Master's degree thesis in Architecture by Veronica Montaniero

Master’s degree thesis

House like a tree: biomaterials for sustainable buildings

University

Supervisor

Academic year

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

Prof. Arch. ANTONELLA VIOLANO

2013/2014

Master’s degree course

Graduation Candidate

Student ID

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Se insisti e resisti, raggiungi e conquisti.â&#x20AC;? Trilussa

Master’s degree thesis

House like a tree: biomaterials for sustainable buildings Master’s degree course ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

Academic year 2013/2014

Supervisor Prof. Arch. ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Candidate VERONICA MONTANIERO • Student ID A87/033

Table of contents

Abstract

1 2

11 Acknowledgments

13 Introduction

Green buildings

1.1 The concept of sustainability for building

1.2 Definition and principles of green building

1.3 EU legislation for improving energy efficiency in buildings

1.4 The role of architect in relation to EU 20-20-20 Directive

1.5 Life Cycle Assessment and ecologic footprints of buildings

1.6 International building standards

1.7 Case studies

The “Cradle to Cradle” approach: a new era for buiding design

2.1 Guidelines for building design from ‘Cradle to Cradle’°(C2C) 2.1.1

C2C philosophy

2.1.2

C2C principles

2.1.3

C2C certification

2.1.4

C2C and building design

2.2 Living buildings:°the synthetic biology applied to architecture

113 113 117 122 128 134

3 4

Biomaterials and C2C innovative products for sustainable buildings

3.1 Embodied energy of conventional building materials

149

3.2 “Grown” materials and innovative products for building

154

3.2.1

Classification criteria

155

3.2.2

Bacteria-based materials

160

3.2.3

Fungi-based materials

170

3.2.4

Algae-based products

175

3.2.5

Biomass-based materials

184

Project proposal – House like a tree

4.1 Brief PANEL 1 Concept PANEL 2 Urban framework PANEL 3 Fronts PANEL 4 Site analysis PANEL 5 Sun alanlysis PANEL 6 Plan PANEL 7 Roofing PANEL 8-10 Sections PANEL 11-14 Details PANEL 15 Plants PANEL 16 Building features PANEL 17 Renders

Bibliography

Webography

Abstract

The strong dependence on fossil fuels and the resulting greenhouse gases emissions (particularly of CO2 and methane) have driven all industrial sectors to adopt a new policy in order to safeguard the natural environment, so that an adequate social and economic development is possible. In this scenario, the building sector can play a critical role in achieving the transition to a low-carbon economy, as it represents 40% of the EU total energy consumption. As a consequence, today "making architecture" is always more frequently meant as a search for harmony between man, environment and built, which can be executed through â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;cradle-to-cradleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; sustainable projects that cleverly use natural resources in order to restore the ecological cycles heavily compromised by the destructive impact of the human species. The present thesis work arises with the purpose of developing a proposal for a high energy performance building for the next edition of the Solar Decathlon Europe. A building where energy demand is very low and entirely covered by energy from renewable sources. In the matter of methodology, concept formulation is inspired by the theory of William Mc Donough, according to which buildings should be just like trees, harvesting energy from the sun and removing dust and CO2 from the air. In particular, through a targeted research focused on organic-origin materials and advanced technological systems adopted for building envelope, we have defined a proposal for a dwelling that uses natural resources such as water, wind, sun and vegetation as the fundamental materials to construct the building. The final goal, thus, is to conform with the future trend of creating buildings that act like living organisms, working with natural systems and benefiting from them without destroying the integrity and the capacity for renewal. In detail, the thesis work consists of an introduction and four chapters. The introduction provides a scenario about the world energetic context, with particular attention on the importance assumed by the building sector, and illustrates the theory of regenerative design by Bill Reed, representing the starting point for the preparation of subsequent chapters.

Chapter 1 is intended to present a general overview for the concept of sustainable

architecture,

introduces

the

objectives

and

legislative

instruments which the architect is required to deal with, examines the issue of Life Cycle Assessment in relation to buildings and collects a number of case studies inspired by the "nearly zero energy" principle, which will be crucial for achieving ambitious long-term energy savings and CO2 reductions in the building sector. Chapter 2 gives a general introduction to the Cradle to Cradle (C2C) philosophy and presents a manifesto of the driving principles for a sustainable construction. In addition, it glances at the new branch of biological sciences named synthetic biology, which is starting to be able to imagine and build new living systems for useful purposes. Chapter 3 includes a collection of bio-materials and products which can lead to a paradigm shift in the perception of buildings from inert entities to like-living organisms. Finally, chapter 4 describes the thesis project, that has been placed in Naples to demonstrate how it is possible to design high energy performance buildings even in a Mediterranean climate, where the problem of comfort during the summer is typical. In particular, through a climatic analysis of the site and the study of the opaque and transparent envelope with the help of dedicated software, we have come to the definition of the "House like a tree" project.

Acknowledgments

Ricordo perfettamente quando al termine della scuola superiore dissi a mia madre che l’università non faceva per me: temevo terribilmente gli esami! Avevo l’incubo della “scena muta”. Probabilmente il trauma è nato qualche anno prima, ai tempi dell’esame di terza media. Ora mi viene da sorridere se penso al vuoto mentale che mi prese appena mi misi a sedere dinanzi ai professori. Ma allora scoppiai in lacrime e le insegnanti mi incoraggiarono a tornare il giorno dopo. È chiaro che leggere i ringraziamenti della tesi, lascia intendere di come poi abbia cambiato idea. Sta di fatto che il mio percorso universitario non è stato per nulla lineare, anzi! Era il 2003 quando mi iscrissi ad ingegneria informatica. La scelsi come conseguenza naturale dei miei studi superiori svolti all’ITIS. La scelsi senza neppure valutare altre opzioni. E poi mi ritrovai tra i banchi della facoltà e non c’erano dubbi: mi sentivo completamente estranea a quell’ambiente. Durai sei mesi, poi abbandonai il percorso afferrando al volo un’opportunità d’inserimento nel mondo del lavoro. Trascorsero 3 anni prima d’iscrivermi nuovamente all’università: nel 2006 fu l’inizio della triennale in “disegno industriale”. Esame dopo esame, grazie ad un gruppo di studi meraviglioso, sono giunta al mio primo traguardo.Tra gli insegnamenti che più ricordo con piacere c’è quello della professoressa Penta, titolare allora del corso di geometria descrittiva, che insisteva nel dire che le linee costruttive andavano prolungate oltre il contorno del disegno, dovevano creare una certa “tensione emotiva”. Mi resi conto di non aver mai pensato a far scorrere la punta della matita “oltre” il limite, anzi! Da bambini ci insegnano a colorare le figure facendo attenzione a non uscire mai dai bordi! Dietro un semplice gesto c’è una filosofia di vita: pensare fuori dagli schemi, nel rispetto delle regole, ci rende individui unici. Nel 2010 arrivò quindi il momento della laurea specialistica e lì feci una scelta che mi è costata non poca fatica. Avrei potuto continuare i miei studi presso il corso in design per l’innovazione, ma scelsi architettura. Volevo ampliare gli orizzonti. Per poter essere ammessa alla biennale però avevo l’obbligo di colmare alcuni debiti formativi per mezzo di corsi singoli: nove, per la precisione. Accettai. C’è voluto un anno e mezzo per allinearmi al profilo egli

architetti triennali ed è stato arduo, non tanto per gli esami in sè, quanto per tutta la burocrazia da sbrigare: pratiche in segreteria, delibere dal Consiglio di Facoltà, camicie dedicate, professori ignari. Ma ho superato anche questa e alla fine sono qua, a tirare le somme di un percorso che mi ha fatto crescere tanto sotto l’aspetto culturale, quanto caratteriale. Questa premessa era doverosa, cosicchè chi leggerà questi ringraziamenti potrà apprezzare le persone che mi sono state accanto e mi hanno supportata durante questo lungo viaggio. Ringrazio innanzitutto la professoressa Antonella Violano, relatore di questa tesi, per la sua cortesia e la grande passione profusa in questo lavoro. Le sue preziose indicazioni mi hanno costantemente guidata, dandomi la possibilità di confrontarmi con nuovi e stimolanti argomenti. Sincero e doveroso il ringraziamento alla neo-dottorata Francesca e la dottoranda Lucia, che hanno collaborato in modo determinante alla stesura di questo progetto. Il loro entusiasmo e la loro dedizione mi hanno portata sentitamente ad apprezzarle. Sono due persone speciali ed auguro loro una brillante carriera. Un sentito ringraziamento va ai miei genitori, Sergio e Mary, che mi hanno appoggiata moralmente e supportata economicamente in questa lunga corsa ad ostacoli. Mi hanno trasmesso tanti valori, tra i più importanti il rispetto, l’onestà e l’umiltà. Mi hanno insegnato a prendere di petto i problemi ed affrontarli nell’immediato. Ad oggi, grazie a loro, mi sento una persona ricca, serena e fortunata. Un enorme grazie va a mia sorella Stefania, che mi ha sopportato per mesi seduta alla scrivania della nostra cameretta. Ora sentiti libera di ballare, ascoltare musica, cantare a squarciagola e guardare la tv! La tua ironia e le tue “ansie” hanno allietato le mie giornate. Ringrazio anche il suo ragazzo, Francesco per averla tenuta lontana dalla cameretta offrendole numerose uscite! Un ringraziamento tutto speciale va al mio fratello pelosone Nerone, fonte di incommisurata gioia. Il mio affetto per lui non conosce limiti. Durante il periodo di tesi è rimasto tripode, ma nonostante tutto è sempre lì pronto ad accoglierci scodinzolante e a giocare con la pallina. Ammetto di aver invidiato i suoi pisolini a pancia all’aria, sul letto accanto alla scrivania dove lavoravo al pc. Il suo carattare ha migliorato il mio. Anche se è sempre pronto a tradirti per un biscottino, resta un amico fidato e insostituibile.

Ringrazio i miei nonni paterni, Gennaro e Titina, e quelli materni, Eduardo e Giovanna perchè hanno tirato su due figli eccezionali, i miei genitori. Mi sarebbe piaciuto conoscere nonno Gennaro che purtroppo è venuto a mancare poco prima della mia nascita: da come me lo descrivono, doveva essere una persona distinta come poche. Un forte bacio lo mando lassù alla nonna Titina che invece da poco ci ha lasciati per tornare al fianco di suo marito. Probabilmente ora si starà fumando una sigaretta in paradiso in compagnia di mio nonno Eduardo, sorvegliando insieme con amore su tutti noi. Fortunatamente ho ancora la nonna Giovanna che ci allieta con la sua cucina senza paragoni! La sua pasta al sugo, i suoi crocchè e panzarotti, le sue pastiere sono delle prelibatezze uniche Un ringraziamento smisurato lo devo al mio compagno di vita, Carlo. Lui che “ha messo i suoi sogni dentro ai miei” e mi ha reso una persona migliore. È anche per merito suo se oggi sono qui a scrivere questi ringraziamenti. Lui mi ha stimolata a riprendere l’università quando ero in un periodo di insoddisfazione. È a lui che devo l’iscrizione al corso di disegno industriale, ed è sempre stato lui a supportarmi durante il periodo dei corsi singoli e della specialistica. È una persona che stimo profondamente, che ammiro per la sua curiosità e la sua intelligenza. Ci conosciamo da 14 anni, praticamente abbiamo trascorso insieme metà della nostra vita. Lui mi completa come nessun’altro e per questo lo amo immensamente. Sono certa che la vita insieme a lui mi riserverà delle fantastiche emozioni. D’obbligo sono quindi i ringraziamenti ai suoi genitori, Lorenzo, Liliana e sua sorella Gaia che mi hanno accolta sempre con caloroso affetto. Sono delle persone splendide. Grazie anche agli zii di Carlo, Maria, Aldo, Claudia, Alberto (a cui lancio un bacio fra le nuvole), Fulvio e Lucy. Senza dimenticare la carissima cugina Flavia, il marito Matteo e il piccolo Ale. Ringrazio anche i miei zii Sandro, Luisa, Tony, Maria, Veronica, Giacomo, Loredana e le mie cugine Veronica, Antonella, Imma, Emanuela, Angelica e Jessica. Mi sarebbe piaciuto trascorrere più tempo con loro, ma purtroppo la distanza e gli impegni non ci hanno aiutato. Allargo quindi i ringraziamenti anche agli zii e i cugini della villa Adele, con i quali ho trascorso bei momenti. Dei ringraziamenti veramenti speciali vanno alla mia amica Susy che al fianco del suo Domenico, ha realizzato il sogno di mettere su famiglia e dare alla luce uno splendido fagottino, Giuseppe. Grazie a Gaia, amica e compagna di studi. Nonostante la lontananza è stata

sempre presente. Sono certa che la sua intelligenza e il suo saper fare la porterĂ a brillare. Un sentito ringraziamento va anche alla sua mamma, Fiorella e il suo papĂ Gigi sempre pronti a dispensare apprezzamenti e consigli. Grazie anche a Federico e Giuseppe, i ricordi che ho con il mio gruppo di studi alla triennale mi riscalda sempre il cuore. Inoltre ringrazio Daniele, Francesca, Serena, Renato e Sara colleghi ed amici della specialistica con i quali ho condiviso la fatica di questi ultimi due anni. Grazie anche ai miei vicini di casa, Roberto, Marilena, Salvatore ed Adriana perchĂ¨ sempre disponibili per qualsiasi inconveniente. Grazie di cuore a tutti voi. Marano, 20/03/2015

Introduction

Nowadays, the planet Earth is the result of human unbridled and senseless act: it is suffering for problems related to overpopulation, accumulation of waste, depletion of raw materials, extreme exploitation of the productive soil and reckless emission of pollutants in air, soil and water to such an extent as to make the habitat less and less suitable for the survival of living organisms. In the Synthesis Report (SYR) of the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) released on 2 November 2014 by the United Nations, the experts of Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated that â&#x20AC;&#x153;Human influence on the climate system is clear and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are the highest in history. Recent climate changes have had widespread impacts on human and natural systems. Over the last century, the atmosphere and oceans have become warmer, the amount of snow and ice has decreased and the sea level has risen.â&#x20AC;? In order to oppose this trend, graphically depicted in the following figure, scientists declare that countries

Figure 1.1 Total Annual Anthropogenic GHG Emissions by Group s of Gases 1970-2010. (Data Source: IPCC, 2014: Summary for Policymakers)

GHG Emissions [GtCO2eq/yr]

should reduce emissions to zero by 2100.

+2.2 %/yr 2000-2010 49 Gt

40 Gt 40

0.81% 7.4%

33 Gt 30

0.44%

13% 16%

19%

15%

N2O (nitrous oxide)

18%

7.9%

65%

17% 62%

CH4 (methane) CO2 FOLU (Forestry and Other Land Use)

11%

16%

0.67% 7.9%

27 Gt

16%

1.3% 6.9%

38 Gt

Legend F-Gases fluorinated gases covered under the Kyoto Protocol

2.0% 6.2%

+1.3 %/yr 1970-2000

59% 58%

10 55%

CO2 Fossil Fuel and Industrial Processes 0 1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Introduction

A first important step towards a truly global emission reduction was the Kyoto Protocol adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. "The Kyoto Protocol is a legally binding agreement under which industrialized countries will reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% compared to the year 1990 (note that, compared to the emission level that would be expected in 2010 without the Protocol, this target represents a 29% cut). The goal is to lower the overall emissions of six greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, HFCs and PFCs - calculated as an average over the five-year period of 2008-12. National targets range from 8% reduction for the European Union and some others to 7% for USA, 6% for Japan and 0% for Russia, while increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland are allowed." In March 2007 the European Council launched a common European post-Kyoto plan concerning renewable energy, energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emissions that aims to cope with climate change. This strategy, referred to as the "20-20-20" targets, sets three key objectives for 2020:

-20% reduction in EU greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 level

+20% increase in the EU energy efficiency

+20% raising the share of EU consumption of energy produced from renewable resources by 2020

After this statement of intent, in 2008 the Climate and Energy Package was approved, establishing six new European legislative tools aimed at translating into practice the above-mentioned goals for 2020. At a later stage, the European Union developed an integrated policy framework for the period up to 2030 with the purpose of reducing EU domestic greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40% compared to 1990 level and also setting a target of at least 27% for renewable energy and째energy saving by 2030. Then, the European Commission looked beyond these short-term objectives and set out a Roadmap for moving to a competitive low-carbon economy in 2050. The Roadmap suggests a cost-efficient

Note 1

The Kyoto Protocol (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.kyotoprotocol. com

pathway to reach the target of cutting European emissions of 80% by 2050 just through domestic reductions. To get there, emissions should be 40% below 1990 level by 2030 and 60% below by 2040 and all sectors will have to contribute.

In this scenario, the building sector can play a critical role in achieving the transition to a low-carbon economy, as it represents 40% of the EU total energy consumption. Transport 32%

Figure 1.2 Significance of the building sector in Europe (Data Source: EURIMA, ECOFIS-study “Mitigation of CO2 Emissions from the Building Stock”)

Buildings 40%

Heating and cooling 75%

Heating of water Industry 28%

Electrical devices and lighting

Therefore, the reduction in energy consumption and the use of energy from renewable sources in the building sector constitute important measures necessary to limit the Union energy dependency and greenhouse gas emissions. This because conventional buildings use energy inefficiently, generate large amounts of waste in their construction and operation and emit large quantities of pollutants and greenhouse gases. Thus, project interventions are essential in order to safeguard the natural environment, so that an adequate social and economic development is possible. In this context, the role of architecture can be significant. Above all, designers need a paradigm shift in the conception of buildings. Speaking of which, the architect Bill Reed from the Integrative Design Collaborative in his essay “Shifting our Mental Model – ‘Sustainability’ to Regeneration” argues that we need a new and more ecologically robust model for design: “Sustainability, as currently practiced, is primarily an exercise in efficiency. In other words, through the use of BREEAM, LEED and other rating systems, we are attempting to slow down the damage caused by the excessive use of resources. We must do better … Our

Introduction

role, as designers and stakeholders, is to shift our relationship (with nature) to one that creates a whole system of mutually beneficial relationships. By doing so, the potential of green design moves us beyond sustaining the environment to one that can regenerate its health – as well as our own” (1). In particular, Reed uses the following definitions to distinguish the transition from “sustainable” to “restorative” and ultimately “regenerative” design (2, 3):

It is a "Green Design" with an emphasis on reaching a point of being able to sustain the health of planet organisms and systems over time. Sustainability is an inflection point from degenerating to regenerating health.

Sustainable Design

It means approaching design in terms of using design and building activities to restore the capability of local natural systems to entry a state of self-organization and continual evolution.

Restorative Design

Regenerative

Nature

Humans

Stage 4 Co-Evolution of Nature & Humankind Synthesis

Stage 3 Nature

Humans

Less Energy required for society More Energy required for society

Stage 2 Humans

Nature

Sustainable

Non-Sustainable

Repair and Improve Nature & Society Reconciliation

Integrated Design Tools, Methods, Process Connective

Stage 1 Humans

Nature

Degenerative

Applied Green Technologies Fragmentation Diagram: Doug Pierce

Figure 1.3 4 Stages of Transformation to Regenerative Design Thinking - From Fragmentation to Synthesis (Source: Bill Reed)

3 Regenerative Design

This design process acknowledges that humans are an integral part of nature. Human and natural systems – currently separated in Western culture – need to be aligned in order to achieve a state of continual and healthy evolution. The design process can and should catalyze this alignment.

According to this idea by Bill Reed, in next chapters we will focus on the ‘green building’ design, illustrating its several aspects. Then, we will discuss about ‘sustainable design’, analyzing the cradle-to-cradle approach by McDonough. Finally, we will point out some examples of ‘restorative design’ made possible by synthetic biology.

Regenerative

Figure 1.4 The trajectory of environmentally responsible design (Source: Bill Reed)

Regenerating System

Regenerative Humans participating as Nature Co-evolution of the whole system

Restorative

Living Systems Understanding

Humans doing things to Nature Assisting the evolution of Sub-systems

Whole system

Sustainable Neutral “100% Less bad” McDonough

Technologies / Techniques

Green Relative Improvement LEED, Minnesota B3, GGHC, Stars, etc.

Fragmented

Conventional Practice

Degenerating System

Degenerative

“One step better than breaking the law” Croxton Diagram Adapted from Bill Reed

Sustainable

Non-Sustainable

Less energy required More energy required

1. Green building

1.1 The concept of sustainability in building

Before discussing about green building, it is important to define the concept of sustainability, as they are closely related. The issue of sustainable development is broad and of global concern, so it involves all communities and affects the economic, environmental and social aspects. Its goal is sustainability referred to the need of combining the human activities with a proper attention to the protection and preservation of the environment. The most frequently quoted definition is from Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report of 1987, which state that sustainability is the ability of humanity to respond â&#x20AC;&#x153;the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.â&#x20AC;? 2

Table 1.1 It shows which are the aspects the built environment has an impact on. (Data Source: EPA)

Applying the principle of sustainability in building construction means acting in one of the highest environmental impact sectors with the awareness that we need a change in our lifestyle.

Aspects of Built Environment

Consumption

Environmental Effects

Ultimate Effects

Siting

Energy

Waste

Harm to human health

Design

Water

Air pollution

Environment degradation

Construction

Materials

Water pollution

Loss of resources

Operation

Natural Resources

Indoor pollution

Maintenance

Heat islands

Renovation

Stormwater runoff

Deconstruction

Noise

According to the International Standard ISO 15392:2008, which identifies Note 2

World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). (1987). Our common future. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 43

and establishes general principles for sustainability in building construction, this sector is highly important for sustainable development, because it is a key sector in national economies. As the matter of fact, it provides value and employment and at the same time absorbs considerable resources, with consequential impacts on economic, social and environment dimensions.

Green building

These three fields are usually considered as the pillars of sustainability: they are interdependent and have to live in a harmonious and fruitful way, in the sense that if any one pillar is weak, then the system as a whole is unsustainable. Two popular ways to visualize the three pillars are shown to follow.3

Economic

Environmental

Viable

Equitable Social

Environment

Sustainable

Thwink. (n.d.) The Three Pillars of Sustainability. Retrieved from http://www.thwink.org/sust ain/glossary/ThreePillarsOf Sustainability.htm

Sustainability

Social Bearable

Note

Figure 1.6 Two common methods to visualize the three pillars of sustainability. (Data Source: Thwink)

The standard diagrams for visualizing the three pillars are simplistic. In order to see a more correct relationship, a diagram like the one reported on the below is required.

The Environment

Social Subsystem

Social contract to increase the general welfare of the people

Economic Subsystem

Seeing the overall system this way makes it clear that environmental sustainability must have the highest priority, because the lower the carrying capacity of the environment, the lower the common good delivered by the social system and the less output the economic system can produce. Applying the three dimensions of sustainability to specific case of building involves:

Environmental dimension

in which sustainability is defined as the ability to use and take advantage of what the environment offers, guaranteeing the quality and reproducibility of natural resources;

Figure 1.7 The correct methods to visualize the three pillars of sustainability. (Data Source: Thwink)

The concpet of sustainability in building

in which sustainability is defined as the ability to ensure well-being and quality of life;

Social dimension

in which sustainability is meant as the ability to generate income and employment, to reduce operating costs, to optimize the life cycle of buildings and to increase the market value.

Economic dimension

Figure 1.8 The three dimension of building sustainability with related benefits can be obtained where the design and construction team takes an integrated approach from the earliest stages of a building project. (Data Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2009). Green Building Basic Information)

Reduce operating costs

Optimize life-cycle economic performance

Economic

Create, expande and shape markets for green product and services

Reduce energy and water consumption

Improve occupant productivity

Improve overall quality of life

SUSTAINABILITY

Heighten aesthetic qualities

Improve air and water quality

Enhance and protect biodiversity and ecosystem

Environmental

Social

Minimize strain on local infrastructure Enhance occupant comfort and health

Reduction waste streams

Therefore, today we need to invest in sustainable building to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and natural environment. In addition, it is useful to 4:

people Note 4

Associazione Nazionale per lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Isolamento Termico e acustico (ANIT). (2012). Linee guida per la progettazione con i protocolli di sostenibilitĂ LED e ITACA.

because it is a tool to ensure a better quality of life and an effective saving of environment, energy and economy;

designers

because they can offer better quality of the project and ensure that the building is preserved over time;

construction companies

that stimulated by a policy of incentives can return quality and transparency of the real estate market today terribly in crisis;

Green building

designers

because they can offer better quality of the project and ensure that the building is preserved over time;

public authority

that may calibrates every planning action in territorial transformations and construction, ensuring the possibility of long-term development.

Thus, in order to achieve sustainable development in the construction sector it is necessary to design according the logic of green building.

The concept of green building was developed in the 1970s in response to the

1.2 Definition and principles of green building

energy crisis and growing concerns by people about the environment. The need to save energy and mitigate environmental problems fostered a wave of green building innovation that has continued to this day. 5 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines green building as

“the

practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building’s life-cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and deconstruction. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort. Green building is also known 6 as a sustainable or ‘high performance’ building.”

In other words, a green building is a building whose energy efficiency and environmental performance are substantially better than those obtained with standard practice. Strictly related to the above-quoted definition is the concept of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The LCA is the investigation and evaluation of the impacts of a product or a service on environment, economy and society. In the context of green buildings, LCA analyses building materials over their entire lives and takes into account a full range of environmental impacts, including a material embodied energy, the solid waste generated in its extraction, use, and disposal, the air and water pollution associated with it and its global-warming potential. The LCA is an important tool because it

Note 5

Gray, J. (October 22, 2013). What is a Green Building? Retrieved from http://www.sustainablebuil d.co.uk/GreenBuildings.ht ml 6 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2009). Green Building Basic Information. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/green building/pubs/about.htm

Definition and principles of green building

can demonstrate whether a product used in a green building is truly green and is discussed in more detail in the next paragraph. It is clear that green buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and natural environment by means of 7:

Note 7

Ibid

efficiently using energy, water and other resources

protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity

reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation

In the first international conference on Sustainable Construction in 1994, the professor Charles Kibert enunciated the theory of 5Râ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s that relates planning, design, construction, operation and decommissioning of the building with resources (energy, water, materials and land):

Reduce the amount of materials, energy, water and emissions Reuse land, buildings and materials Recycle water, energy and materials Rethink existing structures on already used lands Restore areas, buildings and building components Note 8

WBDG Sustainable Committee. (August,25 2014). Sustainable. Retrieved from http://www.wbdg.org/desi gn/sustainable.php

However, the most important R is no doubt the Respect toward everything. In order to be sustainable, a building can be constructed using any technique or methodology, with high or low technological contribution, provided it is compliant with the following principles 8 :

Green building

Optimize site potential

Optimize energy use

Creating sustainable buildings starts with a proper site selection, including the possibility of the reuse or rehabilitation of existing buildings. The location, orientation and landscaping of a building affect local ecosystems, transportation methods and use of energy. Siting for physical security is a critical issue in optimizing site design, including locations of access roads, parking, vehicle barriers and perimeter lighting. Whether designing a new building or retrofitting an existing building, site design must integrate with sustainable design to achieve a successful project. The site of a sustainable building should reduce, control and/or treat storm water runoff. If possible, strive to support native flora and fauna of the region in the landscape design.

With progressively growing demand of world fossil fuel resources, concerns for energy independence and security are increasing and the impact of global climate changes is becoming more evident. Consequently, it is essential to find some ways to reduce energy load, increase efficiency and maximize the use of renewable energy sources. Improving the energy performance of existing buildings is crucial to increase our energy independence. Buildings can incorporate many green features, but if they do not use energy efficiently, it is difficult to demonstrate that they are truly green. Equally important is that each of us makes a contribution in reducing energy waste by small measures, because energy efficiency is a common interest. Be aware that reduce energy consumption means not only reduce CO2 emissions but also improve the quality of our lives and pay cheaper bills.

In the Italian scenario, energy consumption in the existing building sector deserve special attention:

Definition and principles of green building

Note 9

ENEA, F.IN.CO., Ministero dell'ambiente e della tutela del territorio (2004) Libro bianco “ENERGIA-AMBIENTE-EDIFICIO”: dati, criticità e strategie per l'efficienza energetica del sistema edificio, Il Sole 24 Ore, Milano. Retrieved from http://www.ecosism.com/files%20news/librobiancoeffenered.pdf

at 2004, the total estimate in terms of primary energy throughout the process of construction of the buildings amounted to 11 Mton, which must be added to the 70 Mton due to their operation. As a result, the conventional buildings system is responsible for about 45% of the national energy demand and thus the produced carbon dioxide. It is no more known that a common housing unit - for example, an apartment of 90 ÷ 100 m² - requires for its construction about 100 tons of material, the great majority produced by baking and metallurgical processes, with an overall average energy cost of 500÷700 kCal per product kg. The energy cost associated to materials needed to achieve a dwelling amounts around 5 tons of oil, while that related to the construction site is approximately 0.5 tons of oil. The average annual consumption to heat an Italian house, instead, is approximately one ton of oil. In practice, given these costs, just in five years an apartment consumes only for heating an amount of energy equal to that used in its construction. 9 It is clear that the real problem is related to the operation of the building rather than to its construction, mostly because 2/3 of the housing stock was built before the Italian law n. 373/1976 on the insulation and management of structures.

Therefore, for a correct "energy design” of sustainable building is necessary to consider the following factors: • the bioclimatic approach, which consists of the use of natural elements available on site such as sun, wind, water, soil and vegetation to achieve thermally efficient buildings able to meet the requirements of thermal comfort, regardless of the use of air conditioning systems. This is all possible through an adequate orientation of buildings in order to integrate passive and active solar strategies, to optimize daylight and shading use to reduce building electricity needs and improve people health

Green building

and to exploit natural ventilation and prevailing wind patterns; â&#x20AC;˘ the insulation of the building envelope, that involves reduction of energy demand to heat and cool the living space; â&#x20AC;˘ the use of renewable energy sources such as biomass, geothermal, photovoltaic, solar thermal and micro wind to provide clean energy with zero CO2 emissions; â&#x20AC;˘ plant energy-efficiency, which can effectively reduces the primary energy consumption of the building.

Protect and conserve water

Water is one of the most valuable resources on our planet but nowadays also one of the rarest. This is because man has not fully understood that the amount of water is not infinite, but only renewable and therefore, by definition, always available where the rate of water withdrawal does not exceed the rate of natural recharge. As is the case of energy, buildings use staggering amounts of water, especially during their operation. In order to preserve water there is a need for a change in our behavior and the way we think. Note

As stimated by ISTAT , in 2011 the average per capita annual consumption of potable water for domestic use in Italy was 64 cubic meters, equivalent to 180 liters per capita per day. 10

Figure 1.9 shows how household water consumption are distributed while in Table 1.2 we illustrate the daily household water consumption.

