The Angkor Waters by Vivek Eadara

Decoding through the depths of water...

Angkor, Mahanagar, Cambodge 4

Source:Varun Amin

cONTENTS INTRODucTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------07 TRADE------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 ANGKORIAN TIMELINE -----------------------------------------------------------17 WATER NETWORKS ----------------------------------------------------------------- 21 Kulen mountains , Roluos and Siem Reap river Indratadaka, Tonle sap lake , Mekong river Yashodharapura Yashodharatadaka ( East Baray) West Baray Angkor Wat Ta Phrom Angkor Thom Jayatadaka

31 35 44 45 50 53 58 61 68

SIGNIFIcANcE OF WATER IN ANGKORIAN STRucTuRES -------------71 DEcLINE OF THE KHMER EMPIRE ---------------------------------------------85 PHOTO GALLERY---------------------------------------------------------------------87 5

Young Khmers of Siem Reap 6

Source:Varun Amin

INTRODucTION 7

The Khmer Empire PRESENT DAY ANGKOR (SIEM REAP) Population : 0.2 million (2008) Rainfall: 1500 mm per year Tropical wet and dry climate Nearby Notable Areas: Phnom Khulen, Floating Villages, Tonle Sap, Phnom Dei, Banteay Srei

The Khmer Kingdom began in 802 when the Jayavarman II declared Cambodia’s independence and proclaimed himself to be the God-King and by the end of rule of Jayavarman VII, in 1218 the empire started declining. The Khmer Empire flourished for 600 years and was abandoned in 1413. The Angkor region covers around 400 sq kilometres and features over 1000 temples. The Empire’s location on the Mekong River allowed the Khmer to trade with regions to their North and South. By 1100, sea routes to ports in Southern India and inland routes across South-East Asia were well-developed. Indian culture was a great influence on the Khmer people. Being in the Tropical region, there are two seasons, rainy season and dry season. The rainy season (from May until October) brings heavy rains and monsoons which makes the land suitable for rice cultivation.

Source :“Middle Ages and Early Exploration :THE ASIA-PACIFIC WORLD”,Chapter 5 :Angkor and the Khmer empire Oxford Insight History Australian Curriculum For Nsw Stage 4, Section 11.1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siem_Reap

Ariel view, Angkor Wat

Khmer war

Daily life of erstwhile Khmer

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Angkor-Wat-from-the-air.JPG

Source : http://www.devata.org/artistic-visions-of-angkor-by-maurice-fievet

Source: https://cambodiaartsandcrafts.com/collections/painting

Front Elevation, Angkor Wat

Source: https://www.terapeak.com/worth/famous-angkor-wat-oil-painting-cambodia-art-art-decor-angkor-wat-

Khmer Trade

Source: https://www.militar.org.ua/foro/la-pintura-y-la-guerra-sursumkorda-in-memoriam-t18709-15945.

Present day Paddy cultivation in East Barray

Source:www.insighttoasia.com/multi-country-tours/ thailand-and-cambodia-explorer http:///

SURYAVARMAN II : THE GOD-KING

Suryavarman II : The God King

Inscriptions on the walls, Angkor Wat

Image Source: https://khmerpedia.weebly. com/significant-individuals.html

Image Source: https://khmerpedia.weebly.com/significant-individuals.html . Source: Angel Joesph

Bas Reliefs on the walls of Angkor Wat : The general image of Suryavarman II projected is one of serenity, and comfort with power and position.

Suryavarman II, King of the Khmer Empire is renowned as a religious reformer and temple builder. Under his rule the temple of Angkor Wat, the world’s largest religious structure, was constructed. Suryavarman defeated rival claimants to the throne and established sole rule over the Khmer Empire by 1113, reuniting the Empire after more than 50 years of unrest. The king blended the mystical cults of Vishnu and Shiva, supreme Hindu deities, and promulgated Vaishnavism as the official religion. In 1150 Suryavarman died in the midst of a new campaign against Champa, leaving his people exhausted by war and victimized by the once-subservient Chams, who eventually ravaged Angkor.

Watershed of Khmer Empire

Source: ArcGIS generated map (SRTM- 1 arc second global image). Dennis Jose

The strategic location of Angkorian Structures can be attributed to the proximity of rivers and Tonle Sap Lake for trade.Flow Direction of rivers is from Northeast to Southwest. Indratadaka was the initial settlement of the Angkorian Era, which lies in the basin of Tonle Sap Lake.During monsoon season Tonle Sap Lake gets flooded and expands in all directions and its basin gets flooded. Angkorian Structures lies in the water basin thereby water bound by rivers on sides and site is located such that it does not get flooded. 11

Floating houses in Tonle Sap lake 12

Source:Varun Amin

TRADE 13

Intricate carvings on temple doors at Banteay Srei

Source:Varun Amin

ANGKORIAN TIMELINE 17

West Baray

Source:Varun Amin

ANGKORIAN WATER NETWORK 21

Base Map B AS EM AP

daka

Source: Dennis Jose, Khoosh Prajapapati, Prajit Gupte

Phases of the Network

Base Plan

LEGEND: 1.Siem Reap River 2.Puok River 3.Roluos River 4.North Canal 5.The Yashodharpura Embankment / Moat 6.Angkor Wat 7.Srah Srang 8.Exit channel from Angkor Wat 9.Present Exit from West Baray 10.Ta Prohm 11.Channel connecting Indratadaka 12.Jayatadaka 13.Indratadaka

