Armada International - June/July 2016 by Armada International & Asian Military Review

SUBMARINE PROGRAMMES B-21 BOMBER + BATTLING ISIS

TAKING OIL OUT OF THE BATTLEFIELD june/july 2016. Issue 03.

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SEA POWER

Water, Water, Everywhere Trevor Hollingsbee takes a detailed look at some of the major submarine procurement and upgrade programmes ongoing around the world.

20 AIR POWER

Flying Filling Stations ‘No One Kicks Ass Without Tanker Gas,’ goes the refrain. David Oliver looks at the aircraft quenching fast jet thirst.

40 land warfare

Power Politics An army needs power to fight. Peter Donaldson gives us the lowdown on research and development efforts to provide soldiers with ever smaller and lighter power sources.

26 land WARFARE

Loaded Gerrard Cowan profiles some of the latest developments in the military logistics vehicle domain, looking at the requirements of today, and tomorrow.

46 Programme Focus

Will The Bomber Always Get Through? Thomas Withington examines the United States Air Force’s B-21 strategic bomber programme, the first such new aircraft for the force in a generation.

08 TURING

A Fatal Error HAS OCCURRED Andy Oppenheimer looks at some of the measures taken to protect the nuclear industry from cyberattack.

30 land WARFARE

Seeing Things Night vision is an important capability for military vehicles and their occupants. Peter Donaldson profiles some of the technological efforts underway to this end.

50 operational Focus

FIGHTING FASCISM Thomas Newdick profiles the air campaign of the US-led coalition to contain and ultimately defeat the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria insurgent organisation.

36 land WARFARE

on the Move Thomas Withington examines several initiatives to provide satellite communications to troops while they are mobile.

Armada compendium MODERN SOLDIER compendium Armada’s ever-popular Modern Soldier Compendium returns with Andrew White at the helm, taking us through the latest developments in this fast-moving domain.

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

INDEX TO ADVERTISERS 3M PELTER ON THE COVER: Conserving sources of power is increasingly important for all militaries so as to avoid dependence on hydrocarbons, as examined in this issue’s Power Politics article.

Volume 41 , Issue No. 3, June/July 2016 Published bi-monthly by Media Transasia Ltd. Copyright 2012 by Media Transasia Ltd. Publishing Office: Media Transasia Ltd., 1603, 16/F, Island Place Tower, 510 King’s Road, Hong Kong Editor: Thomas Withington

L-3 23

ADEX 49

OSHKOSH

AIMPOINT

MBDA 7

AUSA 51

MTU 17

BOFORS 13

RAFAEL

ELBIT

ROSOBORONEXPORT 25

COVER 2

COVER 4

ELECTRONIC WARFARE COVER 3

SAAB DYNAMICS

EUROSATORY 57

SENOP 35

FLIR 5

SUBSCRIPTION 43

IAI 17

TACTICAL RADIO

IDEAS PAKISTAN

VECTRONIX

UKRSPECEXPORT 11

IDEX 55 INVISIO

COVER 3

COVER 4

Entries highlighted with Red Numbers are found in Modern Soldier Compendium

KONGSBERG 19

General Manager International Marketing: Vishal Mehta Manager Marketing: Jakhongir Djalmetov Sales & Marketing Coordinator: Wajiraprakan Punyajai Graphic Designer: Khakanaa Suwannawong Production Manager: Kanda Thanakornwongskul Group Circulation Manager: Porames Chinwong Chairman: J.S. Uberoi President: Egasith Chotpakditrakul Chief Financial Officer: Sasakorn Dumavibhat

INDEX TO MANUFACTURERS Companies mentioned in this issue. Where there are multiple references to a company in an articles, only the first occurrence and subsequent photographs are listed below:

A Advertising Sales Offices

Almaz Antey

FRANCE Odile Orbec - Promotion et Motivation Tel: +33 1 41 43 83 00, o.orbec@pema-group.com

AM General

Areva Technatrome

GERMANY, AUSTRIA, BENELUX, SWITZERLAND Sam Baird Tel: +44 1883 715 697, sam@whitehillmedia.com ITALY, NORDIC COUNTRIES Emanuela Castagnetti-Gillberg Tel: +46 31 799 9028, emanuela.armada@gmail.com UK, EASTERN EUROPE, GREECE, TURKEY Zena Coupé Tel: +44 1923 852537, zena@expomedia.biz RUSSIA Alla Butova - NOVO-Media Ltd Tel: (7 3832) 180 885 Mobile: (7 960) 783 6653 alla@mediatransasia.com USA (EAST/SOUTH EAST), Canada (EAst) Margie Brown Tel: (540) 341 7581, margiespub@rcn.com

USA (WEST/SOUTH WEST), BRAZIL, Canada (WEst) Diane Obright Tel: (858) 759 3557, blackrockmediainc@icloud.com ALL OTHER COUNTRIES Vishal Mehta Tel: +66 2204 2370, Mob: +66 98 252 6243 vishal@mediatransasia.com Jakhongir Djalmetov Mobile: +66 81 645 5654, joha@mediatransasia.com

Controlled circulation: 25,029 (average per issue) certified by ABC Hong Kong, for the period 1st January 2014 to 31st December 2014. Printed by Media Transasia Ltd., 75/8, 14th Floor, Ocean Tower II, Soi Sukhumvit 19, Sukhumvit Road, Bangkok 10110, Thailand. Tel: 66 (0)-2204 2370, Fax: 66 (0)-2204 2390 -1 Annual subscription rates: Europe: CHF 222 (including postage) Rest of the World: USD 222 (including postage) Subscription Information: Readers should contact the following address: Subscription Department, Media Transasia Ltd., 75/8, 14th Floor, Ocean Tower II, Soi Sukhumvit 19, Sukhumvit Road, Bangkok 10110, Thailand. Tel +66 2204 2370 Fax: +66 2204 2387 Email: accounts@mediatransasia.com

Harris 22, 37, 52

Airbus

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

Arotech

ASC

Aselsan

Atlas Elektronik

B BAE Systems

8, 23 14

Orbital ATK

Hungtington Ingalls

Oshkosh 26

22, 39

Pakistan Ordance Factories 17

Bell-Boeing 39

IBM

Polaris

Inmarsat

Powefilm

Pratt & Whitney

International Atomic 8

Energy Agency Strategic Studies

Boeing 16, 18, 22, 37

IWI J

Chesapeake Science

Iveco 28

C Camero

15, 19, 48

I IAI

International Institute of 14, 15, 27, 31

Heckler & Koch

16, 17

Protonex R Rafale Dassault Renault (RTD)

Rockwell Collins

Royal Institute for

Rolls Royce

K Kamov

DARPA

Kongsberg 16

Dassuault Rafael

Korea Hydro and

Raytheon 14, 19, 46, 52 Revision

Janicki Industries

48 22, 41

26, 29 6 22, 46 14

International Affair

Rubin Design Bureau

DCNS 15

Nuclear Power

DSTL

Krasnoya Sormova Shipyard 16

Saab

14, 18

Saft Batteries

41, 44

24, 32

E Elbit Systems

EATC

European Defence Agency 36 Eurofighter Typhoon

L-3

15, 22

LFK Lenkflugkorpersysteme 18 Lockheed Martin

15, 18, 39

MBDA

Finmeccanica 32

Mil

FNSS 27

Milkor

FN Herstal

Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant

G General Atomics General Dynamics

52 15, 18, 21

H Hagglunds

28, 31

15, 52

Navantia

Natanz Nuclear Facility 10 NIMR

Norinco

Northrop Grumman 46, 48, 49 Novator

NPO Mahinostroyeniya

Sagem 15 Sevmash 15 Sig Sauer Sikorsky

5 19

Sofradir 35 Spirit Aerosystems Sukhoi

48 47, 52, 58

T Thales 14, 22, 23, 8 ThyssenKrupp

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Editorial Too Important To Ignore

n 23 June the United Kingdom how such efforts work in practice can be seen will, as a nation, make its most in David Oliver’s Flying Filling Stations article important foreign policy deci- in this issue. sion certainly since the SecThe UK is also a member of OCCAR (Organond World War, possibly since isation Conjointe de Coopération en Matière the creation of the UK via the Acts of Union rat- d’Armement/Organisation for Joint Armament ified by the parliaments of England and Scot- Cooperation), an EU intergovernmental organland in May 1707. isation which manages collaborative European The decision which the British people will defence projects such as the Airbus A400M make, via a referendum to be held on 23 June, will Atlas strategic freighter. OCCAR, like the EDA, be to decide whether the UK remains a member helps to spread the burden, and hence the cost, of the European Union (EU). Aggregated opin- of managing such initiatives. If the UK left the ion polls put the ‘Bremain’ (to remain in the EU) EU, it would possibly have to negotiate particiand the ‘Brexit’ (to exit the EU) camps neck and pation (adding time and hence cost) to each of neck regarding the possible result. Bookmaker’s the EDA and OCCAR initiatives it wished to estimates meanwhile show that the odds of the sign up to, rather than already being a member UK remaining in the EU are higher than the pos- of two organisations which can facilitate such sibility of the country leaving. involvement. The possibility of the UK leaving the EU At the strategic level, the UK also benefits has major implications for the country’s from the diplomatic clout of EU membership, economy and society. It could also have major being part of a club which includes 27 other naimplications for the country’s defence and se- tions, as well as a fellow permanent member of curity posture. The UK is a member of the Eu- the United Nations Security Council and an ofropean Defence Agency (EDA). Established in ficial nuclear power (France), plus three fellow July 2004, the EDA works to foster European G8 members, France, Italy and Germany. The defence collaboration by deepening coop- UK is no longer a great power following the loss eration among EU members in areas such as of its empire after the Second World War. Within-flight refuelling, air freight provision and out the EU, the UK’s diplomatic voice will strugthe provision of satellite communications, to gle to be heard; as part of the EU it can become name just a few. Such collaboration improves a roar. For the sake of the country’s defence interoperability and helps to reduce costs by and security alone, this author wants the UK to Thomas Withington, Editor sharing efforts across the EDA. An example of remain in the EU.

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

EXCELLENCE AT YOUR SIDE

MMP The battlefield has changed

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MARITIME SUPERIORITY

BATTLEFIELD ENGAGEMENT

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A Fatal Error Has Occurred Attacks by computer hackers on the IT (Information Technology) systems of government and commercial organisations have become commonplace, and cybercrime is arguably the fastest growing new crime of the 21st century. Andy Oppenheimer 8

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

mong the most dangerous prospects is a cyberattack on a Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) or nuclear reprocessing plant such as the Sellafield complex in north-west England, due to the possible release of radiation from reactors or spent fuel ponds. According to the director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Yukiya Amano, in August 2015 â&#x20AC;&#x153;reports of actual or attempted cyber-attacks are now virtually a daily occurrence.â&#x20AC;? In March and April, further warnings resounded about the possibility of an at-

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tack on the world’s nuclear power facilities. In the UK, the Office for Nuclear Regulation, the official organization regulating the country’s nuclear industry, pointed to the growing threat of attack on Britain’s 15 operational reactors, which account for nearly a fifth of the country’s electricity. Its 2016-20 strategic plan states: “The capabilities of potential adversaries to operate in cyberspace will continue to grow” and warned against “failure to protect the confidentiality, integrity and availability of sensitive information and assets from both known and emerging security threats to the UK nuclear infrastructure.”

ISIS Threat These dangers have resurfaced since the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), and their occupation of large parts of both these countries, following multiple reports of the use of chemical weapons (CW) on Kurdish and Iraqi forces in Iraq, and focusing on their further potential to launch other CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear) weapons. It is widely feared the most deadly (and well-financed) violent political organisation of recent times is acquiring radioactive materials from which they could construct and emplace Radiological Dispersal Devices (RDDs). In March, ISIS operatives are reported to have seized around 40 kilograms/kgs (90 pounds/lbs) of Low Enriched Uranium (LEU) from Mosul University in northern Iraq. While LEU has limited toxicity, if dispersed by a homemade bomb it would necessitate a specialist CBRN response and clean-up of contaminated areas, buildings and citizens. In October 2015, the FBI (US Federal Bureau of Investigation) working with police in Moldova disrupted a deal hatched in February to supply ISIS with enough caesium to contaminate an urban centre.

Beyond RDDs, however, a physical or cyberattack on an NPP and particularly on a spent fuel pond, which contains the most radioactive materials on earth, could trigger an environmental disaster on this level. A cyberattack on NPP systems and back-ups powering reactor cooling systems could trigger a meltdown incident similar to the disaster witnessed at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant, following the earthquake on the east coast of Japan in 2011. With the dawn of digital communications and globalized commerce all countries became inexorably linked and hence, infinitely more vulnerable to cyber infrastructure attack. Nation-state attacks Cyberattacks are launched by nationstates on a regular basis. In March 2015 the Republic of Korea (RoK) government accused the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) of carrying out a cyberattack in December 2014 on the nation’s main energy supplier, Korea Hydro and Nuclear Power (KHNP). DPRK hackers reportedly leaked internal documents from KHNP five times by using Internet Protocol addresses in Shenyang, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) to access the KHNP network. They published designs, manuals, and other information about RoK reactors on Twitter, along with personal information about workers. In this case the hackers were trying to paralyse the RoK’s NPP system, but other attacks could go a step further and trigger

This graphic demonstrates how the Stuxnet worm functioned. The worm was sufficient to cause significant damage to Iran’s nuclear weapons programme.

IAEA

Sellafield Ltd

This is the first-generation Magnox storage pond at Sellafield reprocessing plant in north-west England. Steps must be taken to ensure such facilities are not vulnerable to cyber attack.

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

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TEPCO

This photo was taken on 15 March 2011 just after the Fukushima Daiichi disaster. It shows the catastrophic damage to the plant.

an accident. Of great concern to the RoK was that its national security system and investigation process on cyberattacks was found to be wanting. A far more successful state-launched attack was the Stuxnet worm (a malicious programme inserted into a computer system), which did not set out to blow up a plant or fulfill a similar ISIS-style apocalyptic goal, but managed to set back Iran’s nuclear programme in 2009 by instructing 1000 centrifuges at the Natanz Nuclear Facility in the centre of the country to self-destruct. It was only discovered five months later, after a seemingly unrelated incident in Belarus,

where a computer security firm was called in to deal with computers in Iran that were crashing and rebooting repeatedly. When they found malicious files on one of the systems, the world’s first digital weapon was uncovered, and is known to have spread elsewhere. Stuxnet caused damage by wreaking physical destruction on equipment controlled by computers, in Iran’s case the centrifuges, rather than simply hijacking computers or stealing data from them. In February, a report in The New York Times outlined a plan to attack Iran’s nuclear facilities with further destructive

10 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

cyber attacks had the diplomatic effort to limit its nuclear programme failed and a military conflict ensued. Based on statements made in a documentary featuring military and intelligence officials, the operation, codenamed NITRO ZEUS, was intended to disable Iran’s air defences, communications systems and electricity grid. To crash its nuclear effort, the initiative was aimed at disabling the controversial mountain-deep Fordo nuclear enrichment site near Qum, northern Iran. No Immunity In October 2015 a report entitled Cyber

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KrAZ-632207 Full metal, welded 3 (driver - crane operator, locksmith - mechanic, electrician - welder)

Workshop overall dimensions, mm: Length Width Height Total weight of a workshop, kg Maximum speed, km/h Fuel consumption, l/100 km Maximum grade ascending ability, angle degree Fordable depth, m Zar-system voltage, V

14720 2760 3640 22750 80 48 25 1,2 24, 220, 380

STATIONARY CHARGING STATION SZS-U PURPOSE Stationary charging station SZS-U is intended for a charge of acid accumulator batteries, and also alkaline batteries with the rated voltage of 12 and 24 V, with the capacity from 7 to 200 A·h, what is applied in automobile and armored vehicles (personal armored vehicles or tanks) The station represents the stationary boxing of frame type, it is divided into two compartments. There is the chargers block in the front compartment, it’s consisting of twelve independent charging modules. There are niches for laying of 12 charging cables sets and 1 powering cables set (220 V and 380 V) in the rear compartment. Charging modules provide a high long-term charging rate with low fluctuations at the exit, they are interfering to premature wear of accumulator battery’s plates, and also are capable to determine the rated voltage of the charged battery automatically.

SPECIfICATIONS Type Output voltage, V Station voltage, V Number of at the same time charged accumulator batteries Time necessary for station expansion, no more, min. Outline dimensions, mm length width height Weight, kg:

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Stationary, power supply from external network 12, 24 220, 380 12 5 1000 800 1000 100

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Sellafield Ltd

The storage pond at the Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant, or ‘THORP’ at Sellafield contains some of the most radioactive materials on Earth.