ISTAT (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica). (2013). Pro capite giornaliero di acqua fatturata per uso domestico. Retrieved from http://noi-italia2013.istat.it/ fileadmin/user_upload/alleg ati/12.pdf

Definition and principles of green building

Figure 1.9 Household water consumption (Data Source: AffinityWater.co.uk)

Other use 3% Flushing toilets 20%

Bathing & showering 32%

Cooking & drinking 12% Gardening 6% Washing clothes 8%

Table 1.2 Household water consumption expresses in liters [L] per person per day (Data Source: ENEA, Il risparmio idrico negli edifici civili.)

Washing hands 10% Washing dishes 9%

Type of household water consumption Washing in bath tub

Per person per day ~ 100/160 L

Showering in 5 minutes

~ 20/40 L

Flushing the toilet anytime

~ 9/16 L

Whashing hands anytime

~5L

Brush your teeth with water-flowing

~ 20 L

Brush your teeth without water-flowing

~ 1,5 L

Dripping tap

~5L

Drinking and cooking

~6L

Washing up

~ 40 L

Per loading a dishwasher (Class A) without pre-wash

~ 10/15 L

Per loading a dishwasher (Class A+++) without pre-wash

~7L

Per loading a washing machine (class A)

~ 45 L

Washing car

~ 400/500 L

Green building

Thus, a sustainable building should use water efficiently and reuse or recycle water for on-site use, when feasible. The effort to bring drinkable water to our household faucets consumes enormous energy resources in pumping, transport and treatment. In addition to that, potentially toxic chemicals are often used to make water potable. Therefore, the environmental and financial costs of sewage treatments are significant. Minimising the use of water is achieved by installing11 : â&#x20AC;˘ greywater and rainwater catchment system, that recycle water for irrigation or toilet flushing; â&#x20AC;˘ water-efficient appliances, such as low flow showerheads, self-closing or spray taps; â&#x20AC;˘ low-flush or waterless toilets.

Optimize material use

The world population continues to grow (to over 9 billion by 2050), the use of natural resources continues to increase and the demand for additional goods and services stresses available resources. According to the report entitled "Green economies around the world? Implications of resource use for development and the environment" written by some researchers from the SERI (Sustainable Europe Research Institute), at the present day man extracts more material resources than ever before in history. The global extraction of materials like biomass, fossil fuels, metal ores and minerals in the period 1980-2008 grew by almost 80%; to be exact it has passed from 38 billion tons in 1980 to 68 billion tons in 2008. Thus, it is critical to achieve an integrated and intelligent use of materials that maximizes their value, prevents upstream pollution and conserves resources for the next generations.

Note 11

Gray, J., Op. cit.

Definition and principles of green building

A green building is designed and operated to use and reuse materials in the most productive and sustainable way to minimize environmental impacts such as global warming, resource depletion and human toxicity. Green building materials can be selected looking at their LCA in terms of embodied energy, durability, recycled content, waste minimisation and the ability to be reused or recycled. Therefore, during design choice of materials and components should be highlighted the interrelationships of the component to the building system and it is evaluated not only the environmental profile of the individual components, but also the environmental behavior of this one with the building system, before you can make a judgment on eco-compatibility of a product or a technical solution. It follows that, there are no materials, components or building construction techniques eco-friendly in an absolute sense, but the eco-compatibility depends on specific application and use. 12 According to their effect on environment, materials to be preferred are certainly those obtained from renewable sources having the following basic requirements:

• they must be produced through energy efficient processes with very low emissions of pollutants; • they must not emit toxic substances in the environment after the installation to safeguard human safety and health; • they must have a long life and high recyclability at the time of disposal; •

they

must

have

hygroscopicity

breathability; • they must be free from radioactivity;

and

Green building

â&#x20AC;˘ they must be locally sourced to reduce the embedded energy costs of transportation.

Anyway, the natural sources such as water, wind, sun and vegetation are the fundamental materials to construct a green building.

Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)

Optimize the procedures of construction, operation and demolition of buildings

The indoor environmental quality (IEQ) of a building has a significant impact on occupant health, comfort and productivity. Among the other features, a sustainable building maximizes daylighting, has appropriate ventilation and moisture control, optimizes acoustic performance and avoids the use of materials with high-VOC emissions. Principles of IEQ also focus on occupant control over systems such as lighting and temperature.

Considering operating and maintenance issues of a building during the preliminary design phase will contribute to improve working environment and productivity, to reduce energy and resource costs and to prevent system failures. Designers can specify materials and systems that simplify and reduce maintenance requirements, require less water, energy and toxic chemicals and cleaners to maintain, are cost-effective and reduce life-cycle costs. 13 Regarding the phases of construction and demolition (C&D), instead, â&#x20AC;&#x153;green buildings generally seek to minimize the amount of waste they generate. One way they do that is by recycling or reusing C&D waste, such as by using inert demolition materials as base material for parking lots and roadways. Demolition generates large amounts of materials

Note 13

WBDG Sustainable Committee, Op. cit.

Definition and principles of green building

Note 14

Howe, J.C. (2010) Overview of Green Buildings. In: Howe, J.C., Gerrard, M.B. (eds.) The Law of Green Buildings: Regulatory and Legal Issues in Design, p. 11. American Bar Association and Eli Press, US. Retrieved from http://sallan.org/pdf-docs/CHOWE_GreenBuildLaw.pdf

that can be reused or recycled (principally wood, concrete and other types of masonry and drywall). Rather than demolishing an entire building, the whole or a part of it can be deconstructed. Building deconstruction is the orderly dismantling of building components for reusing or recycling. Differently from building demolition, deconstruction implies taking apart portions of buildings or removing their contents with the primary goal of being reused.â&#x20AC;? 14

Finally, green building is a rapidly growing trade. EU regulations now demand that green specifications are met in all new building design and development, as part of a wider sustainable development strategy. This means that green buildings are emerging throughout the countries. In an age threatened by climate changes, energy shortages and ever-increasing health problems it makes sense to build houses that are durable, save energy, reduce waste and pollution and promote health and well-being. However, according the idea of Bill Reed the green building design is a relative improvement but it is not enough.

The key of the sustainable design is the principle of "cradle-to-cradle" theorized by William McDonough, in contrast to the "cradle-to-grave", which involves the elimination of the concept of waste: each resource used in the built can be re-used or become part of another process, as well as in the nature each refuse becomes a source to feed another process, through cycles.

Green building

Time

Current situation

Resources depleting Resources

Increased population, more more production Products

More production, more waste

Waste Time

Solution 3Rs Reduce Resources still depleting through redusing Resources Reuse Products usage reduced and was recycled from waste

Products

Recycle Most still fall into waste, and waste still grows

Waste Being LESS BAD is not enough! It is just matter of time.

Definition and principles of green building

Time

Renewable energy (sunlight, wind energy, water current) ONLY!

Solution C2C

Resources Two metabolism (1) Biological cycle (2) Technical cycle

Products Waste = Food Everything is a nutrient for something else.

Waste

Figure 1.10 The change in sustainability framework: the current economic system, the current solution (the 3Rs), and the C2C framework as an alternative solution (Data Source: Zhiying.lim, 2010)

(2)

(2) biological

(1)

nutrients

biological

(1)

(2) nutrients

biological

(1)

nutrients

Green building

8th Mar 2011 2050 Roadmap for moving to a low-carbon economy in 2050.

19th May 2010 EPBD – Recast 2010/31/EU

31st Dec 2020

31st Dec 2018

By 31 December 2020 all new buildings are nearly Zero-Energy Buildings (nZEB)

Reductions of GHG emissions of 20% below 1990 levels. All new buildings are nZEB.

All new public buildings are nZEB.

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032 2034 2036 2038 2040

16th Dec 2002

23rd Oct 2014

EPBD – Directive 2002/91/EC

2030 Framework for climate and energy policies

Energy Performance Certificate

31st Dec 2030

Reductions of GHG emissions in the order of 40% below 1990 levels

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40% below the 1990 level and by at least 27% for renewable energy and energy savings by 2030.

Jun 2009 20-20-20 Directive 2009/28/EC Climate and energy Package

The Community is increasingly dependent on external energy sources and greenhouse gas emissions are on the increase. The Community can have little influence on energy supply but can influence energy demand. One possible solution to both the above problems is to reduce energy consumption by improving energy efficiency. Energy

consumption

for

buildings-related

services

accounts

for

approximately one third of total EU energy consumption. The Commission considers that, with initiatives in this area, significant energy savings can be achieved, thus helping to attain the “20-20-20” objectives on climate change and security of supply. Community-level measures must be framed in order to deal with such Community-level challenges. 15 The EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) is the main European legislative instrument for improving the energy efficiency of Europe building stock. Under the Directive, the following obligations has been introduced in all Member

Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD – Directive States 16: 2002/91/EC)

• a common methodology for calculating the energy performance of buildings should include all the aspects which determine energy efficiency

1.3 EU legislation for improving energy efficiency in buildings

EU legislation for improving energy efficiency in buildings

31st Dec 2040 Reductions of GHG emissions of 60% below 1990 levels.

0 2042 2044 2046 2048 2050

31st Dec 2100

Zero emission CO2

2060

2070

2080

2090

2100

31st Dec 2050 Reductions of GHG emissions of 80% below 1990 levels

Figure 1.11 Timeline EU Directive and related targets in regard to energy efficiency in buildings (Source: Personal elaboration)

Targets

Directive

and not just the quality of the building's insulation. This integrated approach should take account of aspects such as heating and cooling installations, lighting installations, the position and orientation of the building, heat recovery, etc.; • minimum standards on the energy performance of new buildings and existing buildings that are subject to major renovation with a useful floor area

Note

over 1000m2;

Europa−Summaries of EU legislation. (2010). Energy performance of buildings. Retrieved from http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/internal_market/single_market_for_goods/con struction/en0021_en.htm 16

Europa−Summaries of EU legislation. (2007). Energy efficiency: energy performance of buildings. Retrieved from http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/other/l27042_en.htm

• systems for the energy certification of new and existing buildings and, for public buildings, prominent display of this certification and other relevant information. Certificates must be less than five years old; • regular inspection of boilers and central air-conditioning systems in buildings and in addition an assessment of heating installations in which the boilers are more than 15 years old.

Green building

The transposition of the EPBD in the Italian legislation starts in 2005 with a national Decree (Dlg 192/2005), but the most significant advancement was made on 2009 when a new Ministerial Decree (DPR 59/2009) entered into force, adopting the National Guidelines on Energy Certification on Buildings. The guidelines specify the procedure, the performance classes and the basic elements for certification, which have legal value in all the Regions that have not yet produced their own legislation. So, since July 2009, all existing residential and non-residential buildings need to be certified when they are sold. The Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) is the most visible aspect of the ECB. This document assigns an energy performance label to buildings and lists measures for improving their energy performance, sorted by cost-effectiveness. Performance is expressed both for the whole energy used in the building and separately for single ending uses: heating, hot water and cooling. The global EPgl is the sum of the partial EPs:

Epgl = Epi + Epacs + Epe + Epill where: EPgl is the global Energy Performance EPi is the Energy Performance for heating EPacs is the EP for domestic hot water EPe is EP for summer cooling EPill is the EP for artificial lighting

EPBD Recast (nZEB - Directive 2010/31/EU)

In 2010, the EPBD Recast entered into force. The updated text clarified, strengthened and extended the scope of the previous directive. Key changes included 17:

EU legislation for improving energy efficiency in buildings

Note

• the development of a comparative methodology

framework for calculating cost optimal levels of mini-

Nearly Zero Energy Buildings Open Doors Days. (n.d.). Towards 2021: Nearly Zero Energy Buildings. Retrieved from http://www.nzebopendoorsdays.eu/nearly-zero-energy-buildings

mum energy performance requirements for buildings and building elements; • the extension to all buildings (removal of 1000m2 floor area threshold) of the requirement to set minimum energy performance levels when a major renovation takes place, including building envelope elements that are retrofitted or replaced; •

all new buildings have to be nearly zero

energy level by December 2020 (December 2018 for public authority buildings). A nearly zero-energy building is defined in Article 2of the EPBD recast as “a building that has a very high energy performance. The nearly zero or very low amount of energy required should be covered to a very significant extent by energy from renewable sources, including energy from renewable sources produced on-site or nearby”; • requirement for Member States to list financial incentives in order to enable the transition towards nearly zero energy levels in buildings; • mandatory energy certification for all properties constructed, sold or rented out and for all public buildings over 500m2 or those frequently visited by the public; • enhanced heating and cooling system inspections and reporting requirements; • requirement for Member States to establish penalties for non-compliance. The Directive must be transposed into national law after July 2012.

Green building

The Energy Efficiency Directive (EED – Directive 2012/27/EU)

On 25 October 2012, the EU adopted the Directive 2012/27/EU on Energy Efficiency. This Directive establishes a common framework of measures for the promotion of energy efficiency within the Union, in order to ensure the achievement of the Union 20 20 20 % headline target on energy efficiency and to pave the way for further energy efficiency improvements beyond that date. It lays down rules designed to remove barriers in the energy market and overcome market failures that impede efficiency in the supply and use of energy, and provides for the establishment of indicative national energy efficiency targets for 2020. The Energy Efficiency Directive 2012 (EED) was brought into force on 4 December 2012. It introduces binding measures for energy efficiency on the public sector and industry and covers the entire energy chain from generation and transmission to end use. EU member states have to implement the EED after 5 June 2014. Key measures can be summarized as follows 18: •

energy companies are requested to reduce

energy sales by 1.5% every year among their customers. This can be achieved via improved heating systems, fitting double-glazed windows or insulating roofs. • the public sector is required to renovate 3% of buildings "owned and occupied" by the central government in each country. Buildings need to have a useful area larger than 500 m2 in order to be covered by this requirement (lowered to 250 m2 as of July 2015). • EU countries are requested to draw up a roadmap to make the entire buildings sector more energy efficient by 2050 (commercial, public and private households included). • energy audits and management plans are required for large companies, with cost-benefit analyses for

Note 18

REHVA. (n.d.). Energy Efficiency Directive. Retrieved from http://www.rehva.eu/eu-regulations/energy-efficiency-directive/

The role of architect in relation to EU 20-20-20 Directive

the deployment of combined heat and power generation (CHP) and public procurement.

1.4 The role of architect in relation to EU 20-20-20 Directive

Thanks to EU legislation intended to improve energy efficiency in buildings, the architectural profession is recently undergoing a significant resurgence concerning the request for integration of passive and hybrid environmental strategies and techniques in building design, in order to mitigate the impacts on the ecosystem and promote the adaptation of built environments to expected climate alterations. 19 Until the early nineteenth century, the architecture, both in its technological and morphological and typological aspects, was influenced to a decisive extent by the specific climatic and environmental conditions of the places in which it was realized. Just think about the Sassi di Matera, meaning "Matera stones", in Italy; the turf house in Iceland or the hypóskapha, the cave-like structure characteristic of Santorini in Greece. Subsequently, the belief that buildings could be built without distinctions and with identical characteristics for any climate has begun to impose by rapid consensus, giving the single plant component the wasteful task of creating the conditions of well-being within the indoor environment. The 1970s energy crisis triggered a slow but general re-thinking

Note 19

IPCC. (2007c). Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave and L.A. Meyer (Eds.)]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 20

Chansomsak, S. & Vale, B. (2009). The Roles of Architects in Sustainable Community Development. Journal of Architectural/Planning Research and Studies, 6(3).

about the need to correlate the morphological and technological aspects of buildings with the specific climatic conditions of the site. A concept that today expresses into the daily research aimed to maximize the energy performance of the building envelope and to meet the energy needs through renewable resources. “The roles of architect as professional and citizen in social and ecological systems are shown in Figure 1.12. This picture is based on the ‘strong’ sustainability approach, in which society is a part of the ecological system. Even though architect actions are primarily related to social systems, their effects, including the inputs and outputs from behaviors and activities and the impact of built environment creations, also concern environmental issues.” 20 Therefore, the architect figure is very complex: his work, ranging from design to planning, obviously supports the physical development of a community. As a professional, the architect has the responsibility through his own

Green building

Figure 1.12 Relationships of architect roles with social and ecological systems (Source: Chansomsak et at., 2010)

Ecology Society People, Institutes and Organizations

Inputs

Behaviors and Activities

Communication

Working with/for

Outputs

Architects Professionals

Citizens

Living in Working in

Creating

Built Environments

Inputs

Outputs

actions for the creation of the community which he is a part of or which he works for. For this reason, Christopher Haines, an ISO 14001 expert architect, stated that:

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Architects

are artists in the sense that they are generalists, not specialists. Society rewards specialization and some architects have become specialists in some sub-set of the discipline. For example, some have become code experts, some have specialized in building envelopes or in hospital design. Architecture is a field of study that requires the synthesis of information from a wide range of academic disciplines. Architects are not geologists or landscapers but must understand the site on which they set the building. They are not sociologists, but must create a building that fits into the surrounding context. They are not structural

The role of architect in relation to EU 20-20-20 Directive

engineers, but must understand engineering to develop a structural design that supports the design idea and parameters. They must pick materials that are appropriate to the project requirements and will fit the owner’s budget and schedule. They are not physicists or chemists but must avoid material interactions that could cause corrosion or deterioration of the building envelope. They are not lawyers but must create a design that meets all legal and code requirements for that building type and size within that jurisdiction. They are not psychologists but must so fully understand human perceptions of space so as to create a “Wow” experience for all who enter the building. The building must satisfy a wide range of performance criteria and to that list we21 are now adding requirements of sustainability. ” “Today more than ever, as architects is extremely appropriate to stop for a moment to reflect on the reasons why now, for the first time in thousands of years, it became necessary to introduce extra terms to add to the definition of ‘architecture’, in order to highlight the ecological aspects. Evidently, ours Note 21

Haines, C. (2010). The Role of the Architect in Sustainability Education. Journal of Sustainability Education. Retrieved from http://www.jsedimensions.org/wordpress/content/the-role-of-the-architect-in-sustai nability-education_2010_0 5/ 22

Cfr. Grieco, A. (December 2, 2014). E se tornassimo all'Architettura? La sostenibilità quando ancora non la chiamavamo così. Retrieved from http://www.architetturaecosostenibile.it/architettura/criteri-progettuali/architettura-s ostenibilta-152/

has become a society that has forgotten what for the ancients was the absolute normality, giving us today the character of exception to what should be the rule. Talking about ‘sustainable architecture’ makes sense exactly at the same extent as ‘functional engineering’, ‘intellectual philosophy’ or ‘space astronomy’.

The

architecture

"with

adjectives",

‘sustainable’,

‘bioclimatic’, ‘ecological’, ‘green’, ‘eco-friendly’ or ‘environmental’, tries to aspire to the highest natural purpose and at the same time to the most ancient art of building. However, the study of typological and constructive solutions intended to achieve the maximum home comfort by using a minimum of resources was called for more than twenty centuries simply "Architecture". Nowday, these additional adjectives are so far necessary and they will be for long time. It is important to underline that we need them to build the day where they will be no more essential. Just then 'bio', 'eco' and 'green' architectures will really achieve their objectives.” 22 It is clear that the architect is at the core of sustainability of the built environment and, in view of the EU 20-20-20 Directive, he has to design

Green building

structures that incorporate environmental-friendly building practices or concepts, such as the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) standard. “It is important to consider the building from cradle-to-cradle given that our frame of reference for a building is often in the form of a static snap-shot from one moment in time. The term "cradle-to-cradle" is used to indicate that components of any building at the end of its useful life could and ought to be recycled into a new structure. Buildings should not be considered static, but should emphasize flexibility and adaptability. This adaptability has a foundation in ecology and nature, but extends to the political landscape, the economy, people in the community, neighborhoods and social landscape, legal limitations and other buildings. Buildings should encourage, empower and enable the ability of inhabitants to connect with nature and improve the health of the community.” 23

Probably, the real innovation is the de-growth, meaning making a small step back for a big step forward to sustainability. We should build less and renovate existing spaces, so leaving nature to advance in our streets and our squares. Nature does not know any un-sustainable, un-necessary or inefficient process; thus, the architect must necessarily take inspiration from it. He has to imagine a high-performance building like a high-performance living being. He has the opportunity and the imperative to evolve our thinking and practice in a way that can contribute to regenerating our planet. “Sustainable design is not limited to simply try to be more efficient. As new approach, it offers a clear alternative: an ecologically intelligent framework in which the safe regenerative productivity of nature provides models for wholly positive human designs. We can begin to re-design the very foundations of architecture and industry, creating systems that purify air, land and water, using current solar income, generating no toxic waste and adopting only safe healthful regenerative materials. The benefits would enhance all the aspects of life.” 24 “Clearly, this is an approach that has to be embraced since the very early

Note 23

Glyphis, John P. (August 24–26, 2001). “How Can the Architect Contribute to a Sustainable World?” Second Nature, Inc., Wingspread Conference Proceedings. Retrieved from http://www.sbse.org/retreat/retreat2002/docs/Second_Nature_Wingspread_Report.pdf 24

McDonough, W. (2004). Teaching Design That Goes From Cradle to Cradle. The Chronicle Review.

Life Cycle Assessment and ecologic footprint of buildings

development stages of a design and cannot be left as an after-thought once the main formal and technical features of the building have already been resolved by the architect. To facilitate this process, it is necessary that mandatory requirements of promoting sustainable environmental design in the practice of architecture represent a core issue within the formation of practitioners professional competence and ethos. Therefore, the challenge consists of a radical change in the way the architect progression toward the profession is sustained by educational methodologies and transfers of contents.” 25

1.5 Life Cycle Assessment and ecologic footprint of buildings

“As environmental awareness increases, industries and businesses are assessing how their activities affect the environment. Society has become concerned about the issues of natural resource depletion and environmental degradation. Many businesses have responded to this awareness by providing “greener” products and using “greener” processes. The environmental performance of products and processes has become a key issue; for this reason some companies are investigating ways to minimize their effects on the environment. Many companies have found it advantageous to explore ways of moving beyond compliance using pollution prevention strategies and environmental management systems to improve their environmental performance. One such a tool is LCA (Life Cycle Assessment)” 25.

Note 25

Altomonte, S. (2009). Environmental Education for Sustainable Architecture. Review of European studies, 1(2). doi:10.5539/res.v1n2p12, p.13 26

Khasreen, M.M., Banfill, P.F.G. & Menzies, G.F. (2009) Life-Cycle Assessment and the Environmental Impact of Buildings: A Review, Sustainability — Open Access Journal. doi:10.3390/su1030674

First developed in the 1960s, “LCA is a methodology for evaluating the environmental loads of processes and products during their whole life-cycle. The assessment includes the entire life-cycle of a product, process or system encompassing the extraction and processing of raw materials, manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use, reuse, maintenance, recycling and final disposal.” The tool is accepted internationally as a neutral evaluation technique that involves the collection and evaluation of quantitative data on the inputs and

Green building

outputs of materials, energy and waste flows associated with a product over its entire life cycle. In this way, the whole-life environmental impact of such a product can be determined.

System boundary

Inputs

Outputs

Raw materials acquisition

Figure 1.13 Life cycle stage (Data Source: EPA, 1993)

Atmospheric emissions

Raw materials

Waterbone wastes

Manufacturing

Solid wastes

Use / Reuse / Maintenance Energy

Coproducts Recycle / Waste Management Other releases

“By integrating LCA into the building design process, design and construction professionals can evaluate the life cycle impact of building materials, components and systems and choose combinations that reduce the building life cycle environmental impact. This method is increasingly used by researchers, industries, governments and environmental groups to assist with decision-making for environment-related strategies and material selection.” 27 An LCA essentially comprises three steps28:

Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases (outputs) associated with a defined system (releases can be solid wastes or emissions to air or water);

Evaluating the potential Interpreting the results impacts associated with to help taking informed these inputs and decisions. releases, e.g. the global warming impact from CO2 emissions;

3 Note 27

Reiter, S. (2010) Life Cycle Assessment of Buildings – a review, 1. Retrieved from http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/bitstream/2268/96541/1/Paper-Reiter-2010.pdf

Life Cycle Assessment and ecologic footprint of buildings

Note

LCA is also the tool which is used to develop the Environmental Product

Declarations (EPD). This is a verified document that reports environmental

SteelConstruction. (n.d.). Life cycle assessment and embodied carbon. Retrieved from http://www.steelconstruction.info/Life_cycle_assessment_and_embodied_carbon 29

Environmental Product Declaration (EPD). Retrieved from http://www.environdec.com/

data of products (such as the impact of raw material acquisition and energy use and efficiency, the content of materials and chemical substances, the emissions to air, soil and water and the waste generation) based on a common set of rules called Product Category Rules (PCRs). In addition, EPD provides other relevant information in accordance with the international standard ISO 14025:2006 (Type III Environmental Declarations). Thus, the main purpose of the EPD is to help and support organisations to communicate the environmental performance of their products during their whole life in a reliable and understandable way. Furthermore, this tool can be used to improve processes, support policy and provide a sound basis for decision-making. 29 The process for undertaking LCA is set out in the ISO standards ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006, with more specific details concerning its application to building products contained in ISO 21930 Sustainability in building construction – Environmental declaration of building products (2007). ISO 21930 is part of a suite of developing standards related to sustainability in building construction and construction works. Others are as follows: • ISO 15392 Sustainability in building construction – General Principles (2008). • ISO 21929-1 Sustainability indicators – Part 1: Framework for development of indicators for building. • ISO 21931-1 Framework for methods of assessment of environmental performance of construction works – Part 1: Buildings (2010). A recent European standard EN 15804:2014 named Sustainability of construction works - Environmental product declarations - Core rules for the product category of construction products is also attracting interest both from within and outside Europe as a basis for applying LCA to construction products. According to the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards, the LCA is carried out in

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four distinct phases following an iterative process, which are: • Goal and scope definition (ISO 14041); • Life-Cycle Inventory (ISO 14041); • Life-Cycle Impact Assessment (ISO 14042); • Interpretation of results and search for improvements (ISO 14043).

Life Cycle Assessment Framework

Goal Definition and Scope (ISO 14041)

Inventory Analysis (ISO 14041)

Interpretation (ISO 14043)

Impact Assessment (ISO 14042)

Goal and scope definition

In the first phase, the LCA-practitioner formulates an explicit statement of the goal and scope of the study, which sets out the context of the assessment and explains how and to whom the results have to be communicated. Special attention should be paid to this first step of the LCA methodology, which will influence the study results and determine its applicability. Therefore, the goal and scope document includes technical details that guide subsequent work, in particular 30:

Figure 1.14 Phases of an LCA (Data Source: ISO, 1997)

Life Cycle Assessment and ecologic footprint of buildings

Note

• the object of the assessment (e.g. building or

innovative technology) and its function (e.g. office

Life-cycle assessment. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment

use or energy-producing façade collector); • the functional unit, which defines what precisely is being studied and quantifies the service returned by the product system, providing a reference which the inputs and outputs can be related to. The functional unit is an important basis that enables alternative goods or services to be compared and analyzed. In the case of buildings there are many functional units which could be considered (m2, m3, etc.), number of occupants, etc.) while the most commonly used is square meter floor area; • the system boundaries; • any assumptions and limitations: these may address, for example, the set-up of specific scenarios for the use phase, the treatment of capital equipment or machinery within the production phase or deviations from guidances provided within this document (a transparent documentation is required); • the allocation methods used to partition the environmental load of a process when several products or functions share the same process; • the impact categories chosen.

“Fundamentally, sustainability is a medium-to-long term concept. Therefore, it is not sufficient to study only what happens at present. Future recycling at the end of life must somehow be taken into account. Ideally an LCA shall include the entire life cycle of the product system and all unit processes related to it, but in practice there may not be sufficient time, data or resources to conduct such a comprehensive study. Therefore, decisions have to be taken (and clearly documented) regarding which life cycle stages and unit processes from the product system

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will be included within the LCA. Here, the key is achieving the best compromise between practicability of the study and validity of the results.”30

Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

The second phase of the LCA is the inventory analysis, which is an exhaustive collection of all emissions and consumptions for each step of the life cycle assessment. “This step is the more time intensive in the case of buildings as complex products, because production processes are complicated and data collection includes all information related to input/output of energy and mass flows in terms of quantities and emissions to air, water and land. The life-cycle of a building consists of several phases, whose number differs according to the goal of the study and could be three or more. Anyway, in all cases the sum of the proposed phases must result in the whole life-cycle of the building. For example, some studies use three phases starting by the pre-construction phase, which includes all the processes from material extraction up to the building occupation, passing through the usage phase and ending with demolition phase. In turn, each of these phases could be divided into many sub-phases according to the goal and scope of the study. The life-cycle inventory phase (LCI) generally uses databases of building materials and component combinations. The availability and accuracy of data should always be clearly described within the goal and scope definition phase.” 31 Material databases most often used in the litterature are: • ELCD database; • Ecoinvent database; • GaBi database; • DEAM; • EIME - Centre de compétence CODDE • IDEMAT • IVAM LCA Data

Life Cycle Assessment and ecologic footprint of buildings

Generaly, databases are embedded in LCA software. Tools for doing an LCA of a building product are: • SimaPro; • GaBi; • Umberto; • TEAM; • Open LCA; • Bilan Produit ADEME; • EIME.

Note 30

S. Reiter, Op. cit., p. 2

Khasreen, M.M., Banfill, P.F.G. & Menzies, G.F. (2009) Life-Cycle Assessment and the Environmental Impact of Buildings: A Review, Sustainability, p. 681 — Open Access Journal. doi:10.3390/ su1030674 32

Ibid.

“Generally included within the LCA of a building are: the embodied energy of materials and building component combinations, the transport of materials and building components to site, the use of the building (as energy use), sometimes the waste of materials and the water consumption, the maintenance and replacement, the demolition of the building and the transport of waste to the treatment site. Conversely, generally not included within the LCA are: the transport of equipment to site, the construction phase at the building site and the construction waste. The goal of the study is the main driver to determine what can and what cannot be included. Data availability has a direct effect on this as well and consequently can change the goal of the study itself. Whether included or not, any process or item within the life-cycle assessment must be set clearly in the scope of the study, because any process included in the life-cycle of a building requires information to be included in the data inventory, either collected, measured or estimated. As data should quantify the input and output of the building, it must be well described and thoroughly referenced.” 32 The quality (precision, completeness and representativeness) of used data has a significant impact on the results of an LCA. Therefore, it is also necessary to establish requirements about the data quality and to extensively describe the consulted

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data sources. The quality of the LCI data and results should be good enough to conduct the life cycle impact analysis (that is the third phase of the LCA) in accordance to the goal and scope definition of the study (ISO 2006b).

Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

The LCA impact assessment phase is aimed at evaluating the conversion of emissions into environmental and health impacts of a product, system or service using the results of the life cycle inventory analysis. In general, this process involves associating inventory data with specific environmental and health impacts and attempting to understand those impacts. The level of detail, the choice of impacts to be evaluated and the used methodologies depend on the goal and scope of the study. Eventually, this assessment may require an iterative process of reviewing the goal and scope of the LCA study to determine if the objectives of the study have been met or to modify the goal and scope if the assessment indicates that they cannot be achieved. The impact assessment framework is a multi-step process, starting by selecting and defining some impact categories, which are relevant to the buildings, as listed in table 1.3. A category indicator is associated to each impact category, representing a unit to quantify the potential impact (ISO 2006a and ISO 2006b). A very well known impact category, known as global warming potentials (GWP) (see table 1.4), is for example the climate change. All emissions that contribute to climate change, which is caused by a number of different greenhouse gases, can be included in that impact category, such as CO2, CH4, O3, NO2. A commonly used impact indicator for that category is emissions in kg of CO2 (also known as embodied carbon). Therefore, to quantify the potential contribution of the system under study to climate change, all the inventoried emissions of greenhouse gases need to be translated into CO2 equivalents (CO2e) or carbon dioxide equivalents.

Table 1.3 Commonly used Life Cycle Impact Categories (Data Source: EPA)

Impact category

Scale

Example of LCI Data (i.e. classification)

Common possible characterization factor

Descriprion of characterization factor

Global warming

Global

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Methane (CH4) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Methyl Bromide (CH3 Br)

Global warming potential

Converts LCI data to carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalents Note: global warming potentials can be 50, 100, or 500 year potentials.

Stratospheric ozone deplation

Global

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Halons Methyl Bromide (CH3 Br)

Ozone deplation potential

Converts LCI data to trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11) equivalents.

Acidification

Region Local

Sulfur Oxides (SOx) Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Hidrochloric Acid (HCL) Hydroflouric (HF) Ammonia (NH4 )

Acidification potential

Converts LCI data to hydrogen (H+) ion equivalents.

Eutrophication

Local

Phosphate (PO4) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Nitrates Ammonia (NH4 )

Eutrophication potential

Converts LCI data to phosphate (PO4) equivalents.

Photochemical smog

Local

Non-methane hydrocarbon (NMHC)

Photochemical oxident creation potential

Converts LCI data to ethane (C2H6) equivalents.

Terrestrial toxicity

Local

Toxic chemicals with a reported lethal concentration to rodents

LC50

Converts LC50 data to equivalents; uses multimedia modeling, exposure pathways

Acquatic toxicity

Local

Toxic chemicals with a reported lethal concentration to fish

LC50

Converts LC50 data to equivalents; uses multimedia modeling, exposure pathways

Human health

Global Regional Local

Total releases to air, water and soil

LC50

Converts LC50 data to equivalents; uses multimedia modeling, exposure pathways

Resources depletion

Global Regional Local

Quantity of minerals and fossil fuels used

Resource depletion potential

Converts LCI data to a ratio of quantity of resource used versus quantity of resource left in reserve

Land use

Global Regional Local

Quantity disposed of in a landfill or other land modifications

Land availability

Converts mass of solid waste into volume using an estimated density

Water use

Regional Local

Water used or consumed

Water shortage potential

Converts LCI data to a ratio of quantity of water used versus quantity of water resource left in reserve

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GWP - 100 year timeframe (kgCo2e)

Greenhouse gas Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Methane (CH4)

Nitrous oxide (N2O)

298

Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

22800

Perfluorobutane (C4F10)

8860

HFC 134a (tetrafluoroethane)

1430

In a Life Cycle Impact Assessment there are several evaluation methods applicable at international level in the building sector, like: • the Dutch method Eco-indicator 99: the impact categories flow into three categories of environmental damage: human health, ecosystem quality and resources; • the Swedish method EPS 2000 (Environmental Priority Strategies in product development): the impact categories flow into four categories of environmental damage: human health, ecosystem production capacity, abiotic stock resources and biodiversity; • the Danish method EDIP (Environmental Design of Industrial Products): the impact categories flow into three categories of environmental damage: environmental impact, consumer resources and impact in the workplace; • the Swiss method IMPACT 2002+: the impact categories flow into four categories of environmental damage: human health, ecosystem quality, climate change and resources. “In a LCIA there are essentially two class of methods: problem-oriented methods (mid-points) and damage-oriented methods (end-points). The mid-points approach involves the environmental impacts associated to climate change, acidification,

Table 1.4 Characterisation (or GWP) factors for common greenhouse gases (Data Source: Ortiz, O. et. at, 2009)

Life Cycle Assessment and ecologic footprint of buildings

eutrophication, potential photochemical ozone creation and human toxicity; those impacts can be evaluated using the CML baseline method (2001), the EDIP and the IMPACT 2002+. The end points approach, instead, classifies flows into several environmental themes, modeling the damage each theme causes to human beings, natural environment and resources. Ecoindicator 99 and IMPACT 2002+ are methods used in the damage-oriented method.” 33 It is difficult to make a final choice of method, because each of them presents good features but also some limits and, anyway, none of them is perfectly adequate to the reality of our territory. The LCIA can also include the following optional steps 34 :

Note 33 Ortiz, O., Castells, F. & Sonnemann, G. (2009) Sustainability in the construction industry: A review of recent developments based on LCA, ScienceDirect Construction and Building Materials, 23(1), 28–39. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.11.012 34 Cfr. Scientific Applications International Corporation (SAIC). (2006). Life Cycle Assessment: principles and practice, Report No. EPA/600/R-06/060, 51-52. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/std/lca/pdfs/chapter1_frontmatter_lca101.pdf

• Normalization: it is an LCIA tool used to express the impact indicator data in a way that can be compared among impact categories. This procedure normalizes the indicator results by dividing by a selected reference value. • Grouping: it is the assignment of impact categories into one or more sets to better facilitate the interpretation of the results into specific areas of concern. Typically, grouping involves sorting or ranking indicators. The possible ways to group LCIA data are two: by characteristics, such as emissions (e.g. air and water emissions) or location (e.g. local, regional or global); by a ranking system, such as high, low or medium priority. • Weighting: this step (also referred to as valuation) of an LCIA assigns weights or relative values to the different impact categories based on their perceived importance or relevance. Weighting is important because the impact categories should also reflect study goals and stakeholder values. As stated earlier, harmful air emissions could be of relatively higher concern in an air non-attainment zone than

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the same emission level in an area with better air quality. Because weighting is not a scientific process, it is vital that the weighting methodology is clearly explained and documented. Finally, it is important to note that LCA calculated indicators do not correspond to any real and measurable impacts. The evaluated environmental impacts are potential impacts, calculated in standardized and hypothetical conditions defined by each impact characterization model.

Interpretation and search for improvements

Life cycle interpretation is the last phase of the LCA process. It is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check and evaluate information from the results of the LCI and the LCIA and communicate them effectively in a transparent manner. According to the ISO 14043 standard, the interpretation phase should include three steps: • the identification of the significant issues: it involves reviewing information from the first three phases of the LCA process in order to identify the data elements that mostly contribute to the results of both the LCI and LCIA for each product, process, or service. These elements are otherwise known as “significant issues” and can include inventory parameters like energy use, emissions, waste, etc., impact category indicators like resource use, emissions, waste, etc., and essential contributions for life cycle stages to LCI or LCIA results, such as individual unit processes or groups of processes (e.g., transportation and energy production). Reviewing the information collected and the presentations of developed results allows to determine if the goal and scope of the LCA study have been met. • the evaluation: the objectives of the evaluation are to establish the confidence in and reliability of the results of the LCA. This is accomplished by addressing the following tasks to ensure that

Life Cycle Assessment and ecologic footprint of buildings

products/processes can be fairly compared: completeness check, that examines the completeness of the study; sensitivity check, that evaluates the sensitivity of the significant data elements influencing most greatly the results; consistency check, that assesses the consistency used to set system boundaries, collect data, make assumptions and allocate data to impact categories for each alternative. â&#x20AC;˘ the recommendations, conclusions and reporting: the objective of this step is to interpret the results of the life cycle impact assessment to determine which product/process has the least overall impact to human health and environment, and/or to one or more specific areas of concern as defined by the goal and scope of the study. In this phase, it is important to draw conclusions and provide recommendations based only on the facts. Understanding and communicating the uncertainties and limitations in the results is equally important as the final recommendations. In some instances, it may not be clear which product or process is better because of the underlying uncertainties and limitations in the methods used to conduct the LCA or in the availability of good data, time or resources.

Note 35 36

SAIC, Op. cit., p. 58 S. Reiter, Op. cit., p. 7

Now that the LCA has been completed, materials must be assembled into a comprehensive report documenting the study in a clear and organized manner. This will help to communicate the assessment results fairly, completely and accurately to others interested in the results. The report presents the results, data, methods, assumptions and limitations in sufficient detail to allow the reader to understand the complexities and trade-offs inherent to the LCA study. Although LCA is a supporting decision tool because it allows comparisons of environmental impacts generated by different scenarios, it should never replace the critical thinking and final choice of the user. 36

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Resource inputs Land Minerals Metals Wood Plastics Components Energy Water

Raw material extraction and processing

Production of windows, bricks, tiles, girders..

Dwelling construction

Use of housing

Maintenance

Demolition

Land take Toxins Emissions to soil, air, water Waste Wastewater GHGs Air pollutant

Pressure outputs

Figure 1.15 How the construction impacts on the environment. (Source: EEA-ETC/SCP)

Life Cycle Assessment and ecologic footprint of buildings

In a process-based LCA, the user itemizes the inputs (materials and energy resources) and the outputs (emissions to the environment and wastes) for each step required to produce a product. LCA methods implemented in the building construction industry are based primarily on process-based LCA, and thus this subsection focuses on its variants. Different types of process-based LCA methods are:

Cradle-to-grave

Cradle-to-gate

Cradle-to-cradle

is the full Life Cycle Assessment from manufacture or “cradle” to use and disposal phase, or “grave.” For example, trees produce paper, which can be recycled into low-energy production cellulose (fiberised paper) insulation and then used as an energy-saving device in the ceiling of a house for 40 years, saving 2,000 times the fossil-fuel energy used in its production. After 40 years the cellulose fibers are replaced and the old fibers are disposed or possibly incinerated. is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from manufacture, or “cradle”, to the factory gate, for example before it is transported to the consumer. Cradle-to-gate assessments are sometimes the basis for Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs). Used for buildings, it would only include the manufacturing and (depending on how the LCA was carried out) the construction stage. For building LCA tools based on assemblies, the starting point for the assessment might be a collection of cradle-to-gate LCAs completed on the major building systems (for example curtain wall, roof systems, load bearing frames, etc.), which are then assembled into a complete cradle-to-grave assessment of the entire building. is a specific kind of cradle-to-grave assessment where the end-of-life disposal step for the product is a recycling process, from which new identical or different products originate. According to the work of William McDonough, the term cradle-to-cradle often implies that the product under analysis is substantially recycled, thus reducing the impact of

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using the product in the first place.

Gate-to-gate

is a partial LCA that examines only one value-added process in the entire production chain, for example by evaluating the environmental impact due to the construction stage of a building.

The scale of the potential threat of global climate change reported in table 1.4 focuses attention on carbon emissions and therefore most construction-related environmental impact studies rely on this impact category. Although carbon emissions are clearly a priority, more thorough environmental assessments should consider a wider range of impact categories, as is routinely done in LCA studies. As regulations are tightened to reduce the operational carbon emissions from new buildings, the relative importance of embodied energy and carbon impacts are increasing.

Embodied energy is the total energy required for the extraction, processing, manufacture and delivery of building materials to the building site. Energy consumption produces CO2 which contributes to greenhouse gas emissions (in this case we refer to embodied carbon or carbon footprint expressed as CO2e). So embodied energy is considered as an indicator of the overall environmental impact of building materials and systems. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Unlike the life cycle assessment, which evaluates all of the impacts over the whole life of a material or element, embodied energy only considers the front-end aspect of the impact of a building material. Infact, it does not include the operation or disposal of materials. Energy consumption during manufacture can give an approximate indication of the environmental impact of the material, as for most building materials the major environmental impacts occur during the initial processes.â&#x20AC;?

Currently, the distribution of life-cycle energy consumption of the building with an average life of 50 years involves in the operational phase which corresponds to less than 60% of the global energy and the remaining 40% of the energy is expended during the production and construction phase.

Note 37

Level. (2014). Embodied energy. Retrieved from http://www.level.org.nz/material-use/embodied-energy/

Life Cycle Assessment and ecologic footprint of buildings

Figure 1.16 Embodied energy proportions by building systems in its entire life-cycle (Data Source:CMHC, 2007)

Site Work 4%

Electrical 3%

Mechanical 13%

Foundation/ Structure 20%

Interior finishes 16%

Envelope 20%

Embodied energy must be considered over the lifespan of a building and in many situations a higher embodied energy building material or system may be justified because it reduces the operating energy requirements of the building. For example, a durable material with a long lifespan such as aluminium may be selected as the appropriate material despite its high embodied energy. As the energy efficiency of a building increases by reducing the energy consumption, the embodied energy of the building materials will also become increasingly important. Embodied energy is measured as the quantity of non-renewable energy per unit of building material, component or system. Typical embodied energy units used are MJ/kg (megajoules of energy needed to make a kilogram of product), tCO2 (tonnes of carbon dioxide created by the energy needed to make a kilogram of product). Converting MJ to tCO2 is not straightforward because different types of energy (oil, wind, solar, nuclear and so on) emit different amounts of carbon dioxide, so the actual amount of carbon dioxide emitted when a product is made will be dependent on the type of energy used in the manufacturing process. However, the process for calculating embodied energy is complex and involves numerous sources of data. An extensive review in the literature results in the most credited value for energy cost of building construction, which is as high as 6-7 GJ/m2. Buildings should be designed and materials selected to balance embodied energy with factors such as climate, availability of materials and transport costs.

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Light-weight building materials often have lower embodied energy than heavy-weight materials, but in some situations light-weight constructions may result in higher energy use. For example, where heating or cooling requirements are high, this may raise the overall energy use of the building. Conversely, for buildings with high heating or cooling requirements and a large diurnal (day/night) temperature range, heavy-weight constructions (typically with high embodied energy) and the inclusion of high levels of insulation can offset the energy use required for the building. When selecting building materials, the embodied energy should be considered with respect to: • the durability of building materials; • how easily materials can be separated; • the use of locally sourced materials; • the use of recycled materials; • specifying standard sizes of materials; • avoiding waste; • selecting materials that are manufactured using renewable energy sources.

The ecological footprint of building construction can be reduced by using environmentally-inexpensive materials and renewable energy resources and by optimizing bioproductive land use through the construction of multi-storeyed buildings.

International building standards

1.6 International building standards

In an even more international market-oriented "green", in order to implement green building concepts, some private organizations have developed voluntary systems for assessing and certifying the sustainability of buildings, demonstrating their performance and ecological footprint including energy consumption. There are two approaches to the assessment of sustainability of a building:

Qualitative method or points-based system Quantitative method

A method based on the definition of requirements which correspond to specific weights and scores, whose sum indicates the overall level of energy and environmental sustainability of the building.

A more detailed method referring to LCA analysis, which evaluates and quantifies the embodied energy of the building during their entire life. For this reason, it is a rigorous environmental assessment of the entire construction process including the management and the end of life of the building.

In recent years, several energy standards in the building sector have established in the world, such as the English BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environment Assessment Method), the American LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design), the Japanese CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Environment Efficiency), the Australian Green Star, the French HQE (High Quality Environmental), the German DGNB (Deutsche Gesellschaft für nachhaltiges Bauen, that in english stands for German Society for Sustainable Construction) and the Italian ITACA (Istituto per la Trasparenza degli Appalti e la Compatibilità Ambientale). Generally, “they award credits for optional building features that support green design in categories, such as location and maintenance of building site, conservation of water, energy and building materials and occupant comfort and health. The number of credits generally determines Note

the level of achievement.” 38

Despite of similarities in major goals and certification procedures, there are

Naturally:wood. (March, 2011). Building green & benefits of wood. Retrieved from http://www.naturallywood.com/sites/default/files/NW-fs-bldggreen-Mar-2011.pdf

some significant differences in terms of specific features, contents and methods for their application. To follow, we will analyze the best-known protocols and we will highlight the common points. Let begin to describe BREEAM and LEED, which are the two most

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widely recognized environmental assessment methodologies today globally used in the construction industry.

BREEAM

BREEAM is the older one and was established in 1990 in UK by the BRE Global Limited. According to the BREEAM website (www.breeam.org), more than 250,000 buildings have been BREEAM certified and over a million are registered for certification – many in the UK and others in more than 50 countries around the world. Highly flexible, BREEAM is a point-based system that can be used to assess the environmental performance of any type of building (courts, healthcare, industrial, prisons, offices, education, retail and ecohomes), new and existing, anywhere in the world. In details, if the building is placed in UK we can refer to the following schemes: • New Construction: is the BREEAM standard against which the sustainability of new non-residential buildings in the UK is assessed. • Refurbishment: provides a design and assessment method for sustainable housing refurbishment projects, helping to (cost) effectively improve the sustainability and environmental performance of existing dwellings in a robust way. • Communities: focuses on the master-planning of whole communities. • In-use: is a scheme helping building managers to reduce the running costs and improve the environmental performance of existing buildings. Therefore, if the building is built outside and cannot be assessed according to a country-specific BREEAM scheme (currently the EU countries affiliated to BREEAM are Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and Austria) it is however possible to certify the building in accordance with the following standards:

International building standards

• Commercial Europe, in the case of office buildings

Note 39

Pearson, A. (July 5, 2010). Essential guides: BREEAM, LEED, Green Star & Estidama. Retrieved from http://www.building.co.uk/essential-guides-breeam-leed-green-star-and-estidama/500 2213.article

• International Bespoke, in all other cases • In-use, if the building is already occupied and you intend to certify the management exercise. The assessment works by giving a building a score based on its performance against a series of set criteria. There are two assessment stages: a design assessment stage, that leads to a provisional rating, followed by a post construction assessment stage leading to the final rating. The building score will establish its BREEAM rating. BREEAM “outstanding” is the highest rating, followed by “excellent”, “very good”, “good” and “pass”. Extra credits are awarded for design innovations that will reduce the building impact on the environment in an innovative way. A certificated BREEAM assessment is delivered by a licensed organization, using assessors trained under a UKAS accredited competent person scheme, at various stages in a building life cycle. 39

LEED

LEED was set up 8 years later in USA, largely inspired by and based on BREEAM (a debate on which is the best is still at the top). LEED is a green building certification system launched by the US Green Building Council (GBC). It represents an effort to develop a “consensus-based market-driven rating system to accelerate the development and implementation of green building practices”. It is aimed at improving building environmental performances concerning energy savings, water efficiency and CO2 emissions reduction. Like BREEAM, LEED certification is available for all building types. In detail, there are five rating systems that address multiple project types: • Green Building Design & Construction LEED for New Construction LEED for Core & Shell

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LEED for Schools LEED for Retail: New Construction and Major Renovations LEED for Healthcare • Green Interior Design & Construction LEED for Commercial Interiors LEED for Retail: Commercial Interiors • Green Building Operations & Maintenance LEED for Existing Buildings: Operations & Maintenance • Green Neighbourhood Development LEED for Neighbourhood Development • Green Home Design and Construction LEED for Homes (The LEED for Homes rating system is different from LEED v3, with different point categories and thresholds that reward efficient residential design). The assessment can be applied throughout a building lifecycle from design and construction, to operations and maintenance, tenant fit-out and even retrofit/refurbishment. Like BREEAM, LEED is a point-based system where building projects earn LEED points where satisfying specific green building criteria. Within each of the credit categories, there are specific prerequisites projects must satisfy and a variety of credits (Sustainable Sites, Water efficiency, Energy & atmosphere, Materials and Resources, Indoor Environmental Quality, Innovation in Design, Regional Priority) can pursue to earn points. The number of points the project earns determines its level of LEED certification. There are four levels of certification based on the number of points accrued; typical certification thresholds are shown in Figure 1.17.

International building standards

Figure 1.17 Levels LEED certification (Source: USGBC, 2014)

PLATINUM GOLD SILVER CERTIFIED 40-49 POINTS

50-59 POINTS

60-79 POINTS

80+ POINTS

The most common route for a building to be LEED accredited is by a LEED accredited professional to assemble the accreditation documentation. The evidence is then submitted to the USGBC which does the assessment and issues the certificate. The system has since been adopted by 24 other countries including India, Canada and Brazil, where it has been modified to suit their particular location and climates. Since 2010, thanks to a partnership with USGBC, GBC Italia has adapted to the Italian context and promoted LEED certification system for new constructions and refurbishment. In Italy LEED can claim 25 buildings already certified and over 100 under certification.

ITACA Protocol

ITACA Protocol, developed by SBC Italia (Sustainable Building Council), is a tool used to evaluate and certificate the level of environmental sustainability of buildings according their different destination of use (tertiary, commercial, industrial, residential, hospitals, museums, skyscrapers) in all the phases of the life cycle. It is based on SBMethod which consists in the idea to share a common standard allowing a variation at a local level. This protocol is a guide that suggests a direction, providing tools to measure the performance of the project respect to the current practice. The criteria of evaluation are organized in thematic areas: Site quality, Resource consumption, Environmental load, Indoor environmental quality and Service quality. The protocol assigns a global score when all the criteria are implemented. The

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building receives for each criterion and sub-criterion a score that can range from â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1 to +5: the value zero is assigned when the performance indicators equal the benchmark; the number 3 represents the best available constructive practice and the number 5 the excellence. (see Table 1.5)

-1

performance lower than standard of current practices

the minimum performance required by law or without regulations the standard of current practices

a little improvement of performance according to law and regulations

a middle improvement of performance according to law and regulations

a considerable improvement of performance according to law and current practices (it is the best current practice)

a significant improvement of the best current practices

a large performance improvement of the best current practices, such as experimental technologies

So far, it has been integrated within the EPBD implementation system in the regions Marche, Basilicata, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Lazio, Puglia and Toscana. Moreover, 13 regions (of the 20 in Italy) use it to assess the building at design stage. The ITACA certification allows benefits as incentives for renovation and urbanization burden reduction, volumetric bonuses and controlled loans (mainly for new buildings). Since 2007 the Conference of Regions and Autonomous Provinces has approved the draft regional law that refers to the protocol, as a common reference for regions to take up shared actions and initiatives in: â&#x20AC;˘ defining and developing procedures for the management and/or award of contracts including quality systems inspired by EN ISO; â&#x20AC;˘ promoting and disseminating good sustainability practices in services, supplies and public works;

Table 1.5 Rating system of Itaca Protocol (Source: ProItaca, 2014)

International building standards

â&#x20AC;˘ using eco-friendly certificated building materials. The subjects currently responsible for issuing certificates, based on regional ITACA Protocol, are identified by the individual Regions, while at the national level we have ESIt (Edilizia Sostenibile Italia), an initiative promoted by ITC-CNR and iiSBE Italy. From the comparison between categories and macro-areas of both the ITACA and LEED sustainability protocols it is clear that there are no significant technical differences. This is because both protocols share a common scientific basis, represented by international standards. The definition of LEED credits gives much importance to the construction phase of the site and its environmental effects, in order to control the production of waste and the emission of pollutants during the site construction. In ITACA protocol, instead, a greater importance is given to the consumption of resources with attention to environmental loads and the resulting CO2 emissions. Concerning that, a category of the protocol is dedicated to the maintenance and the management of the building, where care is taken to maintain the level of indoor environmental comfort during the life of the building.

Next to environmental certification that promote an approach in which the building is a single body in which all the elements exploit the mutual synergies, in order to minimize the environmental impacts of individual systems we have another key policy tool to improve energy efficiency: the energy performance certificate. This one certifies energy consumption expressed in kWh/mÂ˛ year of a building with assignment of specific performance classes marked with a letter. Unlike environmental certification that is voluntary and in some regions is required for access to volumetric and economic incentives, its drafting is compulsory, in compliance with national building energy regulations, for all new construction, existing building, renovation and bill of sales or lease.

Green building

Date introduced

Schemes available

Categories

Ratings (lowest to highest)

Assessment QA/Certification

BREEAM

LEED

ITACA

1990

1998

2001

Offices Retail Industrial Education Ecohomes Healthcare Bespoke Multi-residential International Courts Prisons

New construction Existing buildings Commercial Interiors Shell & core Schools Retail Healthcare Homes Neighbourhood development

Residential Offices Commercial Industrial Schools

Management Health and well-being Energy Transport Water Materials Waste Land use and ecology Pollution

Sustainable sites Water efficiency Energy and atmosphere Materials and resources Indoor environmental quality Innovation design

Site quality Resource consumptions Environmental loads Indoor environmental quality Service quality

Pass Good Very good Excellent Outstanding (from 2008)

Certified Silver Gold Platinum

-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 (see table 1.5)

Trained Assessors

US-GBC

Trained Assessors

BRE

US-GBC

Region or ESIt

Table 1.6 Comparison between the principal environmental certifications with the italian ITACA Protocol

International building standards

In order to prepare an energy certificate, it is first necessary to undertake an energy performance assessment of the building’s characteristics and systems. This is carried out by a qualified assessor who collects information on the building’s characteristics and components, as well as its energy systems and energy consumption. An assessment generally includes, as a minimum, an analysis of: • The form, area and other details of the building. • The thermal, solar and daylight properties of the building envelope and its air permeability. • Space heating installation and hot water supply, including their efficiency, responsiveness and controls. • Ventilation, air-conditioning systems and controls, and fixed lighting. • Fuel and renewable energy sources. Other elements, such as lighting systems and installed equipment and appliances, may also be included in the assessment (IEA Policy Pathway Energy Performance Certification Of Buildings).

KlimaHaus CasaClima

One of the most famous energy performance certifications of building in Italy is KlimaHaus-CasaClima established in 2002 thanks to ClimateHouse Agency. Buildings designed according to this standards can save up to 90% of the energy compared to traditionally built residences - thereby resulting in CO2 reductions and financial savings. The KlimaHaus-CasaClima promotes the adoption of building construction methods that meet energy saving and environment protection criteria. It offers easily understandable information as to the energy performance of a building, thus protecting consumer interests and helping to make better informed choices. There are three classes of KlimaHaus: • KlimaHaus Gold exhibits the lowest energy consumption of the three classes, with a heating energy consumption of ten kilowatt-hours per square metre annually, requiring practically no active

Green building

heating system. KlimaHaus Gold is also called “one-litre” construction, as it requires one litre of oil (or a single cubic metre of gas) per square metre each year. • Buildings with a heat consumption of less than 30 kilowatt-hours per square metre annually receive KlimaHaus A classification, and are also called “three-litre” buildings because of their usage of three litres of oil (or three cubic metres of gas). • In order to qualify as KlimaHaus B, a building’s heating energy consumption must be under 50 kilowatt-hours per square metre annually – the so-called “five-litre” category, which requires not more than five litres of heating oil (or 5 cubic metres of gas) per square metre yearly. A KlimaHaus building is characterised by high insulation and compact construction. In its shape and orientation, it makes use of the sun and its energy: with the aid of thermal protection windows, light enters the building and scarcely any warmth leaves. Thermal bridges must be avoided wherever possible. KlimaHaus buildings exhibit optimised construction methods, careful execution and a high level of comfort. Thus, a KlimaHaus building is energy-conscious, comfortable, environmentally friendly and health-promoting, economically profitable, free of construction damage and enhances property values.

PassiveHaus

The PassiveHaus is the another world‘s leading standard in energy efficient design. It was developed in Germany in the early 1990s by Professors Bo Adamson of Sweden and Wolfgang Feist of Germany and the first dwellings to be completed to the Passivhaus Standard were constructed in Darmstadt in 1991. In September 1996 the Passivhaus-Institut (PHI) was founded, also in Darmstadt, to promote and control the standards. Since then, thousands of Passivhaus structures

International building standards

have been built, to an estimated 25,000+ as of 2010. 40 Today, the Passive House Standard can be implemented in all types of buildings and can be applied to any climate in the world, it works equally as well in warm climates as it does in more moderate climates. 41 The official definition of PHI says that “a Passive House is a building, for which thermal comfort (ISO 7730) can be achieved solely by post-heating or post-cooling of the fresh air mass, which is required to achieve sufficient indoor air quality conditions – without the need for additional recirculation of air.” For a building to be considered a Passive House, it must meet the following criteria: 1. The Space Heating Energy Demand is not to exceed 15 kWh per square meter of net living space (treated floor area) per year or 10 W per square meter peak demand. In climates where active cooling is needed, the Space Cooling Energy Demand requirement roughly matches the heat demand requirements above, with a slight additional allowance for dehumidification. 2. The Primary Energy Demand, the total energy to be used for all domestic applications (heating, hot water and domestic electricity) must not exceed 120 kWh per square meter of treated floor area per year.

Note 40

Passivhaus.org.uk. (2011). The Passivhaus Standard. Retrieved from http://www.passivhaus.org .uk/standard.jsp?id=122 41

Passipedia. (2014). Basics. Retrieved from http://passipedia.passiv.de /ppediaen/basics

3. In terms of Airtightness, a maximum of 0.6 air changes per hour at 50 Pascals pressure (ACH50), as verified with an onsite pressure test (in both pressurized and depressurized states). 4. Thermal comfort must be met for all living areas during winter as well as in summer, with not more than 10 % of the hours in a given year over 25 °C. For a complete overview of general quality requirements (soft criteria) see Passipedia. All of the above criteria are achieved through intelligent design and implementation of the

Green building

Five Passive House principles are: thermal bridge free design, superior windows, ventilation with heat recovery, quality insulation and airtight construction.

PHI carries out the Passive House Certification which is not only available for buildings, but also for building components and professionals. The Passivhaus standard is sometimes confused with more generic approaches to passive solar architecture, with which it shares some common principles or it is compared with the Code for Sustainable Homes and BREEAM ratings for non-domestic buildings. In reality, the distinction is quite simple: Passivhaus is a specific energy performance standard that delivers very high levels

Figure 1.17 Basic principles apply for the construction of Passive Houses (Source: Passivhaus Institut)

International building standards

of energy efficiency, whilst the Code and BREEAM are overarching sustainability assessment ratings which address a large number of environmental issues. These standards are by no means mutually exclusive. Thus, the Passivhaus can therefore be considered both as a robust energy performance specification and a holistic low energy design concept.