Angkorian Water Network

There are 3 main rivers; the Siem Reap river, Pouk River and the Roluos river, flowing from the Kulen hills that feed the Angkorian water network through channels and moats. The water flows from North Canal towards south and enters into the West Baray through the Yashodharapura moat. It also enters Jayatadaka on the Western edge through a channel.There is a North East entry into Jayatadaka from Siem Reap river. The Neak Pean temple in Jayatadaka regulates the water throughout the Angkorian water system. There is a probable water exit from the Southwest into Angkor Thom (another entry of water into Angkor Thom moat).The south western edge of Angkor Thom has an exit for water whose further path is unknown currently. The water enters to West Baray from Puok river from the northwestern edge. It has one more entry from the north eastern edge through the embankment of Yashodharapura which is connected by the North Canal. The water exit from the Yashodharapura embankment from the south east corner which gets connected to Siem Reap river. The present day exit exists on the southwestern side of West Baray. The water enters into the North Eastern edge of East Baray through a tributary of Rolous river. The Eastern Baray has one more entry from the top embankment through the siem reaps river.There is an exit from the Eastern Baray on the north western edge.There is another exit from the South Western side edge, entering the Ta Prohm temple in its North Eastern edge.The internal linkages of water in East Baray are still unknown. Indratadaka gets its water through the northeastern edge from Roluos river and in the initial stages of construction, there existed a channel which is still present and connects to the present day Angkor Wat.

Source : Vidhi Gajjar

Source : Vivek Eadara

Section of the terrain from Kulen Hills to Mekong River

Source : Vidhi Gajjar

Source : Nishanth Krishna

Source : Vidhi Gajjar

Source:Varun Amin

KuLEN HILLS, ROLuOS & SIEM REAP RIVER 29

Kulen Hills

1000 lingas

source - google images

Banteay Srei Temple

source - google images

Kullen Hills

source - google images

Sahastralinga “Valley of 1000 lingas”

It is an Angkorian era archaeological site on the southwest slopes of the Kulen Hills to the northeast of Angkor. The carving of vestiges began with the reign of King Suryavarman I and ended with the reign of King Udayadityavarman II; these two kings ruled between the 11th and 12th centuries.

1000 Lingas

The motifs for stone carvings are mainly myriads of lingas (phallic symbol of Hindugod Shiva), depicted as neatly arranged bumps that cover the surface of a sandstone bed rock, and linga-yoni designs. There are also various Hindu mythological motifs, including depictions of gods Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Lakshmi, Rama, and Hanuman, aswell as animals. The river, being sanctified by flowing over the religious sculptures, flows downstream,bifurcating into the Siem Reap River and Puok River, which eventually flows into the Tonlé Sap Lake after passing through the plains and the Angkor temple complex

Key Map showing the locations Source- Journal of environmental management 90 (2009) 1413

Sahastralingas or 1000 lingas. These lingas work as obstruction in water and helps in sedimentation and purification of the running Water Grid pattern layout with the channel flowing out representing Yoni and the direction of Yoni represent the North. As it flows over the Holy Lingas, the river attains a sanctified status and passes through the temples that are downstream. The visible Lingas are in a rectangular enclosure with a channel flowing out, which is interpreted to represent the yoni as the “female principle”. Beyond these lingas, the river stretch of about 40–50 metres (130–160 ft) includes a small rocky island and ends over a fall into a pool. In this stretch of the river, there are bas reliefs on the rock faces. Apart from the spiritual reasons, reducing the velocity of water might have been a major reason for the Angkorians to make these carvings on the river bed. Source- Namrataa Nath

Source- Varun Amin

Source- Namrataa Nath

Source- Varun Amin

Banteay Srei Temple“citadel of the women“ B anteay Srei

Begun in AD 967, it is one of the smallest sites at Angkor, a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva. it’s construction is credited to the courtiers named Vishnukumara and Yajnavaraha. It lies near the hill of Phnom Dei, 25 km (16 mi) north-east of the main group of temples that once belonged to the medieval capitals of Yasodharapura and Angkor Thom. Banteay Srei means ‘Citadel of the Women’, and it is said that it must have been built by a woman, as the elaborate carvings are supposedly too fine for the hand of a man.

