Composition and Emotion by Vincent Whitton
ThinkQuest 2014 
COMPOSITION AND EMOTION
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Composition and Emotion
1
Introduction
3
Composition Analysis
4
Pitch in Music
5
Melody in Music
7
Chords in Music
10
Structure In Music
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Rhythm in Music
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Bass in Music
23
Texture In Music
28
Music and Emotion
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Musical Aspects
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Neurological Aspects
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References
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Glossary of Terms
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Introduction What is Music? Our English dictionary defines ‘music’ as ‘vocal or instrumental sounds combined in such a way as to produce beauty of form, harmony, and expression of emotion’. This is a great way of explaining music to someone who has never heard a song, as it describes all the aims of music, as a beauty of form, harmony, and as a way of expressing emotion. This reflects on music as more than a combination of notes that sound right, but as a way of expressing oneself. Throughout the ages, music has been used in cultures all around the world, by telling stories and being a major part of our lives. Music can evoke happiness and feelings of joy and on the contrary, evoke emotions of sadness and sorrow as well. But how does music do this? How can sometimes, a simple combination of notes, be able to evoke a specific emotion inside our brains. How do certain songs make us happy, sad, and inspired or simply just make us want to dance. Why is it that certain notes sound good together, and adding another would change it completely?
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Composition Analysis How does Music Work? Musical composition refers to the creation of music. However, it’s not as simple as it sounds. Creating music is like a mysterious maze of twists and turns. You never know what you may create. You can also turn for the worst and create something horrible. Composing was originally done pen and paper style, writing every note in by hand. Nowadays, composers tend to turn to technology for their composing needs. Some popular examples are Sibelius, Garageband and Logic X. Using these tools, composers can create any genre of music they desire. After they’ve written it down, all that’s left is for people to play it, record it and listen to it. Composition has many musical concepts within itself, which are all used collaboratively to achieve an end result. These are mysterious concepts that many listeners may not be able pick up when listening to a song. To understand the mystery behind composition, we must look into these musical conventions. Pitch, chords, melody, structure, rhythm, bass and texture are tools we must inspect to achieve an understanding and success in composition.
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Pitch in Music There are twelve notes or pitches found in Western music. They are represented by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F and G, with some notes also found between the letters. Pitch describes how high or low a note is. All these different notes are different pitches. After G, the pattern returns back to A and so on. Going up the pattern, the notes become higher and in reverse, the notes become lower. A full pattern of notes e.g. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, is known as an octave, meaning eight notes.
Harmony Harmony defines two or more pitches sounding at the same time. If we want to look at how some harmonies fit together nicely, while others don’t, it becomes a matter of science and mathematics alongside music. Different pitches all have their own frequency, in relation to sound waves. Notes with a high pitch have more waves per second when played. The opposite goes to low notes that have low frequencies. When certain frequencies waves match up at regular intervals, they are pleasing to the ear. Frequencies that do not match each other are considered unpleasant to the ear. Consonance defines notes that sound well together and dissonance defines notes that sound strange when played together.
Here are the frequencies of a C and a G, which are considered consonant. They meet up at regular short intervals.
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Here are the frequencies of a C and an F#, which are considered quite dissonant. They match up, but unlike C and G their matching have much larger intervals.
To sum up why two notes sound good together, it all depends on how often their two waves lengths match up. If they match up frequently, they sound great. If they match up after longer numbers of waves, they sound not so great.
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Melody in Music Melody is the next part of songwriting that must be looked at to understand the way music works. Melody is key to any song. In vocal or an instrumental music, a pleasing melody can make anyone rich and famous instantly. When we get a song stuck in our heads, it is usually because the melody that we’ve remembered appeals to us so much. The term ‘hook’ defines this memorable melody. Every musical culture around the world, no matter how different, always relies on melody for a successful song. To have a good melody, it does not necessarily count on a large number of notes, but more on a set of notes and how they are used. Composers also generally like to keep the notes in their melodies close together in pitch. To know what notes are right and which notes will fit together in a melody, we need to look at the different scales. Scales are sets or groups of notes that are made of patterns of tones and semitones. The different types of scales all have different properties. Major, minor, pentatonic and blues scale are different sets of notes which all sound different, and are used as templates to make different melodies.
Major Scale Major scales are very commonly used scales and are often seen in Western music. There are twelve different major scales, which all use a number of seven different notes, ending on an eighth note which is the same as the first. All these scales follow a rule regarding to the distance between notes, also known as intervals. The smallest interval in Western music is known as a semitone. A whole tone is the distance of two semitones. Major scales are made of five tones and two semitones. Major scales also sound rather positive and happy. Millions of different melodies can be made from the tones and semitones of a major scale.
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Above is a scored C major scale, showing T for tones and S for semitones. It starts at C and ascends up the stave to another C, one octave above it.
Harmonic Minor Scale Harmonic minor scales are very similar to major scales. There are twelve different minor scales, which all use seven different notes. The intervals found in a minor scale are different to that of a major scale however. Minor scales have three whole tones, three semitones and one interval made of three semitones, or one and a half tones. The large gap of one and a half tones is there because in harmonic minor scales, the last note is raised, or sharpened, up a semitone. The one and a half tone gap in minor scales makes the set of notes sound negative and much different to major scales. This makes harmonic minor scales useful if a composer would like to create a more negative melody, opposed to a major melody.
Above is a scored C harmonic minor scale. We can see the three black tones and three red semitones. It also labels the 3 semitones between the 6th and sharpened 7th note.
Pentatonic Scale Pentatonic scale is a scale found on all parts of the Earth. It is made of five different notes. Pentatonic scale is a large contributor for the world’s melodies. This is simply because the five notes it uses work very well together and are pleasing to the ear, when arranged in any order. There are different kinds of pentatonic scales, such as major and minor pentatonic. Songs that use these scales are known as pentatonic songs. They are also easily found. Looking at a piano, all of the black notes form a pentatonic scale.
