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Victoria Dinu Communication Theory: Interpersonal Dr. Erin Spottswood Portland State University
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1) Attribution Theory 1a. Theory focus/prediction: On a daily basis during human communicative interactions, we ask why someone has said or done something, and as an immediate reaction, attribute those actions. This will be dependent on how much we are invested in that communication interaction where we need to understand the cause of the behavior. This basic, gut reaction to explain how we perceive other’s behavior is attribution theory. When deciphering the why, there are two alternative routes of understanding. These frameworks interpreting an event or communication interaction happens by either applying an event causation or a trait inference to make sense of the situation. When an individual attempts to make sense of the communication event by considering a cause that is external, or outside the realm of the individual's control, it is considered event causation. More internally, if we try to make sense of a behavior and believe that it is due to the person’s characteristics or motives, that is considered a trait inference. These routes extend into dimensions where these applications of either trait inference or event causality also have additional layers such as locus, stability, specificity, and responsibility. The culmination of these aspects along with biases such as fundamental-attribution bias or self-serving bias either help us better understand the communication event or could potentially misguide us to believing certain conclusions that are inaccurate. Predictions are that we are harsher on others than we are about attributions about ourselves as we attribute ourselves. 1b. Communication role: Although the root of attribution theory comes from the psychology, there are several key communication features at play. The first is that interpretation of messages and how important
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the role of the individuals involved. Meaning will differ greatly and will depend on the eye of the beholder, and could be open to different interpretations especially depending the sender or the receiver in the communication event and their relationship. 1c & 1d. Where is the theory applied and should theory: This is applied to daily judgements, to the person who curses at the bus for leaving them as they attempt to catch it, to how we attribute if we get a grade we believe we worked hard for. There are times where the core beliefs of this theory may not applied as it was discussed in class that attributions may very depending on the person especially if an individual suffers from imposter syndrome. Attributions will be opposite depending on mental state or psyche. 2) Evolutionary Theory: Mental capability and role development 2a. & 2b. Theory focus, prediction and communication role: Evolutionary theory stems from a biosocial approach grounded in Darwinism. This very objective approach believes that there are certain undeniable truths that are biological and inherent as it relates to communication phenomena and human behavior. Just as species on earth have evolved leaving behind traits that do not help survive the elements/environment, cognitive abilities work to the same effect as well. “Psychologists apply this adaptationist perspective of physiology to psychology, making the claim that cognition is a structure that has been created to serve survival and reproductive purposes� (e.g., Barkow, Cosmides, & Tooby, 1992). Using communication to meet one's needs is central to adaptation. Through the bio-social approach, researchers and communication scholars attempt to understand in each scenario how biology and environment affect one another and ultimately the individual in the situation. This theory is used by researches to help explain verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Theories that use this approach
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that we’ve discussed in class include “affection exchange”, “tend and befriend”, and “attachment theory” (Spottswood, week 3, slide 13-15). Communication is a product of cognitive ability. This theory believes that communication is necessary for survival as it plays a role in adapting. 2c. & 2d Where does theory apply and where should it apply: Due to the foundation of this theory being rooted in Darwinism, the belief that we are biologically wired for natural and sexual selection, these theories can be used to better understand family conflict or sexual courtship. Specific examples include “flirting”, “social support”, and “language used” (Spottswood, week two, slide 11). In the Crowley article read for this course, examines writing as a tool for individuals who have been victims of hate speech due to their sexual orientation to cope with hate speech shows valuable applications of aspects of evolutionary theory. Linguistics was examined, depending on if the victim wrote expressively about forgiving their bullies as opposed to recounting situations of trauma had an affect on blood-level rising. The research showed that “victims’ narratives revealed that the amount of emotion-related words related to cortisol recovery, whereas the greater use of cognitive words was related with forgiveness” (Crowley, p. 238). Ultimately this proves the theory correct, that language used had biological repercussion and that cognitive ability had affect on the human psyche. As a daughter of two immigrants there had been conflicts that presented itself throughout my childhood that were cultural misunderstandings and differing in ideological beliefs between my parents and myself. If the type of study that was used by Crowley could be done to have children of immigrant parents make sense of deeply hurtful communication, through writing.