Like other temples of Angkor region, this is also surrounded by moat for the structural stability of its foundations The temple is square and has entrances at the East and West, with the East approached by a causeway.Banteay Srei is known for the intricacy of its carvings. This carving is of Kala, a mythical creature representative of time and of the god Shiva. It is built largely of red sandstone, a medium that lends itself to the elaborate decorative wall carvings which can be seen even today. The buildings themselves are miniature in scale, unusual when measured by the standards of Angkorian construction. Shrines

Mandapa Moat Gopuras

Causeway

S econd Enclosure First Enclosure

Credits- Varun 32

S ource - Shekhar Pawar

Banteay Srei Temple“citadel of the women“

Banteay Srei Temple

source - google images

life at Tonle Sap lake

Source - google images

INDRATADAKA, TONLE SAP LAKE, & MEKONG RIVER 35

Indratadaka

1- Indratadaka with Lolie 2 -Hariharalaya 3 -Bakong 4 -Preah Ko

View of Khmer Empire

Source : Heer Shah

Angkor during the reign of Jayavarman II and at the begning of the 9th century was divded into three parts Purandrapura ; The centre which is still a mystery ; Hariharalaya, the capital . It was later succeded by Jayavaranam III and then Indravarnam I. Indravarnam I made the very first baray - Indratadaka. The making of indratadaka marked the start of the golden journey of the Khmer Empire towards the cultivation of paddy. He also made Bekong and Preah Ko during his time. It is said that he started making Lolie temple .

Water entered indratadaka from the northeast edge through Rolous river and from the northwest edge via a channelbuilt during the earlier 9th century . The water flows from Lolie towards Preah Ko entering Bakong temple through its outer moat and exists through southeast as well as southwest side of the moats. The water seems to have exited the tadaka from the southeast edge flowing towards Tonle sap lake

1- Indratadaka 2 -Preah ko temple 3 -Bakong temple 4 -Praset Prei

Plan of Indratadaka

Temple Preah Ko

Temple Bakong

Source: Tresa Ann, Prajit Gupte

Temple Lolie

Source:Namrataa Nath

Source: Shrey

Temple Bakong

Source:Prajit Gupte

Mekong River & Tonle Sap lake

TONLE SAP LAKE Tonle Sap Lake is the largest permanent freshwater body in Southeast Asia. At the present time, the area of the lake varies between the dry and wet seasons, from an area of 2300 km sq upto between 10000 km sq and 15000 km sq, while water level of the lake increases from around 1.44 to 6.8-10.3 m AMSL. It’s high productivity is driven mainly by flooding from the Mekong river. The floodplain of the lake and particularly the gallery forest and scrublands at its margin, offers favourable conditions for breeding and growth for migratory fish from the Mekong river. The Lake supports the majority of the present day commercial and household fisheries of Cambodia. More than one million people are dependent on the natural resources from the lake at the present time. It is very probable that the Tonle Sap was a major and initial food supply, particularly of fish, for communities during the Angkorian Era. Besides this the Lake was also important part of the transportation network for Angkor. Food and people could easily move between regional centres and the capital by boats, particularly during the rainy season. In relation to Tonle Sap Lake, the location of Angkor is enclose. It’s safe from the floods but at the same time very close to the lake even during the dry season. The Tonle Sap is believed to be among the most productive freshwater ecosystems in the world. Its high productivity is driven mainly by flooding from the Mekong river. Average annual rainfall in the Tonle Sap basin ranges between 1050 and 1850. mm/year and can exceed 2000 mm/year . In the rainy season, the Tonle Sap river reverses its direction of flow to the Tonle Sap Lake, instead from the Lake due to the heavy flooding of the Mekong river . MEKONG RIVER The Mekong River is one of the world's great rivers. Originating in Tibet, not far from the source of the Yangtze River, it tumbles down through the Himalayas and southern China into Southeast Asia and flows along the borders of Laos, Burma and Thailand through the heart of the Golden Triangle into Cambodia, where it flows in one direction in the rainy season and the opposite direction in the dry season. The Mekong River goes by many names. It is known as Lancang Jiang (Turbulent River) in China, the Mae Nam Khing in Thailand, Myanmar and Laos, Tonle Than (Great Waters) in Cambodia and Cuu Long (Nine Dragons) in Vietnam. It is also known as River of Stone, Dragon Running River, Mother River Khong, and Big Water. The Mekong River flows through the East-Central portion of Cambodia and flows southward from the Cambodia-Laos border.Tonle Sap Lake—which is connected to the Mekong by a short river also called Tonle Sap—alternately feeds, and feeds from, the Mekong River. 38

The floating houses and life of cambodge people

Source:Ravi Kathiriya

The present day houses built in Tonle Sap Lake follows similar way of living like it would have been during the Khmer Emipire. These floating houses move based on the flow of water in Tonle Sap Lake over different seasons.The settlement stays in middle of the Lake during the rainy season when the water level is medium at the lake.The settlement starts moving in the dry season towards the Siem Reap city as Siem Reap cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water level during dry season is comparatively high which is good enough for the floating houses to float in the water.The settlement starts moving in the rainy season towards the Phnom Penh city as it has lower water level to Siem Reap then as medium water level is better for fishing which is the main income and living source for Cambodian people. 39

Phases

East Baray

Source:Varun Amin

YASHODHARAPuRA 43

Moat in front of Angkor Wat

Source:Namrataa Nath

YASHODHARATADAKA (EAST BARAY) 45

East Baray - Yashodharatadaka COMPARISON BETWEEN OLD AND NEW

YASHODHARA TADAKA (EAST BARAY)

9th century

Present day - white represents the embankment

13th century

Source : Nishanth , Dennis , Tresa , Khoosh , Prajit

Water Connections The Eastern Baray initially was predicted to have taken water from a natural tributary of the Roluos River from the North East , as well as the Siem Reap from the Northernside. (MAP1) Later on,it was estimated that a Siem Reap Canal was built around the late 13th Century at its West to drainoutthe water from the Baray into the main moats of Angkor Thorn and Angkor Wat. There was also a southern exit of the water which appeared later that ran diagonally and drained water into the moat of Angkor Thorn and Angkor Wat. (MAP2) The current scenario shows the water entering now by diverting it using two embankments at the Roluos river to supply the current paddy fields there.