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Above is a scored C major pentatonic scale. We see that it is made of five different notes, ending back on C, one octave above the lower C.
Blues Scale The blues scale is a hexatonic scale. It contains six notes and is used widely throughout jazz, especially the blues. Blues scale represents itself similar to other scales, except for some notes, which are flattened or lowered to give the sad and bluesy sound. For this reason, the blues scale was and is used as a template for this type of sad and bluesy music. If any other scale was used for blues music, it could not be done, as the blues scale templates for blues music.
Above is a scored C blues scale. It contains a flattened 3rd, 5th, and 7th.
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Chords in Music Chords are combinations of three or more notes and are used in a repeated series to form chord progressions in compositions. Chord progressions are used to create variety in a composition. If a whole piece of music were written with one chord, it would get quite boring. Chords with three notes are known as ‘triads’. The most common chords we see in music are major, minor and jazz chords. To know the relationship between chords and which chords go together, we can look at a circle of fifths.
Major Chords Major chords, similar to melodies made with a major scale, sound happy. Major triads contain the 1st, 3rd and 5th notes of a major scale. For example, the D major scale contains the notes D, E, F#, G, A, B, C#. Therefore a D major chord would contain the notes D, F# and A. Major chords are symbolised by just their note name.
Above is an example of all the basic major chords.
Minor Chords Minor chords, similar to melodies made with a minor scale, sound negative and sad. Minor triads contain the 1st, 3rd, and 5th, notes of a minor scale. In comparison to major triads, minor triads of the same key have the same 1st and 5th notes, but differ in 3rd notes. For example a D major triad has a D, F# and A, but a D minor triad contains a D, F, and A. Minor chords are symbolised by the note name with a lower case ‘m’ after it.
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Above is an example of all the basic minor chords.
Jazz Chords: Sixths, Sevenths, Ninths, Suspended, Augmented and Diminished The following jazz chords aren’t necessarily only to be used in jazz pieces, but are called this because they arose with importance in the jazz era and were used extensively in this era.
Sixths A sixth chord is basically a triad with an added 6th note. Sixth chords come in the form of both major and minor. Using sixth chords in composition can add flavour to the ordinary major and minor triads. Sixth chords are symbolised by first putting the note name and then adding superscript ‘6’.
Above is an example of the sixth chords of C major and C minor.
Sevenths A seventh chord is similar to a sixth chord, in the sense that it is built of a major or minor triad. A seventh chord is a major or minor triad, with an added 7th note of the scale. Seventh chords are common in jazz and popular music. Seventh chords come in major and minor forms, as well as a dominant form. Seventh chords are symbolised by first putting the note name and then adding superscript ‘7’.
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Above is an example of the three seventh chords (dominant, major, minor), built on C.
Ninths Ninth chords are built off seventh chords by adding a 9th note in the scale. The 9th note in a scale is the same as the 2nd note, just one octave higher. Ninth chords come in the form of major, minor and dominant. Ninth chords are symbolised by first putting the note name and then adding a superscript ‘9’.
Above is an example of the three ninth chords (dominant, major, minor), built on C.
Suspended Suspended chords are triads where the 3rd note has been altered. The two commonly used suspended chords are a sus4 chord and a sus2 chord. The sus4 chord is where the 3rd note has been moved up to a 4th. This means the chord is made up of 1st, 4th and 5th notes. A sus2 chord is similar, as the 3rd note is moved down to a 2nd. The sus2 is made up of 1st, 2nd and 5th notes. We can also add a 7th note to a suspended triad to make a suspended seventh. Suspended chords are symbolised by first putting the note name, then superscript ‘sus2’ or ‘sus4’. Suspended seventh chords would have superscript ‘7’ before the ‘sus4’ or ‘sus2’.
Above is an example of four suspended chords, the last two with an added seventh
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Augmented Augmented chords are triads where the 5th note is altered. In an augmented chord, the 5th note is raised or sharpened, while the 1st and 3rd stay the same. Augmented chords can also have an added seventh to become augmented sevenths. Augmented chords are symbolised by the note name, followed by ‘aug’ or a ‘+’. An augmented seventh would have superscript ‘7’ after the ‘aug’ or ‘+’.
Above is an example of two augmented chords built on C. The second has an added seventh.
Diminished Diminished chords are triads where the 3rd and 5th note are altered. In diminished chords, the 3rd and 5th notes are both flattened. Diminished sevenths can be written as well, but a double flat must be used on the major 7th note, meaning it is moved down by two semitones. Diminished chords are symbolised by the note name, followed by ‘dim’ or a ‘O’. A diminished seventh would have an indexed ‘7’ after the ‘dim’ or ‘O’.
Above is an example of two diminished chords built on C. The second has an added seventh.
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Chord Progressions Chord progressions are made from several chords being played in succession. When making a chord progression for a song, we can’t just throw together random chords, as they probably wouldn’t sound nice together. We can use a circle of fifths to figure out which chord will work together in a chord progression. A circle of fifths is a diagram that displays all the scales of music and their sharps and flats.
The notes on the outside represent the major scales and the notes on the inside represent the minor scales. Surrounding the circle are the corresponding key signatures for the scales. The circle of fifths is usually used to just see what scales have which sharps and flats, but we can use it to figure out chords that go together. If we imagine that the letters now represent their chord triads, generally the chords that are closer together on the diagram will work well together. For example, a C major, G major and an E minor chord will sound nice together. On the other hand a C major, F# major and A major chord will not sound nice together. Using the circle of fifths and this knowledge, we are able to create nice sounding chord progressions for composition.
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Structure In Music Structure is key to a successful piece of music. Without structure, musical compositions would be random melodies that go from a start to a finish. The use of structure allows composers to arrange their music into a form, which makes their music easier to listen to. This usually involves repetition, which we see widely in pop and rock music. On the other hand we must also focus on not employing too much repetition and keep a variety of melodies and musical concepts involved. There are many different ways to structure a composition. We use letters to represent different sections that are the same. For example, if a composition opened up with a happy progression, moved to a sad progression, but then returned to the original happy progression, we would call that ‘ABA’. The ‘A’ represents the happy section and the ‘B’ represents the sadder section. Some different structures seen in music are Binary, Ternary, Rondo, Verse/Chorus, Theme and Variations, and the 12 Bar Blues.