Security at Civil Nuclear Facilities: Underenrichment plant just as its systems had standing the Risks, published by the Royal been restored. The malware was designed Institute for International Affairs (RIIA) to manipulate computer systems that in London based on an 18-month study on control and monitor the speed of the cyber defences in NPPs, stated that UK’s centrifuges by bypassing computers that plants and associated infrastructure “were were ‘air-gapped’ (unable to be accessed not well protected or prepared because the remotely) from the Internet, by infecting industry had converted to digital systems them via infected USB (Universal Serial relatively recently.” The researchers interBus) flash drives. viewed senior nuclear officials in Canada, The RIIA report also found that many France, Germany, Japan, the UK, Ukraine plants lacked preparedness for large-scale and the US and found that risks were comattacks outside office hours and there were pounded by increased digitisation and the communications difficulties between industry’s growing reliance on commercial operational NPP technology engineers software. The report exposed a “pervadand cyber security personnel, many of ing myth” in the industry that because whom were located off site. Organizacomputer systems in NPPs were isolated tion directors were not familiar with from the Internet at large, they were virtual networks and other links to the therefore immune to the level of cyberatpublic Internet on nuclear infrastructure tacks affecting other industries. At many networks. Search engines that sought out nuclear plants, engineers and officials critical infrastructure had indexed these thought that because their systems were links, making it easy for attackers to find not connected to the Internet, it would be ways into networks and control systems. very hard to compromise them. The report’s author, Caroline Baylon, who The report also found that the ‘air gap’ is a research associate in science, technolbetween the public Internet and nuclear ogy and cyber security, at the RIIA, said, systems was easy to breach with “nothing “Cyber security is still new to many in the more than a flash drive”. This occurred nuclear industry. They are really good at with a second Stuxnet attack on Iran’s safety and, after (the 11 September attacks nuclear facilities, when a new version of in New York and Washington DC) they’ve the malware was unleashed on the Natanz got really good at physical security. But

12 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

they have barely grappled with cyber.” According to the RIIA’s research director of international security, Dr. Patricia Lewis, “The nuclear industry is beginning, but struggling, to come to grips with this new, insidious threat.” She added, “It would be extremely difficult to cause a meltdown at a plant or compromise one… but it would be possible for a state actor to do, certainly. The point is that risk is probabilitytimes-consequence. And even though the probability might be low, the consequence of a cyber incident at a nuclear plant is extremely high.” Past disruption Past instances of accidental disruption include a 48-hour emergency shutdown in March 2008 in the Hatch NPP near Baxley, Georgia, United States after an engineer installed a software update on a computer designed to synchronize data. In a report filed with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the updated computer reset the data on the control system when it was rebooted, causing safety systems to incorrectly interpret the lack of data as a drop in the water reservoirs that cool the plant’s highly radioactive nuclear fuel rods. As a result, automated safety systems at the plant triggered a shutdown. Precedent for actual physical attack on a NPP is rare, but a hallmark plot was uncovered in November 2005 to carry out an attack on the Lucas Heights NPP, on the outskirts of Sydney, Australia by a group of Melbourne- and Sydney-based jihadists. The group had stockpiled weapons, including Australian Army rocket launchers, explosives, and other bomb-making materials, and had scoped out other high-profile Australian targets as well as Lucas Heights. Five men were convicted of political violence charges in October 2009. Countering Threats The RoK government made a decision in March 2015 to set up a security control tower inside the National Security Office to deal with cyberattacks from the DPRK. Japan is to hold field exercises to counter cyberattacks on the control system of its nuclear facilities, in combination with physical attacks. The RoK has conducted regular cybersecurity inspections and

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reviews since 2015, and with the IAEA, hosted a Regional Workshop on Computer Security for Nuclear Facilities. The IAEA has issued guidance to NPP operators. Earlier this year, the UK and the US announced plans to cooperate on improving the resilience of nuclear infrastructure to attack. Later in 2016 both countries will stage a war game simulation of a cyberattack on a NPP to test the readiness of the government and of utility companies. In the wake of the March ISIS attacks in Brussels the Belgians have established a Cyber Security Centre and expanded the scope of nuclear facility ‘stress tests’ to include cyberattack. Meanwhile, the UK government has committed funds to improve the security of civil nuclear infrastructure worldwide. In mid-April the UK secretary of state for defence Michael Fallon announced a $56 million endowment to create a new Cyber Security Operations Centre (CSOC) for the Ministry of Defence (MoD). This forms part of an even larger $2.6 billion to be invested in the UK’s cybersecurity over the next five years. The funds were called for in the November 2015 Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR), which sets out the UK government’s strategic and defence procurement priorities and, according to the MoD, will “transform the MoD’s operational cybersecurity capabilities.” Nightmare Scenario In late 2014 a confidential report was published with a stark warning: Britain’s 16 NPPs are at risk from attack by Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), which could result in tens of thousands of casualties. The report, by leading British nuclear expert John Large of consulting engineers Large and Associates, and commissioned by Greenpeace, an environmental non-government organisation, warned that the authorities were “burying their heads in the sand.” The Large report followed several unexplained, but apparently co-ordinated, flights of tiny versions of UAVs over 13 of France’s 19 nuclear power plants between early October and late November 2014. In January a UAV was spotted over the Elysée Palace, home to the French President, and in February they were seen flying around five other Paris landmarks. In giving evidence to the French parliament, Mr. Large posited various modes of UAV attack against the defences of a standard NPP, including precisely-targeted home-made bombs or dropping equipment to aid an insider saboteur. The report modelling showed that the “flexible access and manoeuvrability of the (UAVs)” means that they were able to fly over and twist around physical barriers that “belonged to a different age.” Even small, battery-powered UAVs can lift at least ten kilograms (22lbs). Ms. Baylon adds that “because UAVs are so small, conventional radar cannot detect them. There’s a huge vulnerability there.” She wrote in Newsweek in December 2014 that UAVs could also provide air support for an actual ground-based attack, drop explosives to damage power or communications networks, and be used to bomb spent-fuel pools which are less well protected than reactor cores. In 2014 Britain’s 16 operational reactors suffered 37 security breaches, including by at least one small UAV, the highest number since twelve breaches in 2011. The Large report recommended a ma-

jor exercise to test the resilience of the UK’s power stations against acts of political violence. Following the ISIS attacks in Paris which occurred in November 2015, in January France tasked its National Research Agency with investigating ways to improve the detection and interception of small, low-flying UAVs and announced that it plans to share its findings with other European countries. However, Mr. Large has said regarding the threat of UAV attacks on NPPs the problem is that the UK plants were designed in the 1950s and 1960s and that those designs did not factor in such dangers. “(Political violence can be) an intentional, intelligent event that seeks out the vulnerabilities of the plant … but an accident, which they are designed to guard against, is an unintelligent event. Nuclear plants are primarily built on an accident basis. But this (admission) does make the regulator more accountable.” Mr. Large added that existing NPPs are not designed to counter the threat of “near-cyborg technology… In each of the four… attack scenarios that I examined, the plant fared very badly indeed. If these scenarios had been for real, there would have been the potential for a major radioactive release.” In this age of multiple threats not just from world franchises of jihadists but also from other extremist groups that are hell bent on destruction, no industry or institution can afford not to take whatever precautions are available. To do this many cultures will have to adapt and change.

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armadainternational.com - june/july 2016 13 www.testcenter.se

Water,Water Everywhere

The UK government recently confirmed that a total of seven ‘Astute’ class boats will be constructed by BAE Systems to replace the current ‘Trafalgar’ class.

Covert, deniable, versatile and packing an ever bigger punch, modern submarines are the weapons platforms of choice for those navies which can afford them. It is not surprising, therefore, that both new build, and submarine upgrade programmes are proliferating worldwide. Trevor Hollingsbee

ince the end of the Cold War, navies which operate nuclearpowered attack submarines (SSN) have expanded the envelope of operations for these exceptionally potent platforms. Previously focused largely upon locating and tracking potentially hostile submarines, particularly nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) carrying submarine-launched ballistic missiles, they now routinely operate in conjunction with surface warships. SSNs thereby provide greatly-enhanced surveillance, defence and attack capabilities for deployed task groups, supporting both blue water and littoral operations.

Royal Navy The UK is one of only a handful of nations deploying SSNs and SSBNs. In terms of the former, the third of the Royal Navy’s new ‘Astute’ class SSNs, HMS Artful, was commissioned in late March 2016. London has confirmed that a total of seven of the class will be built by BAE Systems in Barrow-inFurness, north-west England, by 2024. The ‘Astute’ class replaces the legacy ‘Trafalgar’ class SSNs and have an underwater displacement of 7400 tonnes a length of 97 metres/m (318.2 feet/ft) and a beam of 11.3m (37ft.). Propulsion for the SSNs comes from a Rolls-Royce PWR2 pressurized water reactor, and is fitted with a pump-jet propulsor,

14 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

enabling a maximum submerged speed of 30 knots (55.6 kilometres-per-hour). Regarding the sensor fit of the ‘Astute’ class, they carry a Thales 2076 Stage-2 as well as CM010 non-penetrating optronic masts from the same manufacturer. HMS Artful is the first boat to be fitted with the BAE Systems’ Common Combat System (CCS), which is to be retrofitted to earlier examples of the class (HMS Astute and HMS Artful) that employs commercialspecification software. For armament, the boats carry Raytheon’s UGM-109E Tomahawk Block-IV surface-to-surface cruise missile and BAE Systems’ Spearfish heavyweight torpedoes. Four boats are

BAE Systems

sea power

US Navy Alongside the Royal Navy, the US Navy operates SSNs and SSBNs. The US Navy is currently replacing its fleet of ‘Los Angeles’ class SSNs with new ‘Virginia’ class boats. A total of 48 of these are planned, with the build being shared between General Dynamics Electric Boat, and Huntington Ingalls Industries Newport News, with each of these boats expected to cost $2.7 billion per boat, according to a March report entitled Navy Virginia Class Attack Submarine Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress, written by Ronald O’Rourke and published by the US Congressional Research Service. In terms of the boats’ performance, a Knolls S9G nuclear reactor linked to a BAE Systems pump-jet enables a speed of at least 35 knots (64.8km/h), while twelve vertical-launch tubes house UGM109E missiles and there are four tubes for Raytheon Mk. 48 torpedoes. An extremely comprehensive, highly classified, sonar outfit includes a Lockheed Martin AN/BQQ-10 active/passive bow-mounted array, as well as Lockheed Martin TB-34, Chesapeake Science RB-33 towed arrays, and side-mounted fibre optic arrays. To date, twelve boats have been commissioned, the most recent, the USS John Warner, being commissioned on 1 August 2015. Meanwhile, the USS Illinois was launched on 10 October 2015 and, judging by the time taken to commission previous boats, should be commissioned by this September. As of December 2008, five other boats have been ordered, four of which— the USS Washington, USS Colorado, USS Indiana and USS South Dakota-are under construction, with a fifth, the USS Delaware on order. Based on the programmes’ existing milestones to date, these first four

boats could be launched in circa May, September, November and October 2017 with commissioning under one year from these dates. The USS South Dakota has not yet commenced construction.

nar, plus two Sagem optronics masts), the signal processing of downloaded external tactical data, and the launch and control of weapons as well as communications and navigation systems.

France Like the United States and the United Kingdom, France is renewing its SSN fleet via the procurement of DCNS’ ‘Barracuda’ class with the Suffren, the first of a projected six new 5300 tonne-displacement family for the Marine Nationale (French Navy) now under construction. The Suffren is expected to be commissioned in 2017, with the final boat, the De Grasse, commissioning in 2029. A 2013 French Senate estimate put the cost of the entire programme at about $7.8 billion. These boats use an Areva-Technatrome K-15 nuclear reactor and pump-jet propulsion, giving an underwater speed of at least 25 knots (46km/h). Weapons carried by the vessel include MBDA’s SCALP (Système de Croisière Autonome à Longue Portée–Emploi Général/General Purpose Autonomous Long-Range Cruise Missile System) Submarine-Launched Cruise Missile (SLCM), MBDA’s SM-39 Block-2 Exocet Anti-Ship Missile (AShM) and DCNS’ F21 heavyweight torpedoes. The vessel’s weapons systems, sensors and tactical information is handled by the class’ DCNS/Thales SYCOBS battle management system, which integrates all sensors (including Thales’ S-Cube integrated sonar suite, and Seaclear mine and obstacle avoidance so-

Russia The first of the new ‘Yasen’ class of SSNs for the Russian Navy, Severodvinsk, was commissioned, after many delays resulting from funding problems, in June 2014, its construction at the Sevmash shipyard having commenced in 1993. The second of the class is due to enter service in 2016 with five more planned, four of which, the Kazan, Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk and Arhangelsk, are under construction. The 14021-tonne submarine with a length of 120m (393.7ft) and a beam of 15m (49.2ft) features a KPM pressurised water reactor, giving a top submerged speed of 35 knots (64.8km/h), with the submarine having reportedly been tested to a depth of 600m (1969ft). The vessel’s weapons fit includes eight vertical launchers which are able to fire NPO Mahinostroyeniya P-800 Oniks AShMs, Novator 3M-54 Klub-S family and Raduga OKB Kh-101 SLCMs. Eight 650mm and two 533mm torpedo tubes, slanted due to the size of the bow spherical sonar, The US Navy’s ‘Virginia’ class SSNs are replacing the existing ‘Los Angeles’ class SSNs, and are designed for both littoral and deep sea operations. Production is likely to continue until at least 2043.

US Navy

still to enter service with the Royal Navy, notably HMS Audacious, HMS Anson, HMS Agamemnon and HMS Ajax. According to 2013 statements in the House of Commons, these vessels are expected to commission every two years between 2018 and 2024. There have been numerous cost revisions since the project commenced in 1997, with a series of British Ministry of Defence figures released from late 2011 onwards indicating that the total cost for the construction of the class is likely to be around $11.9 billion.

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016 15

sea power

are fitted with each boat costing an estimated $1.6 billion. SSKs Away from the nuclear domain, an increasing emphasis is being placed on conventional hunter-killer submarines (SSKs) by the lead naval players in the Middle East and North Africa. For example, two Rubin Design Bureau ‘Project 636E Kilo’ class submarines are due to be delivered to the Algerian National Navy in 2018, joining four earlier ‘Project 636M Kilo’ and ‘Project 877EKM’ class boats. The main role of Rubin’s ‘Kilo’ class family is anti-shipping and anti-submarine operations in relatively shallow waters, and the submarines are reputedly very quiet, the

16 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

The operational availability of the six-strong ‘Collins’ class has been poor, due to personnel shortfalls and technical problems. They are slated for a major upgrade programme and eventual replacement by up to twelve new-build SSKs.

Royal Australian Navy

US Navy

‘Kilo’ class SSKs are currently in service with eight nations. The boats continue in production, with Algeria being a customer for the latest ‘Project 636M Kilo’ class.

main propulsion shaft speed having been reduced to provide a substantial reduction in the acoustic signature. Furthermore, an Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) ‘plug in’ for these boats has been developed, but there have been no reports that the Algerian boats will be so fitted. AIP uses fuel cells, combined with the means to generate oxygen to enable boats which are so equipped to remain underwater for considerable periods of time, and also to run very quietly, given that they are not dependent on the cooling pumps which can generate a considerable amount of noise. The first of these two boats are to be delivered by the end of 2018. Also boosting its underwater capabilities is the Egyptian Navy. Egypt’s existing submarine inventory consists of four ageing Krasnoya Sormovo Shipyard ‘Romeo’ class boats, upgraded in the 1990s, which are capable of firing US-supplied Boeing UGM-84 Harpoon family AShMs. These boats are now being replaced, with the first of a planned four ‘Type 209’ class SSKs, being constructed by ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems (TKMS), having been launched in December 2015. Previous boats of this type have featured an Atlas Elektronik ISUS-90 integrated sensor underwater system, a non-hull-penetrating mast, as well as Atlas Elektronik CSU-90

sea power

Israel Israel, meanwhile, is emerging as a major underwater power, as part of a build-up of its naval forces precipitated by the need to protect its vast new offshore gas resources in the Mediterranean. Progressively entering service with the Israeli Navy is a class of three advanced ‘Dolphin II’ class SSKs being constructed by TKMS’ Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft subsidiary. This programme, with a reported total cost of $1.8 billion is being partsubsidised by the German government. The first two boats, Tannin and Rahav, are already in Israeli hands, and the third is due to be delivered in 2017. These highlyclassified boats feature sophisticated AIP technology, which enables a submerged speed of 25 knots. Armament options include Atlas Elektronik DM-2A4 Seehake wire-guided torpedoes and Boeing UGM-84C AShMs, as well as LFK-Lenkflugkorpersysteme Triton anti-helicopter missiles. The boats have six 533mm and four 650mm diameter torpedo tubes; the larger tubes can launch both cruise missiles, and deliver naval commandoes from Israel’s maritime special forces, Flotilla 13, as well as torpedoes. Australia Looking further east, the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) a very experienced SSK operator, strategically situated, with strong professional links to both European and Asian navies, is committed to both a major upgrade of its existing inventory of trouble plagued ‘Collins’ boats, and a submarine replacement programme. According to Peter Coates, a very experienced Australian submarine warfare analyst, “The diesel engines are likely to need particular attention, while there is a fundamental problem to be addressed with the fuel tanks, in that they are not designed to cope with the

highly saline water in which the ‘Collins’ boats have to operate.” ASC, builders of the RAN’s current six ‘Collins’ class submarines, are going to be heavily engaged over the next decade with new surface combatant programmes. The company will therefore only have a very limited capacity to devote to the ‘Collins’ upgrade programme, which is likely also to involve improvements to the submarines’ batteries, combat platform, communications systems and sonars. A senior RAN source told Armada, “The politically sensitive option of having some of the boats refitted in Sweden, from where their design originated, is being explored.” The use of Spanish shipbuilder Navantia to construct the hulls of the RAN’s two new ‘Canberra’ class amphibious assault ships attracted much criticism from politicians and others who maintained that, for security and economic reasons, all the work on the ships should have been done in Australia. Tendering out probably costly, and technologically advanced, work on Australian submarines to a foreign yard would, therefore, very likely be strongly attacked by both opposition politicians and trade unions. That said, in October 2015, Saab’s Kockums subsidiary proposed an upgrade of the RAN’s boats based on the enhancement for the Royal Swedish Navy’s ‘Gotland’ class SSKs. This upgrade is currently being performed by Saab for the latter force, and US Navy

hull-mounted passive and active searchand-attack sonar and flank sonar arrays. These boats may also possess Kongsberg’s MSI-90U Mk.2 Combat Management System (CMS). This CMS is in service onboard the Indonesian Navy’s ‘Cakra/Type-209’ class SSKs, and is also expected to be installed onboard the force’s forthcoming ‘Chang Bogo/ Type-209’ class boats.

