Instructor Manual for American History Connecting with the Past 15th Edition. (Volume 1) Alan Brinkl by welldoneassistant

American History Connecting with the Past 15e (Volume 1) Alan Brinkley (Instructor Manual All Chapters, 100% Original Verified, A+ Grade) (Lecture Notes Only) Chapter 1 The Collision of Cultures

Learning Objectives • • • • •

Describe the precontact peoples of America. Contrast Spanish settlement in the Americas with that of the English, Dutch, and French. Explain how contact between European arrivals and the native peoples of the Americas affected both groups. Describe the effects of the importation of African slaves into the Americas. Explain how the English experience in colonization of Ireland affected their efforts to colonize in America.

Chapter Overview Many thousands of years before Christopher Columbus, human beings crossed into the American continents and began to people them. In South America and Central America, some formed elaborate civilizations. In the North, the many nomadic and seminomadic civilizations were less elaborate but still substantial. All would be dramatically affected by the arrival of Europeans. For the newcomers, this New World meant a new source of gold and silver, new land to exploit for agriculture, and new converts to the Christian religion; for some, it also meant new lives as settlers, and new freedoms. Through the end of the sixteenth century and early seventeenth century, Spain, Portugal, France, Holland, and England had all laid claim to rich resources in the New World. They brought with them diseases against which natives had no immunity. It was not long before they also brought African slaves.

Themes • • •

The colonization of the Americas included a collision of European and Native American cultures that had been developing along very different lines for thousands of years. A variety of ambitions and impulses (political, personal, financial) moved individuals and nations to colonize the New World. The motives of the colonizers, their experiences before immigrating, and their limited knowledge of the New World shaped their attitudes toward Native American cultures.

Lecture Strategies Reciprocal Relationships An important theme to develop at the beginning of the course is the reciprocal relationship between Europe and America. Lecturing on Spain and its New World Empire in the sixteenth century is an ideal way of emphasizing not only that Europe affected American development but that America affected European development. While discovery transformed the ecology, population, economy, and culture of regions that became Spanish America, the development of that colonial empire hastened the pace at which political authority in Europe became more centralized and economies in Europe became more monetarized and interdependent. The best source on the ecological impact of discovery is the work of Alfred Crosby, both The Columbian Exchange and Ecological Imperialism. England in Ireland and America England’s first attempt at conquest, of course, took place in Ireland rather than America, and Chapter 1 discusses the ways in which the colonization of Ireland served as a model for the subsequent settlement of America. In fact, many of the same men who served with the English army in Ireland were also involved in the earliest schemes for American colonization, lending to those designs their military—and often quasi-feudal—character. The Irish experience also shaped subsequent relations between the English and the natives of Roanoke and the Chesapeake. The connection between Ireland and America will probably be unfamiliar to most students, and its importance may warrant a lecture, one that addresses the differences as well as the similarities of English adventuring in Ireland and America. Nicholas Canny’s work, especially Kingdom and Colony, does an excellent job of describing the English conquest of Ireland and of drawing comparisons between Ireland under English rule and early Jamestown. Comparison of European Contact in the New World and Africa It could be helpful to point to the differences in the initial contact experience between Europeans and the peoples they encountered in the New World and in Africa. Generally, on the West African coast, the African kingdoms possessed enough military power to negotiate on a level of relative equality with the European explorers and traders. By contrast, the Taino, whom the Spanish first encountered in the Caribbean, did not have the same capacities and were thus more easily dominated. Later, the Aztecs and Incas, while formidable warriors, found it difficult to fight the conquistadores, since their power had been weakened by the outbreak of smallpox. In addition, both Aztecs and Incas were unpopular rulers, and thus found it difficult to mobilize the peoples under their rule to come to their defense.