Binary Form Binary form is very simple. It describes a structure of music with only two sections. This is how we get the name ‘binary’, meaning two things. An example of binary form would be the form ‘AB’, as it is two different sections. This means one melody would be played, followed by another non-identical melody. ‘Lullaby’ by Johannes Brahms, a dreamy piece often heard sung to babies, was written in binary form.
Above is an example of binary form. The first melody is marked with ‘A’ at the beginning. The ‘B’ section is different to the ‘A’ section, so is marked that way. This would simply be ‘AB’.
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Ternary Form Ternary form is identical to binary form, except another ‘A’ section is added onto the end. This makes ternary form ‘ABA’, as in a starting melody followed by a similar but slightly different melody, which then returns to the original melody. ‘Somewhere Over The Rainbow’ by Harold Arlen and Yip Harburg was written in ternary form.
Above is an example of ternary form. We see that it is identical to binary form, for the first two lines are ‘AB’. However, another ‘A’ comes in after ‘B’ making three parts and therefore ternary form.
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Rondo Form Rondo describes a piece of music where a theme is stated at the beginning and keeps returning throughout the piece. The piece may play different sections between themes, but the theme will always return. An example would be ‘ABACABA’, where the theme is played, followed by a different melody, then the theme and so on. ‘Gypsy Rondo’ by Haydn was a composition written in rondo form.
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Verse/Chorus Form Verse/Chorus is a commonly used musical structure in the genres of pop, country and rock. Simply put, verse/chorus form is made up of two parts, a verse and a chorus. The choruses are the main sections of the song. They often contain the highest amount of action in the song. The verses are spaces between the choruses. They fill in the gap, as a song could not be just choruses. An addition to the verse/chorus form is the verse/chorus/bridge form. This is just verse-chorus-verse-chorus-bridge-chorus. The bridge is a different section that leads into the final chorus. “Fix You” by Coldplay is a good example of verse/ chorus/bridge form.
Theme and Variations Form Theme and variations is a form of music where a theme is played first, followed by variations of that theme. These variations can be done by adding more notes, changing the themes pitch, adding more instruments or layers and changing the rhythm. Even when all of this is done, the theme still must be recognizable in the music. A clear example of this form is Haydn’s ‘Surprise’ Symphony.
Above is an example of a composition in theme and variations style. There is a theme played first, followed by two variations. The first variation changes the rhythm of the bass line, as we see the semibreves in the theme are replaced with crotchets. Then in Variation 2, the main melody is raised up one octave.
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12 Bar Blues Form The 12-bar-blues is a well-known structure for jazz and modern composers. It is composed of three chords, in a 12 bar pattern. It was used in the time of blues and continued to be implemented through rock. Alongside a swing rhythm and a walking bass line, a 12-bar-blues progression could prove to be very lively. Some famous examples of the 12-bar-blues in action are ‘Rock Around The Clock’ by Max C. Freedman and James E. Myers, and ‘St. Louis Blues’ by W.C. Handy.
Above is a diagram showing the structure of the 12-bar-blues form. I, IV and V represent the three chords that make up the progression and as we can see, there are 12 bars, that hold 4 beats, within the progression.
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Rhythm in Music Rhythm is the independent pulse in music. It is the function in a composition that makes us dance, tap our feet and clap our hands. It isn’t necessarily all drums and loud rock beats, as rhythm is found in music without drums as well. Music can stand without it, but bringing in rhythm has the ability mesmerize us in a trance of beats. Rhythm also allows us to speed up and slow down music. It keeps musicians in time with each other and sets the foundation pulse to a composition. Rhythm was the basis of many indigenous cultures, such as Aboriginal and Native American.
Tempo Tempo is an Italian term defining speed in music. It is how fast or slow a composition is to be played. Within tempo there are other Italian terms to define the exact speed. Allegro, largo, adagio, presto and vivace are all examples of tempos used in music. They all mean different speeds. Largo means the piece is to be played slowly, whereas presto means the piece is to be played very fast. They can also tell us to play the piece with a lively rhythm, as vivace does.
The picture above displays how music is scored with a tempo. The tempo is placed above the start of the piece, naming the Italian tempo and the beats per minute. In this case we have ‘adagio’ and 60 beats per minute.
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Meter Meter defines the amount of beats or pulses contained in a bar. This could be seen as the number of syllables in the lines of a piece of poetry. There are strict rules that keep this number the same. Otherwise, the poetry or composition would sound irregular. Meter is represented by a time signature. Time signatures are written in the form of two numbers, one on top of the other, like a fraction. They are written on the stave at the beginning of a piece like so:
The number on the top of the time signature denotes the amount of beats in the bar, while the bottom number indicates the value of beats in the bar. The above time signature stands for 4 beats per bar, made up of quarter notes (crotchets). There are three categories of meter: simple, compound and complex. They are defined by their division of beats and how the beats are divided.
Simple Meter Simple meter defines pulses in a bar that can be divided equally by two. We can also sub-categorize simple meter into duple, triple and quadruple. Duple indicates there are two beats in the bar, triple indicates three and quadruple indicates four. We combine the two meter categories that apply to certain time signatures e.g. 4/4 is known as simple quadruple. Type
Examples
Simple Duple
2/2, 2/4, 2/8, 2/16
Simple Triple
3/2, 3/4, 3/8, 3/16
Simple Quadruple
4/2, 4/4, 4/8, 4/16
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Compound Meter Compound meter defines pulses in a bar that can be divided equally by three. This often also involves dotted notes, which have irregular pulses to straight beats. Like simple meter, compound meter can be sub-categorized into duple, triple and quadruple. Type
Examples
Compound Duple
6/4, 6/8, 6/16
Compound Triple
9/4, 9/8, 9/16
Compound Quadruple
12/4, 12/8, 12/16
Complex Meter Complex meter defines pulses that are irregular. The top numbers on these complex time signatures include odd numbers such as 5, 7 and 11. There are odd numbered exceptions such as 3/2 and 3/4. They cannot be divided into equal beats, unlike simple and compound. This makes these meters irregular. Examples of complex meter include 5/4, and 7/8.