‘Scorpene’ class submarines, designed by DCNS are in service with four nations, and a project to assemble four in Brazil, in cooperation with DCNS, is underway.

18 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

is expected to be completed by 2019. Alongside the planned ‘Collins’ class upgrade, the RAN will be acquiring their replacement in the coming years. On 26 April, Australia selected DCNS as the preferred bidder to fulfil the Project Sea 1000 ‘Collins’ class replacement requirement. Following DCNS’ selection, negotiations will now open between the Australian Department of Defence and DCNS, which should conclude by early 2017. Pending the conclusion of these

US Navy

The US Navy’s USS Alexandria (foreground) sails with the Brazilian Navy’s Tikana, with both boats to be replaced in the near future.

negotiations, DCNS could then commence work to fulfil a three-year submarine design is contract. The French shipbuilder’s design is referred to as the so-called ‘Shortfin Barracuda-A1’ class; a conventional version of the ‘Barracuda’ class nuclear-powered attack submarine being acquired by the French Navy. Australia will also decide on whether to equip the boats with a Lockheed Martin or Raytheon combat management system. All twelve of the submarines which the Royal Australian Navy is expected to acquire will be built locally. Latin America Away from Australasia, looking towards South America, arguably the most important acquisition in the region is being performed by the Marinha do Brasil (Brazilian Navy), the region’s leading naval power. The fleet currently operates five ‘Type 209’ class SSKs, and is co-operating with DCNS to both revamp its conventional submarine capabilities, with a new class of four SSKs based on the company’s ‘Scorpene’ class design, and to join that elite group of nations which operate nuclear-powered boats. French news agency Viadeo in 2010 reported that the total value of the contract is $9.3 billion. “I can confirm that the Scorpene submarines will be equipped with F21 heavyweight torpedoes, and also the new generation DCNS CANTO coun-

termeasures system,” said Marion Bonnet, head of media relations at DCNS. “Antiship missiles are another likely fit,” she added, although it has not been revealed which AShMs may equip the boats. The first Brazilian ‘Scorpene’ class boat is in build, using mainly French-supplied components, at ItaguaI on the southern Brazilian cost, where a new base for submarines is also being built. Former President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva stated that Brazil needed a nuclear submarine capability to provide long-term security for Brazil’s vast coastline, and offshore energy resources. It is likely that today’s senior politicians also have an eye on their country’s future national status and influence, particularly possible permanent membership of the United Nations Security Council. Brazil’s projected nuclear-powered submarine is likely to displace about 4000 tonnes submerged. A Marinha do Brazil design, using a Brazilian 2131-R Pressurized Water Reactor was released in 2013. A model of the design showed the reactor positioned amidships, with 8 torpedo tubes at the bow. Construction of Brazil’s nuclear boat, which has been allocated the name Alvare Alberto, was scheduled to begin in 2015, but there have been no reports that this has yet commenced. DCNS will assist with hull technology and construction, and with non-nuclear internal technologies. Admiral Eduardo Barcellar Leal Ferreira, the head of the Brazilian Navy, recently confirmed that priority is being given to the nuclear submarine programme. Nevertheless, Brazil’s current economic and political woes, as well as the filing last year of corruption charges against Othon Luiz Pinheiro da Silva, a retired Admiral, and head of Brazil’s state nuclear power company, are likely to hinder the country’s submarine ambitions. Summary Globally, national concerns over maritime sovereignty, offshore energy resources, and the protection of sea lines of communication, continue to ratchet up, in parallel with continuing advances in submarine performance and capability. It therefore seems inevitable that the construction of new submarines, and the upgrading of existing boats, will continue to see substantial growth.

KONGSBERG KONGSBERG creates and delivers high technology solutions for people that operate under very challenging conditions – on the oceans, in the deep subsea, in defence, in space

www.kongsberg.com

Land FORCES

US Army

Staying in touch, while also handling large volumes of voice and data traffic, including imagery, is proving to be increasingly important for troops on the move, with the necessity to equip their vehicles to this end.

On The Move Satellite Communications or ‘SATCOM’ is nothing short of a communications miracle, offering high bandwidths over long ranges. Unsurprisingly, militaries around the world want this capability on their platforms, particularly their vehicles. Thomas Withington 20 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

he benefits afforded to military operations by SATCOM are well documented: They include the ability to send relatively large quantities of data traffic, not to mention voice communications, particularly in comparison to High Frequency (HF) radio communications in the three to 30 Megahertz (MHz) part of the radio spectrum. HF can achieve intercontinental ranges, but often at the expense of bandwidth which can be limited to say the least. SATCOM’s ability to handle large quantities of communication traffic across intercontinental range has, unsurprisingly, led to a high demand from militaries, particularly land and naval forces, across the world, which appreciate the capability such communications offer in terms of

Land FORCES

nology will no longer be constrained by the limitations of their organic V/UHF vehicular radios. V/UHF communications have clear advantages for land forces in that they can handle potentially large quantities of data in the in the order of circa 100 kilobits-persecond (kbps) for vehicular radios such as Aselsan’s PRC/VRC-9661 V/UHF Software Defined Radio (SDR). Yet, the ability of such transceivers to handle data communications comes at the cost of range. All V/UHF radios are limited by a line-of-sight range. Put simply, at sea level, across a flat space, for a person carrying a V/UHF radio standing on the ground, this distance is typically around three miles (4.7 kilometres) although this increases the higher the person is placed, if they are standing on a tower for instance. The propagation of V/UHF radio is further complicated when obstacles such as hills, mountains and buildings get in the way of transmissions. This is why military tactical radios use Mobile Ad Hoc Networking, or ‘MANET’, to skip from one radio to another, like a frog jumping across lily pads in a pond, for communications to reach their intended recipient. SATCOM, and the intercontinental ranges which it can achieve by bouncing off a dish in space, thus greatly increases

communication ranges as well as data rates. This is a major consideration when land forces may be operating in vast theatres such as deserts. For example, the French armed forces are engaged in Operation BARKHANE, an anti-insurgency operation in the Sahel region of Africa directed against violent Islamist organisations encompassing areas of Burkhina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania and Niger. Given the size of such a theatre, the benefits which SATCOM offers to dismounted forces, and mobile units alike, are clear. Design Criteria Several design criteria are essential when developing SOTM terminals for military vehicles. These include the provision of high data rate communications combined with a low physical footprint and the ability to operate in harsh environmental conditions, coupled with extreme reliability and constant availability; the latter feature is to ensure that vehicles are always connected to their satellites. Other considerations include spectrum, notes Yuval Dagan, deputy director of marketing and sales at Israel Aerospace Industries’ (IAI) ELTA division. Spectrum is a finite

General Dynamics provides a range of SOTM products to a number of users, including the US military. The SATCOM antenna is clearly visible on the vehicle in the front of the pictured convoy.

General Dynamics

bandwidth and range. The upshot of this is that SATCOM is now becoming increasingly ubiquitous on the battlefield, and is even being found equipping troops in direct contact with the enemy at the forward edge of the battle area. Currently, dismounted troops can employ SATCOM in the form of antennae and SATCOM terminals to enable such communications. They can also use military SATCOM appliqués, such as Spectra Group’s SlingShot system, which enables conventional military Very High Frequency/Ultra High Frequency (V/UHF) tactical radios operating in the 30-300MHz and 300MHz to three gigahertz (GHz) sections of the radio spectrum to employ L-band (one to two gigahertz) SATCOM. However, there is now a growing need to ensure that not only dismounted troops can use SATCOM, but also their vehicles, and indeed other vehicles on the battlefield, and that these vehicles can do so while travelling. This has led to a corresponding effort within the military SATCOM domain to develop SATCOM-On-The-Move (SOTM) capabilities for land forces. The benefits offered by SATCOM are obvious: Vehicles equipped with such tech-

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016 21

Land FORCES

US Army

The US Army is overhauling its communications via the introduction of the conventional and satellite WIN-T communications network. This will employ the Network Centric Waveform.

resource. The more users crowding a particular segment of the spectrum, such as X-band (7.9-8.4GHz for uplink/7.257.75GHz for downlink) for example, the less spectrum there is to go around for each individual user. As one can imagine, in large multinational operations across large land areas, such as the US-led intervention in Afghanistan last decade, SATCOM, and hence spectrum remained in high demand. This demand for spectrum can be mitigated to an extent by using SATCOM systems which use the spectrum in an efficient and intelligent way, minimising their electronic footprint to this end. “As more and more SATCOM systems occupy the spectrum, the resource is becoming scarce; this is where spectral efficiency has become a very significant factor that allows operating SOTM in dense spectrum, thus providing high demand communication availability,” observes Mr. Dagan. Also increasingly important, he notes, is the ability to protect SOTM terminals against cyberattacks, alongside their resistance to conventional electronic countermeasures. IAI provides two notable SOTM products, chiefly their EL/K-1895 SATCOM terminal for ground forces and vehicles, and their EL/K-1882 terminal for ground platforms.

Yet alongside the need to ensure that spectrum is managed sensibly and in a robust fashion, the ability to rapidly connect to a satellite, and to maintain that communications link, is also a vital design criteria for SOTM terminals, observes Anthony Griser, business manager for General Dynamics’ SATCOM technologies’ SATCOM-on-the-move product line. “The critical design criteria (for) SOTM is … the terminal’s ability to recognise the correct satellite, lock on to that satellite, and maintain that lock through vehicle manoeuvres and line-of-site blockages (such as elevated terrain).” He adds that the firm’s X-band, Ku-band (14GHz for uplink/10.9-12.75GHz for downlink) and Ka-band (26.5-40GHz for uplink/18-20GHz for downlink) SATCOM products can “connect to a satellite and maintain communications, even during aggressive vehicle manoeuvres.” Among other users, General Dynamics provides its products to the US Army. Software Hardware is only part of the story. Software has its important part to play in SOTM system design, in particular, the waveforms which enable SATCOM to be performed. For the uninitiated, a

22 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

waveform is essentially software which instructs the hardware of a SATCOM terminal to operate using certain parameters to ensure that communications with a satellite can be maintained, and that voice and data traffic can be handled by the terminal in the fashion desired by the user. L-3 Linkabit provides SOTM terminals which employ the US military’s non-proprietary Network Centric Waveform (NCW). This is a Ka/Ku-band waveform which is used across the US Army’s WIN-T (Warfighter Information Network-Tactical) conventional and SATCOM communications network, which is currently being rolled out across the force in several increments. One feature of the NCW, Elissa Seidenglanz, president of L-3 Linkabit, tells Armada, is that it “maximizes bandwidth/power efficiency at the satellite, resulting in larger network terminal populations (number of users utilizing a specific SATCOM network) and lower operational costs as compared to conventional IP (Internet Protocol) over SATCOM systems.” Ms. Seidenglanz continues that the NCW is relatively ‘agnostic’ regarding the SATCOM terminals which can use it. Moreover, in terms of constellations which NCW-equipped terminals can access, they include the US Department of Defence (DoD)/Australian DoD Wideband Global SATCOM constellation developed by Boeing, Ms. Seidenglanz adds. Agnosticism A level of agnosticism is important in SATCOM. As noted above, some solutions, such as SlingShot are able to connect to an existing tactical radio and to then provide SATCOM. This is also the case, for example, with Inmarsat’s L-band SOTM product. According to Andy Start, president of Inmarsat’s global government products, the L-band SOTM can connect to a conventional V/UHF tactical radio, and then allow that radio to perform communications across Inmarsat’s L-band Inmarat-4 network. The ‘secret sauce’ of this product is the data rates that it offers. These can include data rates of up to 300kbps, which will allow the streaming of video imagery in real time, enabling it to be used to carry Unmanned Aerial Vehicle reconnaissance imagery, for example. Mr. Start states

that this product is ideal for man-pack or vehicular applications. Available in both VHF and UHF variants, according to the type of tactical radio it will accompany, the L-band SOTM can “also act as a bridge for the whole tactical radio net.” What this means in practice is that the L-band SOTM can behave as the gateway to allow a tactical radio network to send traffic across intercontinental ranges. Beyond the firms discussed above, other companies involved in SOTM provision include Airbus’ defence and space subsidiary. According to Paul Millington, the head of government communications satellite strategy at the company, they provide SOTM terminals for mobile land communications such as their Mobile Patrol products. Moreover, the firm’s Proteus Software Defined Radio modems allow standard military tactical radios to access a SATCOM gateway. Beyond specific products, the firm offers SATCOM services to military users. These include “mobile

Harris

Land FORCES

Harris’ SOTM products include its GNOMAD series. Among the capabilities offered by these products include their ability to operate with the Single Channel Ground and Airborne Radio System to greatly extend the range of this conventional tactical radio waveform.

baseband capability for users to either access our Global Interconnect Network in the tactical environment or via their own network,” Mr. Millington continues. The company has provided its SATCOM prod-

ucts to a number of customers around the world including Australia, Canada, Chile, the Czech Republic, Germany, France, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), the Netherlands, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovenia, Sweden, the UK and the United Arab Emirates. Mr. Millington emphasises that the firm’s SATCOM products are customisable according to the user’s requirements. “There is a standard production specification but elements can be changed, for example, the frequency and RF (Radio Frequency) component mix or (accompanying) antennae or high power amplifiers … to respond to customers specific requirements.” Like Airbus, Thales has been involved in the SOTM domain for a number of years, and commenced the manufacture of its SATMOVE terminals to this end in 2009, the company told Armada via a written statement. These terminals are currently in service with the French armed forces and have been deployed in support of the

SATCOM ON-THE-MOVE SOLUTIONS

CONNECT, COLLABORATE, COMMUNICATE – ANYTIME, ANYWHERE

Use of U.S. DoD visual information does not imply or constitute DoD endorsement.

Network-Centric Waveform (NCW) L-3 Linkabit provides turn-key SATCOM On-The-Move (SOTM) solutions that enable mobile and halted forces to collaborate, access Department of Defense Information Network (DoDIN) resources, and exchange voice, data and video in a tactical environment. We developed the MPM-1000 modem product family, which, when combined with an antenna system, provides an off-the-shelf SOTM solution for both military and commercial applications. For more information, visit L-3com.com/Linkabit. Linkabit

L-3com.com armadainternational.com - june/july 2016 23

Land FORCES

Thales

Thales’ SOTM products include its SATMOVE series which is in service with the French armed forces. They enable communications with X-band satellite constellations, with the company also working on a Ka-band version of these products.

ongoing military operations which they are performing in the Sahel (see above). Currently, Thales provides its SATMOVE product in an X-band. X-band SATCOM is reserved by the International Telecommunications Union, the United Nations organisation which supervises the allocation of radio spectrum, for use by the military. The X-band design of the SATMOVE terminals enables the French armed forces to use their Syracuse-3 constellation. The Thales statement adds that a Ka-band version of the SATMOVE terminal is currently in development which “should enter production in the near future”. Military SATCOM is migrating to higher frequency levels, notably Ka-band, which is due to congestion in other SATCOM bands, such as X-band, and also the need to accommodate increasingly smaller antennae, particularly on vehicles, which require such antennae in order to help reduce a vehicle’s visual signature as much as possible. While there is a noticeable demand for the provision of SOTM for dismounted troops and their vehicles, commanders also need similar services to enable them to remain aware of what is happening in

the battle. Rob Semple of Harris states that, “The way militaries conduct operations changes daily and providing leaders the information they need to make timely and correct decisions becomes more paramount. Once a leader is disconnected from a fixed Command Post (CP) they still require situational awareness, and command and control while operating physically displaced from their CP.” The Marketplace Airbus is bullish regarding the future demand for SOTM. Mr. Millington notes that the firms existing, and potential, customers “want to have the best possible knowledge and awareness of the environment surrounding them. They want this intelligence as quickly as it is available and sometimes this can be while on the move.” Asked what technological requirements we may see for future SOTM technology, Mr. Millington says “anything that improves the performance, flexibility and the ability (of SOTM) to integrate with other bearer networks, carrying the traffic, will be important. Bandwidth will also be crucial because trends today show that demand for

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data services has surpassed the demand for voice services, in turn putting pressure on the demand for bandwidth.” SOTM technology is also changing thanks to advances in electronics. As noted above, antenna size is always a significant consideration, particularly as regards vehicles where the need to reduce visual signature is particularly important. The reduction in the size of SATCOM antennae has benefitted from the increasing miniaturisation of electronics, notably Moore’s Law, the observation of Gordon Moore, cofounder of the Intel chip manufacturing corporation, that the number of transistors that can be housed on a single chip doubles every two year. This has the added consequence of reducing circuit size, and hence the physical size of electronic components. This is feeding into the migration for SOTM to antennae that retain more of the appearance of a thin tile, rather than a bulky antenna, Harris’ Mr. Semple observes. He goes on to note that electronically scanned arrays where SATCOM RF beams can be electronically ‘moved’ to reach their satellite, rather than having to physically move the SATCOM antenna also offer promise. This is a particularly interesting development for SOTM where a vehicle’s antenna has to physically move to ensure that contact is maintained with the satellite, while the vehicle itself is in motion. Enabling this function to be done electronically will reduce the number of moving parts, and hence incidences of failure, for SOTM equipment. The ability to access SATCOM while mobile, as well as stationary, is a capability which militaries around the world will increasingly take for granted, to the extent that they may wonder how they managed without this capability in the first place. For Ms. Seidenglanz the pressure to ensure interoperability between militaries deployed in multinational operations of the sort which have been relatively commonplace over the past two decades, particularly where Western-led interventions in Afghanistan, the Balkans and the Middle East are concerned, is only likely to increase the demand for SOTM, and SATCOM in general. This is because the need to communicate and to share information between participants shows no signs of reducing.