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3) Goals-Plans-Action Theory: Affecting attitudes and behaviors 3a. Theory focus: How “goals” are conceptualized in this theory, is the desired state the communicator ultimately wants to end up at. This objective theory’s title is seemingly self-explanatory, as each word is indicative of what the theory proposes in a sequence of events. When the theory refers to “plans” it is really a mental outline of actions needed to reach that goal. Actions are behaviors or communications messages that act out those plans to achieve the goal. This theory suggests that there are two goals involved according to Dr. James P. Dillard, the theorist behind goals-plans-actions explains, “the primary goal serves to initiate and maintain a social action, while the secondary goals acts as a set of boundaries which delimit the verbal choices available to sources” (Mongeau, Stiff, p. 287). This theory helps us better understand how messages are produced, and if we have a sense of what other’s goals are, we can understand how we are being persuaded, and the other way around, especially because Dillard believes that the “world is patterned” (Spottswood, 2017) therefore predictions can be made. 3b. Communication role: Creation of message are vital as messages are part of the “plan” and “action” part of this theory. These creation of messages are important because it is what will get the communicator closer to their end goal or desired state. Communication is carefully planned and crafted to be more effective. Messages in the action portion of this theory are intentional as they are attempting to “elicit a response” (Griffen et all. p. 8). This theory doesn’t just look at through communication but instead looks directly at it, cause and effect. Communication is so important to this theory that Dillard opened the chapter with stating its importance, “It is a fact of life that
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people often use communication in efforts to change the attitudes and behavior of others” (Schrodt p. 63). These guidelines that are stored cognitively become externalized when communicating with the intention of influencing a chain of events that will lead to attaining the goal. 3c. & 3d. Where does theory apply and should apply: This theory can be applied in many circumstances, even beyond interpersonal communication relationships. Because the core of this theory is constructing and producing messages that are persuasive, researchers can both quantitatively and qualitatively look at interactions to map out power dynamics in conversations, or how a communicators influence in a conversation can gratify certain interaction goals. This theory should be applied to family studies as we, specifically ones that deal with conflict, or unhealthy work environments. Four dimensions of goals-plans-actions are “explicitness, dominance, argument, and control over outcomes” (Spottswood, 2017). Looking at these dimensions in this situations can better understand power dynamics between parent-child communication and and employee-employer communication. Looking at these dynamics and doing research could possible come up with outcomes to give to those feeling dominated in communication patterns. 4) Planning Theory: Knowledge structures. Tactical communication = achieve your goal. 4a. & 4b. Theory focus and communication role: This theory is not as much concerned with how messages are comprehended but more so on the cognitive processes around producing messages. Charles Berger differentiates between plans and planning explaining that plans represent a mental model that structures a sequence of events on a prioritized ranking system. Planning is specifically a process of achieving and
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moving up that hierarchical ladder to meet goals. “The planning theory of communication seeks to explain how individuals produce actions and discourse that enable them to attain goals” Berger, p. 89). This operates the other way as well, as this theory can help individuals better recognize actions and communication that are motivated by a goal. There are seven propositions regarding the inner workings about the theory, along with understanding contingencies that affect plans and how skillful the communicator is. As Berger explains“communication is purposive; it is a powerful tool for achieving everyday goals” (Berger p. 89). 4c. & 4d Where does theory apply and where should it apply: We have seen this theory in research that shows planning takes significant cognitive ability to successfully meet their intended goals. In a research study done by Xiaowei Shi, looked to understand the impact of messages depending on what level of effort was used to think. “Purpose of this research was to investigate how different types of cognitive responses (thoughts) affects people’s advice-giving behavior” (Shi, p. 327). The outcome showed that multiple thoughts must be present to give advice. This theory could be potentially applied to interpersonal relationships where one individual has to share bad news with the individual, and wants to do it in a way that doesn’t cause harm, or makes the other person in shock. This could be anywhere from giving a romantic partner feedback that might initially hurt, or explaining to a team member that they are under performing. The other person’s goal may be to save face, and deny the information or advice being shared with them. 5) Relational Framing Theory 5a & 5b. Theory focus + comm : Relationship and Info - “The old woman and the young girl”