Syncopation Syncopation is an excellent tool for composers if they want to create loose, playful rhythms. Widely used throughout the jazz era, syncopation involves uneven rhythms that make the music seem ‘beat’. Making music off beat isn’t necessarily bad, for it can make a composition livelier.
Cross-Rhythms Cross-rhythms are made up of crossing rhythms, hence the name cross-rhythms. One straight rhythm is played, possibly just straight crotchet beats, while another more complex, syncopated is layered over the top of it. More and more rhythms may be created over the top of the previous layers to create compounded rhythms. This can create a fast-paced and energetic feeling to a composition, if used well.
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Bass in Music Bass is a large part of a composition, even though it is often over looked. Bass may not be the clearest part in a composition, but it’s always there. The underlying foundation of a composition, bass must always be implemented for a thriving tune.
There are few instruments that can produce good bass sounds. Some of these are the bass guitar, cello, double bass, trombone, tuba and bassoon as seen above. These instruments play the bass parts of compositions, while higher instruments may play the melodies. Many composers would say that bass is the part of music that employs both rhythm and melody with good effect and is the low core of a composition.
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Simple Root Bass Line A simple way to write a bass line for a piece of music is by first looking at the chords the song uses. Sometime this can be obvious and in other cases, not so much. When we find the basic chords that make up the piece, we then find the tonic note of these chords. The tonic note is the main note upon which a chord or a scale is based on e.g. for a C scale or chord, the tonic is C. For G scale or chord it is G and so on. To create our simple root bass line, we just take the tonics to the bass and play with the chords. This may not seem like much for the bass part to play, but this adds a certain filling to a piece.
Above we see a score for a piano. The right hand plays the simple sequence of four chords while the left hand plays the bass. The bass part is playing the tonics of the right hand, but at a lower register.
Contrary Motion Bass Line Contrary motion defines two parts of music that are moving in different pitch directions e.g. one line moves up higher in pitch, while another moves down. We can use contrary motion for its effect in a bass line, if we are unhappy with a simple tonic based bass line. First, look at the chords or melody being played and take note of which direction they are moving. Then place adequate bass notes into the bass part, making sure they are moving in the opposite pitch direction to the melody or chords. From this we can create a contrasting and interesting effect with music; instead of simply making the two parts move in similar motion
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Above we see a scored contrary motion bass line in the left hand of the piano. While the chords in the right hand gradually move up, the bass part moves down. When the chords start to come back downwards, the bass part stays in contrary motion and starts to move up in pitch.
Walking Bass Line Walking bass lines are seen commonly in jazz and give a constant moving bass line. They use the notes of scales to ascend and descend at equal values of length. This constant movement must be used in order to give that ‘walking’ feel to the bass line. To create a walking bass line we must first look at the key of our piece. We then add the tonic of this key, as the first note of our walking bass. Next, we can add the notes of this scale, moving in any direction we like. As long as the notes are kept of equal length in a constant pace, an effective walking bass can be created.
Above is an example of a simple walking bass line, written in C major.
Above is an example of a jazz walking bass line.
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Inversion Bass Line An inversion bass line is similar to the tonic bass line. An inversion describes notes that are moved around to different pitches, but still keep their notes names. If we invert a chord, this means we are just simply re-arranging the notes in the chord. Below we see the chord of F major, written three different ways. The root position is where all the notes are and equal length apart. The 1st inversion is made by taking the bottom note of the root (the tonic) and moving it up one octave (8 notes). Moving the bottom note of the 1st inversion one octave higher then makes the 2nd inversion.
In a bass line situation, we look at the notes of a chord that we are accompanying and instead of using the tonic as our bass line, we use another note in the chord. To the human ear, inversions can make a chord sound completely different to its root position. For this reason, having inverted bass notes can create variety and differentiate the bass from the main chords.
Above is an example of four chords, accompanied by inverted bass notes.
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Bass Riffs Riffs are short, distinctive parts of a piece that are repeated. They often begin songs or are the starting block upon which a song progresses. Riffs are very popular within jazz, funk and especially rock. Some famous examples of rock riffs are “Money” by Pink Floyd, “Stairway to Heaven” by Led Zeppelin and “Smoke On The Water” by Deep Purple. With the introduction of riffs into the musical world, the bass was introduced with a new role. Before this time, the bass parts were completely used for accompanying the other instruments. Now, the bass could take up lead parts and melodies. To create a bass riff, we must only make sure the bass is playing a distinctive tune and that it is being repeated.
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Texture In Music When we look at texture in music, we look at the way multiple instruments work together to achieve the sounds they want. We look at what instruments are playing the lead parts and at the same time, which instruments are quietly accompanying the leads. We inspect how the instruments work together and if there is a large number of instruments or a low number of instruments. The number of instruments in a composition can be referred to as the ‘layers’ of the composition. A composition with many layers would have its texture described as thick. A composition with few layers would have its texture described has thin. There are terms that musicians use to describe a musical texture. Some of these are monophonic, biphonic, heterophonic, homophonic and polyphonic.
Monophonic Texture The name ‘monophonic’ means ‘one sound’. A monophonic texture describes a piece of music that contains only one single melodic line. There is no accompaniment at all. A monophonic texture does not necessarily have to be thin though. We can have many layers playing in a composition with a monophonic texture, as long as all these instruments are playing the same tune. An example of a monophonic texture would be people singing “Happy Birthday” at a birthday party. Even though there are many people, they are all singing the same thing.