Land WARFARE

Renault Trucks Defence

The Kerax is one of the military logistics vehicles offered by Renault Trucks Defence. The company sees enhanced demands for protection against mines and explosives as a key area of change in the logistics vehicles domain.

Loaded The demand for reliable logistics support has always played a key role in warfare, and the militaries of today are no exception. There is a huge variety of wheeled logistics vehicles in operation, but some themes can be discerned: a demand for flexibility, adaptability, and enhanced security. Gerrard Cowan

he term ‘logistics vehicle’ covers a large number of platforms that carry out a diverse number of roles, from transporting tanks to carrying troops and cargo. The demands being placed on these vehicles as a group have changed in recent years, says John Bryant, senior vice president for defence programmes at Oshkosh Defence, a US manufacturer of a wide range of vehicles in a number of roles, including logistics. The experiences of the US military and its allies during recent in-

terventions in Iraq and Afghanistan have shown that the battlefield, and the security environment in general, are changing, he says, with the line between the front and rear areas becoming increasingly blurred. “The traditional front lines have disappeared, so now our customer faces a wide variety of threats throughout the depth of the battlefield,” such as homemade bombs, he explained. This helped inform the development of the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle which Oshkosh is manufacturing to part-replace

26 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

the US Army and Marine Corps’ fleet of AM General High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicles, better known as ‘Humvees’. The JLTV was designed to carry out several missions, Mr. Bryant explained, while providing the protected mobility of Oshkosh’s MATV family of mine resistant ambush protected vehicles, in a smaller package. Protection Bill Mooney, regional vice president for the Middle East and North Africa at Osh-

Land WARFARE

BAE Systems

The ACV-15 can be acquired in a recovery and maintenance configuration. It is produced by FNSS Savunma Sistemleri, a JV in Turkey in which BAE Systems and Nurol Holding share ownership.

kosh Defence, adds that there is an increasing demand for scalable protection from customers around the world. This has been exemplified, he explains, by the US Army’s Long-Term Armour Strategy, which enables a vehicle to scale-up its protection levels depending on the environment in which it is operated. All of Oshkosh’s vehicles are designed with a Long-Term Armour Strategy-compliant cab, Mr. Mooney states. “That makes it very easy for the customer to apply an armour kit and take it off when not required, without (original equipment manufacturer) support. It provides a flexibility to them that is more suited to the future battlefield, where there’s not necessarily a front line.” Mr. Mooney said that the expects customers to increasingly invest in military trucks that “have that capability for scalable protection, as required by the mission.” Oshkosh produces a wide range of tactical wheeled vehicles, many of which carry out varying levels of logistics support roles. These range in size from the Heavy Equipment Transporter, designed to haul a Main Battle Tank (MBT), the eight-wheel drive Heavy Expanded Military Tactical Truck,

to the MATV and the JLTV, among others. number of products, such as the Kerax. A Mr. Bryant said that the company’s tactical spokesman for the company echoed the wheeled vehicles are available in an array comments from Oshkosh, identifying of variants, capable of carrying out a num- “protection against mines and homemade ber of different missions. However, there bombs” as one of the key areas of design are a number of similarities across the change over the last decade. A second range. Perhaps, most notably, the expericommon theme across logistics vehicles ences of Iraq and Afghanistan have height- is the need for adaptability and flexibility ened the safety demands being made by as such vehicles must be able to carry out customers like the US military. “One of the a variety of roles. Likewise, they must be common themes we’ve seen, particularly capable of doing so in different environin the last ten years, is that for all of our ments, adds Mr. Bryant. “Every Oshkosh tactical wheeled vehicles, our customer tactical wheeled vehicle is designed to has placed a premium not only on the abiloperate in the full range of (environments) ity to carry out those logistics missions, but that are required by the US Army and also to provide protection and safety for Marine Corps, so that covers everything the occupant,” he said. “So essentially all from Arctic conditions to desert condiof our tactical wheeled vehicles now come tions, from extreme heat to extreme cold,” with tremendous survivability packages he told Armada. to be able to survive those unpredictable However, the company can provide threats. That’s one of the common themes kits that increase these capabilities beyond that have evolved over recent years.” standard US requirements, should a Other players in the global logistic customer need this. “For example, we can vehicles market point to a similar trend. provide Arctic kits that allow the vehicle Renault Trucks Defence, which is part of to start quicker and behave better in such the Volvo Group, has been a longstanding an environment. If our customer places supplier of military logistics trucks to a extremely high heat demands based on number of markets worldwide. It has a the terrain where they operate we can pro-

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016 27

Land WARFARE

BAE Systems

The BvS-10 is manufactured by BAE Systems. It is set to complete trials in mid-2017, with serial production planned to commence by the end of that year.

vide modifications to a cooling package, to allow it to optimise and attune that vehicle for the particular environment that the customer desires.”

logistics-related configurations. The latter vehicle is in service in Malaysia (where it is known as the AV-8), with logistics variants being part of the country’s broader AV-8 family of vehicles. Proven Designs BAE Systems' Swedish subsidiary, BAE Systems produces logistics vehicles Hägglunds, is also a supplier of logistics through several of its subsidiaries and Joint vehicles, namely the BvS-10 and the BvS-10 Ventures (JVs). One of these is FNSS Savun- Beowulf tracked vehicle families. The latma Sistemleri, a JV in Turkey in which the ter is the latest entry to the BvS-10 series. UK-based company has a 49 percent share, “(The) Beowulf has been created to meet with the remainder owned by Nurol Holdthe challenges of any role or environment ing. Nail Kurt, the chief executive officer of that requires a highly-mobile, amphibious FNSS, highlighted the need to reduce costs vehicle system,” said Tore Akser, platform for customers. This could be achieved by de- manager for the BvS-10 Beowulf. “This not veloping vehicles based on a common chasonly applies to military roles, but also to sis, he said, “in order to reduce acquisition, the civilian and other government markets, training and support costs.” In the logistics where such vehicles are in demand for domain, FNSS manufactures the Tracked emergency response, mining, logging supLogistics Carrier variant of the firm’s ACVport, exploration, and many other applica19 infantry fighting vehicle, designed to tions that require the unique capability transport ammunition and general cargo that our articulated all-terrain vehicle can in support of mechanised infantry and ardeliver.” A spokesperson for the company moured regiments. The JV also highlighted said the BvS-10 Beowulf would complete the ACV-15, which is available in a recovery trials in mid-2017, and that BAE Systems and maintenance configuration, as well as intends to be in a position to commence the PARS eight-wheel drive armoured comserial production by the end of next year. bat vehicle, which can also be acquired in “(The) rate of build will entirely depend

28 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

upon customer interest and orders,” the spokesperson added. Staying in Europe, another major firm in the logistics vehicles space is Italy-based Iveco Defence Vehicles, which supplies platforms across a range of sizes. The company has several military-focused logistics trucks, such as the military variants of its Trakker range, the latest iteration of which is equipped with Euro 6 engine technology and is expected to be unveiled at the Eurosatory exhibition in Paris this June. The company is particularly active in its major European markets of France, Germany, Italy and Spain, though it is also seeking to strengthen its presence in foreign markets, particularly South America, and is working to develop sales in the Asia-Pacific. As with other companies in the sector, Iveco has been working to adapt its trucks to new safety demands, many of which were in the past more associated with front line vehicles. For example, the Italian company has identified the need to adopt heavy protected cabs against ballistic and blast threats, and has sought to upgrade the front suspensions and steering systems of its vehicles to meet this challenge.

Land WARFARE

battlefield,” he explained. “So TerraMax The demand for military equipment Oshkosh’s TerraMax is a modular sysand autonomy in general provides a force is clearly influenced by the intensity of tem, designed to be integrated onto any multiplication effect, where they’re able operational demands. According to Mr. military vehicle, allowing it to act as to accomplish more with less.” Likewise, Bryant, the drawdown from Afghanistan essentially an unmanned ground vehicle. the Renault spokesperson identified and Iraq has led to a cooling in demand for “Picture a logistics convoy moving down “hybrid technology for mobility systems” spare parts, although this remains robust an unimproved road,” said Mr. Bryant: as a promising area for advances, overall due to continuing requirements “Picture that convoy from the eyes of an while the BAE Systems spokesperson from vehicle operators worldwide. Howenemy seeking to employ a bomb. You see pointed to mobility and continued develever, he points to the JLTV programme as fifty vehicles going down the road, but opments in dual or multipurpose uses an example of a US programme that was actually maybe only one out of every five for logistics vehicles. not directly connected to these wars, unof those vehicles has a human operator. The Oshkosh executives see a range of like the MATV vehicle, thousands of which You can’t tell by looking at those vehicles other areas in which technological progwere produced to meet US requirements which ones have human operators and ress could be made, including demands for for mine resistant ambush protected which ones don’t.” Utilising such unhigher levels of fuel economy to increased vehicles in the Afghan theatre. “The JLTV manned technology “places the enemy modularity and scalability. Mr. Bryant said has undergone a much more deliberate on the horns of a dilemma in trying to that a key trend has been a demand to indevelopment and ramp-up to production, employ such explosives, and it also truly clude heightened protection and off-road so that the JLTV programme hasn’t really reduces the exposure of friendly troops,” mobility in smaller vehicles. “They want been affected much by the conflict in Mr. Bryant added. He said that the work ever-increasing amounts of protection Afghanistan or Iraq,” he said. had seen a significant amount of interand mobility in ever-smaller packages,” Of course, there are numerous wars est in the US, particularly for vehicles in ongoing worldwide, even if the US and its dangerous positions in convoys. “I can see he said. “I see that trend continuing.” He also pointed to an increasing demand allies have largely withdrawn from Iraq that those vehicles probably won’t have and Afghanistan. Mr. Mooney highlighted human operators in the future,” he added. to include more command and control capability into every vehicle, something a range of conflicts in the Middle East and Mr. Mooney says that automation has the company has sought to incorporate North Africa, from Libya to Yemen. “Those advantages beyond force protection, are creating other demands from our cusparticularly as it could provide significant into the JLTV. “The level of capability that tomers that now are required to respond force multiplication. “Many of the Middle we now offer in a light tactical vehicle previously had only been seen in dedicated to those threats and are looking for that Eastern countries lack the personnel for command and control vehicles,” said same level of high performance out of their all of their logistics systems and vehicles,” he said. to move the required amounts of material Mr. Bryant. “I see that only increasing in the future.” The Middle East and North Africa and equipment and personnel across the is Oshkosh’s second-largest regional base, after the US. It supplies vehicles to more than a dozen customers in the area, including the United Arab Emirates, and sees these regions as having strong growth potential in the future. “We have seen strong demand growth and realised many of those opportunities, and we continue to see additional opportunities in the years ahead … they’re investing across their own spectrum of capabilities to address Iveco Defence Vehicles has a range those threats, and they’re having to do so of military-focused mindful of adaptive enemies that are now logistics trucks, employing asymmetric threats, such as such as the military (homemade bombs).” variants of its Trakker range, the latest iteration of which is expected to be unveiled in Paris this summer.

Iveco Defence Vehicles

Modularity There is a high degree of focus on the potential of autonomous technology, which could serve to make logistics vehicles much safer to operate. At a time when the front and rear areas are increasingly overlapping, this has obvious appeal.

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016 29

Land WARFARE

Seeing Things Military vehicles have used optronics, such as night vision devices, for decades for observation and targeting, driver aids and, more recently, local all-round vision, often as add-ons during upgrades and usually as standalone systems. Peter Donaldson

his is now changing rapidly thanks to the combination of digital sensors and integrated electronic architectures, and minds are firmly focused on plug-and-play multi-sensor systems that work seamlessly together to provide a much higher level of situational awareness than previously blinkered armoured vehicle crews have ever been able to enjoy.

Today, enhanced situational awareness and the ability to identify, track and designate moving targets while on the move are critical and are driving expansion of this market, said Finmeccanica in response to questions from Armada. For combat vehicles the weapon and surveillance sights directly impact a vehicleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effectiveness in its primary combat role and tend to require the highest performing sensors.

30 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

Meanwhile, advances in microelectronics and optics are making night vision systems more affordable, with emergent nations looking to establish a manufacturing base for elements of their own equipment. Driver night vision requirements here can generally be met with short range sensors (typically uncooled infrared or television cameras), while all-round situational awareness sensors are increasingly

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important for Armoured Personnel Carriers (APCs) and Infantry Fighting Vehicles (IFV) because troops need constant access to a 360 degree view of their immediate and wider environments, the company stated.

Moreover, these technologies are reshaping the vehicles themselves, so argues Dan Lindell, platform manager for combat vehicles at BAE Systems’ Hägglunds subsidiary in Sweden. “We are changing vehicle design to accommodate these sysAugmented Reality tems … First of all, over the last five or six Beyond these established core capabiliyears we have doubled the power distribties, linking the sensors with advanced uted throughout the vehicle, and we see an displays and battle management systems ever-increasing amount of power being promises to transport crews into a world needed,” he said. The company continues of augmented reality in which friends, foes, to work on electric and hybrid electric routes, landmarks, obstacles and myriad drive (where a conventional engine powother pieces of information can be drawn ers an electric motor) systems for their to their attention at appropriate times. vehicles and onboard power generation for Although this is a familiar concept for mili- both propulsion and mission systems. Mr. tary aircraft, ground vehicles might soon Lindell argues that human factors integrasurpass them as the size, weight, power tion is important for optronics technology. and cost (SWAPC) burden of sensors and “How do we present all that sensor data or computing power come down because the images that we want to distribute to the time and effort demanded by the certificacrews? That’s also a very big issue for us.” tion process is so much less in this sector The focus for the situational awareness than it is for aircraft. and human factors integration work at the moment is the BattleView 360 (see below) that the company is currently demonstratAll vehicle occupants could have an ing around the world in prototype form all-round view with the BattleView onboard its CV90 IFV in cooperation with 360 using helmet-mounted display BAE Systems in the UK. Here, head of technology possibly, but not necessarily, derived from BAE Systems’ Q-Sight and programmes Andy Thain has a broad view Q-Warrior optical waveguide technology. of the market for military vehicle vision and situational awareness systems. “We are certainly seeing a growing interest, particularly at the research and development level across Europe, the UK and in the US for greater situational awareness in these types of vehicles, particularly armoured personnel carriers, infantry fighting vehicles and, in fact, in the larger vehicles beyond that.” Mr. Thain told Armada that the company has a number of contracts related to various UK and US research and development BAE Systems

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Even in daylight, emerging from an APC or an IFV in combat is one in which lives depend on gaining maximum situational awareness as soon as possible, an even greater challenge at night, making all-round sensing a life-saving development.

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Bristling with cameras capable of generating images night and day, the CV90 infantry fighting vehicle is serving as a test bed for BAE Systems’ BattleView 360 which is designed to create an all-round view and display it to all occupants on helmetmounted displays.