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Relational frames can also be considered as mental models, or lenses in which we perceive how communication is happening. The process humans take to better understand falls into two subgroups; dominance-submissive or affiliation-disaffiliation. These categorical ways of placing ambiguous messages or behaviors in these groups allow for the prediction of why the receiver of messages respond in the ways they do. “RFT suggests that people use knowledge and assumptions about relationships to connect information they get…” (McLaren, Soloman, p. 115-116). As the theory name suggests, this theory has one of communications more interpretive feature that it is relational, and that there are multiple meanings that can come from a communication utterance or phenomena. Using environment and context can help decipher some of this ambiguity. 5c. Where does theory apply: This theory can be applied to everyday experiences, as the chapter begins it lists passing observations where one might make relational inferences regarding nonverbal behavior. Research done by McLaren and Pederson did research on parent and child recounting hurtful events. In doing so, studying this from a relational theory lens they were able to “offer insight into the factors that affect understanding about hurtful events” (McLaren, Pederson p. 163). Understanding roles in communication helps us better interpret intent. 5d. Where should theory be applied: One of the critiques about this theory is in regards to the specificity of frames and how they can be switched and how long it takes to happen. Future research could investigate if self-disclosure changes how these frames operate if the ambiguity of the message or the relationship changes when trust is quickly built by a moment of self-sharing.
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6 Social Support Theory: helping people feel better 6a. Theory focus: Under the umbrella of social support communication, there are two theories that focus specifically on how the receiver in the communication event understands the message (verbal/nonverbal) offered to be supportive, along with how that message is evaluated. These two theories are are dual-process theory and advice response theory. “Dual process theory and advice response theory offer complementary explanations for the effectiveness (and ineffectiveness) of supportive communication” (Bodie, MacGeorge, p. 140). These two have different focuses and mechanisms. If the individual in distress or “the upset is more intense” (Dr. Spottswood, 2017), there are more effective ways to better the outcome. Dual Process Theory: Comforting Messages & Active Response Theory (ART): Advice There are three (in my opinion 4) key features all on the side of the communicator, 1) message content 2) elaboration of message, 3) the communicators traits and 4) environment, surrounding supportive infrastructure. These criteria help predict “how and why” messages are interpreted the way they are and how effective the support given is. (Spottswood, lecture week 4, slide 11). Prominent features of this theory is advice giving and understanding that there is both mediation and moderation. In active response theory advisors characteristics can sometimes more important than the message itself. Other features include the seriousness of the situation and what traits of the individual that is receiving advice (understanding the receiver's cognitive ability at that time). 6b. & 6c. Communication role and application: Depending on how distressed the individual is in need of support, the more that
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communication is needed. Core communication features described by Em Griffen, Andrew Ledbetter and Glenn Sparks in “A First Look at Communication Theory” outlines 5 major components of communication these theories pull from such as “creation of messages”, how messages are interpreted, how the messages “elicit a response”, and there being “relational process” are all crucial to giving better outcomes of supporting others. (Griffen et all. P 6-8). Dual process theory conceptualizes communication that “support message processing is goal orientated in attempting to alleviate the problem.” (Dr. Spottswood, 2017) This can apply to daily communication with a spouse, or close friend, but typically a communication event of this nature dealing with moments or times of crisis supportive communication is used. On a micro level, trying to alleviate a roommate’s self-deprecating talk after not getting the job she applied for, to helping calm a friend’s anxiety before an exam, we can use the advice provided from these theories in practice to help them overcome their suffering or emotional discomfort. In extreme cases such as the Supernatural clip watched in class, where one of the Winchester brothers attempts to calm the other one down on a flight affected by a storm as they try and figure out who the demon on the plane is (supportive communication was not helpful) to real life issues of a doctor informing an individual has a serious health issue. 6d. Where should theory be applied: In the workplace there can issues amongst employees and their supervisors/managers. When HR is tasked mediate an issue, emotions can run high. Situations where the HR personnel is giving feedback or write-ups to an employee, the employee might question the credibility of the HR personnel thinking that they are working on behalf of their boss and the company. It