Above is an example of a monophonic texture. It is simply a single note melody played by a violin.
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Biphonic Texture Biphonic texture describes two lines of music playing at the same time, where one line plays a single drone or pedal tone and the other plays a melody. This is like a monophonic texture, except there is a constant pitch layered below the single melody. An example would be if a double bass were to play single low G notes, while a cello played a melody in G above it.
Above is an example of a biphonic texture. The melody is played by a violin, while a cello plays the low and long held C note for accompaniment.
Homophonic Texture Homophonic texture is similar to biphonic texture, as there are two parts. The difference between the two however, is that in a homophonic texture, there is a melody that is accompanied by notes that can move. This removes the constant drone in a biphonic texture and replaces it with a chord pattern or a set of accompanying notes. Homophonic textures are a common texture seen in composition.
Above is an example of a homophonic texture. The violin plays a melody while the cello plays a moving bass accompaniment.
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Heterophonic Texture Heterophonic texture consists of two parts playing variations of the same melody. This could take the form of two parts playing the same melody and then each branching off to their own individual parts at the same time. It could also be in the form of each instrument branching off into solos, while the other keeps the melody.
Above is an example of a heterophonic texture. The violin plays a melody while the cello plays a melody that is similar.
Polyphonic Texture Polyphonic texture is the opposite of monophonic texture and literally translates to ‘many sounds’. This describes different instruments playing different parts at the same time. In polyphonic texture we can hear several melodies being played at the same time. This is the most complex texture as it involves more parts and the composer needs to make sure all these parts and melodies work together. Music for large ensembles and choir groups often use a polyphonic texture.
Above is an example of a polyphonic texture. The four string instruments all play different parts and make different sounds.
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Music and Emotion How does Music make us Feel? The emotions conveyed through music are what make music more than just a mechanical tool that people use. Through emotion, music can connect with human beings in a way that makes it an art form. To investigate how music is capable of expressing emotions, we don’t have to look into the music so much as we do into ourselves. The human brain interprets music differently depending on what mood we are in. The human brain also is responsible for what music we listen to, according to our moods. In the field of music psychology, researchers look into how our brains respond to music. They see that that specific aspects of music trigger specific parts of the brain. It has also been found that many aspects of music are responsible for these triggering emotion. Music can also change our moods and the way we perceive the world around us. Music also has been found to have healing abilities.
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Musical Aspects The musical aspects used to convey emotions can sometimes be very obvious and sometimes quite subtle. Throughout the ages, composers have implemented musical features into their compositions that reflect the mood they are trying to achieve. Some musical aspects used to convey emotion include tempo, tonality, dynamics, melody, rhythm and instrumentation.
Tempo Tempo, as discussed in the previous section, is a concept of rhythm that defines the speed of a composition. In regard to emotion, tempo plays are large role. Music psychologists have done studies that show a fast and upbeat tempo can create feelings of joy, happiness and excitement. The studies also show that a fast tempo can create feelings of excitement, anger and tension. For example, a chase scene in a movie would use fast tempos to create the excitement of the scene. Slow tempos create the opposite emotions of fast tempos. Studies show that slow tempos usually create feelings of sadness, dreaminess and sentimentality. For example, a slow tempo would be used for funeral music, as it fits the sad occasion.
Tonality Tonality is a musical concept that describes if a composition is major or minor. A musical composition that has major tonality often conveys emotion of happiness and joy. This was discussed earlier with the major scale. Music made in a minor key normally expresses emotions of sadness, disappointment and fear.
Dynamics Dynamics represents the loudness and softness of music. Loud music often can deal feelings of anger, frustration and intensity. Soft music usually conveys sadness and peace. Crescendos (gradually getting louder) and diminuendos (gradually getting softer) can be used to create fluctuation in emotion. We could have a piece start off sad with soft sounds and then gradually become louder for an angry finish. COMPOSITION AND EMOTION
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Melody Melodies are a large part to discerning whether a composition reflects a certain emotion. Composers have found through time that melodies that involve a large range of notes can express feelings of joy and quirkiness. At the same time a large range can convey tension and anxiousness. Narrow ranges of few notes often involve emotions of peace and sadness. Consonant melodies have all their notes complementing each other and project emotions of happiness and composure. Dissonant melodies have their notes in a lack of harmony and bring emotions of fear and discordance.
Rhythm Rhythm in music can suggest emotions to human ears. If a rhythm is constant and smooth, it can give off a feeling of peace and order, as nothing is out of control. If a rhythm is very syncopated and off beat, it can sometimes give a sense of uneasiness or could be associated with playfulness. Fast-paced rhythms with a lot of beats convey feelings of tension or excitement. Slow-paced and simple rhythms would suggest relaxation.
Instrumentation When it comes to emotion in music, some instruments are better than others for conveying certain emotions. A solo violin is often associated with emotions of sadness or romance. Fast-paced snare drums can be associated with marches or a militaristic feeling. A large number of brass instruments can convey feelings of grandness and glory. Composers are careful to choose what instruments they use in order to convey the emotions they wish to convey.
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Neurological Aspects The human ears may be responsible for hearing music, but the brain is the part of us that interprets the music. Many different parts of the brain are responsible for our interpretation of music such as the amygdala, nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, cerebellum, auditory cortex and motor cortex. The limbic system, made up of parts such as the amygdala, nucleus accumbens and the hippocampus especially focus on the emotions heard in music.
The Amygdala The amygdala is found within the temporal lobe of the brain, next to the hippocampus. It is almond shaped and is a part of our brain responsible for processing emotion and survival skills.