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016 31

Land WARFARE

Integration Issues Among the challenges involved in the integration of such technologies is the vehicle infrastructure as, to provide 360 degree situational awareness for example, locations around the hull must be found, and power and data connections made. Then the images from the cameras must be displayed to provide a seamless view to multiple individuals at the same time; all of which takes significant computing power, human factors expertise and software. “The computing itself is not a significant challenge, but creating displays that are robust enough for military vehicle use is,” Mr. Thain disclosed. “Our displays have previously been in fast jet and helicopter applications; taking that technology and making it robust and soldier proof is something that’s definitely a challenge, but a doable one because as some of the optics we have are quite robust and compact.”

High-end thermal cameras from Finmeccanica use a high resolution third-generation MCT detector array to achieve outstanding image quality in day, night and poor visibility and can be integrated into a wide variety of systems. Finmeccanica

efforts in which other companies are also participating. “The systems we’re looking at add capability to the driver, gunner and commander of the vehicle and provide them with considerably greater capability in the view around than they get with the current periscopes or the very narrow slit windows commonly found on military vehicles.” For the troops in the back, he added, providing them with greater awareness is important because they will then know more about what they are heading into when they exit the vehicle. “Whether that would be every soldier in the back, probably not, it’s more likely to be the squad leader who the more junior guys would tend to follow and take their direct orders from anyway.” In geographic terms, there is interest and activity in the US and all over Europe, Mr. Thain said, with, for example, all seven CV90 operators in Europe (Denmark, Estonia, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland and Sweden) considering the BattleView 360 for upgrades to their vehicles. In the US, army organisations including the Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) and the Communications Electronics Research, Development and Engineering Centre (CERDEC) are active in all-round situational awareness, as is the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL) in the UK.

This is a reference to the various Helmet-Mounted Display (HMD) technologies including the optical wave guide type used in BAE Systems’ Q-Sight system and its derivatives, although the adoption of Q-Sight technology is not necessarily a shoo-in vis-à-vis the BattleView 360, as the company has other small, tough display technologies in the works. Mr. Thain mentioned anecdotal reports of soldiers in the back of vehicles using their helmets to navigate round the inside, essentially by bumping their heads on things. “Whatever we have has got to be capable of withstanding that environment.” In addition to the protocol translation work usually involved in bringing data from multiple sensors supplied by different manufacturers onto the same network, there is the task of video stitching. This means combining images from visual and infrared sensors with different lens characteristics and fields-of-view and making them compatible with one another, said Richard Hadfield, who is the technical authority for BattleView 360 at BAE Systems. “We do real-time image warping and stitching to create a virtual dome and then paste those sensors onto that virtual dome.” Another technical issue Mr. Hadfield raised is that of simultaneous head tracking for several people who might all be looking in different directions. He told Armada that the company has a solution for this, which involves a tracking device

32 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

in each helmet and a network of tracking sensors throughout the vehicle interior. Synchronising the displayed image as closely as possible with the outside world is a very important human factors issue. “You need to do that in a way that’s not going to make those people violently sick because of latency in the system,” Mr. Hadfield notes. “We believe that we’ve solved that latency, but I won’t tell you how!” How users interact with displays they are wearing on their heads is also an important issue, and to tackle it BAE Systems has introduced a head-down element to the system based on its “highly robust” Map and Image Management Engine (MIME) software that has proved its worth since the mid-1990s in a variety of UK military aircraft. “We’ve adapted that tool for land use, and that includes a lot of functionality that deals with terrain so that we can, for example, plan routes making use of terrain characteristics and that are feasible for a particular type of vehicle,” Mr. Hadfield told Armada. Now Showing MIME interacts with the vehicle’s Battle Management System (BMS) and/or a target acquisition system through its vehicle network, collating all the information and filtering it to ensure that each user gets the information they need without being overloaded. “Putting too much information in is almost as bad as putting too little information in,” observes Mr. Hadfield: “So another

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BAE Systems

Most armoured vehicles are hard to see out of, so camera systems of all kinds have proliferated and most include night vision capability, with CMOS cameras an emerging technology.

challenge we have is how do we decide what a particular person should be seeing?” Credited as one of the inventors of BattleView 360, Peder Sjolund is the technology programme manager at BAE Systems’ Hägglunds subsidiary. He told Armada that they worked with experienced armoured vehicle crews to work out what information they needed and what their limits were. “We invited a couple of tank commanders and IFV commanders to start discussing how much information they could keep up with in different scenarios,” he said. “One scenario would be transport and one could be close combat. If you are in transit then you are really concentrating on the route, where the next rendezvous point is, how long you’ve got to be driving, what your fuel level is, and what speed you need to be making in order to get to the rendezvous point at the particular time.” Mr. Hadfield added, “But then if you have pop-up threats, if you’re approaching your target, then you are going into a different phase of the mission, obviously the information you see will be changing.” Mr. Sjolund said that the company combined these insights with an architecture from aviation and from HMDs, which they judged to be the best means of getting useful information to the vehicle’s occupants without filling the whole interior with screens, for which there is not enough space or vehicle power. A module on each helmet contains both an individual head

tracker and the helmet’s connection to the MIME-based mini-BMS, enabling the right sensor view and the right tactical information to be fed to each user. More Sensors While the number of sensors installed in military vehicles continues to grow, the mix of technologies is fairly stable, although change is ongoing, Finmeccanica pointed out. A typical weapon sight integrates a night vision sensor (typically an infrared sight), a day view sight (either a direct optical site or television/TV) and a laser rangefinder. Additional sensors such as laser illuminators/designators are often integrated to meet specific requirements. For driver vision systems and vehicle situational awareness, said the company, TV and thermal cameras are sufficient. Plug-and-play optronics continue to appeal for equipping vehicles, with examples of this trend including Israel Aerospace Industries’ POP (Plug-in Optronic Payload) family of gyro-stabilised day and night surveillance and targeting systems. The POP family includes six distinct family members, each of which has a specific configuration. That said, the overall design is highly modular and can host specific ‘slices’ each of which can accommodate specific sensors based on user requirements. These slices can be replaced in the field as and when required, and easily upgrade existing POP family members, as new optronics

34 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

technologies are introduced. Uncooled IR cameras are increasingly prevalent in ‘utility’ applications such as driver vision enhancement, but cooled IR remains essential for high performance applications. In weapon sights the traditional long-wave (eight-to-twelve microns) IR band is now evolving to a mix of bands with the addition of mid-wave (three-to-five micron) sensors. In some lower end utility applications, near infrared illumination with low-cost television cameras is now being employed, in missions where stealth is not a concern. Finmeccanica expects Complementary Metal Oxide Silicon (CMOS) technology to replace CCD cameras in the visual band gradually, but is reserving judgement on more exotic technologies such as Short Wave Infrared (SWIR). SWIR is an IR bandwidth with characteristics different from those of the mid- and long-wave thermal bands and, said the company; it may prove useful for some specialised applications although it’s relatively high cost at present may limit the rate of uptake among military users. Besides extension into less well-known wavebands, ongoing advances in sensors centre on smaller pitch IR detectors, both cooled and uncooled, which enables higher resolution images and/or smaller optical apertures. Typical modern vehicle displays are dedicated screens with special features to maximise the quality of monochrome images from IR cameras. The latest vehicle fits use networked multifunction flat-panel LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) panels with software options for multi-image viewing, high resolution graphical overlays and image enhancement. Their evolution is driven by the availability of commercial display panel technology, said Finmeccanica, and is moving towards better image quality (including higher definition), enhanced networking and greater computing power. Pros and Cons With an eye on the development of HMDs, Finmeccanica noted both strengths and weaknesses in available technology. Among the former are their compactness, their ability to support both heads-in and headsout operation and relatively low power consumption. Their weaknesses, said the

company include cost, vulnerability to damage, a tendency to cause fatigue and possibly to restrict the ability to perform some on-board tasks, plus the need for a back-up device. The upshot of that analysis is that Finmeccanica does not expect to see HMDs used in significant numbers in military vehicles in the near future. However, the company is more upbeat about the prospects for Augmented Reality (AR), which, it notes, can be achieved without HMD. “There is great potential for AR to give improved presentation of information to the crew which can help with detection and targeting.” Unsurprisingly, all customers are strongly focused on price and performance, but Finmeccanica emphasises that the relative weightings of these factors depends on the application. Usually a customer is prepared to invest more when they require system level solutions (such as fire control or situational awareness for example) not only because these are more expensive but primarily because the requirement is more demanding and rules out cheaper, less capable equipment and suppliers. With less demanding requirements, said the company, the emphasis on price enables a wider range of suppliers to compete. Specialist Views Emmanuel Bercier, senior marketing manager with ULIS, the division of French infrared technology specialists Sofradir that makes uncooled microbolometer thermal imagers, notes that military requirements are increasingly specific about desired functionalities. These include all-weather vision enhancement for drivers, and Local Situational Awareness (LSA) to protect the vehicle and integration into Remote Controlled Weapon Stations (RCWS) for weapon guidance, for example. “We anticipate two main challenges,” Mr. Bercier said. “First, improving performance in order to achieve a larger field of view, for example 180 degrees for Driver Vision Enhancement (DVE), or to extend the detection range for LSA and RCWS … Secondly, to obtain smaller, lighter and lower power equipment. Even though we are dealing with vehicles, available space for any piece of equipment is always a challenge.” As far as potentially disruptive new technologies are concerned, he considers extended CMOS sensors that cover the visible spectrum and into the near infrared to be a good candidate for future all-weather DVE applications, with the same applying to SWIR. “New technologies will experience challenges in reaching the required high level of maturity and being qualified for such applications. We will see what happens over the next ten years, but thermal sensors are already based on mature technologies that continue to improve both performance and cost.”

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The Demand Asked where the procurement action is, geographically speaking, Dan Lindell said that the West talks and carries out trials while in the East they actually deliver. “We are seeing that a lot of the things that are being discussed and are being displayed at trade shows are actually being integrated in Russia and to a large extent also in the People’s Republic of China. We are seeing quite straightforward requirements for these types of systems in South East Asia while the West is trying out and talking, more or less.”

senop.fi

Flying Filling Stations Operation INHERENT RESOLVE (OIR), the ongoing US-led military effort against the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) insurgent group which has occupied significant parts of both countries, has highlighted the lack of airto-air refuelling capabilities among the participants. David Oliver

IR commenced in June 2014 and has been supported by several European and Allied nations. The operation has again highlighted the lack of tankers as only 60 percent of the European receiver nations participating in the air strikes currently own Air-to-Air Refuelling (AAR) assets, namely Italy, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Europe is able to field around 40 tankers of ten different types, which when compared with the US resources of over 550 tankers of three types, is a clear indication of the challenges Europe faces in this field. The European Defence Agency (EDA), an agency of the European Union which works to foster defence collaboration, is attempting to address this problem by proposing a number of cost-effective solutions for AAR that need to be considered, in order to help European nations meet their requirements. The Air Transport, Air-to-Air Refuelling Exchange of Services (ATARES), which allows participating nations to trade in equivalent Lockheed

Martin C-130 turboprop airlifter family flying hours has been effective in helping to pool and share AAR across the continent. However, a commercial mechanism is needed that allows nations to buy, and not just trade, spare capacity from a European or NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) pool of tankers. European Efforts The EDA recognizes that here is a need for better, and more collective, AAR training to harmonize standards and share expertise. Collective training could facilitate familiarity with other NATO fleets and the annual European AAR Training exercise, the overall objective of which is to address the lack of interoperability among European tanker crews and to develop knowledge in AAR planning and tasking through a dedicated exercise, is a good step in this respect. A European training centre could also help nations without AAR expertise to develop a baseline capability and/or provide earlier entry into service for those nations wishing to buy new tankers as the

36 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

Germany is one of the few European receiver nations currently owning AAR assets; a fleet of four Airbus A310-304 tankers are operated by the German Air Force.

training could be done in advance of aircraft delivery. The UK has fully embraced synthetic training and could provide training as a service to European nations operating similar platforms. There should be better co ordination and consolidation of multinational initiatives in AAR to provide a single, transparent structure with minimum bureaucracy. This may be achieved by combining the European Air Transport Command (EATC) established in 2010 which includes Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Spain. Its role is to enhance the combined operations capabilities of the participating nations, and to improve effectiveness and efficiency when conducting air transport, refuelling and aeromedical evacuation. Meanwhile, the Movement Coordination Centre Europe (MCCE), which includes 27 European nations, plus Canada, is headquartered at Eindhoven in the southern Netherlands, and is led by the Netherlands. The MCCEâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role is to provide cost saving alternatives for its members by utilizing air assets

Airbus

air power

Airbus

France was an original signatory to the EDA programme to acquire a fleet of tankers but opted to order twelve A330-200 MRTTs to replace its Boeing C/KC-135F/FRs.

ment of the acquisition phase of the NMF project and sets the framework and conditions under which OCCAR will manage the acquisition phase of the aircraft on behalf of NATO. The three nations (Netherlands, Norway and Poland) plan to formally launch their project in July at the forthcoming NATO Summit in Warsaw, to be followed by a contract signature at the end of July with Airbus to initially purchase three A330-200 MRTT aircraft. If more countries join the group, additional aircraft may be acquired. The NMF will be based in Eindhoven and operate in a similar way to NATO’s Boeing C-17A Globemaster-III turbofan freighter Strategic Airlift Capability (SAC) based at Pápa in Hungary with a fleet of three C-17As for which flying hours are made available to Bulgaria, Estonia, Hungary,

France One of the original signatories to the EDA NMF agreement, France, placed an order in December 2015 with Airbus for eight additional A330-200 MRTTs for the Armée de l’Air (French Air Force). The aircraft constitute the second tranche of a multi-year contract for a total of twelve A330-200 MRTTs signed by the French Ministry of Defence in November 2014. The order for the remaining four aircraft is scheduled to be confirmed in 2018 with deliveries of all twelve aircraft before 2025 to replace the French Air Force’s fleet of 14 Boeing KC/C-135F/FR tankers. The first A330-200 MRTT will be delivered in 2018, followed by the second in 2019, and the remainder at a rate of one or two per year. The French aircraft will be equipped with a combination of the Airbus Refuelling Boom System and underwing hose-anddrogue refuelling pods. It will also be possible to configure them in a variety of layouts carrying up to 271 passengers as well as medical evacuation arrangements including the French MORPHEE intensive care module carrying up to ten patients plus 88 passengers.   The EDA has also highlighted the fact that AAR kits have only been purchased for 18 percent of the ordered Airbus A400M Atlas turboprop freighters and its efforts to convince more operators to consider

Only a small number of A400M customers have ordered its air-to-air refuelling kits which have been successfully trialled with fixed-wing aircraft, but which are not yet capable of refuelling rotary-wing aircraft.

Airbus

owned or leased by the national militaries of its members or supported agencies. The aim of the MCCE was to reach an Initial Operating Capability (IOC) by 2020. The EDA expected that the pooled acquisition would result in important synergies in terms of initial overall investment, interoperability as well as through life costs. However, following European financial instability, defence budgets were slashed and many of the signatories withdrew from the project, leaving only the Netherlands, Norway and Poland as of today. Although Norway is not a member of the EU, it regularly participates in EDA projects such as the AAR programme. “Norway is actively engaged in European as well as regional defence cooperation. This is not only of benefit for Europe but also for the Norwegian armed forces and defence industry. At the Agency, we see Norway’s strong support to the Agency’s air-to-air refuelling programme as well as to our research and technology initiatives,” said Jorge Domecq, the chief executive of the EDA. In November 2014, a Cooperation Agreement was signed between the NATO Support Organisation and the Organisation Conjointe de Coopération en Matière d’Armement (OCCAR/Joint Organisation for Armament Cooperation), the EU body tasked with managing joint European defence procurement initiatives. This launched the acquisition phase of a NATO MRTT Fleet (Multi-Role Tanker Transport Fleet/NMF) under the lead of the Netherlands. The agreement covers the manage-

Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania and Slovenia, together with Partnership for Peace members Finland and Sweden.