Fig 1

Source: Vidhi Gajjar

Fig 2

Source: Namrataa Nath

Fig 3

Source: Prajit Gupte

Old & current functionality of the Baray FIG1: The Baray, after its construction in the 9th century, was most probably used primarily to supply water to their vast paddy fields. Apart from that,the fields were estimated to have been used for transportation and transfer of stones from one point to another, or for prayers and spiritual purposes FIG2 and 3: The present scenario displays a vast paddy field at the location of the original Baray. The original boundaries can still be marked ; however, the functionality has changed and it is now simply a paddy field with some signs of habitation and other vegetation.

East Baray - Yashodharatadaka

Source : About asia travel

Source : Nishanth

Source : Dennis , Prajit , Khoosh , Nishanth

East Moan Temple The East Mebon Temple, located exactly at the centre of the Baray, is placed such to represent the Mount Meru located within the surrounding seas. It was built in 952 by Rajendravarman II. The East Mebon was not Rajendravarman IIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s state temple; that was Pre Rup, which was to be built 9 years later, just outside the baray and directly South of the East Mebon. Inner Enclosure The inner enclosure that is about 75 meters wide contains the second platform, that also has a guarding elephant on each of its corners. In the corners of the inner enclosure are five laterite structures called libraries. The 5 structures which are described as libraries could also have been kilns to have in situ manufacturing of the bricks used in the temple. The Central Sanctuary The third level of the East Mebon is the square upper platform with the large central sanctuary surrounded by four smaller sanctuary towers on the corners. The platform is surrounded by a three meter high sandstone wall.

Source: Namrataa Nath

Probable Siem Reap Canal & the southern exit of water The Siem Reap Canal There are indications at Khar Kran that even before the 14th century vegetation deposit was laid down that substantial sand deposits were filling an old channel south of modern Siem Reap town. This suggests that a channel connecting Northern and Southern Angkor was already open by the 13th century at the latest, since the amount of sand and the magnitude of water flow needed to move it could not have derived from a catchment south of Angkor Wat. The Southern Exit A probable major channel was constructed running south through the barrier wall between Angkor Thom and Yashodharatadaka. That channel was the final full diversion of the Siem Reap and ran southwards all the way to the Lake passing east of Phnom Krom. It was the last major addition or alteration to the overall network. 47

West Baray

Source:Varun Amin

WEST BARAY 49

WE ST ERN BAR AY

location of West Baray L o c a t i o n o f We st e r n B a ray S o u rc e - g e o c i t i e s . ws

West Baray

Source : Giocities.ws

11th Century C o n s tConstruction r u c t i o n o f of t hthe e BBaray a ray probably p ro b a bbegan l y b e ginathe n in the 1 1 t h during Century during the reign of King Suryavarman I . t h e re i g n o f K i n g S u r yava r m a n I . It i s re a n g u l a r iin n shape s h a p eand a nmeasuring d m e a s uapproximately r i n g a p p rox7.8 i mby a t e2.1kilometers, l y 7. 8 by 2the .1 It isc trectangular k i l o m eWest t e r sBaray , t h eis We t B a ray i s at t hAngkor. e l a rg eIts stwaters b a rayarea tcontained A n g ko r.byIttall s wa ters the slargest baray earthen center Baray thes.West a re c odikes. n t a i nInethe d by t a l lofe the arth e n disi ke In Mebon, t h e c ean Hindu t e r o ftemple t h e Bbuilt a rayoni sant hare tificial island. ReservoirsRecreations of the mythical lakes that surrounded Mount We s t M e b o n , a Hi n d u t e m p l e b u i l t o n a n a r t i f i c i a l i s l a n d . Meru, the home of gods. Re s e r vo i r s - Re c re a t i o n s o f t h e my t h i ca l l a ke s t h a t su r ro u n d e d M o u n t The Baray was constructed for the purposes of channeling water to the building M e r u ,sites t h eofhthe o mnew e o ftemples.This gods. is a part of a reservoir called Western Baray, a canal

