monorail has world’s fairs since Louisiana, but since it wasn't in the US, many crashed several times in Americans don't know about them. Many fairs have had mascots, it's lifetime. No one has including the more recent ones. The 1984 New Orleans World’s

ever been seriously injured in these crashes.

Fair’s mascot was Seymore D. Fair, a duck dressed in sailor inspired clothing. Other mascots like Cosmo Hoshimaru Fun fact! Some (1985 Tsukuba) which was a small round alien BIE officials looking thing holding a white large belt like thing, thought “See-tul” Expo Ernie (1986 Vancouver) a white robotic thing, and many more leading up to the latest one was in Yeony and Sunny (2012 Yeosu) (two alien-ish Washington D.C. things, Yeony had blue hair that stuck up and Sunny had orange hair that was more female looking) were featured in fairs around the world. The organization that sanctions the fairs is called the Bureau International des Expositions, BIE for short.

The BIE was founded in 1928 and regulates international expositions. It also regulates other exhibits on behalf of more than 100 member nations. However, the BIE did not sanction the New York 196465 World’s Fair. The expos and World’s Fairs that get the most attention to are the ones in the years ending in 0 and 5. It currently sanctions large expositions and recognizes smaller international ones. The BIE is based in France, and that is partly the reason there has been so many world fairs and expositions in Paris. This included the 1855 Paris World’s Fair which was officially named the Exposition Universelle des produits de l’Agriculture de l‘Industrie et des Beaux-Arts de Paris 1855. It opened on May 15, 1855 and closed on November 15, 1855. The attendance was 5,162,330. The site was 639 acres, and there were 34 participating A poster for the fair. countries. Later Paris Fun fact! The site would hold expos in of the Space 1867, 1878, 1889, 1900 and 1937, which Needle used to be attracted even more crowds to the fairs built a fire station! and planned by people who truly believed in the magic of gathering cultures.

The Seattle 1962 World’s Fair was built and planned by a small group of locals who wanted to bring the Fun fact! The fair was world to Seattle to experience the city’s own many different cultures. One of them originally intended to was a man named Al Rochester who in commemorate the 50th 1955 was a Seattle City councilmember anniversary of the and came up with the idea of a World’s Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Fair in Seattle. He attended an informal Exposition in 1909. luncheon at the Washington Athletic Club with, at the time executive VP of the Chamber of Commerce, Don Follet who expressed an interest in Rochester’s idea. After discussing it with the council a bill in Olympia called for $5,000 to form a World’s Fair Commision. From there it was all really easy with the help of a couple other locals.

Ewen Dingwall, a Seattle local, majored in journalism and political science at the University of Washington (UW). He spent 6 years as a mayoral assistant and was known as the moving force behind the fair. He was the fair’s VP and general manager and spent 5 years getting very important support of the fair in Washington D.C. He also devised personal greetings to be shown on the Goodyear Blimp for celebrities such as Elvis and Billy Graham. He and Eddie Carlson worked together to help make the 1962 Seattle World’s Fair happen. Eddie Carlson was a community leader and went into the World’s Fair Commission along with Al Rochester and Ewen Dingwall. After Carlson joined, the Commission expanded 15 members. Carlson was also a Western hotels VP. Carlson was known as a go-getter, do-er and a mover. He was also known for his 7am “businessman working breakfasts”. His job was later Fun fact! The taken over by Joe Grandy, a man Carlson picked himself, but monorail was Carlson still had interest in the fair.

originally planned to go to SeaTac airport.

Joe Grandy was the co-owner of Smith-Grandy Ford and a promoter of local tourism. Grandy took many trips to France, desperately trying to convince the BIE that Seattle was a good choice for a World’s Fair. Joe Grandy was then appointed to be president of the fair for his help making the fair and its different exhibits and pavilions happen.

The planners of the fair wanted to build on the excitement of the 50th Anniversary of the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition and build a link

between the fair and the anniversary of the Expo. They couldn't guarantee the fair to be completed before the target fate of 1959 because of insufficient funding, so they set a new date in 1962 that would let major attractions, like the Space Needle, be built without rushing through construction.

The Space Needle was the major attraction to the 1962 World’s Fair. The needle towered 605 feet high in the sky and was designed to look like a “needle in space”. No wonder this was one of the most popular places in the whole fairground. Built atop a 5,850 ton block and designed to withstand hurricane winds the Space Needle was, and still is, very safe during a natural disaster. A Steel foundation was built 30ft into the ground and much of the excavation was through rock. It took 467 truckloads of cement to complete the foundation and the first three sections of the building’s legs had to support the weight and stress of the tower. By August 1961 work was well underway, and the Space Needle seemed to be growing every day, residents said. The Space Needle was one of the favorite attractions, but there were more including the Hawaii Pavilion.

A birds-eye view photo of Seattle in 1962.

The Hawaii Pavilion was multi angled and brought a fun new look to the fair. It had 12 sides and was completely made of wood. Inside the pavilion there was a 600 seat theater which featured Polynesian dancers and a photograph booth with Hawaiian scenery in the background. It also offered island themed snacks and souvenirs. After the fair it became a game arcade.

Many of the pavilions didn’t make it after the fair but a few did, like the monorail.

The monorail was the first monorail system to operate in a city in the US. Accustomed hostesses would explain that crowded roads, “would be a thing of the past”. The monorail in

Fun fact! The last elevator on the Space Needle was installed the day before the fair opened.

Seattle is still working. The cost for round trip was 75 cents in 1962 and is now about $4. It still runs 12 miles between downtown and the fair site, now known as Seattle Center.

The Fair featured many different “Worlds” including the World of Science, the World of Tomorrow, the World of Art, the World of Commerce and Industry and, the World of Entertainment. The World of Science featured the Horizon of Science, a rocket ride, a House of Science, and other science related displays and exhibits, Spacearium which was Many would-be “Vistas of Space” that visitors could catch a glimpse into what people then believed would be classic homes were destroyed in the houses of the future. The World of Science also housed the million dollar display which had the construction a million silver dollars on display. Luckily not of the fair. one silver dollar was stolen during the entire 6 month run of the fair. The World of Science was one of the larger “Worlds” but the World of Tomorrow was quite big too.

The World of Tomorrow was housed in the Washington State Coliseum, now known as Key Arena. The outer walls of the coliseum housed other exhibits but the heart of it was the World of Tomorrow.

“Century 21” (another name for the world of tomorrow) had attractions like the Bubbleator, a famous ride that visitors would step into a big glass sphere and it would rise up and travel around a series of cubes that depicted the future. Another attraction in Century 21 was the Gyrocopters, which took you around to a futuristic office (Office of Tomorrow). The World of Tomorrow was one of the more popular exhibits, unlike the World of Art. The World of Art had many visitors, but wasn’t nearly as popular as some other exhibits. The World of Art featured many different pieces from famous artists from around the world.

Some of the artists who had featured work were Michelangelo and Homer.

There were three major collections of art that were specially selected for the The Bubbleator ride in world’s fair, “Museum Masterpieces” which were 70 paintings and sculptures

the Gayway.

that were loaned by important US museums. The second collection was “Painting and Sculpture since 1950” which was a international exhibit of art. The last exhibit was “Northwest Coast Indian Art” an art exhibit which featured beautiful masterpieces from American, European and Russian museums. The insurance value for the entire World of Art was 20 million dollars. The world of art was full of beautiful pieces, but it was not as diverse and multicultural as the World of Commerce and Industry.

The World of Commerce and Industry was one of the bigger “worlds” and included exhibits from Canada, China and other countries.

Some of the attractions were a wall-sized television, a full sized model of a hydroelectric dam, and other interesting industry products. The World of Commerce and Industry also housed the Ford pavillion.

The Ford Pavilion was actually dome shaped, much like the modern Tacoma Dome in Tacoma, WA. Before and when entering the Ford pavilion, guests would catch sight of the newest Ford cars, including the Thunderbird, an iconic Ford car. The favourite part of the Ford Pavilion was “An Adventure in Space” which was a 15 minute simulation to outer space. There were uniformed flight attendants on board in case anyone took the “flight” too seriously. Tied with the Space Needle and the US Science exhibit, the Ford pavilion was one of the longest lines in the whole fair. The Ford Pavilion had interesting architecture but Nalley’s Fine Food Pavilion had probably the most interesting architecture in the whole fair.

Nalley’s Fine Food Pavilion was designed by Seattle Native Paul Thiry.

Thiry was appointed principal architect of the whole fair in 1957. The pavilion itself was made out of a plastic shell applied on a rod and The Alweg monorail at metal lathe frame. The exterior had no straight lines at all. In the the time of the fair. pavillion there was a theater which showed movies of the Pacific Northwest and there were food displays in

the lobby from Nalley’s company. Nalley’s Pavilion was located near the World of Entertainment.

The World of Entertainment presented many things including sports, performing arts and spectator events. Many of these events took place in the 3,100 seat concert hall, the 5,500 seat arena, the 12,000 seat stadium or, the 800 seat small theater. The World of Entertainment was right next to the “Gayway”, a theme park zone. Thium or e Gayway had 19 different rides, all space related. Some of these riders were Allotria, Crystal Maze, Flight to Mars, Galaxi, Skyride and Meteor. All of this really contributed to the influence of the fair on Seattle.