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would be interesting to see how these theories are at play in the workplace trying to alleviate stress from work politics. 1. Communication Privacy Management 1a. Theory focus/prediction: Communication theorist Sandra Petronio came up with the theory Communication Privacy Management (CPM) in 1991, a highly systematic approach to communication, specifically aimed at helping us understand the management of personal information that might be considered private and sensitive due to possible repercussions if shared. This theory helps predict how and why people self-disclose and how they manage information. CPM’s goals are better understood when broken into two components. First, there are “assumption maxims” which helps us predict and guide future “communicative actions in regulating privacy” (Petronio, Wesley p. 337). There are three assumptions in this category 1) Public-private Dialectical Assumptions: which assumes that disclosure comes after dealing with opposing thoughts of wanting to keep information private but also feeling the need to share key information as how it might affect others (or other reasonings). 2) Privacy Management Assumptions: the assumption that we believe that information that pertains to us is ours, and that we should be fully in charge of the flow/channels of that information. 3) Boundary Metaphor Assumption: this highly descriptive assumption allows us to better visualize the point at which we choose to disclose information or keep in, to what extent is shared, and with whom in your network. These boundaries may change depending on if more disclosure or less disclosure is needed or happens. The axiomatic maxims helps us better understand CPM by defining and operationalizing it. These maxims (3) helps us conceptualize private information ownership,
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control, and turbulence.
1b. Communication role: Communication’s role in CPM is that communication is transactional and is a relational process. Communication as a relational process is one of the main features and focuses of communication research. Communication is conceptualized by being broken into three parts, all referencing communication as a relational process. These parts are interaction maxims; shared privacy boundaries, coordination shared privacy boundaries and the ramifications of privacy boundary turbulence (Petronio, Wesley p. 339). 1c. Where is the theory applied This theory explores a host of fields where it can be applied in research or practically examined and applied to day to day life when sharing information about ourselves. One area that this theory is examined is self-disclosure online ranging from social media sites to social networking sites. Understanding boundary ownership and management when self-disclosing online while understanding while others choose to hold back when sharing information on their social media pages. Current research is being done to understand online self-disclosure and self presentation and privacy concerns and understanding where the boundary line is drawn. 1d. Where should the theory: I would like to see how this theory is applied to current and future political events, specifically the proposed new healthcare bill that would not cover a massive new variety of pre-existing conditions typically covered under Obamacare/Affordable Care Act. How will
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patients choose to share information about previous conditions openly and honestly with healthcare providers if the reasons for their need for care and sharing personal information might jeopardize their health care coverage? 2) Expectancy Violations Theory 2a. Theory focus/prediction: This theory that has continually been revised over the past few decades by its creator, Judee Burgoon. Communication theorist, Burgoon in this theory examines the expectations that we have and what happens when we conform or deviate from those expectations. This theory originated in understanding an individual's personal space and boundaries but over years has expanded into interpersonal relationship expectation of content of the relationship and behavioral expectations. This theory also extends into the foundation Interaction Adaptation Theory (IAT) which looks more directly at nonverbal cues of communication. This theory predicts future interactions and helps us understand communicative patterns. “Patterns of interaction can be diagnostic. Both theories follow a hypothetico-deductive which means they utilize a set of concepts” (White, p. 218) According to Cindy White this theory allows us to predict outcomes in interpersonal communication interactions because of observed and foreseeable patterns of behavior. This theory helps us explain social interactions and helps us make future interactions more fluid and comfortable. Three key features to how we anticipate communication events revolved around the relationship, the context and specifically the communicator themself. When there is a violation of an expectation it does not necessarily mean it is negative, sometimes when expectations are violated or behavior deviates from the norm, it can actually have a positive effect. This example is defined as the violation valence. There are other important factors such as
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communicator reward value and reciprocity.