The amygdala is also responsible for feeling emotions conveyed in music. It relies on a reward system, under the formula of when we hear this, we therefore feel like that. Scientific research using PET (positron emission tomography) has shown that the emotion conveyed in music can change our perceptions. For example, when subjects were asked to listen to happy and sad music and then told to look at neutral facial expressions, the subjects would say that the faces looked happy or sad, depending on the music. Studies have also shown that when a subject is listening to music that gives emotions to us, the amygdala has a peak of activity in the reward system. Even when the music is taken away, the COMPOSITION AND EMOTION
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amygdala still remains active. This could explain why music affects how we see things, even after we have stopped listening. The amygdala is much more affected by shocks and chills from music than it is by pleasurable sounds, as activity is found to be higher when a subject is listening to negative music. This change in activity helps our brains differentiate from happy and sad music. We could perhaps deduce from this that dissonance and minor tonality affects the amygdala greater than consonance and major tonality. This could also mean if we were scared or angry and listened to this type of music, the amygdala’s activity would be heightened even more and so would our emotions. This also helps us understand that different emotions aren't just processed in one part of the brain, but specific parts process specific emotions. This means that if we were to damage our amygdala, we would find it much harder to discern negative emotions in music
The Nucleus Accumbens The nucleus accumbens is a cluster of neurons that is important in emotion recognition. There is one nucleus accumbens for each hemisphere of the human brain. The nucleus accumbens is responsible for activating two neurotransmitters. These are dopamine and serotonin. Dopamine is a hormone and a neurotransmitter that promotes pleasure and our desires and wants. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that has effects on us like satisfaction and selfconsciousness. Research shows that any kind of drugs increase production of dopamine and reduce the levels of serotonin.
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The nucleus accumbens is a pleasure centre in our brains. These are the parts of our brains that are involved with emotion, such as the amygdala. The nucleus accumbens also relies on a reward system, like the amygdala. A study was done on subjects that found out some interesting things about the nucleus accumbens and its relation to music. The subjects involved were asked to listen to a few pieces of music for the first time and then say how much they would pay for the pieces. Scientists found that the more popular choices sparked more activity in the nucleus accumbens. This could mean that the nucleus accumbens determines our choices and preferences in music, therefore being a part of our personality. The scientists found that when listening to songs that people liked, the nucleus accumbens increased its manufacture of dopamine, the pleasure hormone. This hormone may be able to explain why we feel pleasure or enjoy songs to our preference. When a song we do not like is heard, the nucleus accumbens produces little dopamine, explaining why we aren’t joyous when listening to this specific music.
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Recreational drug users say they feel very happy when they use drugs such as marijuana or methamphetamine. This is also caused from extremely high levels of dopamine in the brain when they take these drugs. The dopamine manufactured during drug taking then adds to making these drugs very addictive. These levels are much higher than that of listening to music, but provide a comparison. Perhaps this is why we are ‘addicted’ to one genre of music and why some people say music is like a drug. Professor Sophie Scott, a neuroscientist at University College London, says that we cannot judge a musical experience purely from the emotion we gain from our brain. We must also think of how some people may like music only because of particular features like a rhythm or a guitar solo. She says that the nucleus accumbens and its functions in music are only a tiny snapshot of the brain’s interactions with music.
The Hippocampus The hippocampus is a small part of the brain that is responsible for our longterm memories and spatial navigation. It is joined to the amygdala in the limbic system. The hippocampus does not directly deal with musical emotions like the amygdala and nucleus accumbens does. Instead, the hippocampus uses our past memories to interpret music.
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The previous sections talks about how emotion is conveyed in music through musical features. If this is accurate, then we could say that all happy songs contain the same musical features and all sad songs contain the same musical features as well. Therefore, the human brain somewhat relies on our memory to determine how we feel about a song, according to our past experiences. This could be through taking what we are hearing and relating it to a song we have heard in the past. It could also be from relating the music we are hearing and relating it to a emotional moment in our lives. This information makes the hippocampus different to the amygdala and nucleus accumbens, as it does not require a reward system in regards to music and emotion. The hippocampal effect describes taking memories and relating them best to the music we are hearing. The hippocampus also correlates with the stress hormones in our brain. Cortisol, a regular stress hormone, is released when we have too much work or are worrying about something. The hippocampus is connected to our body’s chemical stress response. When the hippocampus is involved in a positive musical response, this can in a way tranquillise our cortisol hormones from being released. This may explain why people enjoy sitting down and listening to their favourite music when they are over loaded. It could also give reason for why music is often encouraged in treating people suffering from depression and anxiety.
In Turkey, doctors will often ‘Sufi’ music to calm down patients and reduce their stress levels. According to Dr. Bingür Sönmez, it can reduce heart rates by 15%, effectively calming a patient.
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References Bailey, R. (2014). What Does the Amygdala Do in the Brain?. [online] About Education. Available at: http://biology.about.com/od/anatomy/p/Amygdala.htm [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. Blood, A. and Zatorre, R. (2001). Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, [online] 98(20), pp.11818-11823. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas. 191355898 [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. Changizi, M. (2009). Why Does Music Make Us Feel?. [online] Scientific American. Available at: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-does-music-make-us-fe/ [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. CircleofFifths.com, (2014). Circle of Fifths. [online] Available at: http://www.circleoffifths.com [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. Evelyn Glennie: How to truly listen. (2007). [video] Monterey, California: TED. Groussard, M., La Joie, R., Rauchs, G., Landeau, B., ChĂŠtelat, G., Viader, F., Desgranges, B., Eustache, F. and Platel, H. (2010). When Music and Long-Term Memory Interact: Effects of Musical Expertise on Functional and Structural Plasticity in the Hippocampus. PLoS ONE, [online] 5(10), p.e13225. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0013225 [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. Healthline.com, (2014). Hippocampus Function, Anatomy & Definition | Body Maps. [online] Available at: http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/hippocampus [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. How Music Works. (2006). [DVD] Britain: Howard Goodall. Jha, A. (2013). Brain's music pleasure zone identified. [online] The Guardian. Available at: http:// www.theguardian.com/science/2013/apr/11/brain-music-pleasure-zone-identified [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. Jon Lieff, M.D., (2014). Music Stimulates Emotions Through Specific Brain Circuits. [online] Available at: http://jonlieffmd.com/blog/music-stimulates-emotions-through-specific-braincircuits [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. Musicmasterworks.com, (2002). Where Math meets Music. [online] Available at: http:// musicmasterworks.com/WhereMathMeetsMusic.html [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014].