The fair had a big influence on the city of Seattle. Before the idea of a fair was introduced the U.S. was on the brink of nuclear war and the city was flatlining. Suddenly with the event of the World’s Fair, Seattle is the center of the universe. There still was criticism of a lot of things at the fair though. It still came through to be one of the greatest world’s fairs ever to the many people who went to it.

Jerry Alhadeff was 29 when he went to the fair. “I went many times because it was way better than going to a movie in the evening, they had all kinds of activities. You could participate in anything, like they had a nightclub with go-go dancers but it didn’t do too well, because it was a fair and fairs were about having fun for all ages. It was a giant carnival, they had rides, there was this art thing, music things, and more stuff.”.

During the fair’s run he went many times. “There was a building in the Seattle center called the Armory. The Armory was like the Army reserves in Huston, I think”. Alhadeff knew a man named Ron Neubauer who ran a candy apple stand in the fair. “I don’t know how they made them, but they were very good” he said. “The whole thing was great for the city of Seattle and a wonderful experience”.

The Seattle 1962 World’s Fair was absolutely more than just a fair.

It paved the way and set a high bar for the later World’s Fairs. Before the fair Seattle was just a city, during the fair Seattle was what the whole country was talking about. It changed the skyline of Seattle, bringing the Space Needle and other buildings into the city. It was a gathering on cultures from around the world on US soil, which was easy for the locals to just go to the fairgrounds and be in a different country without leaving

their own. This fair will never be forgotten for its impact on not just Seattle, but the world.

Works Cited: Lynch, Jim Truth Like the Sun. Alfred A. Knoff, Random House Inc., New York, Published in 2012 Cotter, Bill Images of America, Seattle’s 1962 World’s Fair. Arcadia Publishing, Charleston, South Carolina. Published in 2010 Ray J. Fiorini Updated October 10, 2008. April 25, 2012 http://ww.62worldsfair.com/index.htm Urso Chappell copyright 1998-2012 http://expomuseum.com/history/ Alan J. Stein corrected on January 21, 2010. April 26, 2012 Part 1: http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=2 290 Part 2: http://www.historyl/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&File_Id=2290in k.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&File_Id=2291 “Cliffie” wrote on December 4, 2009. May 1, 2012 http://www.vintageseattle.org/2009/12/04/nalleys-fine-food-pavillion1961/ Pictures (in the order that they appear) Picture 1: http://farm4.staticflickr.com/3289/2922427683_7689eea1df.jpg Picture 2: http://www.secretgardenbooks.com/files/secretgarden/spaceneedle-seattle-worlds-fair.jpg Picture 3: http://www.nwhistorycourse.org/ttcourse/Year3/unit2/week6/images/Se aSpNeedMonorailSPIJan62.gif Picture 4: http://farm4.staticflickr.com/3499/3307224820_abe358062a_z.jpg Picture 5: http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2399/2386917926_465ea25417.jpg

The Atomic Bomb

By Katrina Marro The dropping of the Atomic bomb was a life-changing event for all of the people of Hiroshima. It killed hundreds of thousands and scarred the land for eternity. On August 6, 1945, the Atomic bomb was dropped.

While there are many different opinions about the bomb, the US was certain that they would drop the bomb so that it would put an immediate end to the war. Japan was planning to turn the whole island into a fortress. The US was estimated to lose 1 million soldiers in the first invasion alone. The US wanted to force Japan to surrender without further fighting. Not only was Japan’s island the ideal place for a fort, Japan had an army of 9 million soldiers.

We wanted to force Japan to its knees.

This is the Atomic Bomb, We also did it to intimidate Stalin. At the Little Man. time, all of the countries in the war were racing to build an atomic bomb to drop on the other countries. The US was just first. We dropped it as a message that we had atomic power. Some think that it would have saved millions of lives. But it was at a terrible cost. Others say that the US wanted to test the bombs on humans. At such a terrible cost. The Japanese had always indicated that they would not surrender. At 10:34 a.m. the atomic bomb went off and killed around 120,000 people.

The question that some people ask: how did something so small kill so many? The answer is simply one element: Uranium. The atomic bomb was loaded with it along with 12 kilotons of t.n.t. That set off a nuclear chain reaction where two spheres of uranium were fired at one another inside the bomb, creating and explosion hotter than the interior of the sun. It is an amazing fact that thousands of atomic bombs have been detonated, but only two have been detonated in wars. Nuclear and hydrogen bombs are the strongest ever created. The atomic bomb releases energy which may be billions of times stronger than t.n.t. The explosion was hotter than the interior of the sun. Within seconds, the atomic bomb’s mushroom cloud was ten miles tall. Large bombs like the atom bomb can destroy entire cities. The bomb had a long and complicated arming system, in case the plane crashed, which it was known to do on take off anyway. But the mission was deadly accurate, and once the arming system was set, the bomb was dropped and exploded.

Within seconds, Atomic bomb explosions like this one can be ten miles high.

The estimated population in Hiroshima was 330,000. By December 1945, 100,000 people were dead. Many people died from burns. Closer to the hypocenter, people were killed instantly. At three kilometers, the skin was charred. Close to the hypocenter, the temperature was raised to 6,000 degrees. The combined effects within 1,500 meters were lethal. Radiation caused some people to suffer from diarrhea, vomiting, extreme malaise, and extreme thirst. In most cases, it was fatal. Very large numbers of people were crushed in their homes from the shockwaves. Many people walked considerable distances before they collapsed and died. Radiation disease caused people to die within 1-2 weeks. Purpura caused people to die within 4-6 weeks. Overall, the death tolls were high. 90,000-120,000 people were dead.

In some ways, the radiation levels were even worse. When a nuclear bomb is dropped, it releases radiation similar to an overdose of Xrays. People became very sick. They got fevers, and sometimes died.

Some got anemia, pupula, while others grew pale and shaky, and got digestive problems. Gamma rays killed 95% of people within a half mile of the center. Most people suffered for a few days before dying. Then the second stage of the sickness set in 25-30 days after the explosion. Gums bled, white blood-cell count dropped sharply, and many patients suffered sore throats. The third stage set in when the body struggled to compensate for its ills. Many people died from blood or chest complications. The duration depended on how much radiation the patient received. Some patients illnesses lasted a few days, while others dragged on over several months.

The damage on the buildings was massive too. Everything up to about 1 mile from the center was destroyed except for about 50 reinforced steel structures. 4,400 feet from the center, multi story brick buildings were demolished. Electric installations were destroyed up to 5,500 feet, the same with trolley cars. All homes were seriously damaged up to 6,500 feet. Large fires occurred up to 6,000 feet in radius and a max radius of 11,000 feet. Windows were damaged at up to 4 miles.

called The story gets the

The destruction was massive.

There is a well known story Sadako and the thousand paper cranes. is about a young girl called Sadako who radiation disease and is trying to get

better. This is the story: Sadako was only a toddler when the Atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. Nine years later, she was an energetic sixth grader who loved to run and wanted to join the racing team. But then she began to get dizzy spells in school. At first, she tried to keep it a secret, but then at school one day, she got sick. She had leukemia, the atomic bomb disease. Her friend told her the old story of the thousand paper cranes. If she folds one thousand paper origami cranes, she will become well again. For nearly one year, Sadako folds paper cranes, insistent on staying alive. She folds exactly six hundred and forty four cranes before she dies. Her story continues to inspire people around the world to this day.

There are many different opinions about the atomic bomb dropping. Some people think that it would have saved millions of lives.

There were so many other options, though! Why did we have to do it?

Why didn’t we just tell the people of Japan that if they did not surrender, we would only drop the bomb then? Given them some warnings? We killed hundreds of thousands for no good reason. It could have been avoidable. If the US decided to do it again, what would the citizens say? There are many questions; lots of them do not have answers. But what will satisfy our thirst for blood? Why did we do it? That remains one question. While this question may have been answered in this paper, no one really knows. What remains the A map of the damage. question: When will we realize that what we did was wrong?

Works Cited Questions: Question #1: Source 1: Chris. 25 April 2012. wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_did_the_US_drop_the_atomic_bombs_on_Japa n.

Source 2: JAY Why did we bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki? Yahoo answers. 2 September 2011. 2 May 2012. answers.yahoo.com/index?qid=20110915111857AFL7EB62.

Question #2: 25 April 2012.www.aasc.ucla.edu/cab/200708230001.html.

Question #3: Hersey, John. Hiroshima. Random House Inc. New York.

1982.

Question #4: How does an atomic bomb work? Wise GEEK. 2003-2012. 2 May 2012.

Question #5: United States army. The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Gregory Walker. 1946.

Pictures:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/index.htm

http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/g_l/levine/bombing.htm

http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/index.htm

Klondike Gold Rush By: Ryan Matz The Klondike Gold Rush is considered America’s last great gold rush. The gold rush lasted from 1896 to 1899. Even though very few knew what to expect in the frozen north, people flocked from all over the world hoping that they would become rich. The gold rush produced millions of dollars. Some of the miners hit it big with gold and some came up empty handed. The Klondike was very brutal on the miners but it changed Seattle and the lives of many people forever.