C o u r t e s y : N a m ra t a a Na t h

Source : Namrataa Nath

was build in Khmer Empire which connects Western Baray to the village T h e B a ray wa s c o n s t r u c t e d fo r t h e p u r p o s e s o f c h a n n e l i n g wa t e r t o Early experts the bu i l d i French ng site s o f tbelieved h e n e wthe t e West m p l eBaray s . to have functioned as a vast holding tank for water that fed irrigation canals in dry times, allowing multiple crops of rice each year. Many later studies, however, theorize that the Baray had mainly symbolic functions, serving as a vast earthly depiction of the Hindu Sea of Creation, with the T h i s iWest s a pMebon a r t o ftemple a re sat e rits vocenter. i r c a l l e d We st e r n B a ray, a ca n a l wa s b u i l d i n K h m e r E m p i re w h i c h c o n n e c t s We st e r n B a ray t o t h e v i l l a g e E a r l y F re n c h e x p e r t s b e l i e ve d t h e We s t B a ray t o h ave fu n c t i o n e d a s a va s t h o l d i n g t a n k fo r wa t er t h a t fe d i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s i n d r y t i m e s , a l l o w i n g m u l t i p l e c ro p s o f r i c e e a c h ye a r. M a ny l a t e r s t u d i e s , h o w e v e r, t h e o r i ze t h a t t h e B a ray h a d m a i n l y s ym b o l i c fu n c t i o n s, s e r v i n g a s a va s t e a r t h l y d e p i c t i o n o f t h e Hi n d u S e a o f C re a t i o n , w i t h t h e We s t M e b o n t e m p l e a t i t s ce n t e r.

C o u r t e s y : P ra j i t Gu p t e 50

Source : Prajit Gupte

WESTERN BARAY

West Baray

source: Namrataa Nath

Courtesy- Namrataa Nath

ENTRY

ENTRY YASHODHARATADAKA

EXIT

YASHODHARAPURA EMBANKMENT

source: Ravi

YASHODHARAPURA EMBANKMENT NOW

THEN

Courtesy- Ravi Key Map Key Map Map showing water connection with West Map showing water connection with West Baray.There Water controlling is done by with emBaray.showing Water controlling is done by with em- Western Map water connection is connection bankment of Yashodharapura.No connecof Yashodharapura.No connecBbankment aray. Water control ling is done by embankAngkor Thom and Angkor Wat tion with Angkor Thom and AngkorWat ment of Angkor Yashodharapura tion with Thom and AngkorWat No connection with Angkor Thom and Angkor East side of Western B aray is not ful ly fil led with water and centre of the Wat B aray is depicted by the West Mebon Temple.

S ectional of West Sectional isometricisometric view of West Barayview source-Ravi Courtesy- Ravi

B aray

source-Prajit Gupte

Courtesy- Prajit Gupte

Channel from West Baray to fields source- to Namrataa Nath Channel from Western B aray fields Courtesy- Namrataa Nath

Sunrise at Angkor Wat

Source:Varun Amin

ANGKOR WAT 53

Angkor Wat Angkor Wat (‘City Temple’), the world’s largest religious monument was built in early 12th century (between 1113A.D and 1150 A.D) under the reign of Suryavarman II. It was built to serve both as the capital and the state temple dedicated to Vishnu. The outer limits of the Angkor Wat are set by its broad moat, faced in laterite and sandstone. The total area is almost 200 hectares (1.5 km E-W and 1.3 km N-S). Angkor Wat faces to the West which is unusual for temples which generally faces East. The temple combines two major features of Khmer Architecture: pyramids and concentric galleries. It has a pyramid of three levels, each one enclosed by a well-developed gallery with four gopuras and corner towers. The summit is crowned with five towers in a quincunx. (Source: Ancient Angkor, Michael Freeman and Claude Jacques, Page 46-48) The moat represents the mythical oceans surrounding the earth and the succession of concentric galleries represent the mountain ranges that surround Mount Meru, The Home of Gods.

Angkor Wat There are two entry channels to the Moat, the North of the Moat gets water from Angkor Thom connected to Siem Reap River while the South gets the water from Srah Srang from the North east direction. Initially only Srah Srang was connected to the moat as Angkor Thom was built much later. As per our assumption rainfall and ground water were the only source for the moats around Angkor Wat. The exit of the moat is at South West dispersing off the excess water to the Tonle Sap Lake.

Angkor Wat Plan

Angkor Wat

Ta Phrohm Temple

Source : google images

TA PROHM 59

The Famous tree at Ta Prohm

Source: Varun Amin

Conservation in progress at Ta Prohm

Source: Varun Amin

Ta Prohm

Source - Dennis, Khoosh, Prajit

There are two entry channels to the Moat, the north of the Moat gets water from Angkor Thom connected to Siem Reap River while the south gets the water from Srah Srang from the north east direction. Initially only Srah Srang was connected to the moat as Angkor Thom was built much later. As per our assumption rainfall and ground water were the only source for the moats around Angkor Wat. The exit of the moat is at South West dispersing off the excess water to the Tonle Sap Lake. Ta Prohm is the modern name of the temple at Angkor, Siem Reap Province, Cambodia, built in the Bayon style largely in the late 12th and early 13th centuries and originally called Rajavihara. Ta Prohm is connected in the overall in the water network through a channel existing from the Southwest corner of Yashodharatadaka. This channel enters the Ta Prohm from the Northeastern edge and fills the outer moat which is in turn connected to the inner moat. The water exits through southwestern edge and connects to Siem Reap river. 61

Phimeanakas inside Angkor Thom

Source: Varun Amin

MAHANAGAR (ANGKOR THOM) 63

Source: Namrataa Nath

Moat bridge of Angkor Thom depicting samudra manthan

Samudra manthan at closer look

Source: Varun Amin Notice Airavat (Lord Indraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Elephant )on the main gate of Ankor Thom