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016 37

USMC

air power

buying or leasing additional AAR kits for their platforms, in order to satisfy EU and NATO targets, have so far not been taken up. The A400M successfully demonstrated simultaneous air-to-air refuelling of two McDonnell Douglas/Boeing F/A-18C/D Hornet fighters in February 2015 during which, in the course of four flights, the A400M performed 74 contacts and dispensed 27.2 tonnes of fuel to these Spanish Air Force aircraft. However, this success was tempered in October 2015, when Fernando Alonso, the head of Airbus’ military aircraft division, admitted that the aerial refuelling of

UNITED STATES The US Air Force and Marine Corps operate several C-130 tanker variants, all of which are capable of refuelling helicopters, with each service acquiring new C-130J aircraft. More than a dozen countries operate KC-130H tankers including Spain and Sweden in Europe while Italy has The US Marine Corps has used three KC-130Js. The C-130J has also been the KC-130 family of tankers exported to Saudi Arabia with two of five for refuelling rotary-wing KC-130J Hercules on order recently delivaircraft and the latest KC-130J model has been ordered for ered to the Royal Saudi Air Force. the French Air Force. Boeing was awarded a contract in 2011 to design and develop the US Air Force’s next-generation tanker aircraft and is building four test aircraft; two are currently configured as 767-2C variants of the vanilla Boeing 767-200ER airliner and two as KC-46A tankers, also based upon this airframe. EMD-1, a 767-2C test aircraft, has completed more than 260 flight test hours to date since its first flight in December 2014. After several highly publicised setbacks in 2014, EMD-2, the programme’s first fully provisioned KC-46A tanker, made its maiden flight on 25 September 2015 and has now completed more than 180 flight test hours. The KC-46A first flight was originally scheduled to take place at the beginning of the year, but was delayed helicopters by the A400M was impossible to after problems with wiring bundles were achieve in the aircraft’s current configuradiscovered in the test aircraft. Boeing tion. As several countries had expressed successfully completed the first flight of interest in this capability, Mr. Alonso said the programme’s second KC-46A tanker that the company had begun working on aircraft on 3 March 2016, from Paine Field a solution to the problem despite the fact in Washington State and landing at Boeing that it was currently not physically possible Field in Seattle. During the flight, Boeing given the length of the hose, the wake of test pilots performed operational checks the aircraft and the speed of the receiver on engines, flight controls and environhelicopters, to safely refuel from the A400M. mental systems. “Adding a second tanker One of the countries interested in the to the flight test programme is very imporA400M’s capability to refuel helicopters tant as we move into the next phase of testwas France. In October 2015 The French ing,” said Colonel John Newberry, US Air Air Force carried out its first operational Force KC-46 system programme manager. in-flight refuelling of a helicopter when a “The team will initially use the aircraft to US Marine Corps KC-130J tanker refuelled test mission system avionics and exterior an Airbus Helicopters H-225M Caracal melighting. Later, it will share the air refueldium-lift utility helicopter in Africa. Only ling effort with the first KC-46,” according a month later a notice published by the to an official USAF press release.

38 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

Boeing

The second Boeing KC-46A made its first flight on 3 March 2016, and will be initially used to test mission system avionics and exterior lighting, before joining the first fully provisioned KC46A tanker to carry out air refuelling trials.

US Defence Security Cooperation Agency noted that France had requested a foreign military sale of four Lockheed Martin C130J aircraft, including two extended-range KC-130J tankers.

air power

JASDF

Japan has become the first export customer for the Boeing KC-46A when it was selected to replace the JASDF’s B-767J tankers which will retire from 2020.

The Boeing team now will conduct a post-flight inspection and calibrate instrumentation prior to the next series of flights. As part of the overall flight test programme, the KC-46A will demonstrate it can refuel 18 different aircraft. The second tanker will help share the test load and receiver certification. EMD-3, a second 767-2C, will begin flight-testing later this year. However, on 24 March the US Defence Contract Management Agency has expressed its “low confidence” in Boeing’s ability to deliver the KC-46A on time. The first delivery of an initial of 18 KC-46As to the USAF was expected by August 2017. Despite this, the agency now believes Boeing cannot deliver the 18 KC-46As before March 2018, and there is a possibility that this new date might not be achievable either. The estimated price tag for the Air Force’s KC-46A’s development contract appears to be levelling out at $6.4 billion, more or less unchanged from last year, according to a USAF spokesperson. Other Players Although the EDA MMF project selected the A330-200 MRTT as the consortium’s preferred aircraft over the KC-46A, and Airbus had recently achieved a run of export sales (notably to Australia, the United Arab Emirates, the Republic of Korea,

Saudi Arabia and Singapore), it is not all bad news for Boeing. The company was able to announce that Japan had selected the KC-46A to become its lead international customer in October 2015. The Japan Air Self-Defence Force (JASDF) operates a fleet of four Boeing KC-767J MRTTs and Japan intends to procure three KC-46As by 2020, at a reported cost of more than $173 million per tanker. According to Boeing, the KC-46A is particularly attractive to Japan as it will be capable of refuelling the JASDF’s planned fleet of Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning-II fighters and the Japan Maritime Self-Defence Force forthcoming Bell-Boeing MV-22A Osprey tilt rotors. “We look forward to working alongside the US government to help Japan expand its aerial refuelling capabilities with Boeing’s next-generation (KC-46A) tanker,” Boeing said in a press release. “We appreciate the confidence the Japan Ministry of Defence has shown in Boeing as we honour our commitments in the country and continue our enduring partnership with Japan, which has been going strong for more than 60 years. Japanese industry plays a vital role in Boeing’s commercial and military programmes and we hope to increase our presence in Japan.” According to Bloomberg, the New York financial data company, Israel formally

asked the US last year to quote a price for four, six and eight KC-46As, including spare parts, support equipment, and training. The USAF deputy for international affairs had provided answers by 19 December 2015. Nevertheless, Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) has told Armada that it is offering its own B-767 MRTT to the Israeli Air Force (IAF), and believes it is the best solution for the client’s needs to replace its four KC-130H and nine KC-707 tanker aircraft. The Bedek Aircraft Division of IAI has delivered a single B-767 MRTT to the Colombian Air Force and is in the process of final negotiations for the sale of three B-767 MRTTs to the Brazilian Air Force under its KC-X2 programme. Boeing is targeting the KC-46A for the Egyptian Air Force, which has no tanker aircraft but a large fast jet fleet, and the Turkish Air Force to replace its Boeing KC-135Rs. In the longer term, the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force may consider the KC-46A as a replacement for its ageing fleet of Boeing 707 and 747 tankers although, according to Boeing, this is a question for the US Government. Regarding the commercial airliner market, Airbus and Boeing are head-to-head but the latter is still playing catch-up in the tanker market. That said, there is still everything to play for in this niche sector.

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016 39

Land WARFARE

US DoD

Multiple solar panels at the US Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Centre at Twentynine Palms, California, illustrate the US military’s commitment to alternative energy sources.

Power Politics Combining two or more energy sources, hybrid power systems are increasingly seen as the most efficient way of providing dismounted soldiers with the energy they need to operate their electronic equipment away from established power sources, for increasingly longer periods. Peter Donaldson

or forward operating bases and more extensive in-theatre installations, the same technologies on a larger scale are finding favour as a means of reducing reliance on traditional diesel generators. Led by the US military, the largest single user of liquid fossil fuels in the world, forces are working to reduce their consumption as a means of shortening their logistic tail, and the associated

loss of blood and treasure that result from attacks on resupply convoys. “The military has a unique viewpoint on renewable energy; it uses it not to be ‘green’, but rather to increase capability and resilience,” states Phil Robinson, vice president of Protonex Technology’s defence power systems division. “Because of this, its investment in reliable alternative energy and power management technologies has been consistent and hence effective; very unlike

40 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

the commercial world where alternative energy investment is tightly linked to the price of oil.” Dr. Peter Podesser of fuel cell specialists SFC Energy points out that long-established combinations of diesel generators and lead acid batteries are hybrid systems that are fully mature. He says that a great deal of development work has been done over the last ten years regarding hybrid systems with combinations of solar and

Military Incubator While the military has led the development of hybrid power systems in technological terms, they tend to be overtaken by the commercial and even public sectors when

it comes to implementation. Jeff Helm of Saft Batteries cites US Army and US Marine Corps work on expeditionary power systems that established the pattern for hybridization in these applications, but are being overtaken in terms of implementation by non-military emergency response units, the oil and gas industry and others with money to spend on procurement, and a need to have portable power sources. “The military is like an incubator,” Mr. Helm observes, “but then commercialisation is done by a separate market.” He commented that the military looks to the commercial sector to drive costs down on new technologies before adopting and militarising it. “A lot of (research and development) funding never quite transitions to procurement funding.” Dr. Podesser concurs, pointing out that between 2000 and 2010, both the US and German governments put a lot of effort into the development of portable fuel cells, much of it guided by a NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) working group of which SFC is a member, followed by the inevitable slow down after NATO largely disengaged en masse from combat operations in Afghanistan at the end of last decade. “In terms of really getting it into use, then we come back to the slow adoption of all those governmentbased organisations … First phase development is strongly driven by military spending,

A Joint Terminal Attack Controller (JTAC) under training calls indirect fire from close air support. Gone are the days when the only tools available were a radio, a pair of binoculars and a map; now JTACS have a plethora of devices, all of which are power hungry.

US DoD

wind power generators, batteries and fuel cells, but fielding has been slow. “To the disappointment of the users and also of industry, this adoption process has simply taken longer than anyone wanted it to,” he says. “But if you look at the defence industry, realistically it usually takes a decade to adopt new technologies.” In part he attributes this to the changes in the nature of wars, particularly those that the West has been fighting over the last decade. These conflicts, such as the US-led operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, have been characterised by asymmetric threats encountered by isolated patrols and special forces, in which small, agile groups carrying out dismounted missions need power in a different way. “The demand structure has changed,” Dr. Podesser told Armada, “and off-grid power is a massively growing field; you usually don’t come back to a big base where there is abundant power. You have a lot of people who are out there on their own for many days, weeks, or months and they have to operate. Off-grid (power) is growing just from the structure of the threat.”

Protonex

Land WARFARE

The Protonex SPM-612 combines advances in ultra-high efficiency power conversion, equipment power management, and energy harvesting technology in one product and is designed to power virtually any man-portable military equipment from multiple sources.

but then the adoption of many of the things like solar and fuel cells, has taken place in the commercial field.” The early military adopters of SFC’s new portable fuel cells are the usual suspects. The first customer groups, Dr. Podesser observes, are special forces and other specialists such as forward air controllers. Such units are key elements of a force operating on the edge, carrying out a lot of specific tasks in isolated, often dismounted situations, but requiring power sources to operate equipment. Expeditionary Challenges “Expeditionary power technologies, those that must be lightweight, portable, and rugged enough for use in a forward position, are the most technically challenging areas,” said Protonex’s Mr. Robinson. “The further forward the position, the more technical challenges that must be overcome. Today the military is deploying power management devices that can be carried in a rucksack, weigh less than a half a kilogram (one pound), and which use tens of thousands of lines of code to automatically assess the alternative and traditional energy sources available, harvest energy from the most efficient source, convert that energy to whatever form is needed and store it in the most efficient battery or other location. Because this is all automatic, the user doesn’t need to know the difference between a volt and an amp.” Within the US military, Jeff Helm says that the Marine Corps is leading the charge

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016 41

Land WARFARE

US Navy

The Joint Infantry Company Prototype solar panel enables US Marines to recharge batteries during breaks in marches, while its ‘bionic’ power system, a knee harvester that converts body movement into current, generates power while they are on the move.

four to six people to lift them and must provide at least ten but preferably 15KW from its AMMPS generator. The system must fit a Light Tactical Trailer Marine Corps Chassis (LTT-MCC). The silent watch requirement is the same three to eight hours, but as it is intended to supply more users, the fuel burn allowance is larger; the threshold of acceptability is 27.2 litres (7.2 US gallons) per day, but the objective consumption is 22 litres (5.8 US gallons). The MEHPS programme is now in its Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD) phases and is scheduled to move into procurement in 2018. Among the challenges in putting this kind of system together is power conditioning, Mr. Helm told Armada, pointing to power conversion and management software that handles voltage regulators and inverters that perform the Direct Current (DC) to Alternating Current (AC) conversion. Commodified Solar Solar is becoming more of a commodity, Dr. Podesser says. “It is really about the performance of flexible, thin-film-based solar systems that are foldable. You have to make sure it’s low in weight, but the key

42 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

element there is really ruggedisation and durability so that those things survive in the field.” One supplier of such systems is US company PowerFilm, which was selected in March by the US Army and Thales to support the $49 million Universal Battery Charger (UBC) contract. The selected product is PowerFilm’s 120W

Protonex

because their expeditionary nature makes reducing the logistic burden more of an imperative for them, citing as an example the Mobile Electric Hybrid Power Systems (MEHPS) project which the Marines are leading. One of several important Marine Corps expeditionary energy initiatives, MEHPS incorporates solar arrays, lithium ion batteries and a generator and is being developed in ‘light hybrid’ and ‘medium hybrid’ versions. The requirement for the five kilowatt (KW) light hybrid version includes a limit on the weight of individual components that allows either two or four people to carry them. These include a five kilowatt Advanced Medium Mobile Power Sources (AMMPS) generator and a three kilowatt Tactical Quiet Generator (TQG). The system must be small and light enough to be carried by multiple vehicle types. The US Army wants this variant to provide at least three hours and preferably eight hours of operation in silent watch mode and use no more than 7.5 litres (2.1 US gallons) of fuel per day. The reliability requirement is for flawless operation for 500 hours. The medium hybrid variant of the MEHPS can have components that require

The Advanced Battery Charger (ABC) from Protonex can be used in a 28V military or twelve volt civilian vehicle, or on a mountain top with a portable solar panel, automatically adjusting charge rates to the available input power.

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solar panel, a foldable array that supplies current to the UBC, which is designed to charge multiple battery types, enabling a squad or platoon to operate for at least 72 hours without battery resupply in austere off-grid locations. PowerFilm says that the lightweight, durable and “extremely portable” solar panel easily folds up to fit into a soldier’s rucksack and can be rapidly deployed during halts to provide reliable, safe and secure power anywhere. Turning to batteries, Dr. Podesser notes that the high level of development driven by military electric vehicle requirements pushing for ever higher energy and power densities raises safety issues. “Some of those novel chemistries, be they lithium ion or others, there’s still a big focus, there has to be, on the safety side because you have a tremendous amount of power density there and you don’t want it to become a threat.” With fuel cells, the drive is to make them smaller, lighter and more powerful while minimising fuel consumption and cost. The real benefits, however, come from finding the right combination.

The Jenny 1200 is a 50W fuel cell generator designed to cut the number of spare batteries soldiers must carry. It provides automatic and silent battery charging, needs no maintenance and has no detectable heat signature, says the company.

the standard gear for special forces for fourday missions by providing an integrated solution with fuel cells, lithium ion batteries and solar systems, (a total of) nine kilograms (20lbs) of weight off their shoulders.” In a tight spot, the extra water and ammunition that this weight saving enables them to carry could save lives, he added. Phil Robinson called solar arrays, batteries and fuel cells natural partners in a reliable, efficient hybrid system. “By adding batteries, a solar array can often provide operation (for 24 hours per day, seven days a week). However, to assure no power loss during the short days of winter, extended cloudy spells, or both at the same time, both the array and the battery bank becomes prohibitively large. By adding a fuel cell, which only comes on when the solar array cannot keep up, both the array and the battery can be sized for average, rather than extreme conditions.” There is

SFC Energy

Weight Watchers “Batteries are an excellent solution for, let’s say, up to 24 hours. If you then combine a battery with a fuel cell and a solar array, you can reduce the overall weight of the system and still expand the operating hours because so long as you have enough sunshine, the solar panels can be the source of energy and charge the batteries, and the fuel cell is the insurance policy … Hybridization is definitely the key that unlocks the best value for the user,” Dr. Podesser argues. “Take special forces; right now we are able to take out about 80 percent of the battery weight (from)

SFC Energy

Land WARFARE

44 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

Fuel cells generate electric current directly from a chemical process that combines oxygen from the air with hydrogen from the fuel, with water vapour, carbon dioxide and heat as by-products, a much more efficient process than combustion engines use.

also the question of return on investment where the amount of fuel that batteries can save drives the limit of what governments are prepared to pay for them in terms of dollars-per-kilowatt/hour. As with many new technologies, the issues of commonality, interoperability and standardisation are increasingly exercising operators. “They want interfaces to be common, but there are no standards for any of these systems so you can’t get that economy of scale,” Mr. Robertson continues. “It’s all very customised at this point.” Evolution Jeff Helm commented that solar energy systems have come a long way in terms of their efficiency in converting sunlight into current. On the battery side the reduction in cost and the increase in life cycle capability of lithium ion chemistries have significantly increased the available return on investment from a set of technologies that are increasingly mature and available from a wide range of suppliers. With their high energy density, lithium batteries are enablers for off-grid energy storage and are increasingly coupled with charging systems based on solar arrays and, in some cases, small wind turbines, with small diesel generators retained as a backup, Mr. Helm said, acknowledging the competition from evolving fuel cell technology. “A lot of manufacturers are doing lithium ion chemistries and a lot doing lithium iron phosphate. Even lithium titanate oxide is commercialized by a few battery manufacturers and NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt) is another prominent one, so I think lithium ion battery technology is pretty mature. All manufacturers are always tuning it for certain applications,” he observes. “There are things like lithium sulphur, which gives great energy density but not great power, but for certain applications that makes sense … Lithium air is another area that people are putting a lot of research and development behind because of its energy density. Those are the kinds of battery technologies that will be coming along in the next five or ten years.” Saft chose lithium iron phosphate chemistry for its latest 6T battery, this being a US and NATO standard form factor for ground vehicle batteries, which are increas-

Land WARFARE

ingly being adopted for off-grid military power systems. “We have integrated it with power system companies that do the inverting to AC where they are using these lithium ion vehicle batteries for this application as well,” Mr. Helm said. “It is a nice versatile battery, it’s at a nice price point … we’ve spent a lot of time on getting the cost out.” This emerging battery commonality between vehicles and off-grid power systems makes life easier for troops in the field. “Any time you have a unit out there they have vehicles, so they could use the vehicle battery for a military grid power system or vice versa,” Mr. Helm notes. In terms of price and energy density, Saft has moved the industry on usefully, Mr. Helm argues, if not in pure technological terms as the company used a commercially-proven lithium iron phosphate chemistry for its new 6T battery (see above). However, creating a standard battery that can be used for multiple applications is progress, he told Armada. “You can put several of them in parallel if you

need more kilowatt hours,” he said. “It can take dirty DC power from ground vehicles and you don’t need a special charger.” Portable Looking towards the future, Mr. Helm expects operators to demand many more militarily-qualified commercial hybrid power systems to be fielded over the next five years in a bid to save on fuel costs, logistic burdens and associated risks. “I think (the military is) going to look for commercial-off-the-shelf energy storage system, products that are already developed.” One of SFC’s latest portable systems is the Jenny 1200, a direct methanol fuel cell rated at 50W. Cartridges in three standard sizes supply pure methanol, which provides a significant weight saving over older systems that use a blend of methanol and water. Using the Jenny 1200 to recharge batteries is the secret behind the abovementioned weight reduction for soldiers, as it reduces the number of spare batteries

that they must carry. The company also makes 500W fuel cells, the EFOY Pro 12000 series for example, and recently launched a system with this power rating for vehicle and dismounted applications, including as a power source for surveillance systems. “We will come up with a defence version of this product in the coming twelve months,” Dr. Podesser said. SFC has developed fuel cells that can be buried in the ground and ‘left behind’ to provide long-term power for unattended ground sensors equipped with seismic detectors and/or cameras, for example, which can be left in place for up to a year without intervention. With an eye on the future, Phil Robinson pointed to an expansion in intelligent power management and energy harvesting systems, which are being evaluated by all US military branches. “As the US Department of Defence transitions from trials to full-scale deployments, the market for these technologies will increase broadly.”