The four miners who started the gold rush

As Charlotte Foltz Jones, the author of Yukon Gold said “The story of the gold rush started with four people and some hard feelings."

Those men were Robert Henderson, George Carmack, Tangish Charlie, and Skookum Jim. Henderson was the first to find gold and he told his friend Carmack. Carmack then wanted to invite his Native American friends Tangish Charlie and Skookum Jim to stake some claims.

Henderson did not like Charlie and Jim so he split off and went elsewhere missing the opportunity of a lifetime. The three remaining miners then moved on, searching for gold. One day, after the men had been traveling for several days, Jim went ahead of the other men to shoot a moose.

When he was waiting for the other men he wandered down to Rabbit Creek for a drink. When he got to the creek he saw more gold than he had ever seen. He quickly showed Charlie and Carmack and they all celebrated and changed the creek’s name to a more appropriate one, Bonanza Creek. Less than a month later on August 17, 1896 they claimed their discovery. After the discovery of gold, the word quickly spred about the gold. By September there were over 200 claims, By November 350 claims of gold were staked, and by November and by September of 1897 there were over 1,200 claims. At first just local miners were searching for gold but soon the whole world would find out.

Seattle was a key location for the Klondike miners. The Seattle mayhem all started on July 17 1897 when the steamship Portland docked carrying thousands of dollars in gold. After seeing all the gold, everyone wanted to travel to the Klondike in hopes of getting rich. Even the Mayor quit his job to be a miner! A man named John W Nordstrom made it to the Klondike in 1897 and after two years he hit it big and made 13,000 dollars. Thousands of people greet the He used his gold to open a department store Steamship Portland and went from being an average man to having one of the most recognized department stores. Almost all of the traffic heading north to the Klondike was directed through Seattle. Out of

the 100,000 miners heading north, 70,000 came through Seattle. This traffic made Seattle grow and put it on the map. In 1880 Seattle’s population was 3,533. In 1910 the population was 237,194. That’s a 6,600% increase! Because there were so many people traveling through Seattle, all the prices were raised dramatically because so many people were willing to pay more. Many mining inventions were also sold like gold crushers, a special Klondike bicycle, protection hats, Klondike eyeglasses, Klondike medicine chests, Klondike soup, and collapsible boats. This greatly helped Seattle’s economy. Seattle gained $25 million by the spring of 1898. Even if someone wasn’t going to the gold fields there was still a job for them. Seattle was in a downhill spiral recovering from a big fire and this gold rush gave the city hope. Most of the cities profits from the gold rush went towards rebuilding the city, help with streets and transportation, and city parks were developed.

Most of the men headed for the gold fields had no idea what to expect. The Yukon is a river and territory of the Klondike. The Klondike is a river and a region that encompasses a section of Alaska and a section the Yukon Territory of Alaska. At this time there was no boundary between Alaska and Canada. Near this area was a small mining town called Dawson City that was a very popular place for miners to stop. At its peak, Dawson had 40,000 people living there. Most of the gold was found on either Bonanza or Eldorado Creek.

The two main routes taken to get to the Klondike were White Pass and Chilkoot Pass.

Chilkoot was more heavily used than White Pass. It was stormier, steeper, and more slippery; it was still the best route. On the Chilkoot pass in 1898 fifteen hundred steps called the Golden Stairs were carved into the ground. A rope ran along the side to help the miners with this 6 hour freezing hike. After they made it to the top they still had to go back down to pick up more gear. Some had to climb the Miners climb the Golden golden stairs 40 times just to get Stairs all their gear to the top. After they could finally camp at the top, life didn’t get any better. Storms would roll through dumping 4 or 5 feet of snow in a few hours and then it would drop to 50 degrees below zero. Canadian officials would also take taxes at the top the mountain. On both mountain passes there was also a great risk of Dead Horse Trail avalanches. One avalanche buried 63 men. Chilkoot Pass sounds horrible but White Pass was not any better.

At about the half way point of the trip was a path named Dead Horse Trail.

It was called this because thousands of animals died there. This path

Vocabulary Bonanza: A source of great wealth Claim: a piece of ground of a certain size which no one has a right to mine except the person who owns the ground

twisted and turned and was a death trap for even the best horses. Men were forced to trek through mud stomach deep and many horses slipped in sink holes. The trail became covered with over 3,000 dead animals and was virtually impassable. Devils Hill was another treacherous feature of White Pass. The path was only 2 feet wide and one missstep was a 500 foot fall to certain death. Porcupine Hill, another dangerous part of this pass, was covered in 10 foot boulders. Summit Hill was a 1,000 feet of knee-deep mud holes and rocks. While hiking these brutal paths the men had to carry up to 65 pounds of gear at a time. The majority of the miners had to take one of these two routes.

Map of the miners travel routs

For the richer miners, there was another way to get to the Klondike; the all water route. Staying in a boat may sound good but it was far from pleasant. The all water route cost $1,000 and not very many miners were willing to pay that price. Many of the ships were not safe and lost power, or the steering went out. The crews were often inexperienced and many captains had never navigated through the frozen Alaskan seas. Many ships hit land or ice and sank. On average 3 ships sank every month. The ships were tightly packed with people, horses, and gear. For example one ship was meant to hold 100 people but crammed aboard 500. The food was horrid, it was unclean and uncomfortable. The cross of animal manure and vomit gave the boats an Gold Rush Women unbearable stench.

A very small percent of people living in the Klondike Regardless of were women but the played an important role in the how miners traveled or lives of miners. Women would often help with thawing how prepared they were, ice and snow for water, breaking up frozen food, many simply couldn’t make it. Out of 100,000 chopping wood and collecting wild foods. In mining miners only 40,000 towns, such as Dawson City, many would set up small made it all the way. shops and businesses, like a laundromat, to help out One main cause for this miners and make some money. Even though the was people realizing Klondike’s population was made up of less than 10% they could not afford women they still played an important role in the gold the trip.

Merchants rush. were selling bananas for $1 which seems like a good price but back in 1898 that was like paying $48. The prices were so high because there was nowhere else to get supplies and goods were in high demand. Once the miners finally reached the gold fields almost all of the claims had been taken. They would either have to pay lots of money or go all that way and come up empty handed. Many of the miners didn’t get any gold at all.

For some the journey was a complete disappointment. Only 4,000 miners ever actually found any gold, and out of those only a handful found

enough gold to be rich. In the end $300,000,000 was found in gold.

There were many hardships and difficulties but both the miners and the city of Seattle were changed forever.

Works Cited Books: Charlotte Foltz Jones, Yukon Gold The Story of the Klondike Gold Rush, Holiday House, New York, NY 1999

Lisa Mighetto and Marcia Montgomery, Hard Drive to the Klondike, University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA

Donna Walsh Shepperd, The Klondike Gold Rush, New york, 1998

Internet Sites:

National Parks Service, National Parks Service Klondike Gold Rush History and Culture, National Parks service, 4/21/12, 4/25/12 http://www.nps.gov/klse/historyculture/index.htm

AlaskaKids, AlaskaKids Know Alaska gold Rushes, University of Alaska Anchorage 4/30/12, 2012 http://www.alaskakids.org/index.cfm/Know-Alaska/AlaskaHistory/Gold-Rushes

http://historyink.blogspot.com/2012/05/yukon-2-so-aspromised-im-continuing.html

http://www.nps.gov/klgo/planyourvisit/index.htm

http://www.lib.washington.edu/specialcollections/collectio ns/exhibits/klondike/case6

http://mininghalloffame.ca/inductees/g-i/robert_henderson

http://www.classbrain.com/artmonument/publish/klondike _gold_rush_routes_map.shtml

The Prohibition History Paper

By Samantha McGraw Prohibition was a time when alcohol was banned, or prohibited. There were two sides to the prohibition movement, opposing and supporting. One of the main supporters of Prohibition was Carry Nation, and one of the opposers was Al-Capone. The prohibition was one of the most important historical times in the US because it created the idea of “gangsters” and everything has been affected by that. Prohibition had a variety of supporters and opposers. A saloon owner who had many stories to tell was Mr. Tallahan. He had owned a liquor store/ice cream shop during the time. This paper will show a couple of different sides, saloon owners, and what Prohibition was.

Poster from prohibition

Prohibition lasted from 1920 to 1933. In the 1700’s Rum became plentiful and cheap, so there was a lot to go around. In the earlier years before Prohibition, (1830s) the main focus was not to give up alcohol completely, but to use it more responsibly. Later, it was realized that many did not care about the responsibility of liquor. Lyman Beecher once said that drinking was a sin that doomed people to hell. This caused a riot, and people started taking sides by either opposing or supporting the alcohol movement was created by Dioclesian Lewis, who was supportive of Prohibition. He promoted the idea of staging protests at saloons or where alcohol was being sold.

Carry Nation was a sober faced woman, who was middle aged. She could be defined by her dark clothing. She was a strong supporter of Prohibition and did many things to make her point clear. She hurled rocks and bricks in every direction and she smashed bottles, glassware, and furniture to show she wasn’t afraid, and that she could and would shut the saloons down. There was a time that someone had tried to stop her. She told him that he was asked to close the shop, which she told everyone before she smashed the saloon. She promised that she would break all the saloons up.