Active House Protocol

Particular attention should be given also the ACTIVE HOUSE Protocol (www.activehouse.info), supported and managed by a group of Alliance Partners, which aims to develop buildings that give more than they take. It is a vision of buildings that create healthier and more comfortable lives for their occupants without impacting negatively on the climate, moving us towards a cleaner, healthier and safer world. The Active House vision defines highly ambitious long-term goals for the future building stock. The purpose is to join interested parts based on a balanced and holistic approach to building design and performance, and to facilitate cooperation in activities such as building projects, product development, research initiatives and performance targets that can move us further towards the vision. The Active House principles propose a target framework for how to design and renovate buildings that contribute positively to human health and well-being by focusing on the indoor and outdoor environment and the use of renewable energy. An Active House is evaluated on the basis of the interaction between energy consumption, indoor climate conditions and impact on environment.

Comfort â&#x20AC;&#x201C; creates a healthier and more comfortable life. An Active House creates healthier and more comfortable indoor conditions for the occupants, ensuring a generous supply of daylight and fresh air. Used materials have a neutral impact on comfort

Green building

and indoor climate.

Energy – contributes positively to the energy balance of the building. An Active House is energy efficient. All energy needed is supplied by renewable energy sources integrated in the building or from the nearby collective energy system and electricity grid.

Environment – has a positive impact on the environment. An Active House interacts positively with the environment through an optimized relationship with the local context, focusing on the use of resources and on its overall environmental impact throughout the life cycle. Comfort Daylight Thermal environment Indoor air quality Noise and acoustics

COMFORT

Energy Energy demand Energy supply Primary energy performance Energy validation on site Environment Environment loads Fresh water consumption Ecological impacts External context and accessibility

ENVIRONMENT

ENERGY

“It is not easy to choose an environmental performance rating system. The choice of the method depends on many factors such as the type of the building, whether the building is new or existing, the location and so on. The most important aspect is that green building rating systems can help to mitigate the impact of building on the environment by leading designs towards more efficient and sustainable solutions.” 42

Figure 1.18 Interaction between energy consumption, indoor climate conditions and impact on environment (Source: activehouse.info)

Case studies

1.7 Case studies

At this point, it is clear that an increasingly popular goal for green building is achieving Net Zero Energy. Net Zero Energy Buildings are highly energy-efficient buildings which use, over the course of a year, renewable technologies to produce as much energy as they consume from the grid. Buildings that produce a surplus of energy over the year are called energy-plus buildings, while buildings that consume slightly more energy than they produce are called near-zero energy buildings or ultra-low energy houses. Most net zero energy buildings use the electrical grid as energy storage but some of them are independent from such a grid. Energy is usually harvested on-site through a combination of energy-producing technologies like the solar and wind ones, while reducing the overall use of energy with highly efficient HVAC and lighting technologies. Zero Energy Building can be considered as a part of a smart grid. Some advantages of these buildings are as follows: â&#x20AC;˘ integration of renewable energy resources â&#x20AC;˘ integration of plug-in electric vehicles â&#x20AC;˘ implementation of zero-energy concepts The zero-energy concept allows for a wide range of approaches and many options for producing and conserving energy, combined with many ways of measuring energy (related to cost, energy or carbon emissions).43 For this reason, there are several definitions of Net Zero buildings based on where the boundaries for the energy balance are set. Here, there is a

Note 42

Boyukova, R. (July 31, 2014). BREEAM vs. LEED. Retrieved from http://www.bates.eu.com/ blogs/raya/2014/07/31/bre eam-vs-leed/ 43

Open IE. (n.d.) Net Zero. Retrieved from http://en.openei.org/wiki/D efinition:Net_Zero 44

Crawley, D., Pless, S. & Torcellini, P. (2009), Getting to Net Zero, ASHRAE Journal, 3. Retrieved from http://www.nrel.gov/docs/f y09osti/46382.pdf

summary of the main definitions from National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 44

Net Zero Site Energy A site NZEB produces at least as much renewable energy as it uses in a year, when accounted for at the site.

Net Zero Source Energy A source NZEB produces (or purchases) at least as much renewable energy as it uses in a year, when accounted for at the source. Source energy refers to the primary energy used to extract, process, generate and deliver the energy to the site. To calculate a building total source energy, imported and exported energy are multiplied by the appropriate site-to-source conversion

Green building

multipliers based on the utility source energy type.

Net Zero Energy Costs In a cost NZEB the amount of money the utility pays the building owner for the renewable energy the building exports to the grid is at least equal to the amount of money the owner pays the utility for the energy services and energy used over the year.

Net Zero Emissions A net zero emission building produces (or purchases) enough emission-free renewable energy to offset emissions from all energy used in the building annually. Carbon, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are common emissions that ZEBs offset. To calculate a building total emissions, imported and exported energy are multiplied by the appropriate emission multipliers based on the utility emissions and on-site generation emissions (if there are any).

Anyway, the key to design net zero energy buildings is first reducing energy demand as much as possible and then choosing good energy sources. Currently, there is only a small number of highly efficient buildings that meet the criteria to be called "Net Zero". These buildings are always designed to minimize the energy and environmental impacts of the project in order to obtain a high score in one of the certification systems before explained. In this paragraph we are going to illustrate some experimental or award-winning case studies in relation to a recently constructed city, park, high-rise, residential and office building, to understand their goals and performances.

Case studies

Masdar City

Location Abu Dhabi, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Architects Foster + Partners Area 6.000.000 m² Client Masdar-Abu Dhabi Future Energy Company Quantity Surveyor Cyril Sweet Limited M+E Engineer: W.S.P Transsolar, ETA Additional Consultants Gustafson Porter, Ernst and Young, E.T.A., Transsolar, Flack + Kurtz, Systematica Year 2007 Project value $ 22 billion

Masdar City is a award-winning project in Abu Dhabi, that is the world first entirely self-sustaining zero-carbon zero-waste car and skyscraper-free city. In Arabic Masdar means “the source” and refers to the company as well as to the city, being a source of knowledge, innovation and human capital development in the areas of renewable energy and clean technologies. Currently the first six buildings of the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology campus are fully functional. Three buildings are residential, two are laboratories and one is a Knowledge Centre. These buildings have a total of 35,000 m2 of gross floor area. Residents in Masdar city have a number of retails, services and food and beverage outlets and once a month city hosts an organic farmer market and street fair from April to October every year. The city is planned to cover 6 square kilometers. At full build-out by 2025, the city is expected to have 40,000 residents and 50,000 commuters who will work in 1,500 businesses, primarily commercial and manufacturing

Green building

Figure 1.19 Masdar Institute of Science and Technology campus (Source: Foster+Partners)

Case studies

facilities specialized in environmental-friendly products. The initial plan considered that cars would not be allowed inside the city. The travel will be accomplished via public mass transit and personal rapid transit (PRT) systems. The city is designed to encourage walking, while its shaded streets and courtyards offer an attractive pedestrian environment, isolated from climatic extremes.

Figure 1.20 Personal rapid transit (PRT) vehicles electrically powered. (Source: Foster+Partners)

Masdar city will employ a variety of renewable power resources, including the biggest solar farm in the Middle East with a total power of 130 megawatts (current power is 40-60 megawatts). Beside that, wind farms will be established outside the city perimeter, providing additional 20 megawatts. In addition to that, geothermal energy will be utilized as well and it is planned for Masdar city to host the world largest hydrogen power plant. City water needs will be covered by a solar-powered desalination plant. Masdar city will need a quarter of the power required for a similar sized community, while its water needs will be 60% lower. Furthermore, approximately 80% of the water will be recycled and waste water will be reused as many times as possible, being utilized for crop irrigation and other purposes. 45 Waste in Masdar city is planned to be reduced to zero. Biological waste Note 45

Renewable Energy Facts. (n.d.) Masdar City â&#x20AC;&#x201C; One of the most sustainable communities on Earth. Retrieved from http://renewableenergyfact s.org/masdar-city-one-of-t he-most-sustainable-com munities-on-earth/

will be used mostly as fertilizer and for the creation of nutrient rich soil, while a smaller percent of it as an additional power source. Plastic and industrial waste will be recycled or repurposed. Very interesting is also Tianjin Eco-City, the Chinese reply of Masdar city. The winning design for the Masdar city centre is LAVAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. It includes a plaza, five-star hotels, a convention centre, an entertainment complex and retail facilities. The entire area is designed as a continuous

Green building

spatial interactive environment (a loop). The â&#x20AC;&#x153;Oasis of the Futureâ&#x20AC;?, a mediated outdoor space, is an open spatial experience with solar-powered sun-flower umbrellas. 46

Note 46

LAVA. (n.d.) Masdar City Centre. Retrieved from http://www.l-a-v-a.net/proj ects/masdar-city-centre/

Case studies

Figure 1.21-26 Masdar city. Oasis of the Future with sun-flower umbrellas.

Green building

Gardens by the bay

Winner of 16 awards including The Landscape Institute Awards 2013 for Climate Change Adaptation and the World Building of the Year 2012, the Gardens by the Bay, located next to the Singapore Marina Bay Sands, is one of the largest garden projects of such a kind in the world. Ultimately, the site will total 101 hectares comprising three distinct gardens: Bay South, Bay East and Bay Central. Bay South is the largest garden, covering 54 hectares. Masterplanned by UK-based landscape architecture firm Grant Associates, this lively and vibrant garden showcases the best of tropical horticultures and garden artistry with a mass display of tropical flowers, coloured foliage and more. Key highlights are: • Supertrees Grove. Designed by Grant Associates as tree-like structures

Location Singapore Commission Parks, Public Gardens / River and coastal redevelopment Architects Wilkinson Eyre Architects Landscape Architect Grant Associates Engineers Atelier One, Atelier Ten Area 24.500 m² Client National Parks Board Singapore

from 25 to 50 metres in height (9 to 16 storeys), the 18 Supertrees are

Exhibition Design Land Design Studio

uniquely-designed vertical gardens, with emphasis placed on creating a

Year 2006-2012

“wow” factor through the vertical display of tropical flowering climbers,

Project value £ 500 million

Case studies

epiphytes and ferns. At night, these canopies come alive with lighting and projected media produced by Lighting Planners Associates. Eleven of the Supertrees are embedded with environmentally sustainable functions: some have photovoltaic cells on their canopies to harvest solar energy for lighting up the Supertrees, while others are integrated with the Conservatories and Figures 1.27-28 Day&Night version of the supertrees tower from the Dragonfly Bridge in the Gardens by the Bay, Singapore. The tallest one even has a restaurant in it. An elevated walkway spans around the trees for visitors.

serve as air-exhaust receptacles. This structures are made of four parts: a reinforcement concrete core, a trunk, some planting panels for the living skin and a canopy. Given the equatorial climate, the Supertrees grove will help to ameliorate comfort by providing shade and shelter through the canopy. The Supertrees support a bar at the top of the tallest tree (designed by Wilkinson Eyre Architects) and an aerial walkway experience 20 m above the ground (designed by Grant Associates).

Green building

• Cooled Conservatories. Designed by Wilkinson Eyre Architects, this complex is an architectural icon, a horticultural attraction and a showcase of sustainable energy technology. It comprises two biomes: the Flower Dome (1.2 hectares) and the Cloud Forest (0.8 hectares), that display plants and flowers respectively from the Mediterranean-type climatic regions and Tropical Montane (Cloud Forest) environments. The Conservatory Complex will provide an all-weather “edutainment” space within the Gardens. To ascertain the environmentally sensitive energy requirements of the Conservatory, NParks commissioned an energy modeling study. The study has shown that by applying the latest cooling technologies the Conservatory energy consumption is comparable to that of an average commercial building in Singapore of the same footprint and height, normalised to a 24-hour cooling period.

Figure 1.29 Cooled Conservatories, Gardens by the bay Figure 1.30 Exploded view of Gardens by the bay Figure 1.31 Cloud Forest interior with waterfall 30 m tall Figure 1.32 Cloud Forest:Mountain section

Case studies

• Horticultural Themed Gardens. Designed by Grant Associates and planted by NParks, these gardens showcase the best of tropical horticulture and garden artistry. Together with a mass flowering and coloured foliage landscape, they form a spectacle of colours, textures and fragrances within the Gardens, providing a mesmerising experience for visitors. There are 2 collections, namely the Heritage Gardens and The World of Plants, which centre on the subjects ‘Plants and People’ and ‘Plants and Planet’. Regarding Heritage Gardens, this is a collection of 4 gardens (the Malay, Indian, Chinese and Colonial Gardens), that reflect the history and culture of Singapore main ethnic groups as well as the city-state colonial heritage. Each Garden explores the rich cultural significance of different plant species including their symbolism, religious meaning, trade, food and medicinal uses, etc. Regarding The World of Plants, this second collection of gardens is based on the theme “Plants and Planet” and showcases the biodiversity of plant life on our planet. There are 6 gardens in total: Secret Life of Trees, World of Palms, Fruits & Flowers, Understorey, Discovery Garden and Web of Life. Figure 1.33 Plan of the Gardens by the bay, Singapore

Green building

â&#x20AC;˘ Other Garden Attractions of Bay South. In addition to this collection of special gardens, the site includes a wide range of additional Garden attractions. These include: - Supertree Grove is the largest garden at the heart of the site, featuring a cluster of 12 Supertrees. The garden is lined by a 300 m long colonnaded walkway, providing a shaded and dry connection across the site, and by a display of Aerial Root pergolas displaying tropical climbing plants. - Dragonfly Lake is a 1 km long lake creating a dramatic setting to the Supertrees and Conservatories. The distinctive Dragonfly Bridge connects the city to the central gardens. The lake is lined by board-walk and special aquatic gardens and by a system of filter beds that are part of the water quality management for the site. - Marina promenade is a 1 km tree lined walkway along the Marina edge, linking the city centre with the Barrage. - Tadpole Play Area is a nature themed playground, set within a planted rainforest. - Fragile Forest has been planted using native species to simulate a typical S.E. Asian Rainforest. - Events Lawn is a large open space capable of holding outdoor concerts and events for 10,000 people or more.

Figure 1.34 Use of energy diagram for the Gardens by the bay, Singapore

Case studies

Vertical forest

Location Milan, ITALY Commission Residential towers Architects Boeri Studio (Boeri, Barreca, La Varra) Area 40.000 m² Client HINES Italia Srl Year 2009-2014 Project value € 65 million

The Bosco Verticale, or Vertical Forest in English, is a model of a sustainable residential building, a project for metropolitan reforestation that contributes to the regeneration of the environment and urban biodiversity without the implication of expanding the city upon the territory. It is a model of vertical densification of nature within the city, operating in relation to the policies for reforestation and naturalization of large urban and metropolitan borders. The first example of Vertical Forest is composed by two residential towers 110 and 76 m height and will be realized in the centre of Milan, in Porta Nova district. It will host 900 trees (each measuring 3, 6 or 9 meters in height) and over 2000 plants from a wide range of shrubs and floral plants, that are distributed in relation to the façade position towards the sun. On flat land, each Vertical forest equals in amount of trees an area of 7000 m2

Green building

of forest or, in terms of urban densification, is equivalent to an area of single family dwellings of nearly 75.000 m2. The vegetal system of the Vertical Forest aids in the construction of a microclimate, produces humidity, absorbs CO2 and dust particles and provides oxygen. 47

Note 47

Stefano Boeri Architetti. (2014). Vertical forest. Retrieved from http://www.stefanoboeriarc hitetti.net/en/portfolios/bos co-verticale/

Case studies

Figures 1.35-36 Bio schemes of “Vertical forest” (Source: Boeri Studio)

The two towers have received LEED Gold, the high degree of energy certification. This was possible because Bosco Verticale is a system that optimizes, recovers and produces energy. According to Boeri Studio: “The diversity of the plants and their characteristics produce humidity, absorb carbon dioxide and dust particles, producing oxygen, and protect from radiation and

acoustic pollution, improving the quality of living spaces and saving energy. Plant irrigation will be provided to great extent through the filtering and reuse of the grey waters produced by the building. Additionally Aeolian and photovoltaic energy systems will contribute, together with the afore-mentioned microclimate, to increase the degree of energetic self- sufficiency of the two towers.” The construction cost of the entire project is only 5% greater than that of a usual skyscraper, making this sort of project feasible and replicable in other polluted cities across the globe.

Green building

Vertical forest by Boeri Studio has won the 2014 International Highrise Award, being selected from a competitive shortlist of towers by Rem Koolhass, Steven Holl and Jean Nouvel and deemed to be the “most beautiful and innovative highrise in the world”. The honor is awarded to a structure that combines exemplary sustainability, external shape and internal spatial quality (not mentioning social aspects) to create a model design. “The Vertical Forest is an expression of the human need for contact with nature” stated jury president Christoph Ingenhoven, who continues: “It is a radical and daring idea for the cities of tomorrow, and no doubt represents a model for the development of densely populated urban areas in other European countries.”

Figure 1.35-36 Terrace of “Vertical forest” (Source: Boeri Studio)

Case studies

RhOME for denCity

Location Versailles, FRANCE

The RhOME for denCity project, by an Italian team made up of students and staff from Rome University of Studies, has been declared the overall winner

Commission Modular unit for Solar Decathlon Europe 2014

of the European Solar Decathlon competition 2014. This is an international

Architects Teams of the UniversitĂ degli Studi di Roma Tre

from all over the world meet to design and build an energy efficient house,

Suppliers Rubner Holzbau Area 62 mÂ˛ Year 2014

competition organized by the US Energy Department in which 20 universities using solar energy and other technologies able to maximize the efficiency of the house. During the final phase of the competition, each team assembles in 8 days its house, which is open to the public and professionals over a period of 15 days. Each house is rated through 10 contests (architecture, engineering and construction, energy efficiency, electrical energy balance, comfort conditions, house functioning, communication and social awareness, urban design, transportation and affordability, innovation and sustainability) by a jury comprising construction professionals, technicians and scientists. House performances are assessed through measurement devices

Green building

and then rated using predefined criteria: the team with the highest score wins the competition. For the 2014 edition of the Solar Decathlon, each team had to come up with a zero-energy housing solution fitting the context and specificities of its homeland.

The proposal that pursues to ”re-densify and re-qualify the boundaries of Rome” by applying the principles of density and sustainability to this area where ”housing, country, archaeology and illegal buildings are interwoven”, is a part of an urban regeneration program for the district of Tor Fiscale in Rome. The key aim of the proposal is to replace illegally inhabited buildings with performant and ecological habitats. The prototype of Versailles represents the top floor of the complex. This choice derives from the intention to describe the architectural features and technological innovations that would not appear in a common floor or in the ground floor, where the focus is on the integration with the urban environment. • Architectural concept. The idea of good house living is told here through a clear spatiality, the result of a concept. The space is articulated around the 3d core, which is the plant and structural center of the house. This element hierarchizes and characterizes the space, defining the various areas of which the house is composed of: the kitchen, the living room and the bedroom. The views open up to the south-west and to the north-east are protected by loggias. The presence of these loggias in the two opposite corners ensures an original and versatile plan scheme, of which the Versailles prototype is only one possible configuration. Specifically, in the competition version the two main areas of the house related to public life (living room)

Figure 1.37 Render of Rhome for dencity building (Source: Rhomefordencity)

Case studies

and intimate life (bedroom) have direct contact with the outside world. In this way, each of these spaces receives the type of natural light suited to its function and in the phases of the day that compete to it. This condition also stands in terms of sustainability: in other words, this result is not achieved exclusively working on the density (above all), on the use of solar and passive energy and on the optimal exposure to the sun and the wind; but, attention has been paid also to the choice of materials and of technologies that would reduce consumptions as much as possible.

• Innovation. The first component of innovation at the building scale is his typology. The building structure is conceived in order to allow for the maximum flexibility, and in particular the possibility for housing to modify and grow up according to the family needs. The intention behind the particualrly deep loggias is to allow future transformations and switching between rooms and loggias. The innovation in that sense is to think about the future transformation in the design phase, by anticipating several possible configurations. By anticipating and allowing the future transformations the design can maintain its architectural concept and avoid illogical transformations driven by use needs. In addition to this “heavy” flexibility, based on the modifications of the loggias, the project also introduces a “light” flexibility in the facade appea-

Green building

rance by using photovoltaic shading screens. Such innovation in architectural typology is strictly and directly connected to categories of target users currently neglected by the Real Estate market in Rome: single people, temporary workers, young couples and old people, that represent the new claim for mid-term stay as they need an apartment for months or eventually few years. Today an increasing number of people don’t wish or cannot buy their own house, because of the economical situation or as the house represents for them an intentionally temporary solution due to several reasons. A new kind of architecture, in this case, meets an innovative dwelling demand. Figure 1.38 Prototype of Rhome for dencity (Source: Rhomefordencity)

Table 1.7 Technical data “RhOME for denCity”

• Sustainability. In today world, the respect for the environment means designing buildings that do not use an indiscriminate amount of energy and

Table 1.8 Comparison energy performances in new construction homes in the municipality of Rome (depend on energy used for heating systems – Epi – and for the production of domestic hot water – Epacs – both measured in kwh/m2 per year)

are produced with renewable sources. In fact, the production of solar energy and the use of high efficiency systems are not enough to offset the waste produced during the entire lifespan of today buildings. Using an innovative style and advanced building methods, the team has focused on new scenarios of environmental sustainability to optimize local climatic and material resources. One of the major climate typical problems of Rome is represented by the summer heat, so the team resorted to a series of passive strategies such as: strategic morphing of the house; design of the building envelope; summer shading through loggias; thermal inertia guaranteed by

Table 1.9 Distribution of consumptions in RhOME for denCity

Case studies

locally available natural thermal masses; natural ventilation through

Figures 1.39-40 Prototype of Rhome for dencity Interiors (Source: Rhomefordencity)

strategically located openings for cross ventilation. The prototype has also obtained the ‘KlimeHaus Nature’ certificate.

Gross heated floor area

Gross heated volume

External surface

Net floor area

Net heated volume

Ratio S/V

Site

Degree days

Climatic zone

76 m2

262 m3

325 m2

62 m2

167 m3

1,24

Rome

1425

Energy class C (limits of the law)

Energy class A

Energy class A+

RhOME for denCIty

68,4

34,2

8,55

86,4

43,2

17,55

Epi Epacs Epgl

Heating energy demand

Cooling energy demand

Domestic water heating energy demand

Epill (lighting EP)

Global energy demand

PV power generation

378,8 kWh

747,6 kWh

311,5 kWh

2500 kWh

3933 kWh or 63 kWh/m2

6000 kWh

•

Engineering The structural behavior is systemic and its goodness

depends on factors such as the inner coherence, the harmony between parts, the responsiveness to consolidated typologies, the quality of the constructive aspects, the reliability of mathematical models for the prediction and quantification of safety and so on. The structural system of

100

the urban aggregate consists of a reinforced concrete first floor, that supports further four floors, and the covering of a light-weight wooden building, made with frame-wall technology (Platform Frame). The first floor in reinforced concrete is formed by a central core constituted by structural walls, to which a 3D structural lattice of beams, always in reinforced concrete, is stuck, governing not only the first floor slab (in partially prefabricated reinforced concrete) but also the rest of the building. The foundation has been analyzed to find a typology allowing not to interfere with the archaeological heritage and making the soil around the building as much hydraulically permeable as possible. The beams of the structural lattice of the first floor are characterized by variable sections, which allow the higher stresses due to vertical loads be moved to the core, and meet the architectural principles of the project, limiting the height of the perimeter beams and defining a sort of structural â&#x20AC;&#x153;trayâ&#x20AC;? that holds the building. The choice of structural frame-wall typology (Platform Frame) is motivated by an attention for sustainability, lightness and quickness of installation. In fact, the Platform Frame system allows the building to respond adequately to vertical and horizontal loads, but in Italy this system may be adopted only for buildings of limited height (three floors). To overcome these limitations the team has chosen to use beams and columns in addition to the walls that will act as wind-bracing system, with steel Saint Andrew crosses integrated within them when necessary. â&#x20AC;˘ Protocol Active House To design active systems the first thing to be considered is how they will work in conjunction with effective passive energy strategies. The best strategy is to limit the demand first, then to design the systems that will meet it. In fact, the RhOME project follows the Active House Protocol, that puts together Environment, Energy production and Comfort to have a building as an efficient machine that optimizes the thermal and luminous comfort minimizing at the same time the energy consumption. The team used this protocol to verify its building design and validated it in collaboration with the team of the Polytechnic of Milan.

Green building

Case studies

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tvZEB

Location Vicenza, ITALY Commission Zero Energy Office Architects Traverso-Vighy Structural Engineering Loris Frison Area 190 mÂ˛ Year 2012

Tvzeb is an experimental zero energy building brought to fruition by virtue of a cooperative endeavour between the Traverso-Vighy architecture studio and the University of Paduaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Department of Technical Physics, to meet new EU standards requiring that all new public buildings from 2020 to be zero-energy buildings. Tvzeb links to sustainability, following different targets, not limited to energy zero: his cradle in the Vicenza hills imposes a natural relation with the territory, enjoying the landscape view , but also more actively, using components produced by local craftsmen and industries and selecting colors and materials to be easily assimilated by the surrounding nature. Tvzeb will be totally maintained by the local energy (wood combustion, solar energy, geothermal), which, supported by the excellence technology of some companies partners in the project will make it completely self-sufficient.

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Green building

โ ข Landscape. Site location had a strong influence on determining the evolution of the Tvzeb project, dictating a marked awareness of the environment and an ongoing relationship with the natural context surrounding the building. The faรงade overlooking the woods affords the occupants with ample views of the seasonal and circadian changes in light. Figure 1.42 Plan of tvZeb (Source: tvZeb.org)

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â&#x20AC;˘ Lightweight building. The foundation is positioned in order to transfer the load of a very lightweight structure built with eco-friendly materials to the earth below. A reinforced concrete base plate rests suspended on the foundation. The skeleton framework is composed of glulam timber portals that also support the second level floor. Figure 1.43 tvZeb structure and building envelope (Source: tvZeb.org)

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Green building

• Prefab building. All the building components were manufactured off-site and dry assembled onsite. Prefabrication of wood, glass and metal elements was almost entirely accomplished with CNC machinery, thus guaranteeing precision, quality and reduced assembly time – roughly four months for construction, excluding site excavation. • Local suppliers of recycled and recyclable materials.The entire building was realized with the support of a pool of companies in the Veneto Region. Their collaboration and expertise were essential in developing and applying the necessary technology to achieve the project goals. The supply of all the materials, as well as the technological development required to operate the building, originated within a radius of 70 km from the construction site. All the materials were selected on the basis of their recyclability or given that they derived from recycled products. In order to achieve this, for example, indoor and outdoor materials are free of surface finishes or varnishes, permitting natural rusting and aging to occur as an inherent value in the quality of the building. Likewise, the insulating panels are made with 180 mm of polyester fiber wadding from 40,000 recycled plastic bottles. • Solar building. The overall design of the building and its orientation were designed to maximize the benefits of the solar cycle by exploiting heat rays during winter when the sun’s position allows sunrays to penetrate through the building envelope, and to effectively shade the building in summer months by blocking out the sunlight. • Natural ventilation. Complementing the role of the building envelope during the intermediate seasons, the indoor temperature is regulated by an automatic control system that opens some operable windows connected to sensors that measure the natural ventilation of indoor spaces. • Daylight. Natural daylight plays a fundamental role in the project, both in terms of indoor climatic conditions and in terms of visual comfort and well-being for the building occupants. The building was conceived as a “daylight funnel” facing south, incorporating a design that maximizes sunlight exposure during the winter months and entirely excludes direct radiation during summer months. • Circadian lighting. Natural light is integrated by an accurate and efficient indirect lighting system that involves a sequence of LED bars recessed into

Figures 1.44-45 Illimination schemes of tvZeb (Source: tvZeb.org)

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105

106

the floor. The light from these sources is reflected off by the internal walls, fitted in mill-finished aluminum. Each bar combines light from three different LED sources (4000 K natural white, 6000 K cool white and amber), dynamically supplementing and emulating the natural light spectrum that penetrates the building envelope from outdoors. • Wood stove. During the winter months, insulation and heating created by the control room computers maintain stable internal air temperature. In addition, a wood stove connected to radiant panels even provides the heat distribution in the entire building. • Insulation. A double layer of 90 mm (3.5 inch) polyester fibre wadding insulates the perimeter walls and the roofing of the home. The polyester fibre was made from the recycling of approximately 40,000 plastic bottles and provides optimum thermal and acoustic insulation. The energy used to produce the material is also minimal when compared to mineral wool. • Energy from the sun. 16 “sunpower” photovoltaic panels are integrated in the building design. The 5.6 kWh produced by such a system supply the annual energy demand for all the building functions.

Green building

Figure 1.46 tvZeb concepts (Source: tvZeb.org)

Case studies

Figures 1.47-48 External view of tvZeb (Source: tvZeb.org)

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â&#x20AC;˘ Geothermal energy. A geothermal heat pump at the center of the building controls the temperature of air and water flow, once again taking advantage of the studio proximity to the woods and of the stable microclimatic condi-

Figures 1.49 Internal view of tvZeb (Source: tvZeb.org)

tions of the subsoil. The system uses a 40 m underground tube, set at a depth of 1.5 m. â&#x20AC;˘ Rainwater Harvesting. Rainwater is captured in water storage tanks to meet the demands of irrigating the surrounding garden.

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Zeb Pilot House

Snøhetta, in partnership with the Norway Research Center on Zero Emission Buildings, has developed the ‘ZEB pilot house’. Although the volume of this structure represents a single family house, the building is intended to be used as a demonstration platform to facilitate learning on building methodologies for plus houses with integrated sustainable solutions. “The house in the garden has a characteristic tilt of 19 degrees towards southeast and a sloping roof surface clad with solar panels (150 m2) and collectors (16 m2). A Snøhetta representative told that the photovoltaic array is expected to produce 19200 kWh annually, while the house total electricity needs are calculated as just 7272 kWh per year.” 48 In addition, a rainwater collection system provides water for toilet and garden use. These elements, together with geothermal energy from energy wells in the ground, will serve the energy needs of the family house and generate enough surplus to power an electric car year-round. For that to become a successful reality, architecture and technology must come together and ensure optimization of both comfort and energy use.