Source: Kush Patel Main gate of Angkor Thom

Source: Vivek Eadara

Mahanagar is one of the largest of all the Khmer cities with 9 sq km of area founded by Jayavarman in the late 12th century and remained capital until the 17th century. Angkor Thom overlaps the SE corner of the 1st capital of Yasodharapura ( end of the 9th century), incorporating Bapuon and Phimeanakas. The city walls which are surrounded by the moat are pierced by 4 gates at the cardinal points, and the roads that pass through them converge on the Central State Temple of Jayavarman VII, the Bayon and a 5th gate known as victory gate pierces 500m north of the East Gate, and its road leads to the Royal Palace. 64

Royal Palace The Royal Palace The Rectangular site of the Royal Palace was surrounded by 5m high laterite wall , 5 large sandstone gopuras with the steps gave access , two on the north and two on the south and one on the east , larger than the others and aligned with the elephant terrace and victory gate. The first small group of the buildings , built by Suryavarman I , was surrounded by a moat of which some traces remain, particularly in the east. The ground inside the palace compound is 1.2m higher than outside necessitating a double course of stone on the exterior of the entrances

source: Shrey Gupta

Phimeanakas Phimeanakas The laterite pyramid is relatively modest , rising in three levels of 12m each , it is not aligned with east axis of the palace entrance gopura and therefore was not planned as the central feature . Stairs are flanked with the gaurdian lions , while there are elephants on the corners. At the top, inside a small continous sandstone gallery , is the remains of a base some 2.5m high which was probably a sanctuary whose date is more recent than the pyramid. There are six wells located near the ponds opposite phimeanakas which are connected to the moat of the temple through a channel. There seems to be a probable connection of the wells with the pond.

Source: Namrataa Nath

Water in Angkor Thom

Map showing water network connections to Angkor Thom

source : Dennis, Prajit ,Khoosh

Bathing Pond ((Tep Tep Pranam) Pranam)

source : Namrataa Nath

M M all over the Mahanagar though usage is not fully known The water enters from the North - East side of the Mahanagari ( Angkor Thom) and circulates , however the probable exit water is towards the South - West side of the Mahanagar into the reservoir which eventualyyt exits through the drainage tunnels leading into South - west of Angkor Thom moat

Channel near the 12 towers ( Prasats Suor Prat)

source : Namrataa Nath

Bayon Temple

Lolei Temple in Indratadaka

source : Namrataa Nath

Jayatadaka The Jayatadaka Inlet : water entered from the Siem Reap , via an embankment , as well as a supposed channel derived from the North Canal . When the Jayatadaka baray was added in the late 12th century , the southern end of the North Canal was realigned to match the axis of Angkor Thom and a channel was supposed to have been built from the North Canal running eastwards through a series of the right angle turn to an entry in the NE corner of the baray . The source of its water strongly suggests that the 10-12 km of the North canal to the north of the Puok river was an addition to take water from streams. Outlet : Jayatadaka supplied water to the moat of the Angkor Thom

Water network connections to Jayatadaka

source : Dennis, Prajit, Khoosh

source : Vivek Eadara

Jaytadaka, The Naek Poan Temple at the centre and Preah Khan at the left 70

Present situation of the embankment : this embankment is used to transfer water into the current paddy fields og Jayatadaka from the Siem Reap river

Neak Poan Temple The Neak Poan-sectional view The Neak Poan Temple recieves its watrt supply from ground water aquifers. The first step of this receival is the fill up of the central resevoir by ground water and rain water followed by the fill up of the remaining four by the overflow from the central one. These four represent four elements , Earth , fire , water and air . The four elements of the Neak Poan temple are represented by the four reservoirs around the main reservoir .

The healing quality The Priest would stand on one side and pour holy water through an opening to where the main stood on the other side.

Element of the wind

Element of the water

Source : Nishanth Krishna

Element of the earth

Element of the fire Source : Vidhi Bansal & Vivek

STRucTuRE 72

SIG NIF ICA NC E OF WATE R IN A NGKORIA N STRU CTUR ES

Significance of water in Angkorian Structures

Angkor Wat

Source : Namrataa Nath

The approach of construction by Khmer builders highlights the fact that they were great engineers who understood the structural aspects of engineering very well.The city of complexes has a quite unique structural aspect to study . Temples were built vy locally available materials , labor work and limited Angkor-

machinery and equipment . The approach of construction by Khmer builders highlights a lot of engineering which is still usefull till date. There are still lots of questions whose answers conveys meaningfull engineering facts in accordance with climatic conditions . suitability of materials and construction patterns used. Such as Why are the Angkor temples standing even today . How was water incorporated in the structural behavior of temple complexes How were thewere materials used as per their behaviour with water elements f Why was Why dry stone masonry was perferred for temples in wet tropical and water logged areas.