When people asked her, “If the government is really on your side, why aren’t they doing what you are?” She answered that

Carry Nation holding her hatchet and a bible

Women against liquor sales

she thought the officials could take care of it, but would rather turn the other way than close down the saloons.

In the mid-1890s, Cary Nation and Kate Cain formed a local chapter of Women's Christian Temperance Union in Medicine Lodge, Kansas. Carry Nation was chosen as the jail evangelist, which means she was sent to jail. She discovered in jail that many prisoners were in jail because of alcoholrelated offences. After she could get out of jail, she went to Mart Strong, a local saloon owner. He had closed and locked his doors when he heard that Carry Nation was coming. She went to the mayor, she found out that Mart Strong had left and wouldn’t come back, because he was scared of what she would do to his saloon. She was one of the extreme supporters, but there were also very extreme opposers.

Al-Capone was a very strong opposer of the Prohibition movement. He was born on January 17th, 1899. Very shortly after he was born, he became members of two “kid gangs.” In Manhattan, he became part of the Five Points gang.

He worked at the Harvard Inn as a bartender and bouncer, and got his infamous facial scars after he had insulted a customer and was brutally attacked by her brother. He was nicknamed “Scarface.”

Capone got arrested for the first time when there was a disorderly conduct charge, when he was working for Yale. Later, he murdered two men in New York. He started bootlegging when he went to work for John Torrio, Yale’s old mentor. In 1918, he met a girl named Mary (Mae) Coughlin. Later that year, she gave birth to their son, Albert “Sonny” Francis. Al-Capone married her further into the year. He was told that he would be killed by his boss if he didn’t keep a low profile, but did something terrible and later was sentenced to 11 years in prison. His crime days were over.

Newspaper clip from Chicago Sunday Tribune, Capone is convicted

Carry Nation in the act of destroying a saloon

When America first attempted to prohibit alcohol, some homes and stores became illegal drinking houses. When the government tried to crack down on lawbreakers, most juries refused to convict the accused of selling illegal alcohol. Some government officials even accepted payoffs to ignore the alcohol bootleg trade. British authorities saw eventually that what they were trying was a failure, and the act was abandoned in 1742. That was the first attempt at trying to prohibit alcohol.

There was a fight, which some called a war, between “drys” and “wets.” “Drys” were people opposing alcohol, or at least wanted some type of reform. “Wets” were people The term dry who believed that no new legal limitations on alcohol came from their consumption should take place. Up until the late 1800s, crusade to dry the “drys” cause had gained very little ground because up the flood of they had been unable to see over the political authority of alcohol the “wets.” The anti-saloon league was dedicated to stamping out all forms of alcohol.

A poster during the time to vote, supporting or opposing the prohibition

THE TERM DRY CAME FROM THEIR CRUSADE TO DRY UP THE FLOOD OF ALCOHOL. Many people had tried using prejudice to fight alcohol. Richmond Pearson Hobson, an Alabama congressman and ASL fundraiser, stated that “liquor will actually make a brute out of a negro, causing him to commit unnatural crimes. The effect is the same on a white man, though the white man being further evolved, it takes longer to reduce him to the same level.” Another example is when Hobson stated in 1913, that “in America we are making the last stand of the great white race, and substantially of the human race. If this destroyer [alcohol] cannot be conquered in young America, it can not in any of the old and more degenerate nations.” When he said “degenerate nations” Hobson meant the countries in Europe.

A lot of people wanted an 18th amendment to state that liquor will be banned. In 1913, at the ASL Jubilee Convention in Columbus, Ohio, a resolution was put forth which people were wanting an amendment for the US Constitution that would prohibit alcohol throughout the nation. It was a huge step, but its success in passing anti-alcohol measures in many states had evolved into a widespread consensus that said it was time to take the fight to the next level.

In

December of the same year, a firm decision to amend the Constitution was introduced in both of the houses of Congress. The “drys” won the vote but fell short of the initial two-thirds majority needed for passage. After this failure, the ASL decided to get down to the task of electing more prohibition-friendly politicians into the Congress. In 1917, the ASL was winning the political war.

After Prohibition took place, an immediate surge of attempts to import alcohol illegally began. Many smugglers had successfully brought alcohol into “dry” areas in prior years to the prohibition. People smuggled alcohol into America from the Detroit River mostly. A lot of people illegally manufactured alcohol, and made a lot of money, using speakeasies. Many bootleggers found it easier to make their own supplies than to devise plans to get at the existing stocks of alcohol. The number of illegal stills used to make liquor skyrocketed after the 18th amendment took part. More than 17,000 were taken by the government in just 1925, and this was only a small amount of those in the operation. Creating home-alcohol was not only illegal, but it was very dangerous. In certain instances, attempts to remove harmful elements failed, and the alcohol held poisons that caused people to die, go blind, or suffer permanent disabilities.

Napoleon was a man who owned a saloon during the time of the prohibition, and some of his stories have been passed on. Napoleon, or Nap, as he was called, worked in a tavern business. During the time of the prohibition, he had to change his tavern into an ice-cream parlor, but as soon as the prohibition ended, it was changed back into a tavern. Nap stayed on his toes, so he could basically think out of any problem that the government threw at him. If he hadn’t have thought of turning the tavern into an ice-cream shop, he would have ended up living amongst the poor on the streets. A story Nap always told his son was that even though alcohol was illegal, his customers still wanted it. He would walk across the border into Canada and buy some alcohol, because there was no Prohibition there, and return back to his shop. He always said that even though it was wrong, alcohol was what his customers wanted, so he would get it for them.

speakeasies-- an illegal nightclub or liquor store evangelist-- a zealous advocate of something stills-- The equipment needed for distilling alcoholic beverages such as whiskey degenerate-- immoral or corrupt consensus--a agreement

general

saloon--a place where alcoholic drinks may be bought and drunk

Both his son and Napoleon were supporters of Prohibition, because people were still illegally making alcohol, so it wouldn’t make a difference, and the alcohol was very dangerous, because it could be unknowingly poisoned by the makers. There very well may be another period of time like the first Prohibition, but for now, we have the history.

Newspaper from the day that the prohibition finally ended.

Work Cited: Books: Grace- Fran, Carry A. Nation: Retelling the Life, Corbis ©, 1934 Harvey- Bonnie Carmen, Carry A Nation, Saloon Smasher and Prohibitionist, Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, Enslow Publishers Inc, 2002 Hill- Jeff, Defining Moments Prohibition, Detroit Michigan, Peter E Ruffner, 2004 Websites: www.chicagohs.org/history/capone.html, Chicago Historical Society 1999, May 1st, 2012 Interview: Tallahan, James. Personal Interview, May 2nd …….

PICTURE SITES— http://www.google.com/imgres?hl=en&biw=1440&bih=785&gbv=2&tbm=isch&tbn id=kH5OBW4RhkY3LM:&imgrefurl=http://www.albany.edu/~wm731882/18th_am endment_final.html&docid=tJlPAipwdgCm6M&imgurl=http://www.albany.edu/~w m731882/newspaper1.jpg&w=300&h=190&ei=7czT_HZH6qmiQLxxKzOAg&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=575&vpy=479&dur=3556&hov h=152&hovw=240&tx=101&ty=127&sig=111479645392972457434&page=1&tbn h=117&tbnw=185&start=0&ndsp=29&ved=1t:429,r:24,s:0,i:124 http://www.google.com/imgres?hl=en&biw=1440&bih=785&gbv=2&tbm=isch&tbn id=bPwLXwKcVusy1M:&imgrefurl=http://www.ediblegeography.com/spaces-ofprohibition/&docid=UFWmKl4BPBKVbM&imgurl=http://www.ediblegeography.co m/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Lips-that-touch-liquor.jpg&w=460&h=448&ei=7czT_HZH6qmiQLxxKzOAg&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=765&sig=11147964539297245 7434&page=1&tbnh=132&tbnw=127&start=0&ndsp=29&ved=1t:429,r:3,s:0,i:79&t x=74&ty=82

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Nirvana

By Wynn O’Donnell

Nirvana was the band that started the grunge revolution, the band that wrote some of the most amazing music ever, and yet another band with a tragic ending--from the peak in popularity with Nevermind, to the very end. Nirvana was an amazing band, and always will be. This paper is the story from beginning to end of Kurt Cobain and his awesome band, Nirvana.

It all started in Hoquiam, Washington to on February 20, 1967, the day Kurt Donald Cobain was born. At age two Kurt moved to Aberdeen, Washington where everyone says he is from. Cobain first learned to play guitar from his aunt Mari Earl, being left handed he would turn the guitar around the other way. At a young age Kurt was into lots of music, with a lot of people on his Mother's side of the family he played from a very young age. Kurt was into music like the Beatles, the Moneys and other musicians from his time. Kurt had a childhood just like any other until the, “Legendary Divorce” as stated the Rough Guide to Nirvana. At age 9 his parents divorced, at the time it was miserable, but he Kurt Cobain notched it down later, as to make it seem like it was not a big deal.

For the first bit after the divorce he moved in with his Mother, who stayed in Aberdeen, Washington. After the first half a year Kurt moved to his Dads house in Montesano, Washington near Aberdeen. “Father and son initially bonded at least until his Don (his father) remarried in 1978, something Cobain regarded as betrayal” Said the Rough Guide to Nirvana.