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Musicpsychology.co.uk, (2014). Music, Emotion and the Brain. [online] Available at: http:// musicpsychology.co.uk/music-emotion-and-the-brain/ [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. Public Radio International, (2012). In Turkey, Sufi music is used to decrease patient stress. [online] Available at: http://www.pri.org/stories/2012-04-27/turkey-sufi-music-used-decreasepatient-stress [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. ScienceDaily, (2014). Hippocampal activity during music listening exposes the memory-boosting power of music. [online] Available at: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/ 2014/06/140618100536.htm [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. Sciencedirect.com, (2014). Amygdala damage impairs emotion recognition from music. [online] Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393206003083 [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. Sfskids.org, (2014). The Music Lab - What's Rhythm?. [online] Available at: http:// www.sfskids.org/templates/musicLabF.asp?pageid=12 [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. Thebrain.mcgill.ca, (2014). THE BRAIN FROM TOP TO BOTTOM. [online] Available at: http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_03/i_03_cr/i_03_cr_par/i_03_cr_par.html [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. Touch the Sound: A Sound Journey with Evelyn Glennie. (2004). [film] Thomas Riedelsheimer. wikiHow, (2014). How to Write a Bass Line. [online] Available at: http://www.wikihow.com/ Write-a-Bass-Line [Accessed 26 Oct. 2014]. OnMusic Dictionary, (2013). OnMusic Dictionary. [online] Available at: http:// dictionary.onmusic.org [Accessed 28 Oct. 2014].
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Glossary of Terms All definitions were gained from http://dictionary.onmusic.org accidental: A mark placed before a note which indicates that the previously understood pitch of the note should be altered by one or two half steps (semitones).
amygdala: An almond-shaped mass of gray matter in the front part of the temporal lobe of the cerebrum.
augmented chord: Any chord that has an augmented interval between its highest and lowest notes.
augmented interval: An interval where the top note has been raised by one half step or a chromatic semitone. The result is an augmented interval.
bass: The lowest part in a musical composition. bass line: The bottom line of music played by the bass-pitched instrument. beats: The regular pulse of music which may be dictated by the rise or fall of the hand or baton of the conductor, by a metronome, or by the accents in music.
binary form: Two-part (A - B) structure of music; usually each part is repeated. The term can also mean any form with two periods, or sections.
blues: American form of folk music related to jazz. It is based on a simple, repetitive, poetic-musical structure.
blues scale: A diatonic major scale incorporating a lowered or bent 3rd, a lowered or bent 7th and sometimes a lowered or bent 5th to approximate melodic notes that originated in African work songs. Since the actual pitch is unavailable on a piano, the lowered note is often played or "crushed" against the natural pitch to approximate the blue note.
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chord: The sounding of two or more notes (usually at least three) simultaneously. Most chords are based on triads or three notes with the interval of a major or minor third between each of the three notes. The two most common chords are the major and minor chords. A major chord is composed of a major third above the tonic note, and a perfect fifth above the tonic, a minor chord is composed of a minor third and a perfect fifth.
chord progression: The movement from one chord to the next. chord symbol: a single symbol representing a larger number of notes. Usually involves the absolute note name (letter), possibly followed with a description (m, dim, aug,) and a superscript.
compound time: Meter in which each beat is divisible by three rather than two. composition: Any musical work or production. consonance: An accord of sounds sweet and pleasing to the ear as opposed to dissonance. Perfect consonances are the perfect fourth, perfect fifth, and octave, imperfect consonances are the major and minor thirds and sixths.
contrary motion: Simultaneous musical motion of at least two voices, one of which is in opposition to the other, with one voice rising in pitch while another voice falls in pitch.
crotchet: The old name for the quarter note first found in 14th century music and currently used in Great Britain to mean quarter note. Symbol: d
diminished chord: A chord that has a diminished interval between its highest and lowest notes.
diminished interval: A perfect interval or a minor interval which is made smaller by the subtraction of one semitone.
dissonance: Two or more notes sounded together which are discordant, and, in the prevailing harmonic system, require resolution to a consonance.
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dopamine: A monoamine neurotransmitter formed in the brain by the decarboxylation of dopa and essential to the normal functioning of the central nervous system.
dynamics: The loudness or softness of a composition. flat: An accidental symbol placed to the left of a note, indicating that its pitch should be lowered by a semitone (half step).
form: overall structure or plan of a piece of music and describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections.
harmonic minor scale: The harmonic minor scale is the same as the natural minor scale, except that the seventh tone is raised by a semitone (half step) both ascending and descending
harmony: The combination of notes sounded simultaneously to produce chords. Usually, this term is used to describe consonance, however, it can also be used to describe dissonance.
heterophony: The practice of two or more musicians simultaneously performing slightly different versions of the same melody.
hippocampus: An enfolding of cerebral cortex into the lateral fissure of a cerebral hemisphere, having the shape in cross section of a sea horse.
homophonic: A style of composition in which there is one melody, and all the voices and accompaniments move rhythmically together.
instrument: Any device used to create music. The major classifications are woodwinds, brass, percussion, and stringed instruments. Keyboard instruments are sometime a separate category, although they produce sounds either by vibrating strings (as in the case of the piano, harpsichord, virginal, etc.) or by the flow of air (as in the organ). Electronic instruments, developed in the 20th century, form a new classification of instruments.
interval: The distance between two pitches.