2b. Communication role: Although EVT and IAT both have very clear outlines and hypotheses and predictors of how interactions can go, every scenario differs because of the context of the communication and nonverbal cues that also impact the communicative event. In this theory, it suggests that being intentional about the way we communicate is key and that it focuses primarily on messages that elicit a response. Each communication event will be different and members involved in the interpersonal communication event have to be adaptive. 2c. Where is the theory applied and 2d. Where should the theory: The theory has typically been in the arena of understanding first acquaintances, intimate romantic partnerships and to also better understand deception. One important take away from previous research is that violations in interpersonal communication if the communicator is considered a “high reward communicator” (White, p. 223) that when they did not fit the norm but instead violated it, were seen much more positively by their communication partner. Future research and application should look at how this happens with the “direct message” feature of Instagram. How does first interactions with new followers or individuals one has never met in real life (IRL) play out via Instagram? How do we decided to welcome a stranger into your world, and what attributes and behavior do we find to be appealing or reject?
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3. Speech Codes Theory 3a. Theory focus/prediction: This theory looks to highlight the importance communication has at creating and sustaining culture. The idea that, you are what you communicate is applicable here. More eloquently explained by the theorist, Gerry Philipsen “Speech codes are historically situated and socially constructed systems of words, meanings, premises, and rules about communicative conduct” (Philipsen, p. 296). This theory aims to better understand and uncover speech codes, how speech upholds social constructs, how it is observed and re-created, and how speech codes are a part of our daily life and to better understand other’s speech codes allows us to better understand one another despite differences. 3b. Communication role: As this is a highly interpretive theory, speech codes’ focuses on a foundational feature of communication research, the interpretation of messages. This theory is interpretive due to the collective meaning words, symbols, cues, signs and the understanding of those messages will differ greatly depending on who is a part of that host culture and who is not familiar. How the messages are interpreted plays into how the individual trying to decipher the meaning identifies themselves along with their previous lived experiences and interactions. 3c Where is the theory applied and 3d. Where should the theory: Identifying research that directly links itself to speech codes is hard to find, mostly because one of the weaknesses of this theory is that it is really challenging to really nail down and for researchers to use this theory as a way to guide their research because of its complexities. Although this theory explains that communication is complex due to how we assign meaning to
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textual and verbal cues, it doesn’t directly predict anything or have a clear outline on how to effectively use the theory in practical ways. “ The Situated Expression of Arab Collective Identities in the United States” was a reading connected to this theory studied in class, and although it illuminated how members in a certain group, in this case Arab-Americans used language to identify themselves post 9/11 attacks it is hard to then postulate what to do with the information learned from that study. The researcher found that individuals changed their speech codes depending on environment. For future research this theory could be applied to speech codes at work with the hope of understanding the way certain corporate culture language indoctrinates or “on-boards” new employees or not. Learning speech codes in a work environment could lead to giving us new information about how to be more inclusive in the workplace. 4. Relational Turbulence Model: Or as Dr. Spottswood calls it “an oreo of blood and pain” 4a. Theory focus/prediction: Big life changes can cause a domino effect of other changes in a relationship. Often times these changes whether big or small can create turbulence in a relationship. Some examples of this is the pressure and stress of moving, life choices to pursue new/different careers, major health changes, and other events in life that come unexpectedly. This theory mostly focuses on times of transition in romantic relationship. When there is turbulence, how the situation is navigated ultimately impacts future outcomes. This theory doesn’t focus on the change or end of a relationship but instead how turbulence affects communication in that process. When change is triggered, how is that transition dealt with via communication. This theory is considered to be like “turbulence management”. In quantitative research it predicts how individuals systematically