Don remarried a woman who had two children of her own and had one son with her, Kurt stayed at Don’s house for a long time. In 1979 he became rowdy and hard to deal with, and in 1982 he wandered around staying at

relatives’ houses until at the end of the year he settled back in at his mother’s house.

Kurt Cobain first started the band Nirvana in 1985, with Krist Novoselic, Aaron Burckhard and himself. The band went through many drummers and backup guitarists but Novoselic and Cobain were both in the band from beginning to end. The most Krist Novoselic famous drummer Nirvana had was Dave Grohl who was in the band from 1990 to the end. Many different drummers had their time in Nirvana, most of which are names that are not heard on a daily basis, such as Dale Crover or Dan Peters, whereas names like Kurt Cobain, Dave Grohl, and Krist Novoselic are heard more often than not.

Nirvana released their first album Bleach in 1989, with titles such as, Blew, Negative Creep, Flew, and Floyd the Barber.

Nirvana’s second and most famous album Nevermind was released in 1991, with songs such as the very famous Smells Like Teen Spirit, or Drain You. The third album was Hormoaning released in 1992, and Insecticide released later that year. In 1993 Nirvana released another album called Utero, and Nirvana’s final album with Kurt Cobain was Unplugged in New York.

“Nirvana transformed the 80’s into the 90’s” Said the Rough Guide to Nirvana. With the album Nevermind out the grunge revolution began, with Nirvana's peak in in popularity of Smells Like Teen Spirit. People looked up to the band because Nirvana’s music expressed how they felt. Nobody exactly knows what Kurt was trying to say when he wrote the confusing lyrics to Smells Like

Dave Grohl

Grunge-A genre of music that lasted from the mid 1980s-1990s. Grunge was a form of punk or alternative.

Fun fact!

Nirvana used to smash the instruments they played concerts with on the stage after the grand finally.

Legendary-so celebrated as to having taken on the nature of a legend.

Teen Spirit, but somehow everyone agrees with it. Kurt was a troubled man and he expressed his feelings more through tones, and pitches then through the words themselves. When someone listens to the song Smells Like Teen Spirit, there is no chance whatsoever that they will be able to translate all the thing they hear into understandable English, but that person will notice the tones, and hints of emotion in the way Kurt sings.

Kurt Cobain, Krist Novoselic, and Dave Grohl lead the grunge revolution to its peak.

Kurt Cobain was a very stressed-out man, he took drugs more to relieve the stress then for pleasure. Some of Kurt's troubles were his identity, his fame, and drugs. The end of the band came about in 1994, Kurt had a publicized overdose in tour on rome. The tour was canceled.

Cobain was sent to drug rehab in Los Angeles, California. On April first 1994 Kurt escaped from drug rehab, and took off for Seattle. Seven days later on April 8, his body was found with a self-inflicted gunshot wound, at a house with a view of Lake Washington.

Nirvana was the band who started the grunge revolution, the band who wrote some of the most amazing songs ever, and yet another band with a tragic ending. Nirvana was an amazing band filled with amazing people. The death of Kurt Cobain was tragic, and sadly so was most of his life. From age two to twenty seven Kurt loved music and became very good at playing it. The people who played in his band were very lucky.

When Kurt Cobain killed himself, many were very sad at the death of yet another amazing rock star.

Winslow Homer By : Corinne Olson Winslow Homer is an inspirational artist. He went toward his own ways instead of following everybody else and he turned out to be one of the most important artists in the United States. He was known for explaining the motion of the sea and the depth of the forest so well in his paintings people couldn’t get enough of them. He is the greatest American artist of the 19th century. Winslow Homer influenced American art and proved to people that he could be a famous artist even though his art was so different from everybody else’s.

This is Winslow Homer

What is so important about him and how did he change American art? Winslow Homer was the first artist to capture the movement of the sea. He was largely self taught and started painting like a professional. Some people thought his paintings were too original and that they crossed the line of being different. Finally once people saw his talent in his water paintings he started being more and more popular. Another one of his favorite subjects was that of women. He had a talent of bringing out their beauty and the elegant clothes they wore during the Civil war Era. Even though Homer painted women, real women never got close to him. He had a shy part about him. A woman once said “He was a quiet fellow, but he liked to be in the thick of things”. His life was a complicated one and he never married because he had an unhappy love affair some years before. He was happy that way though. He once said, “The life that I have chosen, gives me my full hours of enjoyment for The Herring net is great the balance of my life. The sun because of its character will not rise, or set without my notice, and detail of the waters and thanks.” He wasn’t always different shades alone though. Winslow Homer took his first trip to Europe in 1866 when he was 31. He joined his friend Albert Kelsey, another artist. His studio was in the Montmartre district of Paris. He stayed there for 10 months and then went to a

studio in New York on the corner of fourth Ave and 23rd street. Then when he retired he went to Prouts Neck, Maine which was only a short drive to his parents house which was called the Ark. Winslow Homer was an original artist. He didn’t follow everybody else, he made his second trip to Europe in 1881 and went to England spending almost two years at Cullercoats, a small fishing town on the coast of the North Sea, unlike most artists who went to Paris to study paints, he was largely self taught. For example, on his 21st birthday he quit his Drudge’s job as an lithographer and he vowed never to call another man a boss again. He inspired artists to do their own thing and not follow the others.

Homer was a major traveler.

He went to Adirondacks, Canada, Bermuda, Florida, the Bahamas, and Cuba. In 1876 Homer told a friend that he was going to go to the English coast. There he found his new talent, his new way of painting.

Along the English coast he found the most popular one of his subjects and soon that would be a chain of painter’s colonies. His This painting is named subject was ocean scenes and he painted Kissing Moon them with watercolors.

Winslow Homer loved his watercolors. He liked them mostly because when he was traveling it dried very fast. He said “ You will see, in the future I will live by my watercolors”. His paintings of watercolor or oil paints all went to the subjects of the sea, forest, mountains, and the lives of sailors, fishermen, and hunters. He disliked painting the city and he preferred the countryside. In most of his paintings he painted the wind over the water, blowing the grass but he couldn’t do that with the city in the way.

Homer had been a gifted artist all his life. He was born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1836 and grew up in Cambridge. His mother, Henrietta Maria Benson Homer, was also an artist. She loved to paint and was very supportive and excited for her son to be an artist. She also taught in the school Homer was in.

Some of Homer's first paintings still survive. He painted and drew subjects around him, for example he drew a boy doing

Crab Fishing is the name.

Winslow Homer captured the clouds and the sea in the painting

homework, his classroom, and his house buried in many trees and shrubs.

Now Winslow Homer tried every subject to see what he was best at. For example, he made eight etched plates between 1884-1889. Seven of them were of the sea. None of his etches sold. He made storytelling paintings and at first for a period of time people thought storytelling was bad but then they started to get popular. Overall the oil and watercolors stuck to his interest. Everybody has always given him approbation because when he tried something new he always succeeded in impressing them.

He was pretty much a wealthy man. At first he was not doing very well but once he got into the sea paintings, Winslow became slowly popular. People said they bought his paintings because his ocean and sea pictures brought adventure into the room. They bought his landscapes because they brought a romantic mood.

His jobs were all different from each other. His very first job as an artist was when he worked in the Civil War carving out pictures of the war and the lives of the soldiers on a piece of wood, almost like a stamp for the newspaper. The newspaper is Harpers and he worked there for almost 17 years. Again he was largely self taught but for the few artistic school years he had he went to the National Academy of Design. He met Frederick Rondel there and he became a major influence to Homer. Homer wasn't first a famous artist, like in the beginning he went to work for Harper's but surprisingly some people disliked his art. Then he went to France and took up painting women, he came back to New York where he stayed for 13 years in the famous Tenth Street studio building. He told a friend that he was going to the English coast, there he took up the water paintings. Since he was already known for his work in Harper's weekly, once everybody saw his sea and landscape paintings he became an easy living man in the 19th century.

The Fog Warning is one of Winslow Homer’s most famous paintings

The fisherman in the boat with the halibut is an amazing painting. His movement and buffet in that painting has the feeling that a person could look at it for hours and hours and still see something new each minute. The boat is looking toward the entire sea, with no land in sight. The boat is on a seven foot wave, the fisherman does not look like he is in any stress and he rows and he in a slow motion while a barrel is rolling around and rope is covering the bottom of the boat. The water is a deep bluish gray but the tips and the This is Winslow Homer’s gravestone

crashing of a wave has a great amount of white water, showing that the sea is at its roughest. This is the favorite one of Winslow Homer's paintings for many people because of its brave storytelling Winslow Homer drew his and its deep crashing of the waves. war paintings and then after he got a education of painting he redid his drawings and painted them. They were much better, and any mistakes he made before, they became perfect

When Winslow Homer was little, he and his family used to come up to Prout’s Neck, Maine for a vacation. When he stopped traveling and settled down in a house he moved to Prout’s Neck. Once he moved into his new home his life started to fall apart. It started out being hard when his dad, Charles Savage Homer died in 1898 when Winslow was 62 but what hit him hard was when he had a stroke.