Programme FOCUS

USAF

Will The Bomber Always Get Through?

The B-21 will be the first new strategic bomber to enter USAF service in a generation, since the B-2A pictured here.

“Ain’t a hope in hell, nothin’ gonna bring us down,” wrote Lemmy, the late lead vocalist of veteran heavy rock band Motorhead, for their December 1979 single Bomber. Lemmy’s confidence in aircraft invulnerability can only be realised through design and technology. Thomas Withington

n October 2015, Northrop Grumman was awarded a development contract by the United States Air Force (USAF) to develop the first new strategic bomber for a generation. This award followed the publication of a Request for Proposals (RFP) by the US Department of Defence (DoD) for the new bomber in July 2014. A name has not yet been chosen for the new aircraft but its designation, the B-21 (as in 21st Century), was made public by the USAF at the Air Force Symposium held in Washington DC in February.

Story So Far The USAF has not take delivery of a new strategic bomber since Northrop Grumman’s B-2A Spirit stealth bomber was first delivered to the 509th Bomb Wing at Whiteman airbase, Missouri on 17 December 1993. The USAF currently possesses 21 examples, reinforced with 62 Rockwell Collins/Boeing B-1B strategic bombers. These latter aircraft are confined to a non-nuclear role following the signature of the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty between the United States and the then Soviet Union on 31 July 1991, which removed the ability of this aircraft to carry AirLaunched Cruise Missiles (ALCMs). Today, the USAF strategic nuclear fleet includes

the B-2A, plus 78 Boeing B-52H Stratofortress strategic bombers. The USAF made efforts to enhance its strategic bomber force during the interim period between the B-2A’s entry into service and today via the Lockheed Martin FB-22A. The manufacturer launched an initiative in 2002 to examine the feasibility of developing a medium bomber variant of its F-22A Raptor air superiority fighter, with the intention of revitalising the role which had been played by the USAF’s General Dynamics F/FB-111A/D/E/F/G medium bombers. However, the 2006 Quadrennial Defence Review, the main public document which outlines US military doctrine, cancelled the initiative, with no further movement on this front until the RFP of July 2014 (see above). When development of the B-2A commenced during the administration of US President Jimmy Carter in the late-1970s/ early 1980s, via the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) programme, the chief concern for US strategists was the threat posed by Soviet mobile Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). Such weapons included the Votkinsk Machine Building Plant RT2PM Topol mobile ICBM (which remains in service), which had commenced development in 1977, and the RT-23 Molodets ICBM which was designed to be carried, and

46 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

launched, from a special train. Both these weapons created significant concerns for defence planners as they were designed to remain mobile and hence increase their survivability relative to fixed ICBM silos. The Soviet Union’s land mass was 22 million square kilometres (8.4 million square miles), and locating and striking such targets had been likened to hunting a drifting needle in a haystack. This requirement was met by the B-2A’s Raytheon AN/ APQ-181 radar which supported precision targeting using its Ka-band (33.4-36 Gigahertz) transmission frequencies which are particularly suitable for detecting and depicting targets in great detail. This radar also supports terrain-following flight which would be essential should the B-2A ever have to hunt and destroy its targets in the Soviet Union. For its mission, the B-2A would have been flying through arguably the world’s most heavily-defended airspace, therefore its ability to evade radar would be essential. This requirement was what earned the B-2A its ‘Stealth Bomber’ nickname, and its most recognisable feature, its strange, sleek, flying-wing boomerang design. The aircraft’s shape and its use of carbon fibre provide it with a Radar Cross Section (RCS) of 0.01 square metres (0.64 square feet). It is important to note that the B-2A is not invisible to radar, but merely

difficult to detect, and importantly, hard to target with either an Active- or Semi-Active Radar Homing (ARH/SARH) Surface-toAir or Air-to-Air Missile (SAM/AAM). Yet the fuselage configuration is only part of the story. The aircraft is equipped with the Lockheed Martin AN/ZSR-63 Defensive Aids Subsystem. Details regarding the AN/ ZSR-63 are understandably vague, although it is thought to encompass an active radar cancellation technique by which incoming radar transmissions are detected and analysed, and then retransmitted, possibly without Dopplar Shift (the phenomena where a radar transmission changes its frequency slightly after it is reflected from an object). The ability to manipulate Dopplar Shift may deceive a radar operator as to the position of the aircraft, or its speed, presuming that they are able to discern the small radar echo which the B-2A will return. Last, and by no means least, defensive flight profiles, such as terrain-following, and terrain masking help to obscure the aircraft from a radar’s gaze. A2/AD These characteristics made the B-2A arguably the most advanced bomber designed during the Cold War, a conflict in which it never served. The aircraft entered service following the collapse of the USSR in December 1991. Yet this did not prevent the USAF employing the aircraft, and its useful low observable characteristics in successive conflicts since then. Although its role has been confined to the delivery of conventional ordnance, it earned its spurs on 24 March 1999 when the aircraft attacked several targets in Serbia in support of Operation ALLIED FORCE, the US-led air campaign against Serbia to stop ethnic cleansing in the Balkans region of Kosovo. Since then, the aircraft has participated in US-led operations in Iraq, Afghanistan and most recently Libya in 2011. Ultimately, the B-2A was designed with one potential conflict in mind, a nuclear war against the USSR and Warsaw Pact, but found itself in a more complex geopolitical environment, in which it has acted with aplomb. The USAF is keeping the fluid geopolitical environment in mind as it develops the B-21 for tomorrow’s missions. “The B-21 Bomber will provide the ability to penetrate

USAF

Programme FOCUS

The F-22A was to have extensively informed the design for the FB-22 medium bomber. However, this project never moved beyond the ‘paper aeroplane’ stage, effectively being cancelled.

modern air defences to accomplish objectives despite an Anti-Access/Area-Denial (A2/AD) environment,” notes Major Robert Leese, a USAF spokesperson. A2/AD is a major concern for the USAF. Previous and potential US adversaries have witnessed the ability of this aircraft to slip through their defences and then hit high value targets, sometimes destroying or severally degrading ground-based air defences to allow oncoming strike packages of aircraft to attack other targets with relative impunity. Such concerns have manifested themselves in the development of new systems such as the Almaz-Antey S-400 Triumf SAM system which is entering service in Russia, and which is being exported to the People’s Republic of China (PRC). The S-400 has yet to be encountered in combat, and is widely respected by the pilots who may have to conduct sorties in its locale. The S-400’s 91N6E ground-based air surveillance radar can detect targets with an RCS of 0.4m (1.4ft) at 124 nautical miles/nm (230 kilometres/ km), while its SARH/ARH 40N6 SAMs have a range of 215.9nm (400km). In the air domain, new fifth-generation air superiority fighters such as the Sukhoi PAK-FA and MiG LMFS, both under development in Russia, plus the PRC’s Shenyang J-31, could all potentially contest airspace. In fact, Maj. Leese continues, A2/AD is at the core of the B-21’s design requirement. “The need for the B-21 is grounded in a move … to a more A2/AD philosophy.” Therefore, a “B-21 bomber capable of operating in an anti-access/area-denial environment, possibly launched from the (Continental United States), is necessary

to hold targets of all types at risk.” The USAF plans to employ the B-21 to hold targets at risk, and to strike them if necessary, using both conventional and nuclear ordnance. Unlike the B-1B which abandoned its nuclear obligations (see above), the B-21 “will support the nuclear triad providing a visible and flexible nuclear deterrent capability,” Maj. Leese continues. This nuclear triad includes US Navy ‘Ohio’ class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (expected to be replaced next decade) and silo-based Boeing LGM-30G Minuteman-III ICBMs. In terms of weapons, the air component of this triad currently includes B-61 Mod.3/4/7/11 variable-yield and B-83 variable-yield freefall nuclear bombs. The B-61 Mod.3/4/7/11 is currently receiving a ‘make-over’ via the B-61 Mod.12 programme which will lower the weapons’ yield, while improving its accuracy with the addition of a 50 kiloton (50000 tonnes of conventional explosive) physics package and an accuracy of 30 metres (98 feet). This weapon would have the asset of producing comparatively less radioactive fallout than legacy B-61 bombs, which have a selectable yield of 0.3, 1.5, five, ten, 45, 60, 80 or 170 kilotons, while the B-61 Mod.11 can select four yield options up to 340 kilotons. Production of the B-61 Mod.12 is expected to commence in circa 2020, with the US Department of Defence potentially receiving up to 500 of the new weapons which will replace the B.61 Mod.3/4/7 weapons, leaving the B-61 Mod.11 which is effectively a B-61 Mod.7 weapon designed to penetrate the ground to destroy deeply-buried targets, as the only other freefall nuclear bomb in service, given that the B-83 stockpile is expected to be reduced, if not completely eliminated, next decade. However, the B-21 may also carry nuclear stand-off weapons in the form of the Long-Range Stand-Off (LRSO) ALCM which could replace the existing nucleararmed Boeing AGM-86B ALCM currently deployed on the B-52H. The LRSO is also expected to be procured in a conventional version to replace the AGM-88C/D which, together with the AGM-88B, is expected to leave service in circa 2030. A contract award for the development of the LRSO is expected in 2018 with media reports stating that up to 1000 of these weapons could be

armadainternational.com - june/july 2016 47

Programme FOCUS

USAF

EMD phase, which also includes the procurement of the first five production lots of aircraft, a total of 21 airframes, being worth $23.5 billion in 2016 values.

A B-83 training round designed to replicate the USAF’s B-83 freefall nuclear bomb. Conceived to attack deeply-buried targets, this weapon could equip the B-21 in the future.

procured. Reports in March stated that an RFP for the LRSO is expected to be issued by the DoD this June, with Boeing, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman and Raytheon all vying to develop the weapon. The USAF has then set itself an ambitious task. According to Maj. Leese, it plans to procure 100 of the new aircraft. Ominously, the USAF had originally requested 132 B-2A aircraft, although this was reduced to 76 by the then secretary of defence Richard Cheney in 1989, before being downsized once again to 20 aircraft, plus one test example, the current size of the fleet and the fall of the Soviet Union giving the perfect raison d’etre for reducing the number of aircraft to be procured. Yet geopolitical realities were not the only factor. Cost was another dominant motivation. The B-2A was never going to be an inexpensive aircraft to develop. In 2015 US dollars, the aircraft’s unit cost is $1.1 billion and the USAF is very keen to ensure that such costs are not incurred by the B-21 programme as it unfolds. It has set itself a target of an average procurement unit cost of $564 million at 2016 values based upon a procurement of 100 aircraft, states Maj. Leese, although this could increase if fewer aircraft are ordered. Current USAF funding covers the Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD) phase of the LRS-B (Long Range Strike Bomber) programme which encompasses the B-21 initiative. The contract awarded to Northrop Grumman on 27 October 2015, worth $21.4 billion, is part of the EMD initiative, with the overall

Studies, a think tank, believes that it may be. Although developing a new military aircraft can take, “longer than you thought, and cost much more, it does not appear that the air force is starting with a blank sheet The Requirement of paper.” Whereas the B-2A was a radically The USAF has shied away from providing new design, despite the research already specific dates, although Maj. Leese has performed in the United States on flying stated that an Initial Operational Capawing designs, and low RCS techniques, the bility (IOC) for the aircraft is envisaged realisation of the B-21 comes at a period in for the mid-2020s, while the projected USAF history, where the force has already first flight and in-service date for the commissioned and operated several low aircraft is being kept classified. An IOC RCS designs including the Lockheed of one decade seems quite an ambitious Martin F-117A Nighthawk ground attack schedule, although Maj. Leese argues aircraft, the F-22A and the Lockheed Martin that the USAF has worked to ‘de-risk’ F-35A Lighting-II fighter, not to mention the initiative. “Over the past three years the B-2A and the B-1B, also an aircraft the (LRS-B) programme office (which with low observable characteristics, and oversees the programme for the USAF) highly classified programmes such as the has worked closely with industry to ensure Northrop Grumman RQ-180 unmanned designs and requirements remain stable aerial vehicle developed for reconnaissance. ... the programme has invested circa $1.9 The existence of such initiatives means that billion in risk reduction activities. The “there is a substantial amount of research programme office has completed prelimiand development which has already gone nary design reviews and manufacturing on in the classified world. This means that readiness reviews to establish a higher inevitably there is more of a corporate body level of technology maturity than any new of knowledge on low observable technology developmental aircraft programme to date. available to the USAF.” Richard Aboulafia, Platform designs are now at the subsysvice president of analysis at the Teal Group, tem level: this provides … confidence in a research company, concurs, stating that the areas of overall structure, electronics, previous experience illustrates that the hydraulics, engines, air data systems and air force “has an idea on how to build an low-observable technology.” Indeed, a aircraft like this.” number of other companies are involved However, the acquisition will be at as subsystems suppliers for the B-21 the mercy of the fiscal situation. Defence programme, notably BAE Systems, GKN expenditure is in the doldrums in the Aerospace, Janicki Industries, Orbital ATK, US, as much as it is in Europe. “As a very Pratt and Whitney, Rockwell Collins, and expensive new-start acquisition effort, the Spirit Aerosystems. Moreover, the USAF B-21 programme will find itself in a fierce has designed the aircraft to be ‘future competition for scarce funding resources proofed’ to an extent using open architecwith other big ticket military procurement ture via the so-called Air Force Open Misefforts such as the F-35A and the Boeing sion System standard “to be able to evolve KC-46A tanker,” states Ray Jaworowski, and integrate new technology and respond senior aerospace analyst at Forecast to future threats across the full spectrum International, a research company. “It of operations,” Maj. Leese adds. would not be a surprise if budgetary stringencies result in the 100-bomber goal The Debate being reduced to … around 80 aircraft or Ultimately, is the USAF’s desire of a 100 so. Of course, reducing the total buy would bomber fleet, ready to enter service from result in a rise in the per-aircraft cost, so the middle of next decade, capable of the cost savings from such a move would defeating contemporary and future threats be less than what some may surmise.” Any for a unit price of circa $564 million achievfunding issues could also have an effect on able? Douglas Barrie, aerospace analyst the schedule, Mr. Jaworowski adds. “USAF at the International Institute of Strategic plans call for the B-21 to be fielded in the

48 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

Programme FOCUS

mid-2020s. Budgetary problems could well “They really need this type (B-21) of aircraft, push the B-21 programme schedule to the and there are not a lot of alternatives.” Mr. right or, in a very worst case, even result Aboulafia also has concerns regarding the in its eventual cancellation. At this point, aircraft’s design. Although the USAF has cancellation seems unlikely, but schedule not released any specific details regarding delay is a real possibility.” the aircraft’s specifications the airframe is Budgets are, of course, a moveable thought to be of a smaller size than the B-2A. feast states Mr. Aboulafia, and there are no “The biggest thing that concerns me is that guarantees that the US DoD will not shrink the smaller size implies less range. That the money available to the B-21 initiative implies the USAF will place a premium on in the future. “The aircraft’s unit price tanker usage to keep the aircraft aloft. Howis probably feasible given the size of the ever, much of the Chinese investment into procurement, but the size of the procureA2/AD technologies is aimed at targeting ment depends on the size of the budget,” he force multiplying assets such as tankers.” cautions. The USAF has, he states, three Currently, the air force has stated that main programmes (including the B-21), the it wishes to acquire 100 of the new aircraft, F-35A and the KC-46A tanker. Although but there is every chance that additional KC-46A funding is effectively ring-fenced platforms could be ordered over and above by the DoD, this is not the case for the F-35A this number, particularly if the air force and meaning that there is the danger of F-35A Northrop Grumman is able to keep costs procurement competing with the B-21 down while delivering a capable aircraft. acquisition. That said, given the age of the Mr. Barrie believes that the design could, current strategic bomber fleet, the USAF for example, be spun out into a reconnaishas little choice but to replace these aircraft. sance aircraft, with the possibility of this

platform being uninhabited, although the continuing deterrence mission makes it essential that a crew remain in the cockpit as far as the B-21 is concerned. In the past, bombers have provided the basis for reconnaissance platforms, for example, eight of the Royal Air Force’s erstwhile Avro Vulcan B.Mk.2 strategic bombers were converted for maritime reconnaissance. Ultimately, Mr. Aboulafia argues that the B-21 imitative is feasible “as long as the funding is there and the schedule adhered to.” Cautious optimism then, from the air force, industry and air power experts, seems to characterise the outlook for the development and introduction of the B-21 bomber. The air force and industry certainly has its work cut out to develop the new aircraft, but to date both parties have also shown that they have quiet optimism that the programme will reach that holy grail of defence procurement, to meet the requirement on time, and on, or preferably under, budget.