Location Ringdalskogen, Larvik, NORWAY Commission Zero Emission Demonstration Building Architects Snøhetta, ZEB, SINTEF, Brødrene Dahl, and Optimera Client Optimera and Brødrene Dahl (Saint Gobain) Area 200 m² Year 2014

Case studies

Figures 1.50-53 External views of Zeb pilot house (Source: SnĂ¸hetta)

Note 48

Williams, A. (September 24, 2014). ZEB Pilot House generates much more electricity than it needs. Retrieved from http://www.gizmag.com/ze b-pilot-house-snohetta/33 871/

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Green building

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An atrium with a fireplace and furnishing has been constructed for outdoor dining, and a small breakfast spot has been built from recycled timber blocks. There is also a firewood-heated sauna and fruit trees and vegetable gardens to enable small-scale food production. Materials used on interior surfaces have been chosen on the basis of their ability to contribute to good indoor climate and air quality, as well as for their aesthetic qualities.

Figures 1.54-57 Internal views of Zeb pilot house (Source: Multikomfort.no)

Figure 1.58 Technological system of Zeb pilot house (Source: SnĂ¸hetta)

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The project has a strong focus on retaining home-like qualities through non-quantifiable properties. Emotive comfort and sense of well-being have governed the design process to the same extent as energy demands. 49 “The residence design adheres to ‘multi-comfort’ standards beyond the demands of current building codes regarding energy use, air permeability, daylight factor, acoustics, warmth and indoor air quality. Additionally,

the

structure

meets

the

requirements

for

‘ZEB-OM’

Note 49

Snøhetta. (2014). ZEB Pilot House. Retrieved from http://snohetta.com/projec t/188-zeb-pilot-house 50

Fredrickson, T. (August 28, 2014). ZEB pilot house by snøhetta to produce positive net energy in Norway. Retrieved from http://www.designboom.c om/architecture/snohetta-z eb-pilot-house-08-28-201 4/

classification, which include zero emission in daily operation and from all materials used in the construction process, as well as from all user equipment, including an electric vehicle with a minimum annual range of 20,000 kilometers. To evaluate the building performance and ensure it keeps accommodating energy requirements for ZEB-OM classification, including a 100% CO2 offset, the project will be closely monitored and documented over its lifetime.” 50 Focusing on carbon emissions associated with building materials represents a new direction in the vital impulse toward a sustainable construction industry.

2. The “Cradle to Cradle” approach: a new era for building design

2.1 Guidelines for building design from ‘Cradle to Cradle’

Cradle to Cradle (C2C) is a design paradigm and a business model created in the 1990s by the chemist Michael Braungart and the architect William McDonough. The C2C design is fundamentally based on the concept of improving product quality by moving from simply being “less bad” to become “more good.” The C2C vision is strongly related to the discussion about eco-efficiency and eco-effectiveness.

2.1.1 C2C philosophy

0 Eco-efficient approach = “Less Bad”

Figure 2.1 Eco-efficient and eco-effective charts (Source: MBDC)

0 Eco-effective approach = “More good”

Conventional eco-efficient approaches concern the demand side of production and try to simply reduce or minimize the harmful impact of human activities on environment (with a primary focus on the effect of production processes), without allowing the socio-economic value thereof to decrease. Within the sphere of material management, this corresponds to dematerialisation efforts as a result of consuming less. But, according to the godfathers of C2C, eco-efficiency techniques have a negative footprint, as they only strive to bound such effects without providing any real alternative

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to the linear “cradle to grave” model of material streams leading from raw material to waste.

Cradle to Grave Design Paradigm

Figure 2.2 Cradle to Grave Design Paradigm (Source: EPEA Taiwan, 2014)

Thus, the majority of the so-called recyclable materials are reused in lesser applications (down-cycling) and toxic substances remain in circulation as a result of the attempts to extend the lifecycles of products and services. This because the goal of efficiency is just to facilitate the economic development. Conversely, by adding to eco-efficiency concept what the godfathers of C2C call the eco-effective approach concerning the supply side of production, we are changing from “doing more with less” to “doing the right things”.

“An eco-efficient approach would allow the use of

fossil fuels to be minimized, but it will never be possible to eliminate their use completely. Simply reducing the problem will never solve it completely, and will also limit freedom of trade and growth opportunities. Eco-effectiveness is based on a closed-cycle approach, in which materials are used in new products, processes and objects in a way that they are 100% re-usable or can be recycled, and in which the energy for all activities must be 51 renewable.”

In such a way we can direct innovation and leadership towards a positive or beneficial footprint, as we are integrating the goals based on Cradle to

Note 51

Van De Westerlo, B. (2011). Sustainable development and the Cradle to Cradle® approach. University of Twente, Enschede.doi 10.3990/1.978903653181 8

C2C philosophy

115

Note

Cradle values and principles.

In particular, the Cradle to Cradle approach combines both eco-efficient

McDonough, W. (2005). William McDonough on cradle to cradle design, presentation at TED 2005 conference. http://www.ted.com/talks/ william_mcdonough_on_cr adle_to_cradle_design.html

and eco-effective approaches on a unique, coherent and positive trajectory. Concerning that, in 2005 William Mc Donough stated “Our goal is a delightfully diverse, safe, healthy and just world, with clean air, water, soil and power – economically, equitably, ecologically and elegantly enjoyed.” 52

E IMIZ OPT

T AC MP I E ITIV POS

Figure 2.3 The Up-Cycle Chart. Cradle to Cradle continuous improvement strategy (Source: MBDC, 2014)

IZE IM N MI INVENTORY definition PHASE 1

ASSESSMENT values

PHASE 2

ACT IMP E V TI GA NE

OPTIMIZATION metrics

PHASE 3

To this aim, as a response to the negative effects of the current ‘reduction’ approach of eco-efficiency strategies, the two founding fathers of C2C propose a positive agenda for designing and manufacturing products and services for which the synergy between economic and social objectives are forcefully promoted. As previously said, all is based on the adoption of eco-effective approaches, which provide a different broad conceptual paradigm for finding targeted solutions to several social and principally environmental issues, such as conserving raw material quality rather than reducing waste. In detail, the highest ambition of Cradle to Cradle, known as zero waste, is the manufacture of completely safe and fully healthy products instead of reducing harmful substances (similarly to what happens for zero emission), maximizing at the same time the positive impact of human activities. So,

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while eco-efficiency strategies promote a smaller consumption (cf. consumption cut back) and the extension of the lifespan of products, on the contrary eco-effective measures allow for an unfettered consumption and short life-cycles, on the binding conditions that: • the quality of raw materials (called nutrients within the C2C approach) is retained (via recycling) or improved (via up-cycling); • renewable energy feeds the production and consumption; • products and services do not cause any damage to man or to the environment.

The key element of C2C philosophy is providing safe and healthy products, a drastic substitution of toxic elements is necessary. However, the Cradle to Cradle is not the only concept or philosophy about how we should re-think our products and processes from a sustainable point of view. For instance, the concept of Industrial ecology introduces the idea of an industrial ecosystem that would work as an analogue to biological ecosystems. According to it, materials should circulate in continuous loops and the waste of one process becomes the food for another process. Despite of that, the most important differentiating element of Cradle to Cradle in relation to these concepts is its revolutionary ambition level. In fact, while the other strategies are generally embedded in the idea of eco-efficiency for which sustainability and environmental aspects are exclusively seen from a cost perspective, in the C2C the attractiveness towards business comes from its focus on adding value by enhancing quality. This makes this new approach distinct from any other interpretation and, for some aspects, unique in the eco-sustainable architecture scenario (see Table 2.1). From a pragmatic point of view, the practical conversion of the eco-effectiveness approach is provided via several design principles that form the basis of the C2C paradigm. These principles rest on the concept of "integral chain management” in order to effectively recuperate good quality raw materials, and are further elaborated in the following paragraphs.

Table 2.1 Cradle to Cradle approach vs. Sustainability approach (Source: EPEA Switzerland)

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Cradle to Cradle®

Sustainability

Perspective

Cradle to Cradle

mainly Cradle to Grave

Orientation

Environmental quality goals to reach

Problems to reduce, avoid, minimize

Method

Circularity, Cradle to Cradle, Back-and forecasting loop

mainly linearity, mainly Cradle to Grave, forecasting

Indicators

Qualitative prior to quantitative

Quantitative

Environmental impact

Maximization of the positive effects for humans, environment and maintaining the quality of raw materials

Things are countable. Goal in reducing negative impacts

Profit People Emphasis Planet Plasure

2.1.2 C2C principles

In the book “Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things” (2002) William McDonough and Michael Braungart describe three essential principles which new products, as well as buildings, areas, etc should be designed according to in order to meet eco-effectiveness objectives:

Waste = food

Use of current solar income

Celebrate diversity

in imitation of natural material-reuse cycles, everything is a nutrient for something else. In other words, biological and technological “nutrients” are reused as nutrients for natural and/or human production processes. in imitation of the way living organisms work, use of day-to-day solar energy and other forms derived from it, such as biomass, wind, water and geothermal energy, is made to support production processes and also to provide heating, electricity and daylight in buildings. in imitation of a multiplicity of complex healthy eco-systems in the natural world, several forms of variety-based systems, such as bio-diversity, social-cultural and conceptual diversity, are promoted and combined.

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These principles will be explained in detail to follow.

Waste = food The main trademark of Cradle to Cradle is no doubt the “waste = food” concept. Cradle to Cradle is based on the idea that after the use of products and services the embedded materials, water and energy cannot be wasted. Rather, Cradle to Cradle would make an optimal use of these resources by pertinently creating continuous material loops. In short, this can be understood as to close the material cycle. In practice, more than in nature, materials may but do not need to come back to the original producer. The keypoint is that the material has to be reused, either by the same producer or by other actors in the same or different sectors. Inspired by the functioning of living organisms, Cradle to Cradle defines a conceptual framework in order to design products, systems and industrial processes so that materials change into nutrients after their use, to be reused for new natural or industrial production processes. This requires that the considered material since the design stage is housed in one of two different types of systems, namely biological and technical cycle:

Biological cycle

Technical cycle

consumer goods (natural fibers, cosmetics, detergents, etc) are designed so that they can be used in biological cycles over and over again. They decompose to organic nutrients and promote biological systems such as plant growth. Biological nutrients usually have a natural origin, but can also include synthetic materials such as bio-polymers, that are safe for human and natural systems. The renewable raw materials are in turn the basis for new products. durable goods (TV sets, cars, synthetic fibers, etc), after fulfilling their initial function, are disassembled and their technical nutrients (polymeric or mineral parts) make possible the production of new commodities in a continuous industrial cycle. Within this technological metabolism, it is important that

Guidelines for building design from Cradle to Cradle | C2C principles

Figure 2.4 The two basic cycles of Cradle to Cradle. (Source: EPEA Taiwan, 2014)

119

the quality of technical nutrients are ever maintained or upgraded through the multiple cycles of production, recovery and reuse. Thus, the conventional recycling has to be avoided, because it mostly ends in down cycling where inevitable residues remain and decreased quality occurs. In addition to that, McDonough and Braungart propose to disconnect the ownership and the use of a service product. In this way, users/consumers purchase only the relevant services, such as the television reception, while materials remain a property of the manufacturer, which retains them through collection and reenters them into the technical cycle.

速

cradletocradle

Biological Cycle

Technical Cycle

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Table 2.2 Representation of the biological and technological cycle as a function of the type of use for the product (Source: EPEA)

Consumption Part / Products

Service Part / Product

Biological Cycle

Technical Cycle

is made from a renewable resource

is produced from renewable or non-renwable resources

enters the environment through diffuse processes (e.g. wastewater streams)

enters an industrial take back and (true) recycling system to recover the materials on the same quality level over and over

acts as a nutrient for processes in the environment that enable production of new resources

acts as a nutrient for the production of new products (same or other)

is beneficial to humans or ecosystem along the biological cycle

is beneficial to humans or ecosystem along the technical cycle

Use of current solar income The Industrial Revolution brought with it new technologies, new opportunities related to these technologies and prosperity, as well as well-being for an increasing share of a growing population. However, these technologies inextricably linked Western society with fossil fuels, creating the illusion that humanity was no longer dependent on nature. Post-modern buildings, factories and even entire cities still form a barrier to nature and its local energy sources. Moreover, they have become more dependent on international supplies of a dwindling inventory of fossil fuels and nuclear fuels. Therefore, throughout the centuries, the knowledge and skills concerning the extraction and manipulation of local energy flows have substantially been reduced. Living organisms thrive thanks to the energy of the sun. Plants produce food through solar energy, that is a continuous source of energy for our planet. McDonough and Braungart promote the use of this renewable energy source for

heating,

electricity

and

day-lighting

within

buildings

and

for

manufacturing processes within the industry. In addition to the direct use of solar energy, within C2C other energy forms, such as wind, water and geothermal energy (which are also positive effects of solar rays), are also

Note 53

Stouthuysen, P. and Le Roy, D. (2010). Cradle to Cradle: theoretical framework, C2CNetwork. Retrieved from http://www.c2cn.eu/sites/d efault/files/C2C_theor_fram ework.pdf

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much sought for. 53 While taking the initial C2C principle into account, the ultimate goal of C2C is the design of processes and products that not only give back their biological and technological nutrients but also return the energy they use.

Celebrate diversity After millions of years, the Earth has evolved into a place where thousands of life forms coexist. The design pattern of nature leads to an exuberant diversity, in which biological systems are constantly evolving. However, some of human-kind actions destroy this (bio-) diversity and replace them with monotony. For example, large-scale deforestation globally leads to deserts, intensive agriculture to arid soils, while asphalt and concrete layer to inert landscape, where only the strongest species, such as cockroaches and rats, survive. Healthy ecosystems are complex networks of living organisms. Each member of the ecosystem is involved in maintaining the system as a whole and works creatively and effectively together the others in growing the system. Diversity in nature builds resilience. Such diversity should serve as a model for human design, as it would lead to more resilient organisations and even economies. So, not only bio-diversity should be encouraged, but diversity in its general meaning and its different forms.

Furthermore, diversity in nature takes into account local conditions. Note

This principle essentially leads to an innovation based on the adaptation to

54 Debacker, W., Geerken, T., Stouthuysen, P., Holm, V.M., Vrancken, K. and Willems, S. (2011). Sustainable building, material use and cradle to cradle: A survey of current project practices, OVAM, Mechelem, Belgium. Retrieved from http://www.c2cn.eu/sites/d efault/files/Build-MaterialsC2C_EN_Full%20report.pd f

local conditions. For example, an office or a warehouse can be designed so that it can be used by multiple generations. That is, instead of building it for one specific application - then it must be later demolished or impractically renovated - it can be adapted for multiple uses, taking into account the different needs for each user. 54

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The Cradle to Cradle Certified Program was founded in 2005 by McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry (MBDC) and it applies to materials,

components

and

end-products.

Then,

2010

William

2.1.3 C2C certification

McDonough and Dr. Michael Braungart established the non-profit Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute (CCPII) to manage and administer the certification program as an independent third-party organization. MBDC gifted an exclusive license to the institute for the product certification mark and methodology. MBDC, together with the Environmental Protection Encouragement Agency (EPEA), are the leading accredited assessors for the certification program and partners with product manufacturers to complete the certification process. The Cradle to Cradle Certifiedâ&#x201E;˘ Product Standard guides designers and manufacturers to a continuous improvement process that looks at a product through five quality categories: material health, material reutilization, renewable energy and carbon management, water stewardship and social fairness. A product receives an achievement level in each category (Basic, Bronze, Silver, Gold or Platinum), with the lowest achievement level representing the product overall mark.

The five categories are summarized as follows:

Material health

Material Reutilization

Renewable Energy & Carbon Management

Making products out of materials that are safe for humans and the environment. Designing products so all materials can return safety to nature or industry.

Assemblong and manufacturing products just with renewable energy.

Figure 2.5 C2C product certification levels. (Source: MBDC)

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Figure 2.6 C2C Categories. (Source: MBDC)

Water Stewardship

Social Fairness

Making products in ways that protect and enrich water supplies.

Treating all the people involved in the product manufacturing.

Product assessments are performed by a qualified independent organization trained by the Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute. Assessment Summary Reports are reviewed by the Institute, which certifies products that meet the Standard requirements and licenses the use of the Cradle to Cradle Certifiedâ&#x201E;˘ word and design marks to the product manufacturer. Every two years, manufacturers must demonstrate good faith efforts to improve their products in order to have their products recertified. This products are included into a Product Registry available on line at c2ccertified.org. Visitors to the site can search for certified products by keyword, category, certification level, or a combination of all three.

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The certification procedure runs according to the key steps below:

PLAN

ANALYZE

ASSESS

CERTIFY

RENEW

Visit c2ccertified.org to review the certification program overview and choose an accredited assessor who will reviewyour product’s preliminary information and respond with a comprehensive certification plan: timeline, estimated cost, trademark licensing considerations, and clearly assigned responsibilities for all aspects of data collection and assessment.

Work with your assessor to establish what is in your product, how it is made, and what happens to it at the end of use. You will complete the product’s Bill of Materials, optimization plans, and other documentation usually with non-disclosure agreements in places between the assessor, your company, and your suppliers.

Your assessor follows the guidelines in the product standardto evaluate in detail the composition of product ingredients and manufacturing processes. This includes a site visit to the final manufacturing/ assembling facilities and the completion of an Assessment Summary Report to be submittedto the Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute for review.

Products that meet the criteria receive the Cradle to Cradle Certified hallmark at a specified level of achievement.You will be asked to sign the Institute’s Trademark License Agreement to guide your use of the mark on the product and marketing materials. Your product will be added to the online product registry and circulated to the Institute’s network of like -minded product listings. The Institute team is on hand to support your marketing efforts.

Companies must maintain the certification by updating product and process data, as well as showing good faith efforts to make continuous improvement in all criteria categories.

Since the program began in 2005, more than 150 companies from over 15 countries have participated in the Cradle to Cradle Certified Program. Currently there are over 425 certified products, which include building materials, interior design products, textiles and fabrics, paper and packaging, personal and homecare products. The Cradle to Cradle Certified Program does not apply to people, businesses, buildings or processes.

Available Scorecard Template

Product Registry Scorecard

MATERIAL HEALTH

GOLD

MATERIAL REUTILIZATION

GOLD

RENEWABLE ENERGY & CARBON MANAGEMENT

SILVER

WATER STEWARDSHIP

SILVER

SOCIAL FAIRNESS

GOLD

OVERALL SCORE

SILVER

Figure 2.7 The chart on the side is an example of a product score-card, which has attained the Silver certification. (Source: MBDC)

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An overview of the quality category requirements and the award levels in the current version 3.0 of the Cradle to Cradle Certified Product Standard is given in tables from 2.3 to 2.8.

Table 2.3 Material health requirements (Source: Cradle to Cradle Certified Program, MBDC)

Material health

Basic

Bronze

Silver

Gold

Platinum

Basic

Bronze

Silver

Gold

Platinum

No banned List chemicals Materials defined as biological or technical nutrient 100% “characterized” (all generic materials) Strategy developed to optimize x-assessed materials At least 75% of materials assessed by weight At least 95% of materials assessed by weight No X -assessed materials due to CMR concerns 100% of materials assessed by weight Formulation optimized (100% positive chemistry) Meets Cradle to Cradle VOC emission standards Process chemicals assessed and optimized

Table 2.4 Material utilization requirements (Source: Cradle to Cradle Certified Program, MBDC)

Material utilization Defined the appropriate cycle (TN or BN) Plan for product recovery and reutilization Material (re)utilization score ≥ 35 Material (re)utilization score ≥ 50 Material (re)utilization score ≥ 65 Nutrient management strategy complete Material (re)utilization score ≥ 100 Product is actively being recovered and cycled

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Renewable energy & carbon management

Basic

Bronze

Silver

Gold

Platinum

Basic

Bronze

Silver

Gold

Platinum

Quantify purchased elecrticity and on-site emissions Renewable energy and carbon management strategy

Table 2.5 Renewable energy & carbon management requirements (Source: Cradle to Cradle Certified Program, MBDC)

5% of purchased electricity is renewable or offset 5% of direct on-site emissions are offset 50% of purchased electricity is renewable or offset 50% of direct on-site emissions are offset ≥ 100% of purchased electricity is renewable or offset ≥ 100 % of direct on-site emissions are offset ≥ 5% of embodied energy from Cradle to Gate is covered by offsets or addressed + optimization strategy

Water stewardship No discharge violations within the last two years Local- and business water issues characterized Stated intent to mitigate identified problems A facility-wide water audit is completed Process chemicals in effluent are characterized & assessed or Strategy for ≥ 20 % of supply chain water issues Process chemicals in effluent are optimized or Progress against Silver level strategy Water leaving the facility = drinking water quality

Table 2.6 Water stewardship requirements (Source: Cradle to Cradle Certified Program, MBDC)

Guidelines for building design from Cradle to Cradle | C2C principles

Table 2.7 Socail fairness requirements (Source: Cradle to Cradle Certified Program, MBDC)

Social fairness

Basic

127

Bronze

Silver

Gold

Platinum

Conduct streamlined self-audit Management plan to address identified issues Social responsability self-audit + positive impact strategy Material specific audit/certification ≥25% of product or Supply chain issues investigated and strategy developed or Conduct an innovative social project Two of the Silver-Level requirements are complete All three Silver-Level requirements are complete Thirdy-party facility-level audit is complete

Note

Huge importance in the Cradle to Cradle Program has a material evaluation

method called ABC-X categorization. According to the health impacts on

C2C in TW. (n.d.). Cradle to Cradle Terms & Definitions. Retrieved from http://www.c2cplatform.tw /en/c2c.php?Key=3

human and the environment, substances, materials and products are classified into A, B, C and X levels, where 55: • A stands for the preferred choice • B stands for an optimized choice • C stands for an acceptable choice • X stands for an hazardous choice

Table 2.8 ABC/X Categorization (Source: Cradle to Cradle Certified Program, MBDC)

ABC/X Categorization Category

Description

The material is ideal from a Cradle to Cradle perspective for the product in question.

The material supports largely to Cradle to Cradle objective for the product.

Moderately problematic properties of the material in terms of quality from a Cradle to Cradle perspective are traced back to the ingredient. The materials is still acceptable for use.

Highly problematic properties of the material in terms of quality from a Cradle to Cradle perspective are traced back to the ingredient. The optimization of the product requires phasing out this ingredient or material.

GREY Banned

This material cannot be fully assessed due to either lack of complete ingredient formulation, or lack of toxological information for one or more ingredients BANNED FOR USE IN CERTIFIED PRODUCTS This material contains one or more substances from the Banned list and cannot be uses in a certified product.

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This rating system has been developed to give product designers the opportunity to identify those chemicals and materials having the greatest hazard, in order to pick safer alternatives. For this reason, it was developed

Note 56

Stouthuysen, P. and Le Roy, D., Op cit., p. 18

the “Preference Lists” (P Lists). These lists contain those materials that, on account on their excellent properties, offer no cause for concern as regards human health or the environment. Rather than listing products that should be excluded, P Lists, as the name suggests, contain the best known materials suited to a particular usage such as dying textiles or stabilizing plastic. “According to C2C experts, the main difference between Cradle to Cradle and approaches such as BREEAM and LEED is that the first step for designers is to state their intentions as goals, then achieve those over time by using roadmaps. Stating intentions and establishing roadmaps to achieve goals is absent from most other methods.” 56

The Cradle to Cradle product certification is both comprehensive and rigorous. It requires a paradigm shift in thinking about how a product is designed, what is in it and where it goes after use.

From an eco-efficiency approach green buildings are considered to be buildings that are attempting to reduce these negative impacts as much as possible. From an eco-effective or Cradle to Cradle approach it is not the size of the footprint that matters but the nature of this footprint. Instead of a negative footprint we should maximize positive impacts to result in a final positive footprint. McDonough and Braungart suggest to look how nature does and introduce the concept of “houses like trees” and “cities like forests”. Buildings should be, just like trees, harvesting energy from the sun, removing dust and CO2 from the air, etc.. In their book McDonough and Braungart generally refer to the cherry tree metaphor:

“As

it [the cherry tree] grows, it seeks it own regenerative abundance. But this process is not singlepurpose. In fact, the tree’s growth sets in motion a number of positive effects. It provides food

2.1.4 C2C and building design

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for animals, insects and micro organisms. It enriches the ecosystem, sequestering carbon, producing oxygen, cleaning air and water, and creating and stabilizing soil. Among its roots and branches and on its leaves, it harbors a diverse array of flora and fauna, all of which depend on it and on one another for the functions and flows that support life. And when the tree dies, its returns to the soil, releasing, as it decomposes, minerals that will fuel healthy new growth in the same place.â&#x20AC;?â&#x20AC;? Note

In regard to, on request of The Wall Street Journal in the Spring of 2009,

William McDonough + Partners envision a sustainable home of the future

William McDonough + Partners. (n.d.). House Like a Tree. Retrieved from http://www.mcdonoughpar tners.com/projects/house-l ike-a-tree/

using nature as a source of inspiration and guidance, the team set out to design a home that functions like a tree. The house uses sunlight to generate energy, cleans water, sequesters carbon, provides natural habitats, and produces oxygen and food. In order to accomplish this, several nanotechnologies are incorporated into the design. While these technologies are conceptual, some are already in early development today. As with a tree, the house accrues positive environmental benefits over time. When the uselful life of the house is over, its materials are designed to be easily disassembled to return as safe nutrients for human industry or the biosphere in Cradle to Cradle cycles. 57

Figure 2.8 Render of House like a tree (Source: William McDonough + Partners)

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A main difference between the building and construction sector with other industries is the long lifetime of buildings and constructions. Structures built in developed countries have an average lifetime of 80 year. As a consequence of this most parts of it have to be replaced or repaired during its use phase. These structures are furthermore often particularly rigid and difficult to adapt to changing circumstances and needs (e.g. adaptation of existing building patrimonium to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions). In 2009 an international group of architects published the manifesto “C2C in Architecture”. This group was composed of Art & Build Architect (Belgium, France, and Luxemburg), RAU architects (The Netherlands), A00 architects (China, Canada), Zahn Architektur (Germany) and OPAi, the OnePlanetArchitecture institute. With this manifesto this group tried to identify the characteristics that define a C2C built environment. It has been the ambition to separate the totality of architectural considerations into distinct and measurable parts. The C2C-principles are translated into milestones in the areas of ecology (materials, energy and site), economy and equity/society, as shown in Table 2.9. Ecology Materials

•

Eliminate waste: only use materials that will become resources for further biological or technical production loop.

• • •

Only use materials whose impacts are measurably beneficial for human health and environment. Design buildings free of radioactive, hazardous and toxic off-gassing materials. If hazardous materials are necessary, they are not released in the environment and are completely recoverable in technical pathways.

Energy

•

Use only energy from present solar income.

Site

•

Create topsoil, clean water and clean air and improve biodiversity as a result of human intervention.

Economy

•

Design buildings that can be mined for materials in the future. If waste is a resource, materials become the newcurrency.

•

Promote building products leasing and by doing so make producers responsible for them.

Equity | Society

•

Create a diverse environment of equal opportunity. Create a healthy, safe and inspiring environment.

Table 2.9 Milestones of the “C2C in Architecture” Manifesto (Source: http://c2carchitecture.org)

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Cradle to Cradle building charter Following this manifesto in October 2009 a group of C2C practitioners, coordinated by William Mc-Donough and Michael Braungart, have written the Cradle to Cradle building charter. The charter describes the guiding principles for buildings to be Cradle to Cradle as well innovation concepts that a building design team should actively use and specific intentions or goals for building and sites that should be strived for. Cradle to Cradle buildings will:

Guiding principles

• Incorporate materials that are technical and biological nutrients which can be safely reusable nutrients. • Measurably use renewable energy. Examples of renewable energy include solar thermal, ground based and air-based heat exchange, wind, biomass, hydro and, photovoltaic. • Actively and measurably support biodiversity according to well-established biological tools for measuring species diversity. • Anticipate evolution and change, incorporating strategies and approaches that enhance the ability for the building to adapt to a variety of uses over time. Innovation concept to be actively used are: • Think beneficially instead of how to be less bad. • Think big healthy footprint instead of a less bad minimized one. • Think eco-effectiveness eco-efficiency.

instead

just

• Improve quality of building systems, products and processes in measurable steps.

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The “Cradle to Cradle” approach: a new era for building design

• Partner with customers & suppliers to establish material partnership communities. • Think “materials opportunity” instead of “energy problem”. • Design building systems and processes according to their intended use for building occupants and for biological and technical metabolisms. • Improve indoor air quality so it contributes healthy air to the building occupants, and to the outdoors. • Design buildings areas and processes that are energy positive. Cradle to Cradle Intentions and Goals for buildings and sites: • Use building materials whose contents are measurably defined in Cradle to Cradle terms of chemical contents, effects on air, soil and water, and effects on human health from manufacturing through use and recovery in biological or technical pathways. • Integrate topsoil production and carbon re-use into structures and landscapes to produce more biomass and soil than before development. Topsoil is defined here as the upper layer of soil, used for growing biomass. Topsoil is a main repository for carbon and for CO2 capture and storage. (example: green roofs). • Integrate renewable energy into buildings and area plans so they produce more energy than they use. • Integrate healthy air production into buildings and area plans so they produce more healthy air than they use. • Integrate measurable recycling of water and biological nutrients in buildings, landscaping, and spatial plans.

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• Support measurable increases in species diversity (Flora and Fauna) according to accepted biological methods, so the area contains more diversity than before development of the building or site. • Social Fairness: define, quantify and practice social responsibility criteria. Adopt and make publicly available statements regarding social performance goals and demonstrate it will be obtaining a third party social accreditation.

The first city in the world inspired by the C2C concept is the Province of Limburg, in Venio region, Netherlands. For the implementation of sustainable development, Limburg opts for both the C2C cycle concept (= eco-effective) and for saving resources and energy (= eco-efficient). An important starting point of Cradle to Cradle is that a building is linked to its surroundings and offers pleasant living and working conditions. The Province is convinced that this will increase the economic value of the building stock in the future. The framework implies 6 principles that are Cradle to Cradle based but also take into account aspects that relate to the regional scale of their scope. These are called the Limburg Principles: • We are native to our place • Our waste is our food • The sun is our income • Our air, soil and water are healthy • We design enjoyment for all generations • We provide enjoyable mobility for all Finally, C2C in relation to building design is not only about using the right materials but about creating added value to the building, its surrounding and the people who live or work in it.