He fell into a great depression mostly because he knew the end of his life was coming and all of his ancestors had died around age 85 so he wouldn't be part of the record anymore. His siblings wanted him to move in with one of his brother but he refused. Even after his stroke he showed no sign of failing powers so he continued to paint. A year after his stroke he was laying in bed and his last words were "I am looking forward to a smoke and a drink". He died on September 29,1910 at the age of 74.

Winslow Homer stands out as the greatest American artist of the 19th century. He changed the way people look at art now. He made artists realize that different is good and can change your life and others just by making art that you love. Even though he didn't have a successful social life he had an amazing eye for painting. He made a point that just by being yourself and doing what you love, anybody can be successful.

buffet : to strike with force approbation: praise

Work Cited Sheet Books: 1) Watson Forbes, Winslow Homer, New York, Crown Publishers 1942 2) Flexner James, The World of Winslow Homer, New York, Time incorporated Websites: 1) AskArt. Winslow Homer.2012. 30 April WWW.AskArt.com 2) WWW.WinslowHomer.org Copywright 2009 May 7, 2012 3) “Winslow Homer”. Encyclopedia of world biography .2004.

Encyclopedia.com 3May.2012<http://www.encycopedia.com>.

Pictures: 1) Lacas,Mark. A tribute to Winslow Homer. 1995. 18 may 2012. http://www.loftcam.com/homer.html 2) Harvard university press, Winslow Homer 1 june 2010. 18 may 2012. http://harvardpress.typepad.com/hup_publi

city/2010/06/winslow-homer.html 3)

Wikipedia, Winslow Homer, 9 May 2012. 18 May 1012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winslow_Homer

John F. Kennedy and the Space Race

By Jaidha Rosenblatt Getting a man on the moon was a big accomplishment that changed us forever. It all started with the simple idea that a man could walk on the moon. For many centuries that idea, of going into space let alone getting a man on the moon, had seemed impossible. It is human nature to wonder what is above us, to find out what we don’t already know. When we decided we wanted to orbit around the earth and even later get to the moon, we created a goal. We had a goal, and with lots of money and time, we eventually accomplished it. Getting a man on the moon is a symbol that when people that have a common goal that they believe in, they will get it done, “We Here is President John F. chose to go to the moon and do the other things, not Kennedy giving a speech. because they are easy but because they are hard, because that goal will serve to organize and skills, because that challenge is one we are willing to accept, Communications Satellite one we are willing to postpone, one which we intend to An artificial earth satellite that facilitates win, and the others too.” said John F. Kennedy communications, as radio, television, and Because John F. Kennedy is the one president telephone transmissions, by means of their that most people associate with going to the moon, it flection or the amplification and would be surprising to some people that he initially was retransmission of signals between stations against it. When he was a senator he thought that it on earth or in space. would be a waste of money. To design the first couple of rockets he appointed Wernher von Braun, a former Nazi rocket scientist. Braun responded that it could be possible in the year 1967 or 1968. It would be Kennedy later asked for approximately fifty million dollars for communication satellites. This decision completely revolutionized modern life on earth. Satellite communication is very important in today's world, This service is highly used during the times of natural disasters, by people staying in remote areas, and also is used for the military purposes. Also, the long distance calls, usage of internet, and other electronic devices are some other advantages of satellite communication services.

Sputnik

On October 4th, 1957 the Russians beat the Americans and launched the first man-made object to be placed in the moon’s orbit.

The Soviets called their first satellite P-S-1, or prosthesis sputnik, or simple satellite. After the successful launch it would be named Sputnik which, in Russian, means “traveler”. It was only the size of a basketball or beach ball and weighed as little as 84 pounds. This object had no scientific equipment and was designed to only orbit

around the earth every 98 minutes.

After the successful launch of Sputnik, President Eisenhower tried to downplay the military significance of Sputnik at a press conference on October 9, 1957. Later, in 1958, after agreeing that an addition of a space program would be important, President Dwight Eisenhower created the National Aeronautics Space Administration or NASA. The navy’s missile, USA’s first attempt, was given priority for America’s first postSputnik launch on December 4, 1957. However, the whole thing literally blew up in their faces. It blew up on the launch pad, on live television, humiliating the United States in the eyes of the world. Finally, on January 31st, 1958, America launched its first satellite, Explorer 1. It was catapulted into space atop von Braun's Jupiter-C rocket and was designed

by Werher von Braun.

America’s first satellite, the Explorer 1

The Soviets, in response, decided to launch another missile into space, the R-7. It was the world’s first intercontinental ballistic missile. It took a full hour and ten minutes until the rocket even reached the platform. The R-7 was 120 ft deep and as wide as five football fields. Only at 6:00 AM did they finally start to even fuel the ship. By then many of the crew had fallen ill from sitting out in the cold for almost two hours.

After the R-7 the USSR decided to go another step. The next space mission was the Lunas. The first Luna, Luna one, was the first man made object to orbit fully around the sun. The soviets USSR program also produced two other Luna launches. The second Luna was the first man made object to reach and make contact with the surface of the moon. Luna Three, which orbited around the moon and took pictures of approximately seventy percent of the surface of the moon.

In the U.S., in spite of the loss of two other space shuttles and the killing of several pilots there were hundreds of messages from the public demanding that the whole space mission should be completely shut down. On May 25, 1961 John F. Kennedy did not pay attention to the public and agreed to commit to the idea of getting a man on the moon and landing safely. Here was some of his moving speech, “I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth.” he said.

A photo of John F. Kennedy

John F. Kennedy stood true to his speech and soon after he gave that speech, America sent its first man into space. This was one of the first real steps to getting a man safely on the moon and back. The pilot’s name was Alan Sheppard. Sheppard was sent into the orbit on May 5th, 1961.

U.S.S.R. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

Neil Armstrong

The launch was part of the Mercury project. It was called the Mercury MA-6 “Freedom”. This launch was very short and only lasted fifteen minutes. The second man in space was Virgil “Gus” Grissom. He was lead in the Mercury project and Mercury-Redstone 4. The launch lifted up 11,826 miles up into the air. It lasted about fifteen minutes from launch to landing. A very famous quote from Virgil “Gus” Grissom was “If we die, we want people to accept it, we’re in a business, and we hope that if anything happens to us it will not delay the program. The conquest of space is worth the risk of life.” That quote really shows that the astronauts believed in what they were doing and were not afraid of dying for that amazing cause that they were involved in.

After the Mercury project Apollo 11, one of the most successful and famous launches, was launched July 16th, 1969 and returned to earth on the 28th. Apollo 11 was 363 feet high and weighed 6,690, 700 pounds.

Two astronauts got to walk on the moon during that launch. While one, William A. Anders, stayed in the space shuttle. The two astronauts that were able to walk on the surface or the moon were Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin. When Neil Armstrong, the first man to ever to touch the surface of the moon because he came before Aldrin, uttered these very famous words “"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind,"” During the exploration, the two astronauts were to gather samples of lunar-surface materials for the return to Earth. They also were to take photos of the lunar surface, the scientific equipment that they brought, the spaceship, and each other, taking both photos and videos.

This was to be the last Apollo mission to fly a "free-return" trajectory, which would mean, if necessary, a ready abort of the mission. The spaceship would then return to the orbit of the moon. This mission was a complete success.

The Apollo Soyuz test project was the first launch that was sponsored by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. It was sent July 1975. The objective of this mission was to get a U.S. Apollo aircraft into space and then safely dock it on a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft. It was also the last Apollo aircraft to be launched. There were a total of five different people in the crew.

Getting a man on the moon was a big accomplishment that changed some aspects of the world.

When we got a man on the moon, or even before simply orbiting around the moon or sun, we showed that we could accomplish our dreams. That when we create a goal, with enough time and effort, we can accomplish it. If the USSR did not send that small beach ball sized satellite, Sputnik, into orbit, none of this would most likely have happened. It was the competition that drove each side to keep on building and launching more impressive spacecrafts and satellites. This all ended when we got a man to the moon.

Works Cited Barnes, John A. John F. Kennedy on Leadership:The Lessons and Legacy of a President. San Francisco: Amacom, 2005.

Brzezinski, Mathew. Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries that Ignited the Space Race. New York: Times Books, 2007.

History.com, “The Space Race” http://www.history.com 1996-2012.

History Channel. 25 April 2012.

Garza, George. “History of the Space Race” catalogues.com . catalogues.com. 2008. 30 April 2012.

Jones, Kelly. “The space race”http://www.thespacerace.com/encyclopedia/ 2011. thespacerace.com.

May 1 2012 Pictures http://files.abovetopsecret.com/files/img/na4f72f0c5.jpg Visted on May 16 2012 http://www.bisbos.com/rocketscience/spacecraft/sputnik/images/Sputnik2l.jpg Visted on May 16 2012 http://astroprofspage.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/explorer1.jpg Visted on May 16 2012 http://assets.motherboard.tv/post_images/assets/000/010/625/Adrin11base _large.jpg?1315414046 Visited on May 16 2012 http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serve/252/302206.jpg Visited on May 16 2012 http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/images/content/167681main_armstron g_neil_150x200.jpg Visted May 18 2012

USS Portland

By Nils Watkins The USS Portland Maine CA-33 is a heavy cruiser. The USS Portland had good conditions on board, had a great crew, had lots of close encounters to death but still lived, and changed the war of World War II in many ways. She was an honored ship and did a lot of good for the US NAVY in World War II.