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deal with transition and how these transition spark turbulence. In qualitative research, individual experience takes center stage as cultural differences in navigating transitions and the turbulence that follows. Qualitative research can help illuminate different expectations due to cultural inferences (Dr. Spottswood, June 5th 2017). This type of lens helps us understand how communication patterns are learned. In general, features include relational uncertainty for oneself, their partner or overall uncertainty regarding the relationship, and to choose between either interference versus facilitation. 4b. Communication role: Communication plays a central role in how we create our own world and realities. Through communication we are able to set things in motions such as asking a romantic partner an important question or telling them a life altering piece of information. Communication is conceptualized in this theory as message creation and messages that elicit a response two main feature of communication research. Communication theorist, Leanne Knobloch explains that the main function communication plays is “message production and message processing” (Knobloch p. 381) as a means for predicting what will happen next after the transition or turbulent event occurs. 4c Where is the theory applied: This theory is very applicable, both theoretically and concretely. This theory helps understand interpersonal relationships when transition occurs. On a daily level, “transition” or “turbulence” on a small scale could be discrepancies in expectations between a couple. Another example could be when a couple has certain expectations out of their relationship or one another, such as expecting to have children and finding out that they may be infertile. Other ways this
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theory can be applied is how military couples deal with deployment and returning home afterwards. Their relationship has changed infrastructurally, socially, and their ways of communicating. When the two are reunited, they must face changes that have happened while the two have been separated and must navigate uncharted territory together. 4d. Where should the theory: Although this theory heavily focuses on romantic relationships, really this theory can expanded to every close relationship that exists. I would be interested in seeing how this theory would work when it comes to close relationships such as one between a parent and their child. As the parent ages to a point where their children then takes care of them, how do they deal with the dynamic and power change of the child taking care of them? How do they deal with changes in living situation such as deciding to move into a care facility or retirement home? 5. Social Information Processing Theory 5a. Theory focus/prediction and 5b. Communication role: Social information processing theory (SIP) questions how is it possible for close relationships to be formed through computer mediated communication (CMC) when previous research from the 70s and 80s proved that CMC was cold and impersonal. When initial research was done, it was done in an environment where computers weren’t savvy enough to allow closeness to develop along with the context was focused on looking at communication between work associates which are usually impersonal in nature. The context of their research led researchers to believe that CMC was not a viable way to communicate that would create or facilitate closeness. Communication theorist Joseph B. Walther found that the internet, technological devices, and social networking platforms are more than just tools that help us
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accomplish tasks, he believes they help humans form and build relationships that fulfill interpersonal needs. More specifically he finds that they help us stay connected to one another, that we attempt to create and maintain positive self-presentation online, and that online interpersonal communication closeness takes more time than it does for face to face closeness to develop. Due to the temporal nature of this theory this theory highlights that communication is certainly a process, and that frequency, and time helps build closeness. Although the process is slower than FtF, it can still create the same closeness and effect. 5c Where is the theory applied Research has been done to see whether face-to-face communicative partners or online communicative partners had more “liking” towards each other. Their findings proved Walther’s hypothesis as they found that closeness was found with online communicative partners even though there was not presence of “voice, movement and facial expression” (Walther, p. 424). Other research done to better understand online groups and virtual communities where culture and closeness and even IRL friendships were made and sustained. 5d. Where should the theory: This seems like the obvious answer and maybe used by other students in the class but I believe that when virtual reality becomes more accessible not only in gaming but in other fields this will have a huge impact in being able to share experiences with others. More tangible research that can be done now could be more so around augmented reality in social media platforms. This could extend to understanding effects of snapchat filters being used and tracking if they are being used more with close friendships / romantic relationships or acquaintances.
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Citations: Braithwaite, D. O., & Schrodt, P. (2015). Engaging theories in interpersonal communication: Multiple perspectives. Second Edition. Griffin, E. A., Ledbetter, A., & Sparks, G. G. (2015). A first look at communication theory Xiaowei Shi Cognitive Responses in Advice Planning, Journal of Language and Social Psychology Vol 32, Issue 3, pp. 311 - 334 First published date: December-26-2012 Spottswood (2017) Class lectures and lecture slides Stiff, J. B., & Mongeau, P. A. (2003). Persuasive communication. New York: Guilford Press.