Teaching Suggestions The Aztec Perspective on Spanish Conquest On the issue of Indian attitudes toward invading Spaniards, an invaluable source is Miguel León-Portilla’s The Broken Spears, which offers vivid accounts of the Spanish conquest set down by Aztec scribes. It also sheds light on the question of how the conquistadores succeeded in supplanting Aztec rulers by illustrating both the importance of Indian disunity and the IM – 1 | 2 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

catastrophic consequences of their first exposure to European diseases. Students should understand that although Spanish weaponry was important, it was not the deciding factor. Motivations for Colonization Students might also be asked to assess the relative importance of “ideal” as opposed to “material” goals in fostering colonization ventures. Most students are inclined to opt for the primacy of economic and political motives and tend to dismiss the colonizers’ professed concerns for religion and social justice as legitimizers of baser incentives. Arguing against the grain of these inclinations can stir up some valuable exchanges that will lend complexity to their view of overseas enterprise. For an effective collateral reading that illustrates the ideals informing colonization, see Thomas More’s Utopia. Discussion might also usefully emphasize the crusading mentality of the sixteenth-century Spanish and the militant Protestantism of the English, who felt a keen need to define themselves as something other than the “tyrannical” Spaniards of the “Black Legend.” You may also want to introduce the attitudes of ordinary people in Europe toward colonization, as opposed to those of the explorers and monarchs. How did they regard exploration and colonization? What stake might fisherfolk and peasants, sailors and tradespeople, have had in the opening of the Americas to Europe?

Chapter 2 Transplantations and Borderlands Learning Objectives • • • • •

Contrast patterns of settlement and expansion in the Chesapeake with those in New England. Analyze the reasons for and explain the outcomes of rebellion in the colonies of Virginia, Maryland, Massachusetts, and New York in the period 1660 to 1700. Describe and explain the differences between the institution of slavery in England’s Atlantic seaboard colonies and the Caribbean. Identify the region called the “middle grounds,” and describe how conditions there differed from conditions in the Atlantic seaboard colonies. Analyze the influence of England’s Glorious Revolution on the North American colonies.

Chapter Overview During the seventeenth century, two colonial systems existed in North America and in the Caribbean. Island and southwestern borderland provinces governed by Spain continued to flourish and provide an interesting counterpoint to colonies established by the British. Before 1660, most British provinces began as private ventures (with charters from the king), but the motives that brought them into being were as varied as the sociopolitical systems they developed. After 1660, proprietary colonies became the norm, and charters indicated a closer tie between the “owners” of the colony and the king, who granted them. As a result of this colonization effort, by the 1680s England had an unbroken string of provinces stretching from Canada to the Savannah River and holdings in the West Indies. As the colonies matured, their inhabitants began to exhibit a concern for control of local affairs and an independence of interests that eventually came to trouble the British Empire. It was a time when colonists began to sense that they were both English and American, a dual personality that was to lead to trouble and confusion on both sides of the Atlantic. The problem was that at the time, the American colonists were developing their own attitudes and institutions. England, fully aware of the potential of its colonies, began to tighten its control of its possessions.

Themes • • •

The origins and objectives of England’s first settlements in the New World How and why English colonies—mainland and Caribbean—differed from one another in purpose and administration The problems that arose as colonies matured and expanded, and how colonists attempted to solve them IM – 2 | 1

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How the Spanish colonial system functioned and thrived, and its impact on the British colonies The impact that events in England had on the development of colonies in British America

Lecture Strategies Seventeenth-Century Diversity of Settlement An important theme that might be introduced with this chapter is the diversity of the emerging southern society during the first century of settlement of North America. Since the knowledge of the early South that most students bring to the American history survey is limited to Virginia, it is important to introduce them to the full range of colonial development during this period— the proprietary regime and religious diversity of Maryland, the sugar economy and fragile social order of the English Caribbean, and the racial and ethnic heterogeneity and political volatility of rice-growing South Carolina. The central role of the Caribbean colonies deserves particular emphasis, not only because the British regarded the West Indies as their most valuable American possession, but also because of the key role of Barbadian immigrants in settling southern Carolina. Taken together, the West Indies and southern Carolina, with their embattled coastlines, black majorities, opulent wealth, and consistently high mortality rates, constitute an apt counterpoint to the colonial Chesapeake. Revolts and Rebellions Between 1660 and 1700, the American colonies were shaken by a series of “revolts,” of which Bacon’s Rebellion was only one. Compare and contrast the protests that took place in Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, and Virginia, paying special attention to the internal divisions that helped spark the outbursts. Have students discuss specific evidence in order to try to discover the source of these “eruptions” in colonial society.