The Picture below shows a new paint job she had. The picture to the right shows an upgrade with new bridge on top of her.

An Airship is a blimp, for example the USS Akron is an airship.

Though the USS Portland was built earlier before the war, she was very strong.

The USS Portland Maine CA-33 Heavy Cruiser was ordered on February 13th, 1929 and was launched to sea for the first time on May 21st, 1932. She fought in the most naval engagements of any other NAVY ships in World War II. Not only did she fight in the most battles, she survived them. There are many reasons she survived all them. Even though her armor was 4.5 inches thick, her guns were what made her heavy. She was equipped with nine 8-inch guns, and eight 5inch dual-purpose guns in single mounts. The 5-inch dual-purpose guns were nearly ten and a half feet in length. The smallest guns were 50caliber machine guns which, later in the war, were thrown out in place for 20mm AA guns. The new 20mm AA guns could fire larger rounds at a rate of 450 rounds per minute which was obviously a better gun. Those guns needed well trained and precise aiming sailors. To shoot down kamikaze planes, the men on this ship didn’t shoot the body of the plane. Instead, they shot the wings which turned out to be very successful, because this ship was never hit by a kamikaze plane. If it were hit by one, the ship probably wouldn’t be able to be repaired. When a kamikaze plane hit any type of ship, the ship was usually far beyond repair.

People may think that the USS Portland's missions were only to go to battles or kill kamikaze planes, though they were not only that. She also escorted and protected battleships, destroyers, and aircraft carriers, or when a ship needed help with something, if it was sinking or under fire, the USS Portland would also help with that. Not long after the USS Portland was commissioned, USS Akron (an airship)was caught in a downdraft and fell into sea. USS Portland then joined a search and rescue

mission for the crew of 76 people. After that, she joined up and escorted USS Houston that had Franklin D. Roosevelt on board for a fishing trip.

For the next couple months after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, she patrolled and performed escort duties between Fiji, California, and Hawaii. During 1942, USS Portland was working with Rear Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid’s Assault group in the Battle of the Coral Sea. While she was in the battle the USS Lexington (an aircraft carrier) was getting bombed by two bombs from planes on deck and on the hull, and two torpedoes impacted making the boat sink. With many sailors in the water, the USS Portland came and saved 772 people from the downed USS Lexington! Later on in May, she found herself participating in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons. All went fine in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and then in October of 1942 she was screening the USS Enterprise which is another aircraft carrier, until she went over and was in the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. The USS Portland even took a torpedo and spun out of control, and while having no steerage, she took down a Japanese destroyer called the Yudachi. As shown from all the information above, she was a good ship for search and rescue, helping other ships, and covering or supporting others.

The USS Indianapolis was the USS Portland’s sister ship. The Indianapolis actually delivered needed components of the Hiroshima atom bomb to Tinian. This mission was so secret that the USS Indianapolis couldn’t communicate with any nearby ships when they were hit by a torpedo.

They had no radios on board so that their location couldn't be compromised.

Just like almost every single other ship in the US NAVY, the USS Portland Maine CA-33 had repairs. The largest repair was when the boat was hit by four torpedoes, only one of which exploded. The torpedo that exploded made devastating damage to her hull and her controls system.

That one explosion made it so the USS Portland couldn’t steer, so she spun in circles without stopping. During this, she was being shot at by a Japanese ship called Yudachi, which was mentioned earlier.

Yudachi was a destroyer that was built in 1936. The USS Portland first disabled the Yudachi’s gun systems and that made it so the ship was of no use, so the 207 survivors left were evacuated by a Japanese ship. While the Yudachi was sitting there abandoned and alone, she was sunk by the USS Portland and the USS Portland was in Tulagi the next day. The only reason the USS Portland stayed afloat, was the crew. They aided her by patching her up temporarily, but solid as she was fighting, spinning, and slowly sinking. The crew of her made it so she didn’t sink.

This shows the damage she suffered after Guadalcanal while encountering torpedoes and the Yudachi.

The on board life on the USS Portland was pretty decent. People on board explained that there was a type of community with about 1,000 people. It had cooks, places to sleep, doctors, jobs/assignments, and places to be. Sailor’s lives when they were in America in their home were usually not great because they didn’t have a lot of money. At this time, people who would leave their lives for the Military most likely weren’t very wealthy. Most of them often didn’t get dental care, doctor check-ups or advice for physical health, good and reliable food to eat, or very safe places to sleep. Not only did they have dentists and doctors, they had great ones. For instance, one time an Army Major was going to France to see his girlfriend, so he hopped on board the USS Portland because it was en route to France. On the way there, he developed acute appendicitis and the doctors on board had to perform an emergency appendectomy. It was a successful surgery and the man got to France, alive.

There was also lots of gambling and lots of people selling things like bunks and beds. My great grandfather named Charles Homer Parsons bought a mattress for the deck and slept on it most nights, but when he wasn’t in it, he rented it out to other people. Down below in the bunks it was hot and if the USS Portland was hit by a kamikaze plane or torpedo, people down below would be in the blast radius. If a crew member was on deck sleeping, then there would have fresh cool air and more The USS Portland transferring survivors of USS safety from kamikaze attacks and torpedoes.

Yorktown .

USS means United States Ship which identifies easily if a ship is from the United States.

Even though the USS Portland survived to the end of World War II, it did not survive until today. After World War II ended the ship was doing some missions to get men home and got badly damaged. Once the war was over, there were still troops in Japan and Germany and other places in Europe. The Military was running something called The Magic Carpet. US NAVY ships were going back and forth from America and Europe to bring the men home from after the war. The USS Portland had two missions in the Magic Carpet. The first one was in December, that mission was uneventful and very successful. They were said to fly across the Atlantic at a speed of twenty four knots. The only thing recorded on the ship by a crew member was that when a sailor got first and second degree burns on his face and neck when a coffee pot was thrown onto him “by a sudden list of the ship.” On the way back the first time from Europe, the USS Portland Maine was carrying twenty-eight army officers and 1,214 enlisted soldiers, along with the normal crew members. This particular mission was harder on the crew members since there weren’t as many. A lot of men stayed in America because the war was over, though the people that worked hard on the boat stayed. Each

person needed to fill in for other people and do multiple jobs to cover for the departing people.

Though, when the second Magic Carpet mission came around, it was not as easy as the first. Another thing different from the first time was that on the way to Europe they were going to drop off a total of 235 men. Once the 235 men were dropped off in Europe, she loaded on forty army officers, seven naval officers, 997 soldiers, and one civilian technician, all of which totaled up to 1,045 getting on the USS Portland. On the way home, keeping headings and staying in one piece for the most part was much more difficult. Some Quartermasters wrote in great detail that there were 80-90 foot waves and 70-75 knots of wind.

The boat was tipping more than ever and the water was splashing very high up onto the ship. There was a constant pounding on the hull of the ship that was pounding harder and harder every time. The ship was tipping and whipping back and forth so hard that a Sergeant broke his kneecap and some ribs.

The ship was pounding so hard at this point that it was starting to break and fall apart. Once USS Portland got to shore, she was in pieces, though still floating. It was far beyond repair and they needed to sell its partly usable or slightly intact items. They were sold to different places and the boat no longer was there. Today, there is a memorial of the USS Portland, it is a small tower that stood on top of her. This memorial for her is located in Portland, Maine to this day.

This is Commander and Skipper named Ralph V, Wilhelm Sr.

Even though the USS Portland does not exist to this day, she battled hard and served well to her country throughout all her years. In her fourteen years of life, the men on her and the men that saw what USS Portland could do, saw she was powerful and could do a lot of damage.

Though, not only because the power the boat had with her guns, but because her crew was filled with great people at their jobs. That is why the USS Portland Maine CA-33 Heavy Cruiser was such a great NAVY ship in World War II.

The USS Portland and other United States Ships going into the Philipines.

Source Page Books: William Thomas Generous Jr. The Sweet Pea at War. The University Press of Kentucky, Kentucky, 2003

James D. Hornfischer. Neptune’s Inferno. Bantam Books, New York 2011

Websites: Baron and Budd. USS Portland, Mesothelioma.

Revised 2012. April 26, 2012 http://www.mesotheliomanews.com/veterans/usnavy-cruisers/uss-portland-ca-33/

Paul Yarnall. USS Portland [CA-33]. Revised 7-92011. May 1, 2012 www.ussportland.org

Pictures: Paul R. Yarnall. Cruiser Photo Archive-USS Portland. Revised 7 July 9th, 2011. May 16, 2012 http://www.navsource.org/archives/04/033/04033.ht m

Amelia Earhart and her Amazing Journeys By: Brynne Wicklund Heroine: A woman recognized or idealized for her courage or noble qualities.

Amelia Earhart was a great pilot and a true heroine. She mysteriously disappeared while attempting to fly around the world and to this day no one knows exactly what happened. Amelia Earhart helped with women’s rights because she proved to the Air Force that women pilots could be just as good as men pilots. She opened the eyes of other women pilots too because she showed them that if they wanted to fly, then they could. Amelia is an inspiration to all because she demonstrated to others that it is possible to do amazing things.