Khmer Empire was well known for their construction of religious temple complexes. Even today it astonishes experts regarding construction of complexes and thewas waywell water was for utilised a part of engineering building such as .mega structures. So Kmher empire known theiras construction of religiousfor temple complexes Even today , it astonishes experts regarding construction of

complexes and the way water was utilised as a part of engineering for building such mega structures

BUILDING MATERIALS

Building Material

Basic material used to built the monuments were bricks, sandstone and laterite stones. Khmer builders utilized these materials according to its suitability and its availability. How were laterite stones used? Laterite Basic stones wereused easily available around Kulen as it and comes material to built the monuments were mountains bricks, sandstone laterunder hot & wetKhmer tropical areasutilized and stone formation takes place due to ite stones. builders these materials according to its suitability and availability.rainy and dry season in the region. repetition ofits alternative Process: Laterite is mined while it is still below the water table, so it is wet were laterite stones and soft.How Upon exposure to air used? it gradually hardens as the moisture between stones were easily available Kulen iron mountains it comes the flatLaterite clay particles evaporates and around the larger salts as lock into una der hot & wet tropical areas and stone formation takes place due to repetition rigid lattice structure and become resistant to atmospheric conditions. The of alternative rainy and dry season in the region. art of quarrying laterite material into masonry might have been adopted from the Indian subcontinent. Process: Laterite is mined while it is still below the water table, so it is wet and How was soft.moist Upon laterite exposure used? to air it gradually hardens as the moisture between the Moist laterite was molded in shape and andthe used as bricks for the into construction of flat clay particles evaporates larger iron salts lock a rigid lattice superstructure temple complexes and stucco plaster was used art to of protect structureofand become resistant to atmospheric conditions. The quarryingweathering laterite material into masonry might have done been over adopted it against and lot of carving work was it. from the Indian subcontinent. NayanBy: Chandaria \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia Courtesy: Vaibhav Satasiya \source: Edited Ajay Chovatia

How was moist laterite used? Moist laterite was molded in shape and used as bricks for the construction of Laterite stone behind sandstone layer superstructure of temple complexes and stucco plaster was used to protect it These stones were permeable and porous and resistance to weatheringagainst actionweathering was also less. Sooflaterite were covered and lot carvingstones work was done over it. by sandstone in foundation layer because sand stone has good resistance to erosion. These stones were permeable and porous and resistance to weathering action was also less. So laterite stones were covered by sandstone in foundation layer because sand stone has good resistance to erosion.

source: Nayan Chandaria \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia

Courtesy: Nayan Chandaria \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia 74 Exposed Laterite Bricks of a temple wall

source: Nayan Chandaria \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia

Courtesy: Vaibhav Satasiya \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia Stucco plaster for carvings and covering of laterite bricks

Mesozoic sandstones were used for construction which were mined from Phnom Kulen mountains. There were mainly 4 types of sand stones in monuments. 1. Grey sandstone 2. Yellowish brown sandstone 3. 3. Red sandstone 4. Greenish grey sandstone Source: http://elearn.hawk-hhg.de/projekte/salzwiki/media/E-Publication/Angkor_2008_Torun.pdf

source: Namrataa Nath

Courtesy: Namrataa Nath Mesozoic sandstones were used for construction which were mined from Phnom Kulen mountains. There were mainly 4 types of sand stones in monuments. Grey sandstone Pic Courtesy: Chandaria \ Edited By: Ajay Yellowish brownNayan sandstone 3. Chovatia Red sandstone & Greenish grey sandstone

Courtesy: Dennis Jose

source: Dennis Jose

source: Nayan Chandaria \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia

Moats as a structural element A moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water. Most of the temples were covered with moat around it. There is a possibility that it were used to prevent the settlement of foundations. So these temples acted as a floating ship which needed constant water source to maintain the level of it. That’s why after all these years, temples have settled quite a lot due to drying of water in moat.

First theory of foundation

Source: angkorguide.net \ Edited by: Ajay Chovatia

Water in moat balances the outward pressure of foundation of temple and prevents sinking of it. Size of the moat would have dependent upon the large scale of temple in terms of weight of stone used to built the temple.

source: Smithsonian Channel \ Edited by: Ajay Chovatia

In order to maintain the balance of inward pressure of water to the outward pressure of structure weight, moats were needed to be filled with water for all time.

Moats as a structural element Second theory of Foundation Repetitive increment and decrement of water level results in upheaval and depression of foundation. And it results in collapse of structure source: National Geography \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia

Stage 1: Low Water Level

Stage 3:Uplift of Land due to Ground water table

Stage 2: Increase in water level

Stage 4: Settling of water level due to low water level 77

Settlement of temple complex One of the major reason for destruction of temples was this phenomenon. To avoid this scenario, water level was maintained regularly in moats. source: Kyvisothsambath \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia

Stage 1: beginning of water level decrement

Stage 2: water level dries up

Stage 3: Settlement of ground

Stage 4: Collapse of dry stone masonry

Some recent scenarios of settlement

Settlement of embankment around the moat

source : Nayan Chandaria

Base sand stones were settled invariably and interlocking was totally source : Vaibhav Satasiya \ Edited By: disturbed

Ajay Chovatia

Dry stone masonry wall collapsed due to settlement of foundation.

source : Vaibhav Satasiya \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia

source : Nayan Chandaria

Dry Stone Masonry Dry stone masonry without mortar joints and walls were constructed with interlocking of stones. It was considered to be more effective in wet areas for various reasons. Good employment for craftsman without worrying about heavy equipment and also required minimum tools to erect structure. Skilled construction can also make earthquake resistance structures. It relies on skills of craftsman, forces of gravity and frictional resistance.. It allows the foundation to settle uniformly so that sudden collapse is avoided. It allows water to drain effectively and it acts better against weathering action and last longer. It also looks more natural in landscape So Khmer builders were quite particular about the construction of temple as they utilized climatic condition and geology of terrain to their advantage with dry stone masonry.

source : Nayan Chandaria

Source : Vaibhav Satasiya

source : Nayan Chandaria

Layers of the temple complex Angkorian structures included layered construction as shown in section. Laterite stones were covered with layer of sandstones and laterite bricks were covered withstucco plaster.