OPERATIONal FOCUS

US DoD

In August 2015 six F-16C Fighting Falcons from the US Air Force’s 31st Fighter Wing arrived at Incirlik airbase. The deployment came in the wake of Turkey’s decision to host US aircraft.

Fighting Fascism The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) came to prominence with its declaration of a worldwide caliphate in June 2014. Soon after, it occupied significant tracts of land in Iraq and Syria while performing acts of political violence beyond the Middle East. Thomas Newdick

y the end of summer 2014, with the Iraqi capital Baghdad seemingly under threat from ISIS, a NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) conference saw an international coalition formed “to degrade and, ultimately, destroy the threat posed by ISIS.” To perform this mission, the Combined Joint Task Force– Operation INHERENT RESOLVE (OIR) was formed under the command of the United States Central Command (CENTCOM), headquartered in Tampa, Florida. CENTCOM is a joint US military command responsible for military operations in Cen-

tral Asia, the Middle East and North Africa. The Combined Air Operations Centre or ‘CAOC’ where the air component of OIR is planned and executed is located at Camp Arifjan in Kuwait, where US personnel, together with personnel from OIR contributing nations (see below) are located. OIR aims to work with regional, Middle Eastern powers to bring about the military defeat of ISIS; the mission involves a significant use of air power from coalition nations, although maritime and special forces assets also play their role. Countries that have participated in air strikes against ISIS in Iraq comprise Aus-

50 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

tralia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Jordan, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In Syria, meanwhile, Australia, Bahrain, Canada, France, Jordan, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the UK have all flown air strikes. As of 5 April 2016 the air arms of the US-led coalition had conducted a total of 11398 strikes (of which 7683 had taken place in Iraq and 3715 in Syria). Local Partners Several regional Middle Eastern powers have provided support to OIR. The smallest actor has been the Royal Bahrain Air Force

OPERATIONal FOCUS

(RBAF), which committed three General Dynamics/Lockheed Martin F-16C/D Fighting Falcon fighters, which flew missions from Isa airbase in Bahrain. According to reports in the Western media, the RBAF ceased operations over Syria in November 2014, after just a single day of sorties. Bahrain’s single day of sorties has been eclipsed by the Royal Jordanian Air Force’s (RJAF) contribution to OIR which has been provided by its force of F-16A/B and upgraded F-16AM/BM fighters based at Muwaffaq Salti airbase, eastern Jordan. Jordan suspended missions over Syria after an RJAF pilot was shot down and captured at the end of December 2014 before being executed by ISIS cadres; nevertheless, RJAF missions continued to be flown against ISIS insurgents in Iraq. Representing an unknown quantity within the coalition are the four Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) Boeing F-15S Eagle fighters that deployed to Incirlik airbase, southern Turkey on 26 February 2016. According to Turkish officials, the RSAF F-15Ss are intended to conduct operations over Syria. At the time of writing there was no evidence that such missions had commenced from Turkish soil. However, Saudi Arabia did fly air strikes over Syria during the first wave of coalition attacks on 22/23 September 2014. Another unknown quantity is

Turkey. While the country is a member of the OIR coalition, it initially closed its airspace to US aircraft involved in antiISIS air strikes to relieve the Syrian town of Kobane in 2014, and is simultaneously involved in air strikes against Kurdish factions in the region. In August 2015 it was confirmed that Turkish Air Force fighters, almost certainly F-16C/Ds, had carried out their first air strikes as part of the US-led coalition against ISIS in Syria. Turkish aircraft initially launched standoff weapons to attack ISIS positions in Syria without entering Syrian airspace. The fact that Ankara’s aims are at odds

52 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

with those of Russia, which commenced operations against ISIS (and other armed organisations opposing the rule of President Bashir al-Assad) on 15 September 2015, was graphically demonstrated on 24 November 2015, when a Russian Air Force Sukhoi Su-24M strike aircraft based in Syria’s Latakia province on Syria’s Mediterranean coast, was shot down by a Turkish Air Force F-16C after it briefly entered Turkish airspace. Smaller contributions have been witnessed from the United Arab Emirates Air Force which has deployed around ten F-16E/F fighters to Muwaffaq Salti airbase. In the wake of the murder of a Jordanian pilot by ISIS in December 2014 (see above) it was reported that the UAE would stand down from operations over Syria. European Actors Alongside local actors, several European nations have stepped up to the mantle of providing aircraft to support OIR. The Belgian Air Component’s efforts included six F-16AM fighters that carried out 163 attacks in the course of 796 sorties over Iraq, operating from Muwaffaq Salti airbase. Although Belgium decided to cease its contributions in July 2015, it plans to resume operations against ISIS in July 2016. Neighbouring France has been one of the largest contributors to OIR through Operation CHAMMAL, France’s codename for its contribution. It commenced Among the first anti-ISIS missions conducted by France were intelligence-gathering flights carried out over Iraq by Rafale-F3B/C fighters flying from Al Dhafra airbase.

French Ministry of Defence

Russian MoD

A Russian Air Force Sukhoi Su-25SM ground-attack aircraft taxis past a fully armed Sukhoi Su-34 strike aircraft at Hmeimin airbase in Latakia province, from where Russia has launched the majority of its air strikes against Syrian insurgents.

OPERATIONal FOCUS

UK MoD

Carrying a load of Raytheon Paveway precision-guided bombs under the fuselage, an RAF Tornado GR4/4A conducts an armed reconnaissance mission over Iraq.

before the carrier returned to the Mediterranean in March 2016. Much like France, the Netherlands has made a significant contribution to OIR with the Royal Netherlands Air Force (RNLAF) basing four F-16AM fighters at Muwaffaq Salti airbase from October 2014. RNLAF F-16AMs flew their first reconnaissance sortie over Iraq on 5 October 2014 followed by their first bombing mission two days later, striking ISIS vehicles in northern Iraq. The current Dutch mandate for participation in OIR concludes in October 2016, although the F-16s will be withdrawn before that date. Europe’s other major contributor to OIR, alongside France, is the United Kingdom which has committed the Royal Air Force (RAF) to the campaign against ISIS

A US Marine Corps AV-8B Harrier-II refuels over Iraq during a sortie in support of OIR. These aircraft have operated from both land and sea bases.

54 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

US DoD

air operations over Iraq on 19 September 2014, when Dassault Rafale-F3B/C fighters of the French Air Force attacked an ISIS logistics dump south of Mosul, northern Iraq. In September 2015, France decided to expand its involvement in OIR to include Syria. The country initially deployed six Rafale-F3B/Cs and one French Navy Dassault Atlantique-2 maritime patrol aircraft to Al Dhafra airbase in the UAE. In October 2014, the number of French Air Force Rafale-F3B/Cs at Al Dhafra airbase was increased to nine. The following November 2014, the Rafael-F3B/Cs were joined by three Dassault Mirage-2000D fighters based at Muwaffaq Salti airbase, Jordan, and another three Mirage-2000Ds arrived the following month. The initial French strikes in Syria were conducted on 27 September 2015, with five Rafale-F3B/Cs targeting an ISIS training camp south of Deir ez-Zor, eastern Syria. Earlier this year the French Air Force increased its assets deployed against ISIS. On 18 February the two French Air Force Mirage-2000D strike aircraft deployed in Niger, West Africa, were relocated to Muwaffaq Salti airbase. Additional French Navy air power is also periodically in theatre, with the carrier battle group formed around the Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier. As initially deployed, the carrier air group included twelve Rafale-M fighters and nine Dassault Super Étendard Modernisé (SEM) strike aircraft (from 25 February to 18 April 2015). After returning to the Persian Gulf in November 2015, the SEMs flew their final combat sorties

in Iraq since September 2014, and in December 2015 extended its remit to include ISIS targets in Syria. As of April 2016 the RAF deployed ten Panavia Tornado GR4/4A strike aircraft (two of which are held in reserve) and six Eurofighter Typhoon FGR4 fighters to RAF Akrotiri airbase in Cyprus. These totals mark an increase over the initial eight Tornado GR4/4A fighters that were committed over Iraq before the campaign was extended to Syria. As well as these combat aircraft based in Cyprus, the RAF is operating a reported ten General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) that are flying strike and reconnaissance missions from Ahmed Al Jaber airbase in Kuwait. On 21 March 2016 the UK Ministry of Defence revealed that RAF MQ-9s had conducted 200 strikes in Iraq and 13 in Syria between 1 September 2014 and 15 March 2016. In February it was disclosed that the RAF had flown 435 reconnaissance missions over Syria and 906 over Iraq, and 64 strike missions over Syria and 699 over Iraq. Between 24 January and 9 March the UK expended 14 MBDA Brimstone Air-to-Surface Missiles (ASMs) in both Iraq and Syria (launched by the Tornado GR4/4A), seven Lockheed Martin AGM-114 Hellfire II ASMs in Iraq and eight in Syria (launched by the MQ-9s), and 166 Raytheon Paveway IV precision-guided bombs in Iraq and 21 in Syria, dropped by all RAF combat aircraft and UAV types.

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American Muscle Europe’s contributions to OIR have been reinforced by those provided by North American actors. The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) has provided McDonnell Douglas/Boeing F/A-18A/B fighters based at Ahmed Al Jaber airbase. These aircraft have flown 1378 sorties, including 251 air strikes on ISIS targets (246 in Iraq and five in Syria), beginning on 30 October 2014. The final combat sorties were flown on 15 February 2016, prior to Canada’s withdrawal of kinetic support to OIR. Nevertheless, the RCAF continues to contribute to OIR with two Lockheed Martin P-3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft and a single Airbus A310-300 tanker. By far the largest contributor to OIR has been the United States which began its involvement in the war against ISIS with a small fleet of US Army McDonnell Douglas/Boeing AH-64D Apache attack helicopters stationed in Baghdad to help defend the US Embassy. Even before the launch of OIR, however, US combat aircraft were in action against the insurgents in Iraq. On 8 August 2014 US Navy F/A-18E/Fs operating from the aircraft carrier USS George HW Bush flew the first US air strikes against ISIS militants in Iraq. As of April 2016 the US air campaign against ISIS was being spearheaded by the aircraft carrier USS Harry S. Truman sailing in the Persian Gulf. Onboard is Carrier Air Wing (CVW) 5 that includes 21 F/A-18Es, nine F/A-18Cs and eleven F/A-18Fs. Supporting these are five Boeing EA-18G Growler electronic warfare aircraft with land-based maritime combat assets

include the five McDonnell Douglas/Boeing AV-8B Harrier-II close air support aircraft of the US Marine Corps stationed at Isa airbase. US Air Force (USAF) assets are regularly rotated through the theatre of operations in support of OIR and are to be found at two main operating bases: Al Dhafra airbase in the UAE, and Al Udeid airbase in Qatar. In April 2016, the USAF fighter force was concentrated at Al Dhafra and comprised six Boeing F-15E Strike Eagle fighters, and six Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor air superiority fighters. The USAF bomber presence, meanwhile, is consolidated at Al Udeid, where in April the latest arrivals were Boeing B-52H Stratofortress strategic bombers, the first two of which arrived at the airbase on 9 April 9, replacing six Rockwell International/Boeing B-1B Lancers that returned to the US in February 2016. Active in theatre in the close air support role is a detachment

56 armadainternational.com - june/july 2016

of Lockheed Martin AC-130W Stinger-II gunships that are based at Incirlik airbase. Unmanned USAF assets comprise General Atomics MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper UAVs that fly strike and reconnaissance missions from Ali Al Salem airbase and from Incirlik airbase. Other Players The Australian Defence Force’s (ADF) contribution to OIR is being conducted under Operation OKRA (the Australian codename for its contribution) and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) has deployed combat aircraft and support aircraft to the Middle East. The first RAAF aircraft in theatre were six Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet fighters. Beginning in September 2014 the F/A-18E/Fs flew 61 sorties amassing 496 flying hours during which they delivered 278 weapons. Replacing the F/A18E/Fs RAAF McDonnell Douglas/Boeing F/A-18C/D Hornet fighters flew their first strike against ISIS targets in March 2015, and by the end of January 2016 had completed 727 sorties and delivered 555 weapons. In addition, 34 sorties had been flown over Syria and 34 weapons dropped, after the ADF’s operation was expanded to Syria in November 2015. By the end of January 2016, RAAF F/A-18C/D and F/A128E/F fighters from Al Minhad airbase in the UAE had flown a combined total of 1179 sorties accumulating 8981 flying hours and releasing 1145 precision-guided munitions.

A Royal Australian Air Force Boeing F/A-18F Super Hornet conducts a mission over Iraq during Operation OKRA. Australia has been a major contributor to OIR.

Australian Department of Defence

US DoD

At the time of writing (April) the Boeing B-52H Stratofortress strategic bomber was the latest coalition air asset to join the campaign against ISIS under Operation INHERENT RESOLVE.

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US DoD

After making its combat debut over Libya in 2011, the Boeing EA-18G Growler is now firmly at the forefront of US and coalition electronic warfare efforts.

Russia On 30 September 2015 the Russian Air Force launched combat operations against rebel groups in Syria, with the aim of bolstering Mr. Assad’s regime. While Moscow has repeatedly stated that the majority of its air strikes are directed against ISIS, most have taken place in areas controlled by other anti-Assad forces. The Russian Air Force contingent in Syria is concentrated at Hmeimin airbase in Latakia. Its initial strength comprised six Sukhoi Su-34 strike aircraft, twelve Sukhoi Su-24M/M2 strike aircraft and the same number of 12 Sukhoi Su-25SM/ UB ground-attack aircraft. Supplemented by four Su-30SM fighters and around 20 helicopters, including Mil Mi-8AMTSh medium-lift utility helicopters and Mil Mi-24P gunships, the force was flying around 40 daily sorties by mid-October 2015. After ISIS destroyed a Russian Metrojet Airbus A321-231 airliner in the skies over Egypt on 31 October 2015, from 17-20 November 2015, Russian Air Force Tupolev Tu-22M3, Tu-95MS and Tu-160

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strategic bombers launched attacks on Syrian targets from airbases in Russia. The missions were repeated daily, and once over Syria air cover was provided by the Su-30SMs from Latakia airbase. While the Tu-22M3 dropped free-fall bombs, the Tu-95MS and Tu-160 both employed a total of 83 cruise missiles during this operation. Eight Su-34s and four escorting Sukhoi Su-27SM3 fighters also flew two missions from Krymsk airbase in south-western Russia. In March it was reported that the Russian military presence in Syria was to be significantly scaled back, but Russian combat aircraft have continued to operate from Syrian territory. In fact, the new Russian posture has introduced new combat aircraft to the theatre: coincident with the departure of a portion of the fighters, evidence emerged of the first examples of Kamov Ka-52 and Mil Mi-28 attack helicopters in Syria. Russian attack helicopters have since been identified at forward operating locations including al-Shayrat airbase, in western Syria and at Tiyas airbase in central Syria.

self-propelled artillery procurement programmes worldwide. ■ TACTICAL

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Conclusion When the air campaign was launched against ISIS in September 2014, the presence of four Arab states—Bahrain, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE (see above)-in the air strikes sent a clear message that OIR was a genuine international mission with official Sunni Arab support. However, only Saudi Arabia continues to fly air strikes under OIR, officially at least, and previously enthusiastic NATO members of the campaign have similarly returned home. With a relatively small number of air assets now facing ISIS, the ability of this force “to degrade and, ultimately, destroy the threat posed by ISIS” must be seen as questionable, at least in Syria. While Moscow’s surprise entry into the fray has not had a significant effect upon the way OIR air strikes are conducted, it has served to bolster the regime of Mr. Assad. In doing this, it may have had the paradoxical effect of assisting the rise of ISIS, and certainly hampers efforts to train moderate Syrian forces able to counter ISIS on the ground. This last point is perhaps the most important, since ‘boots on the ground’ will ultimately be vital to achieve the defeat of ISIS in the long term.

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