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“The design of our habitat is tied to environmental issues deeply-rooted in our construction techniques, which have to be dealt with for hundreds of years. This is because the artificial environment we live in is inert, it is not able to take care of itself as well as it cannot take care of us, as it manages to solve basic problems in a rather primitive manner. Just because they are artificial and thought by a linear ideation to solve one basic problem, our constructs are not able to evolve like every natural organism, therefore they cannot develop effective solutions to problems that come out from the limited schemes which they were designed for. Despite of that, today we are

2.2 Living buildings: synthetic biology applied to architecture

seeing a scenario where problems can be solved by living and like-living (hybrid) entities working together, in order to obtain resources for adapting to the environment with real benefits”. 58 This application is possible thanks to a new branch of biological sciences known as syntethic biology, which can integrate in the natural system according to its own parameters and interact with it, so as to develop solutions more effective for our welfare. Even if synthetic biology was informally born around the 2000s, the first scientific conference on the theme was announced just in June 2004, sponsored and hosted by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Boston (USA), this way marking the official birth of this area of research.

Syntethic biology combines engineering with biology “in order to design and build novel biological functions and systems [that do not exist in nature]. These include the design and construction of new biological parts, devices and systems (e.g. tumor-seeking microbes for cancer treatments), as well as the re-design of existing natural biological systems for useful purposes (e.g. photo-synthetic 59 systems to produce energy).” Althought this discipline is often equated with the genetic modification of biological systems, actually the two approaches are very different. In particular, in genetically-modified organisms (GMOs) there are only one or two genes introduced in the whole genome; the rest of the cell works as before, synthesizing only some different molecules with the aim of obtaining a single new function (for example the defense against pests or herbicides). In synthetic organisms, instead, almost the entire genome is revolutionized,

Note 58

Ferrari, M. (2012). For a syntetic biology. Nemeton High Green Tech Magazine, 7

Synberc. (2014). What is synthetic biology? Retrieved from http://www.synberc.org/w hat-is-synbio

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so that some researchers speak of "synthetic life". In other words, synthetic biology will enable to create or re-program micro-organisms in a rational and systematic way. Researchers essentially use two kinds of methods to engineer synthetic organisms:

bottom-up method

top-down method

According to this approach, they attempt to design and assemble synthetic biological systems starting from their basic components, the so-called BioBricks parts, that is genetic sequences previously standardised like electronic components. These Lego-like BioBricks can have several functions and can be easily plugged into each other to create completely new biological systems in micro-organisms. These techniques can be used, for example, to transform bacteria into machines for sensing and degrading pollutants. By simplifying and standardizing biology, the MIT has developed the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Registry of Standard Biological Partsâ&#x20AC;?, which provides a library of standard parts that have been tested, characterized and organized so that users can find what they need when developing new biological systems. The Registry is continuously growing thanks to iGEM (International Genetically Engineered Machine) based at MIT, an international contest where every year several university teams compete to develop new BioBricks to be added to the Registry. the opposite strategy is the so-called "minimal genome", which aims to remove pieces from the genome of a bacterium to obtain the smallest number of genes essential and necessary for life. Then, the BioBrick parts are gradually added to it in order to opportunely modify the organism. The result should be an improved and optimized cell that does everything with more efficiency and speed.

The first method is used to study the origin of life for the design of an artificial bacterium, while the latter has industrial applications such as the synthesis

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of new molecules.

The Apple luminary Steve Jobs told his biographer Walter Isaacson that “the biggest innovation of the twenty-first century will be the intersection of biology and technology. A new era is beginning” Effectively, synthetic biology could contribute to different fields such as:

pharmaceutical industry

environment

the aim is to produce smart drugs able to reach and act selectively only in the sick cells, as in the case of tumors. engineered organisms or biological structures may indeed act as sensors to detect the presence of pollutants or hazardous substances, such as explosives in areas at risk. Then, this capability could be further combined with the ability to degrade harmful substances into simpler compounds not damaging to humans and the environment. The so-called "bio-remediation", one of the most crucial objectives of synthetic biology, is based on the design and modification of bacteria and other micro-organisms such as fungi to degrade and eliminate toxic substances and pollutants from soil or contaminated water. the challenge is to design a set of converging chemical pathways that allow a quantitative conversion of readily available solar energy and natural or waste materials to, for example, bio-fuels.

energy

information technology

the goal is to build integrated circuits made up by biological parts that can act as molecular electronic circuits, in order to achieve a biological computer.

Since synthetic biology involves designing organisms to perform tasks and produce

physical

materials,

there

are

possibilities

also

for

the

architectural field at many scales. “The most straightforward architectural applications may involve the design and manufacture of new building materials within laboratories or factories. Examples may include

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Note

bio-plastics that do not require oil for the production, bacteria that fuse

sand into bricks without any baking process and wood that is extremely

Benjamin, D. (March 30, 2011). Bio Fever - Recent developments in synthetic biology suggest new and unpredictable possibilities for creative design. Retrieved from http://www.domusweb.it/e n/op-ed/2011/03/30/bio-fe ver.html 61

Myers, W. (2012). Bio design: Nature, science, creativity (pp. 8-9). The Museum of Modern Art, New York.

strong, flexible and durable (see the next chapter for more details). Compared to their natural counterparts, these new synthetic building materials may offer higher performances, lower costs, lower carbon emissions and less waste. A different kind of architectural applications may involve the design and installation of new building systems on site, outside the laboratory. These systems may be more complex than materials produced in the laboratory. Examples may include bio-sensors that change color when detecting toxins or structural problems, microbes that find and heal cracks in concrete, termites that eat construction waste (as well as old cars and cell phones) and organisms that act as factories to produce building materials on site. Additional architectural applications may involve the complete design of new living buildings, that may offer some of the dynamic features of natural living systems, including growth, renewal and adaptation. A mind-blowing example is the possibility of programming a seed to grow into a building. This way, the building is transformed from a mechanical entity to a biological entity. Furthermore, the impact of these new biological technologies on architecture might involve the process as much as the product. Once architects will add the tools of synthetic biology to their classical design means, entirely new designs and applications might emerge.” 60 The specific term used to identify this design practice is bio-design.

It “goes further than other biology-inspired approaches to design and fabrication. In particular, unlike bio-mimicry, cradle to cradle and the popular but frustratingly vague ‘green design,’ bio-design refers specifically to the incorporation of living organisms as essential components, enhancing the function of the finished work. It goes beyond mimicry for what concerns the integration, as it dissolves boundaries and synthesizes new hybrid typologies. The label is also used to highlight experiments that replace industrial 61or mechanical systems with biological processes.” According to the ‘bio-architects’ Rachel Armstrong, Mitchell Joachim and

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David Benjamin, the only solution is a total change in the architecture paradigm. We need an holistic approach that guarantees the contribution of other subject areas and other cutting-edge skills; we need a different way to conceive the building. The main activities of these ‘bio-architects’ running in that direction are very interesting to better appreciate the possibilities of such new frontiers. Therefore, they are described in detail to follow.

Rachel Armstrong She is Co-Director of AVATAR (Advanced Virtual And Technological Architectural Research) and is specialized in Architecture and Synthetic Biology at the School of Architecture and Construction of University of Greenwich in London. She is an innovator for what concerns sustainability, as she is investigating a new approach to building materials that have some of the properties of living systems and can be manipulated "to grow" architecture. In 2009, during her conference recorded in a TEDtalk video, she stated:

“All

buildings today have something in common. They are made using Victorian technologies [top-down method]. This involves blueprint, industrial manufacturing and construction using teams of workers. All these efforts result in an inert object. And this means that there is a one-way transfer of energy from our environment into our homes and cities. This is not sustainable. I believe that the only way that is possible for us to construct genuinely sustainable homes and cities is by connecting them to nature and not insulating them from it. […] Living systems are in constant conversation with the natural world through sets of chemical reactions called metabolism. This is the conversion of one group of substances into another, either through the production or the absorption of energy. And this is the way in which living materials make the most of their local resources in a sustainable way. So, I am interested in the use of metabolic materials for the practice of architecture. But they do not exist. So I am having to make them.”

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Note

In order to create these new materials, she proposes to use the “bottom-up

approach”, that means to generate them from scratch and replace inert

Armstrong, R. (2012). Living Architecture. How Synthetic Biology Can Remake Our Cities and Reshape Our Lives. TED Books.

materials with living ones. In her vision of future architecture, buildings would have the physiological capabilities to process nutrients, break down waste, self-repair and interact with surrounding environment. The most famous architectural project by Rachel Armstrong is called Future Venice. It aims to reinforce the foundations of the city, threatened by the proliferation of endemic organisms in the lagoon, through a new tactic which could enable the city to engage in a struggle for survival against the elements in a manner similar to that of a living organism, rather than through mechanical means. The key issue of this proposal is to apply a ‘living technology’, namely protocells, that technically are not living organisms (as they do not have a DNA) but possess strikingly life-like properties: self-directed movement, sensitivity, a population-scale behaviour and the ability to synthesize materials. Protocells could be used to grow an artificial limestone reef underneath the Venetian foundations, literally petrifying them. In particular, they may be programmed to survive in a marine environment where, moving away from light, will come into contact with the

Figure 2.9 Visualization of a synthetic reef supporting the city of Venice by Christian Kerrigan (Source: dezeen.com)

wooden foundations of the city and react with minerals in the water to synthesize the limestone-like material, that in turn will reinforce the woodpiles the city stands on. The result would be a better structural integrity and a greater resistance, at the same time creating a new marine ecology. 62

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Figure 2.10 Visualization of a synthetic reef supporting the city of Venice by Christian Kerrigan (Source: dezeen.com)

Mitchell Joachim He is a professor of architecture at New York University and co-president of the architecture design group Terreform ONE who has proposed to Habitat for Humanity organization a home concept intended to replace the outdated design solutions. In particular, the idea stands on a method to make homes grow from native trees: a living structure is grafted into shape through prefabricated Computer Numeric Controlled (CNC) reusable scaffolds. Depending on the weather conditions and location, this structure should take approximately seven years to grow. In such a way, we can have dwellings fully integrated into an ecological community, according to the following principles: 63 1. composition with 100% living nutrients 2. effective contributions to the ecosystem 3. accountable removal of human impacts 4. involvement of arboreal farming and production 5. subsuming technology within terrestrial environments 6. symbiotical circulation of water and metabolic flows 7. the consideration of the entire life cycle, from use to disposal

Note 63

The concept known as Fab Tree Hab is inspired by the living bridges of Gherrapunji in India, which are built by training the powerful ropey root tendrils of the Ficus elastica, a rubber tree within the banyan group of figs.

Terreform One. (2008). Fab Tree Hab. Retrieved from http://www.archinode.com /fab-tree-hab.html

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Note

These trees thrive on the slopes of hills and have strong rooting systems,

with many secondary roots which normally fan out in all directions. In order

Bertieinindia. (n.d.). The root bridges of Cherrapunji. Retrieved from http://www.atlasobscura.c om/places/root-bridges-ch errapungee

to make a rubber tree roots grow in the right direction over a river, the villagers use betel nut trunks, sliced down in the middle and hollowed out, to create root-guidance systems. Therefore, the thin tender roots of the rubber tree, prevented from fanning out by the betel nut trunks, grow straight out. When they reach the other side of the river, they are allowed to take root in the soil. Given enough time, a sturdy living bridge is produced. Root bridges, some of which are over a hundred feet long, take 10 to 15 years to become fully functional, but at that time they are extraordinarily strong, enough that some of them can support the weight of 50 or more

Figure 2.11 The root bridges of Cherrapunji, India.. (Source: Bio Design, Moma)

people at a time. In fact, because they are alive and still growing, the bridges actually gain strength over time. Consider that some of the ancient root bridges used daily by the people of the villages around Cherrapunji may be well over 500 years old.

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Another example of living structure is Auerworld palace by architect Marcel Kalberer, who re-envisions the way living building materials and techniques can be used to design modern spaces. Build in 1998 in Auerstedt, Germany, it is made up of a 7 meter high central tower from which 24 9 meter long beams depart radially to form a 20 meter in diameter dome entirely in willow trees, an ideal plant to be molded due to its elasticity and flexibility combined with an excellent resistance. Conceptually interesting and aesthetically charming, the Auerworld palace has a one of a kind feature: the building lives, breathes, grows and continually changes its shape and color. Unlike traditional buildings, it undergoes an evident improving evolution in its appearance every year so that it is never equal to itself.

The creation of Fab Tree Hab heavily relies on ‘pleaching’, the ancient process of tree shaping in which tree branches are woven together so that, as they continue to grow, they form archways, lattices or screens. Trunks of inoculating (self-grafting) trees, such as elm, oak and dogwood, form the load-bearing elements, while the branches provide a continuous crisscross frame for walls and roof. Interlaced throughout the exterior is a dense protective layer of vines, which is interspersed with soil pockets supporting growing plants. During the slow construction process, trees and plants are allowed to grow over a computer-designed removable plywood frame. Once the living elements are interconnected and stable, the wood is removed and can be reused. The inside walls could be made by conventional clay and plaster. Technical demonstration and innovation are still required for some

Figure 2.11 Auerworld palace designed by Marcel Kalberer

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Figure 2.12 Fab Tree Hab. Visual elaboration. (Source: Bio Design, Moma)

components, principally the bioplastic windows, that have to adapt to the

Figure 2.13 Fab Tree Hab. A living structure is slowly grafted into shape with the help of prefabricated and reusable scaffolding. Organic processes and time together become the essential construction materials. (Source: Bio Design, Moma)

for such a house to be habitable is approximately 5 years, far longer than for

house growth, and the management of nutrient flows across the walls to ensure that the interior remains dry and free from insects. The time required a more ‘traditional’ construction, but its health and longevity should be far greater. However, above all the ‘growth’ of such a home should be achievable for a minimal price, requiring few labor and fabricated materials.

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Figure 2.14 Fab Tree Hab. The inter-dependency between architecture and the environment underpinning the home is an incentive to preserve clean air, water and soil. (Source: Bio Design, Moma)

1. Rainwater harvested 2. Thermal fill (clay- and straw-based) 3. Vine surface lattice 4. Bioplastic windows

5. Buoyancy driven ventilation 6. Cool air intake 7. Packed-earth and tile flooring 8. Solar-heated water pipes under floor

Figure 2.15 Fab Tree Hab. After the structure is grafted into shape a variety of plants fill in the gaps in the façade, encouraged by the use of perforated scaffolding through which stems and leaves can intertwine.(Source: Bio Design, Moma) Figure 2.16 Fab Tree Hab. Energy and nutrient flows are connected with the natural cycles of the surrounding ecosystem, thereby harnessing both cool air and rainwater. (Source: Bio Design, Moma)

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With the fulfillment of these structures starting as an experiment, it is envisioned and hoped that the general concept of renewal will assume a new architectural form, one of inter-dependency between nature and people.

David Benjamin He is the principal of the architecture firm The Living and director of the Living Architecture Lab at Columbia University GSAPP (Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation). Recent projects by him include prototypes of living building envelopes, new software tools to design with the help of synthetic biology and novel composite building materials designed through the spatial distribution of plant cells, the last one in collaboration with Fernรกn Federici and the Jim Haseloff Lab at Cambridge University. One of the latest projects proposed by The Living is Hy-Fi, winner of the annual Young Architects Program (YAP) announced by MoMa in New York. Together with his team, Benjamin has designed a temporary urban landscape for the 2014 Warm Up summer music series in MoMA PS1 outdoor courtyard.

Figure 2.17 Hy-Fi, The Organic Mushroom-Brick Tower Opens At MoMA's PS1 Courtyard. (Source: The Living)

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Hy-Fi consists of 3 a few stories tall circular towers, which resemble a lumpy set of industrial chimneys or maybe a giant aorta. The installation provides guests with shade, seating and water, working within guidelines that promote sustainability and recycling. It did not win the coveted MoMA spot for its look, but for its substance: it is made of mushrooms. In particular, Hy-Fi is composed of two kinds of brick:

Note 64

Battistoni, A. (2014). Nature’s Metropolis. Jacobin, Issue 15-16. Retrieved from https://www.jacobinmag.c om/2014/10/natures-metr opolis/ 65

• organic bricks, arranged at the bottom of the structure and grown from a combination of corn husks and mycelium; • reflective bricks, coated with a mirror film produced by the mega-manufacturer 3M and arranged at the top of the structure to make light bounce down on the towers and the ground. The organic bricks are supplied by a company called Ecovative, which produces them from organic waste and mycelium according to what it describes as a “disruptive material technology”, primarily used for packaging materials and insulation to replace petroleum-based foams (see the next chapter for more details).64

Bricks are made grow in molds (three different

sizes of molds in this case) and it takes five days to transform from an organic mush to a solid structure, resulting in bricks that are light (a 18″ x 9″ x 4″ brick weighs about 1 pound) but also very durable. In addition, the material undergoes an accelerated aging, which simulates three years of weathering due to wind, rain and humidity in the span of three weeks. The structure, entirely in organic material, is calibrated to create a cool micro-climate in the summer by drawing in fresh air at the bottom and pushing out hot air at the top. Benjamin describes the project as a “radical experiment” with almost no waste, no energy needs and no carbon emissions. Instead of extracting raw materials to build, he has sought to divert “the Earth natural carbon circle of growth, decay and regrowth” into a structure that can eventually “be returned to this natural cycle.” Benjamin likes to think of design as an ecosystem: sustainability does not concern just what happens after a building is built, but it is about the entire construction process. He states:

“It is important to think about where raw materials come from, how much energy is used to make the building and where materials go at the end of the

Stinson, L. (2014) A 40-Foot Tower Made of Living Fungus Bricks. Retrieved from http://www.wired.com/201 4/07/a-40-foot-tower-mad e-of-fungus-and-corn-stalk s/#slide-id-1215111

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building life. This starts with nothing else but the 65 earth and ends with nothing else but the earth.â&#x20AC;? Thanks to synthetic biology, in a few decades an hypothetical megalopolis could be able to cope with natural disasters suffering only limited structural damages (for example, by storing excess water in layers of protocells and spongy material capable of swelling by absorption if necessary, in order to raise the road surface and thus prevent flooding), re-build itself through the modeling of buildings and neighborhoods in innovative more functional forms, degrade its waste products to obtain new construction materials and produce on-site all the resources it needs, from energy to drinking water. And, why not, make grow food in vertical farms. Biodesign explores a future closer than we think.

Figures 2.18-19 Hy-Fi, The Organic Mushroom-Brick Tower Opens At MoMA's PS1 Courtyard. (Source: Barkow Photo)

3. Biomaterials and C2C innovative products for sustainable buildings

3.1 Embodied energy and carbon of conventional building materials

In the first chapter it has been seen that it is not merely the operation of a building that contributes to its CO2 emissions, but also the energy used over its entire life cycle. Researches concerning the relationship between building materials, construction processes and their environmental impacts have demonstrated that the embodied energy of construction materials in a building can sometimes equal the operational energy over the building entire lifetime.66 In fact, if in the buildings built before the entry into force of the legislation about energy efficiency the energy consumed for living, in a 50-year period, was ten times greater than the energy absorbed to build them, in high-performance buildings such consumptions tend to be equated and, in some cases, to build it is required an amount of energy even double compared to that consumed in the operational phase.67

Note 66

Thus, a Life cycle energy analysis is necessary for a correct building design, because it identifies optimum strategies for reducing both energy demand and green house gas emissions.

Crawford, R.H. (2011) Life Cycle Assessment in the Built Environment, London: Taylor and Francis.

Life cycle analysis is a method for determining the real cost (or in this case,

benchmarking products. In this manner, the relative cost, or efficiency, of a

Campioli, A., Giurdanella, V. e Lavagna, M. (2010), â&#x20AC;&#x153;Energia per costruire, energia per abitareâ&#x20AC;?, Costruire in laterizio, n. 134, pp. 60-65.

the energy used) over the lifetime of a product, from cradle to grave. Life cycle analysis is particularly helpful for comparing a number of options, in order to identify the most effective option available, and is also very useful for product can be estimated. Life cycle energy consumption is quoted in terms of Primary Energy rather than delivered energy units. The Primary Energy, or potential energy, is defined as the energy form found in nature that has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation process. It is the intrinsic energy in a primary product or resource. Thus, the primary energy contained in a block of coal used to fire a power station will be many times greater than the delivered electrical energy at premises, due to heat losses at the power plant and transmission losses in the electricity grid (typically, approximately just

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30% of the coal primary energy actually reaches consumers). Primary energy sources should not be confused with energy systems (or conversion processes) through which they are converted into energy carriers (see Table 3.1). converted by Primary energy sources Fossil fuels

Nonrenwable sources

Mineral fuels

Energy systems

Energy carriers

Oil (or crude oil)

Oil refinery

Fuel oil

Coal or natural gas

Fossil fuel power station

Ehthalpy, mechanical work or electricity

Natural uranium

Nuclear power plant (thermonuclear fission)

Electricity

Photovoltaic power plant

Electricity

Solar power tower, solar furnace

Enthalpy

Wind energy

Wind farm

Mechanical work or electricity

Tidal energy

Hydropower plant, wave farm, tidal power station

Mechanical work or electricity

Biomass sources

Biomass power station

Enthalpy or electricity

Geothermal energy

Geothermal power station

Enthalpy or electricity

Solar energy

Renwable sources

The total life cycle energy consumption is made up of two basic components:

Operating Energy

Embodie Energy

the energy requirement of a building during its entire life from commissioning to demolition (not including maintenance or renovations). For example, it includes the energy used to heat and cool the premises, to run appliances, to heat water and to light rooms. the energy requirement to construct and maintain the premises. For example, concerning a brick wall, it includes the energy required to make the bricks, to transport them to the site, to lay them, to plaster them and (if necessary) to paint and re-plaster over

Table 3.1 Primary energy sources are transformed in energy conversion processes to more convenient forms of energy (that can directly be used by society), such as electrical energy, refined fuels, or synthetic fuels such as hydrogen fuel. In the field of energetics, these forms are called energy carriers and correspond to the concept of "secondary energy" in energy statistics.

Embodied energy and carbon of conventional building materials

Note 68

Retrieved from http://www.canadianarchit ect.com/asf/perspectives_ sustainibility/measures_of_ sustainablity/measures_of_ sustainablity_embodied.ht m

151

the life of the wall. There are two forms of embodied energy in buildings: • The initial embodied energy represents the non-renewable energy consumed in the acquisition of raw materials, in their processing, manufacturing and transportation to the site and in construction. This initial embodied energy has two components: • direct energy: the energy used to transport building products to the site and then to construct the building; • indirect energy: the energy used to acquire, process and manufacture the building materials, including any transportation related to these activities. • The recurring embodied energy represents the non-renewable energy consumed to maintain, repair, restore, refurbish or replace materials, components or systems during the life of the building. Initial embodied energy consumption depends upon the nature of the building, the materials used and the source of these materials (this is why data for a building material in a country may differ significantly from data for the same material manufactured in another country). The recurring embodied energy, instead, is related to the durability of the building materials, components and systems installed in the building, to how well these are maintained, and to the life of the building (the longer the building survives, the greater is the expected recurring energy consumption).68 A summary flowchart detailing the elements required to estimate embodied energy is given in Figure 3.1. In any case, the debate continues about which boundaries should be applied to calculate embodied energy. Commonly, the most influential

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{

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Primary resource extraction

Transport unfinished product

Processing and Manufacturing

Primary Energy

Delivered Energy

Transport final product Assembly Maintenance (Recurring) Demolition / Recycling

Embodied Energy

components of embodied energy are those bounded by the cradle-to-gate approach, which

considers all the energy required to deliver the product to the gate of the factory, so that it is ready for transport to the construction site. Embodied energy is usually quoted in Mega Joule (MJ) or Giga Joule (GJ) units. How this amount relates to carbon emissions depends on the primary energy used to drive the material processing

and

the

efficiency

this

processing. The built environment is currently constructed using a limited palette of conventional materials: concrete, glass, steel, clay brick and wood. These materials contain high-embodied energies and heavily rely on limited natural resources. For example, the manufacture of concrete, one of the most energy-intensive material, uses limestone shale, which is converted into Portland cement through high-heat processes. In addition, both concrete and clay manufacturing include energy-intensive processes for raw material extraction and transportation and fuel sources for heating kilns. The table 3.2 is a guide for beginners to the embodied carbon and energy in building materials, based on the excellent Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) database created by the professor Geoff Hammond of the University of Bath (UK) and Dr. Craig Jones of Circular Ecology. Units for carbon and energy are, respectively, kgCO2 per kg of material (actual data also gives

Figure 3.1 Breakdown of embodied energy calculations. Most embodied energy figures for specific materials are quoted using a â&#x20AC;&#x153;cradle to gateâ&#x20AC;? boundary (including blue boxes). Consumptions must also consider transport, assembly, maintenance and demolition components of embodied energy. In addition, care should be taken to ensure that primary energy, and not delivered energy, consumption is calculated (as the latter will understate the real energy cost)

Embodied energy and carbon of conventional building materials

153

CO2e) and MJ/kg. Care should be taken about the density of materials/products, which is very different among them. Thus, a kilo of timber goes a bit further than a kilo of concrete. The database shows the values of embodied energy using as borders the "cradle" and the "gate". Table 3.2 Energy evaluation of conventional building materials. They are sorted numerically by what consumes more energy in the production of the finished product, (aluminum) to that which it consumes less (inert). The energy consumption is calculated in MJ / kg or kWh / kg, by measuring how much energy is required in MJ or kWh to produce 1 kg of material. (Source: ICE v.2, 2011)

Conventional building materials

Embodied carbon

Embodied energy

11.46

218

1.69

8.1

100

Virgin

4.47

Recycled

1.12

Virgin

3.18

Recycled

0.54

Virgin

2.88

53.10

Recycled

0.49

2.73

80.50

Virgin

2.71

35.40

Recycled

0.44

9.40

Virgin

3.65

Recycled

0.80

16.50

Vinyl

2.61

68.60

Insulation

1.86

Cement

0.93

5.50

Glass

0.86

Ceramics

0.66

Plasterboard

0.38

6.75

Timber

0.30

Bricks

0.23

Concrete

0.1

0.75

Straw

0.073

1.26

Stone

0.23

Aluminium

Virgin Recycled

Fibreglass (glass reinforced plastic) Brass

Lead

Zinc

Plastic Steel

Copper

(kg CO2/kg)

(MJ/kg)

Therefore, a reasonable selection of alternative construction materials can considerably cut down CO2 emissions, so as to make our buildings more sustainable and energy efficient.

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The most recent Material (R)evolution Report Series of Material ConneXion titled “Grown” states that :

“Grown

is any raw material, product, technology and/or process that is based upon natural growing cycles in the plant, animal, fungal and bacterial kingdoms. […] We need to utilize materials from waste streams such as starch, animal waste, crop residues and even from water treatment plants. But we also require the most efficient production processes to ensure that we get maximum yields and the safest of products.”

The integration of life into building materials, systems and components allows to design future buildings and household objects that could be able to respond dynamically to any external stimulus and to develop a 'sensitivity' to changing elements like climate and inhabitants, in imitation to biological systems having the ability to sense, react, regulate, grow, regenerate and heal. Generally, biological-derived or biotic material is any material that originates from living organisms. Most of such materials contain carbon and are capable to decay. Examples of biotic materials are wood, linoleum, straw, humus, manure, bark, crude oil, cotton, spider silk, chitin, fibrin and bone. The use of biotic materials, and processed biotic materials (bio-based materials), as alternative natural materials, is popular in relation to environmentally conscious people, because such materials are usually biodegradable and renewable and their processing is commonly understood and has a minimal environmental impact. However, not all biotic materials are environmentally friendly, such as those that require high levels of processing, those that are harvested unsustainably or those that are used to produce carbon emissions. The common properties of bio-based materials are the following: • minimal environmental impact production process • high recyclability • minimal hazardous • high productivity • high environmental purification efficiency

3.2 “Grown” materials and innovative products for building

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155

Examples of bio-based products, partially or fully obtained from renewable resources, include natural fibre composites, bio-plastics, bio-rubbers, bio-foams, bio-adhesives, bio-inks, bio-based paints and coatings.

3.2.1 Classification criteria

This section collects some of the new “grown materials” applied to the construction sector and illustrates their performances through application examples, which offer a paradigm shift in the perception of buildings from mechanical entities to living or like-living organisms. The several typologies of alternative bio-based building materials can be classified according to their principal natural component, as the origin kingdom determines the specific end use. In particular, a common classification method distinguishes innovative building materials into four categories:

bacteria-based materials

This category includes all those materials for which the use of bacteria is provided. They may be employed in two ways: • direct: bacteria actively participate in the process of creating the final product (e.g. BioBrick, bioplastic); • auxiliary: bacteria are integrated into the final product in order to perform specific functions useful to extend the service life (e.g. self-healing or self-cleaning materials).

fungi-based materials micro-algae production systems

This category includes all those materials for which the use of fungi is provided to develop alternative materials useful to thermal insulation of buildings. This category includes all those technological systems that are based on the use of algae integrated in the building envelope. Algae are micro-organisms omnipresent in nature which fix significant amounts of carbon dioxide molecules while producing oxygen and algal biomass. This is what all photosynthetic organisms (including plants) do. But micro-algae are more efficient, because they are unicellular organisms and do not need spending

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energy for supporting a structure. Energy harvested from biomass can be turned into bio-energy to power buildings: it is non-toxic and biodegradable, as obtained from a renewable source. Because biomass grows sustainably, its combustion will release the same amount of CO2 as it has been embodied during the growth due to photosynthesis, resulting in a carbon-neutral energy source. Using algae as a covering material can transform the static building in a living and dynamic entities. The building will be able to recycle its own wastewater and purify the atmospheric air. 68

biomass-based materials

This category includes all those materials derived from living organisms, such as vegetable matter (wood, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, wheat, rice, potatoes, etc.) and animal matter (wool). These raw materials represent renewable resources that can replenish in the same time compared to the usage, either through biological reproduction or other naturally recurring processes. Biomass-based materials are known to have much lower greenhouse gas emissions than other materials from non-renewable resources, such as petroleum. In fact, they maintain a closed carbon cycle with no net increase in atmospheric CO2 levels. In addition, biomass is an alternative to energy generation: it can be used directly via combustion to produce heat or indirectly after converting it to various forms of bio-fuel. Other uses result in processed materials which, in our specific case, can be addressed to manufacturing of building components.