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inversion: The position of a chord when the tonic is not the lowest note. When the lowest note is the tonic, the chord is said to be in root position. When the third note of the chord is in the lowest voice of the music, the chord is a "first inversion", when the fifth note of the chord is in the lowest voice, the chord is said to be a "second inversion".
jazz: A style of music originating in the 20th century in New Orleans which combined elements of European-American and African music. This style of music was developed largely in urban areas, starting in New Orleans, then moving to Chicago, then to New York. It is an improvisational, expressive style of music, characterized by syncopated rhythms, 'blue notes' and the use of seventh and ninth chords.
major: Term referring to a sequence of notes that define the tonality of the major scale. This series consists of seven notes: the tonic, followed by the next note a whole step up from the tonic, the third is a whole step from the second, the fourth is a half step from the third, the fifth is a whole step from the fourth, the sixth is a whole step from the fifth, the seventh is another whole step, followed by the tonic, a half step above the seventh. Thus the first and eighth tones are exactly an octave apart.
melody: A tune; a succession of tones comprised of mode, rhythm, and pitches so arranged as to achieve musical shape, being perceived as a unity by the mind. In a piece of music where there is more than one voice, or where harmony is present, the melody is the dominant tune of the composition.
meter: Measure of time; arrangement of poetical feet; the grouping of beats into regular patterns. The organization of rhythmic patterns in a composition in such a way that a regular, repeating pulse of beats may continue throughout the composition.
minim: The British term for half note. Symbol: h minor: A series of tones that defines a minor tonality. monophonic: Music that is written for only one voice or part is said to be monophonic.
ninth chord: a chord made up of a triad, an added seventh and an added ninth. COMPOSITION AND EMOTION
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note: A notational symbol used to represent the duration of a sound and, when placed on a music staff, to also indicate the pitch of the sound.
nucleus accumbens: The nucleus accumbens (NAc or NAcc), also known as the accumbens nucleus or as the nucleus accumbens septi (Latin for nucleus adjacent to the septum) is a region in the basal forebrain rostral to the preoptic area of the hypothalamus.
octave: An interval spanning seven diatonic degrees, eleven semitones. An octave above C would be C. The frequency of a note one octave above another will have exactly twice as many Hertz as the frequency of the note an octave below it.
pentatonic scale: A scale of five tones. It is used in African, Far Eastern, and Native American Music. The pentatonic scale has been used in 20th century compositions as well.
pitch: The specific quality of a sound that makes it a recognizable tone. Pitch defines the location of a tone in relation to others, thus giving it a sense of being high or low.
polyphonic: Music composed for many parts or voices, each with its own melody, thus creating a rich texture of sound.
progression: A series of two or more chords that are played in succession. Usually a chord progression ends with a cadence.
quaver: The British term for eighth note. Symbol: F rhythm: The subdivision of a space of time into a defined, repeated pattern. Rhythm is the controlled movement of music in time. It may be defined as the division of music into regular metric portions; the regular pulsation of music.
riff: In pop and jazz compositions, a short ostinato, two to four bars long. A riff is a prominent feature of jazz music. rock music: Popular music of the late 20th century, especially among the younger population. Rock music originated in the 1950's in America, but swiftly became
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popular in Europe and throughout the world. This style of music is characterized by a driving backbeat, electric guitar, and vocals.
rondo: Term referring to a form of composition in which the first section recurs after the second section is performed in an A-B-A style. Also, a rondo could have more sections, arranged: A-B-A-B-A, or A-B-A-C-A, etc.
scale: A series of notes in ascending or descending order that presents the pitches of a key or mode, beginning and ending on the tonic of that key or mode. The degrees of a scale have specific names shown below and each of the unique 12 notes of the chromatic scale can be the tonic note of a scale.Â
semibreve: The British and Italian terms for whole note. Symbol: 0seventh chord: describes a chord made up of a triad and an added flattened seventh degree note. In a major seventh, the seventh is not flattened.
sharp: A symbol placed in front of a note-head which implies that the performer should raise the pitch of that particular note by a semitone.
simple time: A musical time signature in which the accented beats of each measure are divisible by two.
sixth chord: describes a chord made up of a triad and an added sixth degree note. structure: overall structure or plan of a piece of music and describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections.
suspension: In part writing, a suspension is a situation in which a single note of one chord is held over into another chord, thus creating a dissonance, which is resolved by step in the following chord.
syncopation: Deliberate upsetting of the meter or pulse of a composition by means of a temporary shifting of the accent to a weak beat or an off-beat.
tempo: The speed of the rhythm of a composition. Tempo is measured according to beats per minute.
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ternary form: A compositional form which consists of three major sections, an A section which states the thematic material, a B section which presents a contrasting theme, and a final A section which restates the opening thematic material. Also, any three part form.
texture: Term which refers to the vertical structure of a composition. That is to say, how many parts or voices there are, what the configuration (close, open, etc.) of the voices is, how the voices interact, etc.
theme: The musical basis upon which a composition is built. Usually a theme consists of a recognizable melody or a characteristic rhythmic pattern.
theme and variations: A style of composition that first presents a basic theme and then develops and alters that theme in successive statements.
time signature: A symbol placed at the left side of the staff indicating the meter of the composition. For example, a time signature of 3/4 would indicate that there are three quarter notes in each measure and the quarter notes receive the main pulse (or beat).
tonality: The principal of organization of a composition around a tonic based upon a major or minor scale.
tonic: The note upon which a scale or key is based; the first note of a scale or key; the keynote.
tone: An interval consisting of two semitones, that is a whole step. triad: A chord made up of three notes based on the interval of a third. Triads can be major, minor, augmented, or diminished.
variation: A deviation from a theme that uses the same bass pattern or harmonic progression that the theme used, and usually having the same number of measures as the theme.
vocal: This term is used to refer to the voice as an instrument, or pertaining to the voice or music that is sung. For example, a piano/vocal score is sheet music with the
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piano part and voice part notated on the same score. The abbreviation for vocal is Voc.. walking bass line: In jazz, a walking bass usually moves by steps played on bass or piano, with each note usually having the duration of a quarter note.
Western music: Music composed and produced in the Western hemisphere by trained musicians as opposed to Folk tradition or vernacular music.
12 bar blues: A progression that is 12 measures long and contains three chords, the I, IV and V of a scale.
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