When she was little, she went to the World's Fair. Amelia absolutely loved the feeling of being on a rollercoaster. When she returned home, she built one of her own. Amelia was the first one to take a test ride on her homemade rollercoaster. Once her father found out he banned anyone from riding it again. Soon after, Amelia and her family went to an airplane show. She was amazed when suddenly she heard a loud noise and saw an airplane fly for the first time.

Ticker-Tape parade: A parade held in a downtown urban setting usually with lots of confetti.

After college, Amelia thought that she wanted to be a teacher. So she got her teaching degree at Amelia Earhart as Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. a young child.

After she had been teaching for a little while, she was asked if she wanted to be the first woman to fly across the Atlantic.

Even though she was just a passenger, she was delighted by the idea of actually flying. Once she landed in Europe, she said that when she was about 300 feet up, she knew she had to learn to fly. After she returned to the United States, she and her crew were greeted with movie offers, proposals, letters of congratulations, and even a ticker-tape parade in New York City. Ruth Amelia Earhart Ellen, the first woman to attempt to cross the receiving flowers after her Atlantic flight.

Atlantic, was there to congratulate her.

Amelia took her first flying lessons from Neta “Snooky” Snook, the first woman ever to graduate from the Curtiss School of Aviation. After a few flying lessons, Amelia’s father told her that the lessons were getting too expensive and that they didn’t have enough money for her to continue much longer.

However Amelia was not discouraged. She got a job the first chance she could and earned enough money to pay for her lessons and 6 months later, her very first plane, a Kinner Canary.

At age 26, Amelia got her pilot's license from Amelia (left) and Neta Snook Federation Aeronautique Internationale. Only a few days (right) in front of Neta’s later she set the women’s altitude record of 14,000 feet in her Kinner Canary airplane. After Amelia had proven to herself that she was capable enough to fly alone, she set out to become the first person ever to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean. She completed the trip and when she arrived home was greeted with even more Interesting Fact: press, interviews and fame. In 1923, she Amelia Earhart never became the 16th women to receive an International License, a very big wore the standard flying accomplishment. gear. Instead of wearing the typical helmet, she After Amelia had her license, she wore a tight fitting hat stopped her lessons and entered the “Powderwith goggles that hardly Puff Derby”. This race was only for women fit when she flew. She fliers and some of the best fliers in the world competed, including Ruth Nicholas. She had always put on her the odds stacked against her. After six deaths goggles on the runway to throughout the derby, Amelia came out in 3rd take off, and took them place. Once the derby was over, Amelia and off right after her plane Ruth Nicholas decided that they wanted to hit the landing strip. encourage other women to fly. They created a women’s pilot organization called the NinetyNines. They got enough people to join and Amelia Earhart was nominated to be the first president by the other women in the club. With accomplishments such as these, Amelia Earhart became a legend and was constantly being asked for interviews and speeches. Sometimes she spoke as many as twenty-seven times a month.

Amelia still needed to find ways to stay on top of her flying expenses. So she was hired at Cosmopolitan Magazine as an editor. The money from her job as an editor helped her keep her flying career going.

Then, one day she received a call from George Putnam. He asked her if she wanted to write a book about all of her famous flights. She happily

agreed and they wrote the book together. While Amelia and George were working on the book, they received on average two-hundred letters a day.

He helped her read all of them, sign them, and mail them. However, the ones that were sent by children, she would personally write a letter back to them and send the letter back along with her note.

On February 11, 1939 Amelia scheduled a press conference to officially announce that she was planning to fly around the world. She was going to fly around the world starting from Los Angeles heading west. However, this time she wouldn’t be flying alone. She wanted only the best to help her on this remarkable journey. She chose Paul Mantz as the technical advisor, Harry Manning as the head navigator, Fred Noonan as the secondary navigator and Louis Gordan as the mechanic. Before Amelia studying maps before her Around the World flight.

Duration: The time during which something continues

she left on March 17th, 1937, she was given a brand new plane to fly in. It was called the Lockheed Electra 10E which had a twin engine and enough room to fit ten passengers. The plane also had a fifty-five foot wingspan and retractable landing gear, which was quite advanced for a plane at the time. George Putnam was extremely worried about this particular flight because he and Amelia had gotten engaged only a few months before the flight. Amelia told him to take it easy, to just sit back and relax, and that she would be with him soon. This speech eased his worries some but he refused to leave her side until she boarded the plane.

Amelia knew it was going to be a hard flight. She knew that it would be a journey full of bad weather, small plane problems, and who knows, she might even need a new plane if something went wrong. However, she didn’t expect that both Paul Mantz and Harry Manning would need to drop out of the flight.

Paul had to leave for personal reasons and Harry had to get back to his job after a six Amelia and Fred boarding month leave. Amelia considered stopping and the Lockheed Electra taking a break in Hawaii until everyone could 10E. get back, however she couldn’t delay the flight any longer and decided to just kept going along with her plan.

Amelia knew then that someone had to stay along with her throughout the entire flight. She begged Fred Noonan to, even though he really wasn’t on planning to stay for the whole duration of the around the world journey. After much convincing though, Fred gave in and agreed to go with Amelia all the way.

One day, when they were leaving the runway, they had some problems. The plane went up, but then came back down to the runway.

Amelia had to crash land the plane. Everyone was in awe, because

nothing had been wrong before the take-off. The crew was evacuated safely but the plane was very scratched up. They sent the Electra to the plane shop for two months, where it was fixed and oiled up. This was a major setback and now the west-ward flying idea didn’t sound too great. It also meant there was a possibility of having other technical problems while making their flight over the rest of the Pacific Ocean. Amelia decided to fly east-wards instead, hoping for a better outcome. It worked better to fly that way and in no time at all, Amelia was almost all the way around the world.

However Amelia and Fred still had the hardest part of the flight ahead of them.

Fred and Amelia left the runway in Lae, New Amelia Earhart in the cockpit of the Guinea with high hopes. They only had 7,000 miles Electra. left until the around the world flight was over. During take-off there were some technical problems and they temporarily had a bad connection with their technical advisors who were helping them to fly. However, Amelia could not hold off any longer on her flight. Before the problems could be resolved and with the hardest stretch of the flight ahead, she and Fred took off for Howard Island. Soon Amelia was having troubles in the air. They flew into a patch of horrible weather and lost track of the island.

Once the bad weather cleared, the Electra was nowhere to be seen. Fred and Amelia had completely disappeared out of the sky. It is still a mystery today what happened to them and the plane. Some people think that she missed the island and crashed into the Pacific Ocean. Others think that the Japanese captured them and gave them some horrible punishment.

Whatever happened, the legend of Amelia Earhart lives on because of what an important woman she was, both in the air and on the ground.

Works Cited: Books: Last name of author alphabetically.

Amelia Earhart, Last Flight, New York New York, Crown Publishers, 1988.

Brenda Hougen, Amelia Earhart Legendary Aviator, Minneapolis Minnesota, Compass Point Books, 2007.

Websites: URL of website alphabetically.

4/25/2012 “Amelia Earhart www.ameliaearhart.com/about/bio.html

the

Official

Website”

4/26/2012 “Amelia Earhart” http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Explorers_Record_Setters_and_ Daredevils/earhart/EX29.htm 4/25/2012 “Amelia Earhart Kansapedia-Kansas Historical Society” www.kshs.org/kansapedia/amelia-earhart/12041

Picture sorces: http://www.natemaas.com/2011/01/fred-noonan.html http://curiosity.discovery.com/topic/historical-figures/amelia-earhartpictures.htm http://www.google.com/imgres?hl=en&client=safari&rls=en&biw=1035&bi h=812&tbm=isch&tbnid=x1fzHCVC5Wr1YM:&imgrefurl=http://horiwood.w ordpress.com/category/oil/&docid=24A6fdhoLQAVlM&imgurl=http://horiw ood.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/amelia-earhart-stockphoto.jpg&w=640&h=524&ei=iMW5T_fqMcmziQKFr7niBg&zoom=1&iact= hc&vpx=474&vpy=452&dur=1919&hovh=203&hovw=248&tx=124&ty=221 &sig=108842921140346955916&page=1&tbnh=135&tbnw=165&start=0& ndsp=20&ved=1t:429,r:12,s:0,i:97 http://www.google.com/imgres?hl=en&client=safari&sa=X&rls=en&biw=10 35&bih=812&tbm=isch&tbnid=x66spfe8QtbfYM:&imgrefurl=http://www.thi sdayinaviation.com/01/05/5-january1939/&docid=FXOhVno5wacOuM&imgurl=http://www.thisdayinaviation.co m/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Amelia-Earhart-in-cockpit-of-LockheedElectra-10ENR16020.jpg&w=1280&h=964&ei=J8W5T9PJA8W0iQLI2q2XBw&zoom= 1&iact=hc&vpx=475&vpy=474&dur=2631&hovh=195&hovw=259&tx=135 &ty=214&sig=108842921140346955916&page=1&tbnh=140&tbnw=169& start=0&ndsp=19&ved=1t:429,r:12,s:0,i:97 http://www.art.com/products/p15415205-sa-i3743684/amelia-earhart-justafter-landing-in-oakland-on-first-solo-flight-across-pacific-january-121935.htm http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/snook.html