Table 3.3 It represents the summary of the research work about innovative and sustainable alternative building materials. (Source: Personal elaboration)

Note 68

Fong, Q. (2013). Algae Architecture (Master thesis). Retrieved from TU Delft, Institutional Repository. (uuid:b0b6e05d-49d8-4cc 0-9e28-f510b0a8b215)

“Grown” materials and innovative products for building | Classification criteria

Kingdom

Building material/product

Directive

Bacteriabased materials

Fungi-based materials

Micro-algae production systems

Auxiliary

157

Sustainable alternative to

Plus value

bioBrick BioMason

Clay bricks

No firing, no emissions CO2

Minerv-PHA Bio-on

Fossil fuels-based plastic

Totally biodegradable

bioconcrete TU Delft

Traditional concrete

Self-healing materials

Mushroom insulation Ecovative

Traditional plastic foam insulation

Biodegradable, ultra low VOCs, Class A firing, low embodied energy, made from agricultural waste.

Urban algae canopy

Inert roof

Sequestre carbon and produce CO2

Urban algae façade

Inert covering materials

Producing biomass able to converted in biofuel

Solar leaf

Inert covering materials

Producing biomass converted into bioenergy to power building; produce oxygene, sequestr CO2, shading and heating

ECOR® Environmental Structural Panels

Traditional wood, particleboard, fiberboard, aluminum, plastic

Use waste cellulose fiber and its manufacture includes a closed loop water system with 99.5% riutilization.

Zeoform

Fossil fuels-based plastic

Made from cellulose fibres and water is 100% non-toxic, biodegradable, compostable and ‘locks up’ carbon into beautiful, functional forms.

Biomattone Equilibrium

Clay bricks

Low embodied energy; resistant to fire, frost, insects and rodent; low energy consumption during construction; recyclable and biodegradable at the end of its life cycle.

Edimare

Traditional plastic foam insulation

Very high thermal inertia; it is made up of Edilana® wool and beached posidonia (Neptun grass).

Biomassbased materials

Bacteria-based building materials

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bioBrick by bioMASON

3.2.2 Bacteriabased building materials

Author Ginger Krieg Dosier Company bioMASON Material Concrete Bacteria Species Extremophiles

The winner of the recent Cradle to Cradle Product Innovation Challenge69 was a creation of bioMASON specialised in the biomanufacture of building material and its architectural applications. The official website biomason.com states that “bioMASON has developed a technology using microorganisms to grow biocement™ based construction materials. The Company’s products include proprietary manufacturing process and materials used by customers for incorporation in existing facilities or on-site manufacturing. The strength of biocement™ materials is comparable to traditional masonry, and can be used as a green alternative. bioMASON’s products make it possible to manufacture on-site in ambient temperatures using locally available materials, without using fuel for firing the material. bioMASON enables savings in energy costs and a large reduction of carbon emissions.” According to the bioMASON founder and its CEO, Ginger Krieg Dosier, an architect turned biotechnology entrepreneur, “over 1.23 trillion fired clay bricks are produced each year, sending over 800 million tons of CO2 into the atmosphere due to the burning of fuel in the firing process. Additionally, the production of Portland cement-based products emits over 4 billion tons of anthropogenic CO2 due to the high fuel consumption in the fired conversion of limestone and shale production of Portland cement. The

Note 69

In response to the growing demand for more healthy, affordable, building products, The C2C Institute in partnership with Make It Right inaugurated the Product Innovation Challenge in November 2012. Manufacturers were asked to create a building product that is safe, healthy, affordable, effective, and designed to be returned safely to nature or industry after use.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Grownâ&#x20AC;? materials and innovative products for building | Classification criteria

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production of both clay brick and Portland cement also produces PM (particulate matter), attributing to further human health risksâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;2.4 million premature deaths can be attributed to black carbon every year. Alternatively, nature is able to produce high-strength natural biological cements, such as coral, without negative impacts to the surrounding environment. In imitation to this marine process, bioMASON uses bacteria to form sand into a crystalline structure that can serve as bricks or a cement-like construction material. Bacteria, which provide a precise environment to form in combination with a nutrient, nitrogen and calcium source allow for the formation of natural cement in ambient temperatures, taking less than 5 days to produce a pre-cast material, currently in masonry form.

Figure 3.2 Basic elements made up of a brick of bioMASON. (Source: personal elaboration)

+ aggregate dune sand

+ biologics

bacteria nutrients

= solution

non-potable water nitrogen source calcium source

bioMASON brick

The raw input materials used in biocement production include sporosarcina pasteurii (bacteria anaerobically grown with NaCl, yeast extract), while cementation feed stocks include yeast extract, urea, and calcium chloride. These inputs are inexpensive, globally abundant, and manufactured in ambient temperatures. The water component used to deliver the cementation reagents is recycled in a closed-loop system and reused in the manufacturing process. Biomass ammonium byproducts are captured in a closed-loop system. Since biological cements are formed in a different crystalline process than Portland based cements, recent tests have been successful with seawater. The production of yeast extract is a byproduct of the brewing industry and/or fermented in high volumes with yeast cells lysed with sodium chloride. The nitrogen component is currently sourced from urea, and may be sourced from wastewater (each human produces over 20g/L daily) or agricultural resources from swine and poultry production. Calcium, the final input for cementation is sourced from industrial grade Calcium Chloride, and can be

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sourced from an array of waste byproducts ranging from desalination brine effluent to calcium acetate.

Figure 3.3 Biobrick machine designed by bioMASON. (Source: biomason.com)

MINERV-PHA by Bio-on

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Bio-on, an Intellectual Property Company based in Bologna (Italy), was founded in 2007 by Michele Astorri and Guy Cicognani. Their intention is to create 100% natural products/solutions based on renewable resources or agricultural processing waste materials. Today plastics and synthetic polymers are produced mainly from hydrocarbons (oil). Given that these do not degrade, they pollute the environment. With the industrial production of PHAs, made by Bio-on we can create a 100% biodegradable plastic. PHA Polyhydroxyalkanoate is a polymer of the polyester family. It was isolated and characterized in 1925. To this day, it is considered to be the best polymer in the world. Over the past ten years (2000-2010) other companies have attempted to produce PHAs on an industrial scale. Since the material was very expensive to produce, the results were poor. Bio-on’s strength is the ability to produce highly pure PHAs at a competitive price with comparable mechanical features to PP, PE, PET, HDPE, LDPE. Figure 3.4 The “white disc” represent the organic polymer minerv PHAs obtained from sugar beet. These elements are the result of increased bacteria nourished by the juices of beet (waste molasses). (Source: bio-on.it)

PHAs

The Bio-on process for extraction of PHA begins with the natural bacteria selection and the agricultural waste (molasses) which are digested inside a fermenter in a few dozen hours. The bacteria build up PHAs, a reserve of energy (see Figure 3.4). This is how the natural Bio-on polyester is created. It’s completely natural and it has the same features as the main oil-based plastics. The next step is the process of recovery (recovery of PHAs) are retrieved when Polyhydroxyalkanoate PHAs and separated from the rest of the organic material of the cell. All waste material (in small quantity) is re-entered in the initial production cycle.

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After the fermentation the PHAs are extracted. The bio polymer is extracted without any organic solvents, fully respecting nature and without polluting. Bio-on is the only company in the world that has set up an industrial process without any organic solvents, respecting nature. Once the PHAs (microscopic white balls) are extracted, they are dried. We then get a white dust and the polymer is ready to be either used or further processed. The first totally natural bio plastic comes to life. The remaining organic matter is used for a new fermentation cycle and used as food for new bacteria. Nothing is wasted. Once obtained, the bio polymer dust can be extruded to make the pellet. This bio polymer granule is the most commonly used one and it is utilized with all transformers. The PHAs bio polymer by Bio-on can be used to create objects by injection or extrusion, replacing most plastics made from oil used till now such as PC, PE, PET, PP, HADPE, LDPE and more…

Figure 3.5 The processing stages of PHAs. (Source: bio-on.it)

Thermoplastic or elastomeric materials can be created with melting points ranging from 40 to more than 180°C. Bio-on patented MINERV-PHA, a high-performance PHA biopolymer endowed with optimal thermal properties. Production needs which range from -10°C to a +180°C can be met through characterization. In detail, Bio-on patented MINERV SC®, obtained from Sugar Beet waste and MINERV SB® obtained from Sugar Beet waste. The MINERV PHA increases its biodegradability factor in bacteriologically impure water. The natural dissolution of a biopolymer in bacteriologically impure water (e.g. river water) in a few days is a rare and very difficult result to obtain. MINERV-PHA is the first biopolymer obtained from sugar co-products to achieve this important result. In just 10 days in normal river water, MINERV-PHA turns into river water or sea water.

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165

The creativity, experience and widespread presence of FLOS meet the innovation of Bio-on, exclusive owner of the necessary technology to produce PHAs bio plastic. So far the lamp has been produced in polycarbonate, one of the most common plastics used in this industry. Miss Sissi is now presented with the new bio plastic developed by Bio-on.

Figure 3.6 Miss Sissi lamp realized by bio-ON. (Source: bio-on.it)

Bio-on issues licences enabling the production of MINERV-PHA™ to produce: automotive, beverage, electronics, food pack, fibers, pharma. Table 3.4 Comparison between Bio-on and its competitors. Assuming a standard end user proces per Kg. Using the exclusive method Bio-on to extract the polymer have costs equalt yo 7%, while with the methods known today, wich use large amounts of traditional chemistry, the cost is 70%. (Data Source: bio-on.it)

Bio-on

Competitors

Agricultural “waste” material

Food material

GMO free

GMO

NO chemical solvent

Heavy chemical solvent use

Low energy use

Heavy energy use.

IP & Engineering company

Manufactory units

Low production costs

High production costs

Fast time to market

Slow time to market High logistics costs GMO Ww teriritory problem NO licensing

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biocement by Delft University of Technology

Author Henk Jonkers Research laboratory Faculty: Civil Engineering & Geosciences (CEG) / Delft University of Technology Material Concrete Bacteria Species Extremophiles

Concrete is one of the main materials used in the construction industry, from the foundation of buildings to the structure of bridges and underground parking lots. The problem with traditional concrete however is the formation of cracks. This has negative consequences for the durability of the material. Instead of costly humans having to maintain and repair the concrete, it would be ideal if the concrete would be able to heal itself. This is now possible with help of special bacteria. These bacteria are called extremophiles, because they love to live in extreme conditions. In dry concrete for example they will not only live, but they will actively produce copious amounts of limestone. With this calcium carbonate-based material the little construction workers can actively repair occurring cracks in a concrete structure.70 Beginning in 2006, Henk Jonkers, a microbiologist, and Eric Schlangen, a specialist in concrete development, sought to develop a self-healing cement 10 times longer than other methods. Bacteria of the bacillus species have exactly the right characteristics. Their spores can survive for decades in a kind of sleep mode, without food or oxygen. In concrete, they will only come to life if water and oxygen are ‘added’ – in other words, if a crack appears in the concrete. They are then able to multiply and produce limestone, thereby closing the crack in a few

Note 70

Syn.De.Bio (2014). Bio-Concrete — Henk Jonkers. Retreived from http://syndebio.com/bio-c oncrete/

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167

weeks. Once the crack is closed up completely, moisture can no longer get into the concrete, so it will not weaken. This is the perfect solution for underground spaces for example, in which it is always damp. A healing agent for concrete has been developed that is made up of two components: bacillus spores and calcium lactate nutrients. These are set separately into expanded clay pellets, or alternatively in compressed powder granules, a few millimetres in size. The pellets are then added to the wet concrete mix. When, hopefully years later, cracks begin to form in the concrete, water will enter and open up the pellets. The bacteria (Sporosarcina pasteurii) will germinate and start to feed on the lactate, thus combining the calcium with produced carbonate ions to form calcite, or limestone. Full scale outdoor testing is under way. A building in the South of Holland has been covered with the bioconcrete and will be monitored over a period of two years. Rachel Armstrong, senior lecturer in the School of Architecture and Construction at the University of Greenwich, calls the project “a landmark in developing ‘living’ materials”. However, “the production of calcite does not appear to me to actually increase the structural integrity of the concrete: [it] just stops the progression of the faults”, Armstrong added. While this bacteria-infused cement is not alone in the world of self-healing concrete, Jonkers and Schlangen’s concrete has succeeded in healing cracks 10 times longer than other methods. At present, the biggest challenge is producing large-scale quantities of the healing agent at affordable costs.

Figure 3.7 Microcracks have a width of just 0.2-0.4mm, but that’s enough for water to leak in, degrading the concrete and the steel reinforcements embedded within it. (Source: bio-on.it)

Fungi-based building materials

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Mushroom® Materials by Ecovative Authors Gavin McIntyre & EbenBayer Company Ecovative Material Plastic Certification

Ecovative LLC, founded in 2007 by Gavin McIntyre and EbenBayer, believes that

natural

materials

can

provide

sustainable

alternative

petroleum-based plastics. Thus, the start-up used the root structures of mushrooms to transform and bind agricultural by-products into strong functional composites that are a 100% compostable. Ecovative developed Mushroom® Materials which are a high performance, biobased, home compostable alternative to expanded plastic foams, and other materials. The company use mycelium (mushroom “roots”) to bond together crop byproducts such as seed husks or stalks. The mycelium growing process happens indoors, in the dark, in less than a week. The resulting Mushroom® Material is then dried which stops the growth. Production of Mushroom® Materials benefits local farmers with a secondary income stream and up-cycles low-value agricultural byproducts into high performance and cost competitive materials. Mushroom® Material is produced today for many applications. Mushroom® Packaging is already replacing thousands of EPS, EPP and EPE plastic foam packaging parts. In addition to protective packaging, Mushroom Materials are in use, or are being developed for award plaques, automotive components, rigid insulation board, structural insulating panels, ceiling tiles, acoustic panels, marine degradable buoys, and more.

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Regarding building sector, Ecovative developing natural, rapidly renewable Mushroom® Insulation as a healthy, easy to install insulation product that performs. It achieves a Class A fire rating without any fire retardant chemicals and offers an R-value guarantee; unlike many plastic foams, the aged R-value of Mushroom Insulation will not decrease over time. Mushroom Insulation to be used in a proof-of-concept project called Mushroom Tiny House. The Mushroom Tiny House has walls made of pine tongue and groove boards and hollow cavities with no studs. Within these walls, live Mushroom® Insulation is packed. In three days, the mycelium grows and solidifies these loose particles into air-sealed insulation, while also adhering to the pine boards and creating an extremely strong sandwich. The result is similar to a structural insulating panel (SIP); this layer of continuous insulation has no thermal bridging. Over the course of about a month, the Mushroom Insulation naturally dries and goes dormant.

Table 3.5 Perfomance specifications and plus values of Mushroom Insulation by Ecovative. (Data Source: Ecovative)

Performance specifications Mushroom® Insulation Thermal resistance Compressive strenght

R 3.6 per inch 10% 50%

0.3 - 6.7 psi 72 - 260 psi

Water vapor transmission

0.02 0.03 US Perm

Fire resistance

Class-A -ASTM E84

Flame spread Smoke developed

20 50

Aldehyde & VOC emissions

< 0.01 - 0-03 ppm

Benefits Mushroom® Insulation • Made from agricultural crop wastes

• Low embodied energy

• Class A fire rating

• Ultra low VOCs

• Ultra rapidly renewable

• Biodegradable

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Ecovative Products

Comparable ‘mainstream’ products

Product Toxicity

Grown materials contain no toxic chemicals, emit no gasses and are completlely inert.

Polystyrene is made of chemicals suspected by the US government of being carcinogens; building materials like particle board emit toxic gasses.

Raw Material Toxicity

Primary resources consumed are organic agricultural waste, steam-cleaned to remove any contamination; mycelium is grown aseptically.

Polystyrene is composed of highly toxic materials (like styrene and benzene); particleboard is made using formaldehyde adhesives.

Carbon Footprint

Low embodied energy materials require minimal heat, water and light to produce. The process upcycles low value waste products like plant stalks and seed husks.

Raw material extraction and production processes leave a significant carbon footprint. The overall process requires supplementary nonrenewable resources to produce the finished product.

Compared to other biomaterials

Feedstocks comprise parts of plants that cannot be used for food or feed and have limited economic value.

Feedstocks for most modern bioplastics are food crops with direct economic and commodity value.

Biodegradability

Finished products can be home-composted when no longer needed.

Traditional plastic materials essentially never biodegrade. Proper recycling requires considerable energy to yield a lower grade material.

Sustainability

100% renewable cradle-to-cradle product, with expanding availability of raw materials.

Production relies on non-renewable resources, burdened with economic and ecological constraints.

petrolchemical extraction

foam expansion

conventional insulation

1 m3

4667 MJ vs 652 MJ

462 Kg CO2 vs 31 Kg CO2

7 times less energy 15 times less CO2

1 m3

mycelium

agricultural waste

Mushroom® Insulation

Algae production systems

“Grown” materials and innovative products for building | Classification criteria

Table 3.6 Comparision between Ecovative and similar products. (Data Source: Ecovative)

175

Urban algae canopy by EcoLogic Studio

Author EcoLogic Studio Commission Future Food District Building System Canopy

Algae is the seemingly unlikely term that is being discussed at the heart of EXPO Milano 2015. As part of the Future Food District project (Figure 3.8), curated by Carlo Ratti Associati at the central crossroads of the EXPO site, a new vision of future biodigital architectures powered by microalgae organisms has been proposed by the London based ecoLogicStudio. This vision is about to become reality as a large canopy roof and vertical facades are unveiled, designed by ecoLogicStudio (Claudia Pasquero and Marco Poletto) with local architect Cesare Griffa. The Urban Algae Canopy, based on ecoLogicStudio’s six years long research on building integrated biodigital systems, is presented in preview, as part of INTERNI’s Exhibition Event in Milan, with a 1:1 scale prototype of the world’s first biodigital canopy integrating microalgal cultures and real time digital cultivation protocols on a unique architectural system. The exceptional properties of microalgae organisms are enhanced by their cultivation within a custom designed 3 layers ETFE cladding system. Such system

was

developed

through

tight

collaboration

between

ecoLogicStudio and Taiyo Europe and represents a radically new interpretation of the possibilities of the traditional ETFE cladding system. A special CNC welding technology is at the core of it and enables

176

The Biomaterials and C2C innovative products for sustainable buildings

ecoLogicStudio to design and control the morphology of the cushions under stress as well as the fluid dynamic behaviour of the water medium as it travels through it. The flows of energy, water and CO2 are therefore regulated to respond and adjust to weather patterns and visitors’ movements. As the sun shines more intensively algae would photosynthesise and grow thus reducing the transparency of the canopy and increasing its shading potential; since this process is driven by the biology of micoalgae is inherently responsive and adaptive; visitors will benefit from this natural shading property while being able to influence it in realtime; their presence will trigger electro valves to alter the speed of algal flow through the canopy provoking an emergent differentiation across the space. In any moment in time the actual transparency, colour and shading potential of the canopy will be the product of this complex set of relationships among climate, microalgae, visitors and digital control systems. Once completed as part of EXPO2015 Future food District the Urban Algae Canopy will produce the oxygen equivalent of 4 hectares of woodland and up to 150kg of biomass per day, 60% of which are natural vegetal proteins.

Figure 3.8 Render of Food District Food. “The functioning principle of the prototypes is based on the exceptional properties of microalgae organisms, which are ten times more efficient photosynthetic machines compared to large trees and grasses” – explains Carlo Ratti, curator of the Future Food District. (Source: Carlo Ratti Associates)

“Grown” materials and innovative products for building | Classification criteria

177

Urban algae façade by Cesare Griffa

Author Cesare Griffa Commission Future Food District Building System Façade

Waterlilly 2.0 is a system for cultivating microalgae on architectural facades. The photosynthetic activity of microalgae is much more intense than that of more complex vegetable organisms, resulting in a greater capacity to fix CO2 and increased O2 production. The nutrients needed for fertilization are rich in nitrates and phosphates, normally present in the waste water from domestic use. While growing in an urban environment, microalgae purify air and water. Microalgae grow to saturate the water solution. At that stage, they need to be collected and the biomass obtained can be used for the production of proteins for the food industry, omega 3 and amino acids for the nutraceutical industry, cosmetic and pharmaceutical molecules, bioplastics and biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel. Meanwhile, the culture starts again, and within a few weeks you can proceed to a new crop.

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The Biomaterials and C2C innovative products for sustainable buildings

SolarLeaf – bioreactor façade Author Jan Wurm Developer Arup Building System Façade

SolarLeaf façade was installed for the first time on the BIQ house at the IBA in Hamburg in 2013 and it generates renewable energy from algal biomass and solar thermal heat. The integrated system, which is suitable for both new and existing buildings, was developed collaboratively by Strategic Science Consult of Germany (SSC), Colt International and Arup. The biomass and heat generated by the façade are transported by a closed loop system to the building’s energy management centre, where the biomass is harvested through floatation and the heat by a heat exchanger. Because the system is fully integrated with the building services, the excess heat from the photobioreactors (PBRs) can be used to help supply hot water or heat the building, or stored for later use. Benefits The advantage of biomass is that it can be used flexibly for power and heat generation, and it can be stored with virtually no energy loss. Moreover, cultivating microalgae in flat panel PBRs requires no additional land-use and isn’t unduly affected by weather conditions. In addition, the carbon required to feed the algae can be taken from any nearby combustion process (such as a boiler in a nearby building. This

“Grown” materials and innovative products for building | Classification criteria

179

implements a short carbon cycle and prevents carbon emissions entering the atmosphere and contributing to climate change. Because microalgae absorb daylight, bioreactors can also be used as dynamic shading devices. The cell density inside the bioreactors depends on available light and the harvesting regime. When there is more daylight available, more algae grows – providing more shading for the building. In details In total, 129 bioreactors measuring 2.5m x 0.7m have been installed on the south-west and south-east faces of the four-storey residential building to form a secondary façade. SolarLeaf provides around one third of the total heat demand of the 15 residential units in the BIQ house. The flat photobioreactors are highly efficient for algal growth and need minimal maintenance. How it works SolarLeaf’s bioreactors have four glass layers. The two inner panes have a 24-litre capacity cavity for circulating the growing medium. Either side of these panes, insulating argon-filled cavities help to minimise heat loss. The front glass panel consists of white antireflective glass, while the glass on the back can integrate decorative glass treatments. Compressed air is introduced to the bottom of each bioreactor at intervals. The gas emerges as large air bubbles and generates an upstream water flow and turbulence to stimulate the algae to take in CO2 and light. At the same time, a mixture of water, air and small plastic scrubbers washes the inner surfaces of the panels. SolarLeaf integrates all servicing pipes for the inflow and outflow of the culture medium and the air into the frames of its elements. The maximum temperature that can be extracted from the bioreactors is around 40 degrees celsius, as higher levels would affect the microalgae. The system can be operated all year round. The efficiency of the conversion of light to biomass is currently 10% and light to heat is 38%. For comparison, photovoltaic systems have an efficiency of 12-15% and solar thermal systems 60-65%.

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The Biomaterials and C2C innovative products for sustainable buildings

“Grown” materials and innovative products for building | Classification criteria

Figure 3.9 Constructive detail and energy saving. SolarLeaf, the bioreactor façade by ARUP. (Source: ARUP)

Figure 3.10 Functional scheme. SolarLeaf, the bioreactor façade by ARUP. (Source: ARUP)

181

Biomass-based building materials

184

The Biomaterials and C2C innovative products for sustainable buildings

Environmental Structural Panels (ESPs) by ECOR®

Company ECOR Material Wood Certification

Noble Environmental Technologies Corporation’s (NET) with Universal Construction Panel is the third place recipient in the Cradle to Cradle Innovation Challenge 2013 featuring the next generation in green building materials. The company’s Universal Construction Panel (UCP) is made from urban, farm and forest fibers, processed in a clean manufacturing facility and then pressed into composite panels.

The panels are low-cost, strong,

lightweight, compact and designed for easy assembly. Most importantly, the panels are 100% non-toxic, 100% recycled and recyclable and completely biobased, naturally. ECOR® is a sustainable material technology that utilizes a ubiquitous raw material, available worldwide: waste cellulose fiber. ECOR® manufacturing includes a closed loop water system with 99.5% reutilization. The system can be run by alternative energy. Factories can be located locally, in all communities, as a resource for waste reduction and supply of needed material. They are adaptable to any terrain and climate. Structures are designed for integrated solar panels, battery storage, electrical and plumbing systems with versatile interiors and design of windows, vents, and skylights dignified to live in and durable in normal use with respect to wind, seismic, and water conditions. ECOR is formed into component parts, regarding building sector the

“Grown” materials and innovative products for building | Classification criteria

185

company offers ECOR Environmental Structural Panels (ESPs) will provide the most sustainable option to traditional wood and composite fiber panels available for building and construction projects. Following a rigorous testing regimen, ECOR ESPs will be used for a variety of architectural applications, including I-Beams and walls. This comprehensive material technology, product and system design embodies the five pillars of Cradle to Cradle design •

Material health: ECOR is non-toxic with no off gassing.

•

Material reutilization: ECOR is made from 100% post consumer

recycled materials including paper, cardboard, agricultural fibers and other recycled materials. •

Renewable energy: ECOR manufacturing facilities are designed to be

net zero, including solar thermal, solar photovoltaic, wind, methane burning (when available). •

Water stewardship: ECOR manufacturing facilities reuse over 99.5%

of the fresh water used in the process, use rainwater for initial water supply and supplementation of the 0.5% loss due to evaporation, and do not have any effluent leaving the factory. •

Social fairness: ECOR manufacturing, sales and distribution are

designed to be local-local-local, each a neighborhood, community and regional asset. They create dignified jobs for laborers, blue-collar and white-collar workers. And factories are designed and managed as Figure 3.11 ECOR Raw panels. At left HONEYCOR, at right WavCOR (Source: ECOR)

healthy and safe working environments.

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The Biomaterials and C2C innovative products for sustainable buildings

Biomattone® by Equilibrium

Company Equilibrium Material Hemp and lime Building component Brick

Biomattone® are prefabricated blocks made from Natural Beton® a biocompound made from hemp and lime in the size 20x50 cm. Also available in the thicknesses 8, 12, 15, 20, 25 and 30 cm. made from hemp and lime is the best building material: it is able to “breathe” and give vital lymph to new or existing buildings. The Biomattone® is a solid insulating material with a high insulating capacity and low incorporated energy and the ability to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere: it is the first building material with a negative carbon footprint. The production of Biomattone® is carried out with a specific “cold” procedure, hence significantly reducing energy consumption. Applications are New construction of insulation walls, external “coat” for insulation of existing buildings, internal insulation of existing buildings, under-floor insulation, ventilated crawl space, internal soundproofing partitions.

“Grown” materials and innovative products for building | Classification criteria

Thickness (cm)

187

Density (kg/m3)

330

λ thermal conductivity (W/mK)

0,07

U-value (W/m2K)

0,76

0,53

0,54

0,27

0,22

0,19

0,17

Water vapour resistance (μ)

4,50

Specific heat (J/KgK)

1870

Sound absorption coefficient

0,8

Sound Reduction Index Rw (dB) with plaster

24,37

36,55

37,51

40,11

41,17

42,29

42,96

Fire reaction with plaster

Fireproof

Phase displacement without plaster

3h09’

5h53’

7h58’

14h48’

18h13’

22h19’

25h04’

Table 3.7 Performance and benefits of Biomattone® (Data Source: Equilibrium)

Figure 3.12 Application of Biomattone by Equilibrium (Source:Equilibrium)

Characteristics Biomattone® • Thermal, acoustic and hygrometric comfort: the Biomattone is permeable to water vapor

• Low energy consumption during construction • Absence of toxic fumes in the case of fire.

• Recyclable and biodegradable at the end of its life cycle. • It is resistant to fire, frost, and insects and rodents.

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The Biomaterials and C2C innovative products for sustainable buildings

Edimare by Edilana Company EDILANA Material Sea wool + Wool Building component Insulation panel Award

hrough a significant investment in research, the EDILANA company has developed new uses of sheep wool in different fields related to environmental development, putting together a broad catalogue of products. Specifically, EDILANA launched in 2014 a highly innovative new product called EDIMARE, by using pure sheep wool and sea wool, obtained through an industrial processing of the Posidonia Oceanica collected on the beaches of the territory. This new material is used to build heath-insulating panels with the highest thermal inertia, if compared to other similar ones. Sea wool is a fiber suitable for bio-construction as it is similar to the wood-fiber; it is very strong and has more than 30% of thermal conductivity, thus permitting heat and cold retention with very low energy consumption. EDIMARE is a 100% natural product made from sea grass (Posidonia Oceanica) and sheep wool. The whole manufacturing process is environmentally friendly and it is a totally natural industrial process by keeping out both chemical and heat treatments which could cause an increase of energy consumption. Waste are recovered producing other useful materials and transportation is also sustainable as they use the already existing means of transport of the territory. The sheep wool used comes from overproduction or waste materials whose elimination is usually very expensive due to the fact that sheep should be

“Grown” materials and innovative products for building | Classification criteria

189

sheared every year. EDILANA guarantees the farmers a market for their wool production, hence supporting a traditional activity of the territory. EDILANA succeeded in creating high-level products by using resources of the territory and their potentials. EDIMARE is produced by using waste materials available on the territory and, once the panels’ lifecycle is ended, the material can be recycled again. The Posidonia Oceanica is a marine plant endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, it creates habitat for many fish and plants and its roots protect the coasts from erosion. However, these plants tend to invade the shores and they should be collected and eliminated as waste. The EDILANA company collaboration

was

requested

specialized

services

and

local

administrations in order to look for a solution to the problem of eliminating the big quantities of Posidonia Oceanica accumulated on the coastline, as their decomposition was creating an emergency situation. The manufacturing process of Lana di Mare® is patented and certified for its environmental quality. In December 2014, the EDIMARE panels won the Green Awards on the Triennial International Exhibition in Milan (Italy) and it is gaining great interest both at the national and international levels.

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The Biomaterials and C2C innovative products for sustainable buildings

Zeoform Company ZEO Material Biopolymer

ZEO is a privately held, Australian-based company that has developed and patented a revolutionary eco-friendly industrial material, derived from raw cellulose â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the most abundant source of fibre on the planet. Pure cellulose extracted from recycled and reclaimed papers, industrial hemp, discarded natural fabrics, waste and renewable plants, is sustainably transformed into a strong, durable, flexible base material called ZEOFORM. Similar in look, feel and function to a dense hardwood, ZEOFORM can be sprayed, moulded or formed into infinite shapes, sizes, colours and variations â&#x20AC;&#x201C; including specialised substrates for unique applications in any industry requiring woods, plastics and resins for manufacturing. ZEOFORM is truly 100% eco-friendly â&#x20AC;&#x201C; with no glues, binders, chemicals or additives of any kind. A unique patented process produces a beautiful, versatile, extremely strong material for thousands of products used every day, worldwide. While rapidly diminishing resources of wood, and environmentally damaging petrochemical derivatives are untenable as source materials into the future, ZEOFORM converts waste into a UNIVERSAL Material that will replace most plastics, woods and composite materials used in manufacturing today.