Source: Kush Patel

Lolei Temple near Indratadaka

source: Vaibhav Satasiya \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia

Stone masonry construction joint

source : Nayan Chandaria

Clearly, stones were interlocked together very effectively and precisely so that it lasts longer. Even today, these joints are visible.

source : Vaibhav Satasiya \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia

Sketch of interlocked stones

source: Nayan Chandaria

STONE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION JOINT

Stone masonry construction joint

source : Nayan Chandaria

Courtesy: Nayan Chandaria

Connection of balusters Courtesy: Nayan Chandaria

source : Nayan Chandaria

OFFSET ARCH USED TO DECREASE TENSION IN LINTEL STONE

Offset arch used to decrease tension in lintel stone

source : Vaibhav Satasiya

Courtesy: Vaibhav Satasiya

Offset Arch in Laterite Bricks

Courtesy: Namrataa Nath

source : Namrataa Nath

Arch actions actions were areare weak in tension butbut strong in compression so arch actions were were used to transfer the load Arch were used usedto tospan spanthe thestructures. structures.Stones Stones weak in tension strong in compression so arch actions used to transfer thedirectly load from lintel to the foundation via column. Arch action has always been a traditional approach and it is still very popular. directly from lintel to the foundation via column. Arch action has always been a traditional approach and it is still very popular.

Courtesy: Nayan Chandaria 84

source : Nayan Chandaria

Offset Arch in Sand Stone

Offset arch used to decrease tension in lintel stone LOAD PATH

Load path

Path of ofLoad Loadtransfer transfer is shown arrows infigure. the figure. Thecoming load coming Path is shown by by thethe arrows in the The load from from the above walls distributes in two direction in 45 degree by the arch the above walls distributes in two direction in 45 degree by the arch and goes and goes directly at the ends of the lintel stone reducing the tension in directly at the ends of the lintel stone reducing the tension in lintel stone. lintel stone.

Courtesy: Nayan Chandaria

source : Vaibhav Satasiya \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia

Pic Courtesy: Vaibhav Satasiya \ Edited By: Ajay Chovatia

Courtesy: Nayan Chandaria

source : Nayan Chandaria

KHMERâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S DEcLINE 86

1. Neglect of the water systems

2. Combats with Neighbouring lands

3. Stagnant water in the channels

4. Too much rain ruining the crops

5. Methane emission from paddy fields

6. Deforestation

source : Vidhi Bansal

Bibliography 1. Curriculum, O. B.-P.-U. (n.d.). Chapter 13: The Khmer Empire, Year 8. Oxford University Press. 2. Dinh, X. K. (2006). Khmer Empire: Angkor (A.D. 802-1432). Michigan: Grand Valley State University. 3. Gundersen, L. G. (September, 2015). A Reassessment of the Decline of the Khmer Empire. International Journal of Culture and History,, Vol. 1, No. 1 - Pg 1-4. 4. HISTORY8, O. I. (Pg 163- 185). AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM FOR NSW STAGE 4. New South Wales, Australia: Oxford University Press. 5. Kummu, M. (2009). Water management in Angkor: Human impacts on hydrology and sediment transportation. Journal of Environmental Management 90, Elsevier , 1413â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1421. 6. Kummu, M. (2016). The Natural Environment and Historical Water Management of Angkor, Cambodia. Espoo, Finland: Department of Water Resources, Helsinki University of Technology. 7. McCullough, K. (2010). The emergence and ultimate decline of the Khmer Empire was paralleled with development and subsequent change in religious ideology, together with infrastructure that supported agriculture. Retrieved from studiesofasia.wikispaces: https://studiesofasia.wikispaces.com/file/links/EDAS8003A+Assignment+1+Khmer+civilisation+at+Angkor.pdf 8. Middle Ages and Early Exploration, T. A.-P. (Pg 178-221). Angkor and the Khmer Empire (c.802-1431) - Chapter 5. Jacaranda History Alive 8 Victorian Curriculum. 9. Roland Fletcher, C. P. (2008). The Development of the Water Management System of Angkor: A Provisional Model. Sydney: Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 28: 57-66. 10. Roland Fletcher, D. P. (2015). The water management network of Angkor, Cambodia. Cambridge: Antiquity Publications Ltd. 11. Stone, R. (2009, July). Divining Angkor: After rising to sublime heights, the sacred city may have engineered its own downfall. Angkor: National Geographic, pp. 1-9. 88

PHOTO GALLERY 89

WINTER ScHOOL 2017 4TH DEc - 22ND DEc 2017

THE ANGKOR WATERS decoding through the depths of water

The Angkor Waters

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The Angkor Waters