“Grown” materials and innovative products for building | Classification criteria

Pure ZEOFORM redefines the idea of ‘sustainable’ in the following ways: •

comprised of cellulose and water – and nothing else

•

contains no chemicals, glues, binders, synthetics – no toxins of any kind

•

converts waste fibre (paper, cloth, plant)

•

converts renewable fibre

•

from harvest to manufacturing – energy & water efficient

•

from recycling to manufacturing – energy & water efficient

•

materials can be recycled / re-used indefinitely

•

entirely biodegradable – adds cellulose back into the earth!

•

certified by a world-leading Cellulose Laboratory (pending)

•

high-index Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of ZEOFORM products

•

low carbon footprint

•

low environmental impact

•

brand strategy positively influences worldwide audience

•

adds to GDP of countries – creates jobs from village to industrial scale

•

economies of scale grow as industry expands worldwide

•

more competitive pricing as traditional resources diminish

191

4. Project proposal: House like a tree

4.1 Design brief

The design brief was proposed during the academic laboratory â&#x20AC;&#x153;Indoor sustainable technologiesâ&#x20AC;? and focused on the theme: additional architectural design to sustainable and solar industrialized housing, self-sufficient in terms of energy, responding to the contents of the Solar Decathlon Europe 2016.

Solar Decathlon The Solar Decathlon is an international competition created by the U.S. Department of Energy in which universities from all over the world meet to design,

build

and

operate

energetically

self-sufficient

house,

grid-connected, using solar energy as the only energy source and equipped with all of the technologies that permit maximum energy efficiency. During the final phase of the competition university teams assemble their houses, open to the general public, while undergoing the ten contests of the competition, reason for which this event is called Decathlon. Ever since 2010, Solar Decathlon competitions have also been organized every other year in Europe, alternating with the American edition.

Figure 4.1 Illustration of the design brief with principal contests in the Solar Decathlon competition. (Source: EPFL 2013)

URBAN DESIGN, TRANSPORTATION AFFORDABILITY ENGINEERING & CONSTRUCTION COMFORT CONDITIONS ENERGY EFFICIENCY ENERGY BALANCE APPLIANCES ARCHITECTURE COMMUNICATION & SOCIAL AWARENESS

energy efficiency engineering & construction architecture

Project proposal: house like a tree

194

In detail, the 10 contests of Solar Decathlon are as follows:

HOUSE FUNCTIONING

ARCHITECTURE assess design coherence, flexibility & maximization of space, technologies and bioclimatic startegies.

evalutate the functionality and efficiency of a set of appliances that must comply with the demanding standards of present-day society.

COMMUNICATION & SOCIAL AWARENESS

ENGINEERING & CONSTRUCTION evaluate functionality of the house structure, envelope, electricity, plumbing and solar system.

assess the team’s capacity to find creative, effective and efficient ways of transmitting ideas that define the teams and projects own identity.

URBAN DESIGN, TRANPORTATION & AFFORDABILITY

ENERGY EFFICIENCY consider excellence in systems and house design, while looking for reduction of energy consumption.

evalutate the relevance of the housing unit’s grouping proposal and regional positioning, with regard for social and urban contexts of the project.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY BALANCE measure the houses electrical energy self-sufficiency and efficiency and assessment their energy balance.

INNOVATION estimate the innovative aspects of houses in preceding contests, focusing on changes that impact value, performance or efficiency.

COMFORT CONDITIONS consider the capacity for providing interior comfort through the control of temperature, humidity, acoustic, lighting and quality of interior air.

SUSTAINABILITY measure the team’s reactivity to environmental issues, including its efforts to attain a maximum reduction of negative environmental impact.

The theme is the design of a living unit with high energy efficiency, giving particular attention and emphasis to the sun as an energy source. The project must adhere to a set of dimensional, energetic and functional rules.

Project’s minimum requirements • Solar envelope To protect a neighbor’s right to the sun, the house and all site components on a team’s lot must stay within the solar envelope shown in Figure 4.2. Moveable or convertible house or site components shall not extend beyond the solar envelope.

Design brief

195

Figure 4.2 Solar envelop as expected by Solar Decathlon rules. (Source: SDE rules 2014)

• Maximum Architectural Footprint The architectural footprint as defi ned below cannot exceed 150 m2. a). The footprint includes the entire area within the defined building perimeter (including the house and the site components). b). The deck or platform is not included in the architectural footprint. c). For “openings” located within the footprint: if there are elements of the “openings” which visually continue the house aesthetics, the total area of these “openings” will be included in the architectural footprint. (“Openings” are patios located in the footprint perimeter). • Minimum & Maximum Measurable Area The measurable area, as defined below, shall be at least 45 m2, but shall not exceed 70.0 m2 for one story houses and 110 m2 for multi-story housing units. Measurable area: a). The covered and constructed surface remaining when walls, columns, stairs shaft, under 1.80m high spaces, and closets or any other storage or technical element built from floor to ceiling, are excluded b). The interior surfaces of walls defining the building’s thermal envelope form the measurable area perimeter. c). All primary living areas shall be located within the measurable area. • PV Technology Limitations Photovoltaic installation size is limited by the following rule: the maximum power of all power conditioning equipment

196

Project proposal: house like a tree

connected to PV generation (DC/DC and/or DC/AC) is limited to 5 kWp. For DC/AC power conditioning (inverters), the maximum power to be considered is the nominal power, defined as the maximum output power without time limitations/constraints. â&#x20AC;˘ The unit must have a living area with: 1. an area dedicated to dining room, 2. an area used as a sleeping area, 3. a work station, 4. services, facilities required for the normal conduct of business of a family, 5. a good accessibility.

Concept

The whole design process follows the logic "Cradle to Cradle" that increasingly is spreading rapidly in the recent practice of architectural and industrial research and experimentation, and interprets it in order to allow not only a more conscious design, but also a sustainable approach to different environmental social and economic dimensions of living. The house takes on the behavior of a real living thing interacts, adapts, it protects and takes full advantage of the surrounding context in order to ensure the most natural and efficient matching between user needs and performance of the entire living building.

Design of the project logo “House like a tree” step by step

+ cradletocradle

2/ simmetry

1/ basic elements

3/ modify of the house’s boundaries to merge with those of the tree

4/ fusion nature with built

5/ replace the foliage of tree with the C2C logo

TREE

- CO2

6/ stylization of the C2C logo in order to respect the copyright

7/ final colour version

HOUSE

+ OXYGEN

H2O

SUN ENERGY chloroplast

PV cells + algae bioreactor H2O

PRODUCE OXYGEN AND SEQUESTR CO2 photosynthetic process

algae photobioreactor

CONSTRUCTION organic nature

100% cradle to cradle + OXYGEN

ADAPTABILITY natural ability

mobile roofing and flexible plan - CO2

AIR CIRCULATION wind penetrate tree

natural ventilation

WASTE = FOOD soil fertilization

bio waste

ENERGY FROM GROUND getting nutrients

heat pump

University

Master’s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Urban framework

The intervention of architectural addition is developed above a residential building in a central area of the town of Naples (climate zone C), overlooking the Gulf. The existing building, although it shows architectural and artistic aspects very interesting, currently it is in a state of poor maintenance, a condition common to buildings in the historic center of the city. Therefore the aim of the project is to create a virtuous circle of innovation and densification of the rooftops of the old stoic, aiming for a redevelopment of the urban fabric and the existing assets in a timely and diversified. Addition occupies one side of the flat roof of the building below and you have north-south axis, and it is supposed to play to speculate along the east-west axis in order to ensure the integrity and operation of the plant system.

Location Naples, ITALY

Scale 1/500

Address Via Palizzi 13 Altitudine 506 s.l.m Longitude 14°14’03.36” E Latitude 40°50’25.63” N Degree days 1034 Climate zone C

G ulf o f N ap les

University

Master’s degree course

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

Academic year 2013/2014

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

Prof. Arch.

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Site analysis

°C 45+ 0.1% 40 Avera ge W ind T empera tures 35 N AP LE S - IT A 40 km/ h 0.1% 30 D a te : 1s t D e ce mbe r - 28th F e brua ry 0.1% 0.4%25 T ime : 00:00 - 24:00 0.6% 20 © E C O T E C T v5 30 km/ h 0.3% 0.9% 15 0.1% 0.8% 0.1% 0.8% 10 0.6% 0.1% 2.1% 0.1% 0.6% 5 0.3% 1.6% 0.1% 0.3% 20 km/ h 2.1% <0 0.1% 4.4% 2.8% 0.9% 0.4% 1.0% 1.1% 0.8% 3.9%7.1%4.1% 2.4% 0.8% 0.1% 1.0% 2.1% 3.2% 0.3% 0.8% 101.8% km/ h 2.1% 1.5% 0.4% 1.7% 1.4% 1.9% 1.1% 1.0% 0.7% 0.9% 0.1%0.2%0.8%0.6%0.6%1.6%1.5%0.6% 0.3%1.5%0.7%0.4%0.1% 0.1% 0.4% 0.5% 2.1% 0.4% 0.1% 0.5% 1.2% 0.1% 0.5% 0.3% 0.8% 1.2% 0.8% 0.6% 1.0% 0.2% 1.2% 1.6%1.2%0.5% 0.1% 0.2% 1.5% 1.5% 0.1% 0.9% 0.2% 0.1% 0.8% 0.1% 1.0% 0.1% 0.6% 0.7% 0.3% 0.1% 0.2% 0.4% 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.4% 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.1% 50 km/ h

P re va iling W inds

50 km/ h

P re va iling W inds Avera ge W ind T empera tures N AP LE S - IT A D a te : 1s t J une - 31s t Augus t T ime : 00:00 - 24:00

40 km/ h

0.1%

30 km/ h 0.2%

0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% 20 km/ h 0.1% 0.7% 0.9% 0.1% 0.3% 0.1% 0.2% 1.1% 2.3%2.4%2.6% 1.2% 0.1% 0.8% 0.6% 2.5% 1.1% 0.2% 101.3% km/ 2.6% h 1.8% 2.1% 2.6% 0.9% 2.4% 1.5% 2.6% 2.3% 0.3% 1.2% 0.1%0.2%0.4%0.8%1.2%1.6%2.1%1.5% 0.9%1.2%1.3%0.1%0.1% 0.6% 0.1% 1.9% 1.3% 0.1% 0.3% 1.6% 1.0% 0.9% 0.6% 2.7% 1.8% 0.1% 0.4% 4.9% 0.1% 3.7% 3.5%1.8% 2.4% 8.5% 3.8% 1.5% 0.5% 2.3% 0.1% 0.5% 0.1% 0.7% 0.2% 0.3%

°C 45+ 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 <0

0.5% [D ura tion s hown a s pe rce nta ge s ]

[D ura tion s hown a s pe rce nta ge s ]

13 14

10 9

17 18

17 16

Winter Shadow Range

Summer Shadow Range

University

Master’s degree course

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

Academic year 2013/2014

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

Prof. Arch.

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Sun analysis Winter

Winter Shadow h9

Winter Shadow Range Plan section

Winter Shadow h 12

Winter Shadow h 15

University

Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree course

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

Academic year 2013/2014

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

Prof. Arch.

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Sun analysis Summer

Summer Shadow h9

Summer Shadow Range Plan section

Summer Shadow h 12

Summer Shadow h 15

University

Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree course

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

Academic year 2013/2014

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

Prof. Arch.

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Fronts

Solar envelope

Front South

Front South-West

Scale 1/100

Front North

Front Nord-Est

University

Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Plan

The unit designed spread over a single level of 70 m2, covering a total footprint of 135 m2, the maximum height of the front to the north is 5.65 m, while the minimum height on the opposite side is 4,40m. Therefore it configures a structure in which coverage is aimed at South with a slight slope of 6%. The structure of the building is made of spruce, put in place by bolts and dry steel connections between the elements. The internal distribution takes place on three floors staggered heights progressively increasing from south to north, the triple scan is highlighted in the front sides that are designed in the finishes and functions in order to highlight the differentiation.

0.00

3.23

Scale 1/50

1.15

Slope 6%

2.15

1.50

3.41 1.15

0.70

6.29

5.50

6.29

1.30

2.09 2.75

2.77

2.58

4.46

14.26

University

Master’s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Roofing

Scale 1/50

1 2 5m

Pitched Roof SOUTH 89.22 sqm Slope 6°

4.40

4.60

4.99

5.65

University

Master’s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Section A-Aâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Access to the property is possible thanks to a ramp that introduces a platform/patio home use, clear coated natural wood. The entrance is at the center of the East front, inside a glass wall. Access introduces a living area that is developed in front of the block in which services are placed the bathroom and kitchen to passing. The bathroom and kitchen are located at a higher altitude than the entrance floor to ensure a separation of perception and functional spaces. The bathroom has a shower and sanitary dispensers with low flow, on the west wall, where they run the plants, is also an opening positioned necessary all'areazione environment. Immediately adjacent to the bathroom is located the stove with disposition to "L" of the furniture and equipment. The outermost side of the "L" determines the boundary of the space, which is separated from the living area through an opening in the bellows total disappearance.

A’

5,65 m

6°

1,50 m

0 Section A-A’

Scale 1/50

University

Master’s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Section B-B’

B’

6°

0,8 m

0 Section B-B’

Scale 1/50

University

Master’s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Sections C-C’ / D-D’

C’

D’

Scale 1/50

Scale 1/50 C

5,65 m

D 5,65 m

4,40 m 3,80 m

1,50 m

0,70 m

Section C-C’

Section D-D’

University

Master’s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Perspective longitudinal section

University

Master’s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Partition details

The stratigraphy choices for the opaque envelope follow the logic Cradle to cradle, going to select natural materials and/or able to provide the performance needed to satisfy the minimum requsiti reducing the use of glues and finishes that compromise irreversibly reuse or recycling. Having a wooden structure the same components of housing have been chosen in order to improve the thermal inertia and the isolation of the lightweight panels. To verify the behavior of the components summer has used the software free JTempest platform Celent. The perimeter wall consists of 8 layers and two air gaps. The stratigraphy has a double insulation type, the first low density in the cavity between the wooden pillars formed by a panel made of natural hemp fiber, while the second, the outside of the closure in spruce is high density and serves as a coat for the standardization of the behavior of the different elements. The coating of zinc-titanium is spaced from the wall using battens. This cavity serves as accommodation for sliding windows and the glass structure of the living area. The stratigraphy reaches a transmittance value equal to 0.1751 W/m2K with a phase shift of 12 h 35' and an attenuation of the thermal wave of 0.165.

External Partition Layers n°

Layer

d (mm)

R (m2K/W)

ρ (kg/m3)

c (J/kgK)

1 2

External surface

Zinc cladding

0,00

7100

393

Wood - Spruce

0,125

450

2720

Weakly ventilated air chamber

100

0,08

1004

PVC

1,8

0,012

1400

1255

CELENIT FL/45 40

1,05

2100

Spruce timber

0,2083

450

2720

CELENIT LC/30 140

140

3,50

1700

Spruce timber

0,2083

450

2720

Static air cavity

0,16

1004

Wood - Spruce

0,1667

450

2720

Internal surface

0,0741

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

50 cm

External wall - orizontal section

0,125

Scale 1/10

Features

Total layers

Total thickness

392,8 mm

Thermal resistance

5,7094 m K/W

Thermal transmittance

0,1751 W/m2K

Attenuation

0,1647

Time shift (ext-int flux)

12h 35’

5 6 8 9

External wall - 3d detail 0

10 50 cm

Plan Scale 1/100

Scale 1/10

University

Master’s degree course

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

Academic year 2013/2014

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

Prof. Arch.

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Roofing details living area

The stratigraphy for the coverage of the living area reaches a transmittance value equal to 0.1813 W/m2K with a phase shift of 11 h14' and an attenuation of the thermal wave of 0.2518.

Roofing Layers − Living area n°

Layer

d (mm)

R (m2K/W)

ρ (kg/m3)

c (J/kgK)

External surface

Wood - Spruce

0,33

450

2720

Weakly ventilated air chamber

100

0,09

1004

PVC

0,01

1400

1255

CELENIT FL/45 40

1,05

2100

Spruce timber

0,1667

450

2720

CELENIT LC/30 140

140

3,50

1700

Spruce timber

0,1667

450

2720

Internal surface

0,0741 PV

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0,125 0

50 cm

Rooofing/Living area - vertical section Scale 1/10

Rooofing/Living area - 3d section

Features

Scale 1/10

Total layers

Total thickness

361,5 mm

Thermal resistance

5,5158 m2K/W

Thermal transmittance

0,1813 W/m2K

Attenuation

0,2518

Time shift (ext-int flux)

11h 14’

1 2 3 4 5 0

Plan Scale 1/100

University

Master’s degree course

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

Academic year 2013/2014

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

Prof. Arch.

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Roofing details sleeping area

The solutions for stratigraphic coverage are two, different for the bedroom and the living area. The need arises from the solution of the double play and minimize sliding the window inside the housing of the sleeping area. Therefore stratigraphy is chosen which differs only by the addition of a coating layer in the interspace Ecor. The stratigraphy of the sleeping area is composed of seven layers and two air chambers, as for the wall has opted for a double isolation solution for high and low density from the outside. To protect the insulation and wood frame you chose a waterproof PVC, which happens to be a fully recyclable material. The stratigraphy reaches a transmittance value equal to 0.1617 W / m2K with a phase shift of 13 h and 17 'of the thermal wave and an attenuation of 0.1492.

Roofing Layers − Sleeping area n°

Layer

d (mm)

R (m2K/W)

ρ (kg/m3)

c (J/kgK) PV

External surface

Wood - Spruce

0,3333

450

2720

Weakly ventilated air chamber

100

0,09

1004

PVC

1,5

0,01

1400

1255

CELENIT FL/45 40

1,05

2100

Spruce timber

0,1667

450

2720

CELENIT LC/30 140

140

3,50

1700

Spruce timber

0,1667

450

2720

Static air cavity

100

0,18

1004

Static air cavity

100

0,18

1004

ECOR ESP (cellulose fiber)

0,3077

100

1255

10 -

0,0741

Internal surface

3 4 5 6 7 8

0,125

50 cm

Rooofing/Sleeping area - vertical section Scale 1/10

Features

Total layers

Total thickness

581,5 mm

Thermal resistance

6,1835 m2K/W

Thermal transmittance

0,1617 W/m2K

Attenuation

0,1492

Time shift (ext-int flux)

13h 17’

Roofing/Sleeping area - 3d detail 0

1 2

50 cm

Roofing Scale 1/100

University

Master’s degree course

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

5 6

Scale 1/10

Academic year 2013/2014

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

Prof. Arch.

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

PlatformFrame Floor details

The performance of the floor is evaluated with a configuration of a floor facing an unheated environment, because it is placed above the platform where housing structure and facilities. The slab consists of 6 layers, and a ventilated interspace housing to the floating floor for the arrangement of the pipes for the low temperature heating.

Floor Layers n°

Layer

d (mm)

R (m2K/W)

ρ (kg/m3)

c (J/kgK) 7

External surface

Wood - Spruce

0,1667

450

2720

CELENIT LC/30 140

140

3,50

1700

Spruce timber

0,1667

450

2720

CELENIT FL/45 60

1,55

2100

Steel

780

502

Static air cavity

0,11

1004

Wood finishing - Parquet

0,125

450

2720

Internal surface

0,0741

6 5 4 3 2 1

0,125 0

Floor - orizontal section

Scale 1/10

Floor - 3d detail 0

50 cm

Scale 1/10

Features

Total layers Total thickness

7 261 mm

Thermal resistance

5,8175 m2K/W

Thermal transmittance

0,1719 W/m2K 1

Attenuation

0,2648

Time shift (ext-int flux)

9h 48’

2 3

50 cm

4 5 6

Plan

Scale 1/10

University

Master’s degree course

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

Academic year 2013/2014

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

Prof. Arch.

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

50 cm

Details section and transparent envelope analysis

For the evaluation of the performance of transparent surfaces you chose the online software provided by Pilkington, through which it is possible to control the transmission of light and heat inside the transparent. For the different requirements of use are assumed stratigraphy two windows the first consisting of a low-emissive double-glazed plate with an air gap, the other has a more complex structure articulated on the southern front on which are placed bioreactors. The glow-emissive glazing reaches a transmittance of 1.9 W/m2K, maintaining excellent transmission characteristics of the light radiation (above 70%). The choice of this solution has been adopted to wrap the windows of the rooms, the bathroom and the sliding glass door of the living room, because the screen when necessary. The simulation of the behavior of the glazing southwards is more complex and therefore thermal purposes can not be considered realistic as a whole, because to simulate the effect of green bioreactors spaced from the surface of the plates must consider solar control green. Therefore it is expected a low-emissive glazed still able to meet the minimum standard. Regarding the light transmittance is possible to make some assessments of a general nature, simulating bioreactors through a double glazed solar control. The transmission of solar radiation is very small, equal to 38%. Therefore, for design purposes, the seating area will need in terms of maximum coverage of bioreactors a particular treatment of the lighting fixtures.

1/ Amorphous silicon photovoltaic panel with a 80 mm aluminium framework 2/ 40 mm fiber spruce wood panel

Glass analysis

Pilkington optifloat Green 10 mm v2

Pilkington optifloat Clear 4 mm

3/ 100 mm airy cavity 4/ 1.5 mm PVC sheet waterproofing

Pilkington K Glass 4 mm 5/ 40 mm high-density wood fiber insulator

6/ 20 mm fiber spruce wood panel 7/ 140 mm natural hemp wool low-density insulator

glass in room/bathroom

8/ 20 mm spruce wood panel 9/ 200 mm spruce wood structure

Light 18%

75%

Energy 16%

73%

10/ Natural wood removable cabinet 11/ High luminous factor low-emissive double-glazing 12/ 18 mm plexiglass panels

13/ 40Â° C water cavity with a variable percentage of micro-algae

1,9 W/m2K

Solar factor

0,73

14/ Pressurized air insufflator 15/ Thermal-cut aluminium fixture

glass in living room bioreactor

glass

16/ Thermal-cut aluminium bearing structure 17/ Aluminium protection barrier

Light 13%

35%

Energy 8%

20%

18/ Pipes for micro-algae in-flow and out-flow 19/ Inspection grid 20/ 10 mm high-density thermal insulator 21/ 15 mm natural wood floating floor 22/ 60 mm high-density wood fiber insulator 23/ Light metal sheet for heat propagation 24/ 50 mm no-airy cavity 25/ 140 mm natural hemp wool low-density insulator 26/ 20 mm fiber spruce wood panel 27/ 20 mm spruce wood joists

1,9 W/m2K

Solar factor

0,20

University

Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Plants

In according to the design requirements, the unit is self-sufficient from the energy point of view, as the demand for electricity is supplied by a photovoltaic plant cover in place, while the demand for hot water and for heating is provided by a plant bioreactors . In regard to the photovoltaic system, the coverage has been divided with two types of plant, the matte surface of the cover presents amorphous silicon panels (135 kWp), while the glass surface fixed, in the central area is equipped with photovoltaic panels glass-glass (130 kWp). The area available for PV is 21 + 14 sqm (on opaque cover), and 8.4 square meters of transparent cover. Having to reach from project 5kWp we can proceed to the estimate of system: 20 panels of 135 Wp produce 4900 W / year; 4.9 (kW) x 1646 kWh / mÂ˛ (radiation ENEA) x 1.07 (coeff tilt 10%) = 8630 kWh -80% (system losses) = 6904 kWh / year; 5 panels photovoltaic glass-glass 130 Wp produce 650 W / year. Thus, it is estimated that the plant can meet the needs required. Regarding the production of hot water and heating system in radiant floor I chose to opt for the technology of the bioreactor. The system is based on the exploitation of photosynthesis by the proliferation of microalgae contained in a plexiglass panel transparent. Subjected to radiation, the solution of water and microalgae overheats and produces microalgae as it is insufflated CO2. The saturated water algae escapes from the bioreactors at a temperature around 40Â° every three weeks, the solid portion is deposited into the flotation, and the filtered water passes through a heat exchanger that heats the boiler water and the radiant floor.

Legend potable water supply drain system bioreactor cycle sewage system electrical system cold water point hot water point drainpipe drain sewage water supply

sewage disposal boiler

inspection little well

heat exchanger

light points

10 solar panels Amorphous Silicon 135 Wp

15 solar panels Amorphous Silicon 135 Wp

5 solar panels Polycrystalline silicon glass-glass 130 Wp

charge regualtor battery

control panel

cleaner composter flotation unit

flotation unit

composter

heat exchanger

cleaner

boiler

University

Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Building features

2/ ECOR 3/ Moveable covering

1/ Façade system Black zink

4/ 8,4 m2 glass-glass solar panels Brandoni Solare 130 Wp 650 W per year

Rheinzink PATINA LINE Living material

5/ 5/ 35m2 PV panels 6/

Sharp Thinfilm 135 Wp 6904 kWh per year

6/ Algae photobioreactor façade Give energy to the building + OXYGEN - CO

11/ Techincal unit

10/ Techincal core

9/ Mushroom Insulation Ecovative

8/ Underfloor heating

7/ High luminous factor low-emissive double-glazing

University

Master’s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Renders

Mobile coverage Configuration

Ideal configuration in winter

Ideal configuration in summer

Summer night configuration

PLUS VALUE Double mobile coverage disappearing for a greater thermal comfort

University

Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Renders

University

Master’s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Renders

University

Master’s degree course

Academic year

Supervisor

Candidate

Student ID

SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES

ARCHITECTURE - INTERIOR

2013/2014

Prof. Arch.

DESIGN AND FOR AUTONOMY

VERONICA MONTANIERO

A87/033

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design "Luigi Vanvitelli"

ANTONELLA VIOLANO

Bibliography

Altomonte, S. (2009). Environmental Education for Sustainable Architecture Review of European studies, 1(2) doi:10.5539/res.v1n2p12 Armstrong, R. (2012). Living Architecture. How Synthetic Biology Can Remake Our Cities and Reshape Our Lives, TED Books Associazione Nazionale per lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Isolamento Termico e acustico (ANIT). (2012). Linee guida per la progettazione con i protocolli di sostenibilitĂ LED e ITACA Campioli, A., Giurdanella, V. & Lavagna, M. (2010). Energia per costruire, energia per abitare, Costruire in laterizio, n. 134 Chansomsak, S. & Vale, B. (2009). The Roles of Architects in Sustainable Community Development, Journal of Architectural/Planning Research and Studies, 6(3) Crawford, R.H. (2011). Life Cycle Assessment in the Built Environment, London, Taylor and Francis Ferrari, M. (2012). For a syntetic biology, Nemeton High Green Tech Magazine, 7 Fong, Q. (2013). Master thesis: AlgaecArchitecture, TU Delft, Institutional Repository uuid:b0b6e05d-49d8-4cc0-9e28-f510b0a8b215 IPCC. (2007). Climate Change 2007: Mitigation Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B.Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave and L.A. Meyer (Eds.)], Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Khasreen, M.M., Banfill, P.F.G. & Menzies, G.F. (2009). Life-Cycle Assessment and the Environmental Impact of Buildings: A Review, Sustainability, Open Access Journal. doi:10.3390/su1030674 McDonough, W. (2004). Teaching Design That Goes From Cradle to Cradle, The Chronicle Review Myers, W. (2012). Bio design: Nature, science, creativity, New York, The Museum of Modern Art Ortiz, O., Castells, F. & Sonnemann, G. (2009). Sustainability in the construction industry: A review of recent developments based on LCA, ScienceDirect Construction and Building Materials, 23(1), doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.11.012

Bibliography

Smitthipong, W., Chollakup, R., Nardin, M. (Edited by). (2015). Bio-based composites for high-performance materials: from strategy to industrial application, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group Van De Westerlo, B. (2011). Sustainable development and the Cradle to Cradle速 approach, University of Twente Enschede.doi 10.3990/1.9789036531818 World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). (1987). Our common future, Oxford, Oxford University Press

Webography

Baldinelli, G. (June 12, 2009). Il contributo dell’analisi del ciclo di vita (LCA) alla progettazione di edifici sostenibili. Retrieved from https://www.arpa.umbria.it/resources/documenti/con Battistoni, A. (2014). Nature’s Metropolis, Jacobin, Issue 15-16. Retrieved from https://www.jacobinmag.com/2014/10/natures-metropolis/ Benjamin, D. (March 30, 2011). Bio Fever - Recent developments in synthetic biology suggest new and unpredictable possibilities for creative design. Retrieved from http://www.domusweb.it/en/op-ed/2011/03/30/bio-fever.html Bertieinindia. (n.d.) The root bridges of Cherrapunji. Retrieved from http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/root-bridges-cherrapungee Boyukova, R. (July 31, 2014). BREEAM vs. LEED. Retrieved from http://www.bates.eu.com/blogs/raya/2014/07/31/breeam-vs-leed/ C2C in TW (n.d.). Cradle to Cradle Terms & Definitions. Retrieved from http://www.c2cplatform.tw/en/c2c.php?Key=3 Canadianarchitect. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.canadianarchitect.com/asf/perspectives_sustainibility/measures_of_sustai nablity/measures_of_sustainablity_embodied.htm Crawley, D., Pless, S. & Torcellini, P. (2009). Getting to Net Zero, ASHRAE Journal, 3. Retrieved from http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy09osti/46382.pdf Debacker, W., Geerken, T., Stouthuysen, P., Holm, V.M., Vrancken, K. & Willems, S. (2011). Sustainable building, material use and cradle to cradle: A survey of current project practices, OVAM, Mechelem, Belgium. Retrieved from http://www.c2cn.eu/sites/default/files/Build-Materials-C2C_EN_Full%20report.pdf ENEA, F.IN.CO., Ministero dell'ambiente e della tutela del territorio. (2004). Libro bianco “ENERGIA-AMBIENTE-EDIFICIO”: dati, criticità e strategie per l'efficienza energetica del sistema edificio, Milano, Il Sole 24 Ore. Retrieved from http://www.ecosism.com/-files%20news/librobiancoeffenered.pdf Environmental Product Declaration (EPD). (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ecosism.com/-files%20news/librobiancoeffenered.pdf,http://www.environ dec.com/

Webography

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