uniting together in rebellion was a particularly terrifying one for elites. For a fine collection of original sources covering not only indentured servitude but other aspects of life in early Virginia, see Warren Billings, ed., The Old Dominion. This suggestion would work equally well with Chapter 3. The Creation of the Atlantic World You might encourage students to avoid thinking of the North American colonies in isolation. They existed in a network of commerce and cultural and social exchange with places all along the Atlantic rim, but especially with Europe. Europe and America were constantly affecting each others’ social and cultural development. For example, while mercantilist policy fostered the development of plantation economies throughout the American South, the commodities produced by those colonial economies, especially sugar and tobacco, revolutionized European habits of consumption. Political development is important in this context as well. For example, the disruption of the English Civil War prevented the English state from imposing on the colonies the kind of centralized control that existed in Spain’s American empire; similarly, the need of the Stuart monarchs to reward loyal supporters led to the creation of proprietary regimes in Maryland and the Carolinas—another deviation from direct royal control over the colonies.

Chapter 3 Society and Culture in Provincial America Learning Objectives • • • • • •

Contrast the patterns of family life and attitudes toward women in the northern and southern colonies. Explain the changes in the lives of African slaves over the course of the first century of slavery. Identify and explain the reasons for the major sources of immigration to North America in the seventeenth century. Discuss the colonial economies. Describe and explain the reasons that cultural patterns in the English colonies diverged from life in England. Describe the intellectual culture of colonial America, in terms of its literature, philosophy, science, education, and law.

Chapter Overview After the turmoil of the late seventeenth century had subsided, it became evident that the English American colonies and the colonists who populated them were beginning to develop characteristics that were distinctly “American.” Although still essentially transplanted English subjects and still greatly influenced by European ideas and institutions, the colonists were also diverse, aggressive, and as concerned with their own success as with that of the empire of which they were part. New sources of wealth and new patterns of trade shaped the growth of the colonies; new technologies appeared, and new immigrants, not always from England, added a dimension unknown in the mother country. Although differences in geography, economy, and population gave each colony its own character and problems, there remained many common concerns⎯not the least of which was how to deal with or avoid dealing with British mercantile restrictions. In short, between 1700 and 1750, Britain’s North American colonies began to show signs of being both English and American; they were indeed “different,” and it is this difference that Chapter 3 explores.

Themes • • •

How the colonial population grew and diversified How the colonial economy expanded to meet the needs of this rapidly growing population The emergence of a particularly American “mind and spirit”

Lecture Strategies Role of Religion in the Northern Colonies Enhancing the students’ understanding of early American religious development, Puritanism in particular, is important at this point in the course. It will assist their grasp of later events, like the first and second Great Awakenings and the evolution of an evangelical consensus in the early nineteenth century. A lecture on early religious history should start with Calvinism, setting forth its principal tenets and explaining its inner logic and popular appeal. Since many students have particular difficulty understanding why people found comfort in the doctrine of predestination, lectures could set forth the alternatives to that belief as they were understood by early modern Europeans and Americans. Lectures should also compare and contrast the principal religious doctrines and modes of church organization among the major early American denominations— the Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Baptists, Quakers, and Anglicans. Some emphasis might also be accorded the connection between religious affinities and organization, and the structure of society and politics in the various regions of early America. Patricia Bonomi’s Under the Cope of Heaven is a useful guide for addressing all of these issues. Formation of African American Society The evolution of African American society in this era is another area of particular importance because of two crucial developments: The massive slave importations of the first half of the eighteenth century enlarged the black population, infused West African traditions into American slave culture, and created divisions and disruptions within the slave community. But in the latter half of the eighteenth century, as importations slackened and the black population started to grow through natural increase, slave communities and families assumed greater coherence, and a distinctively African American culture emerged. The best sources for these changes are Alan Kulikoff’s Tobacco and Slaves, a study of the Chesapeake; and Robert Weir’s Colonial South Carolina. Seventeenth-Century Diversity of Settlement An important theme of this chapter is the diversity of southern society during the first century of settlement of North America. Since the knowledge of the early South that most students bring to the American history survey is limited to Virginia, it is important to introduce them to the full range of colonial development during this period, if you have not already done so in concert with Chapter 2—the proprietary regime and religious diversity of Maryland, the sugar economy and fragile social order of the English Caribbean, and the racial and ethnic heterogeneity and political volatility of rice-growing South Carolina. The central role of the Caribbean colonies deserves particular emphasis, not only because the British regarded the West Indies as their most valuable American possession, but also because of the key role of Barbadian immigrants in settling South Carolina. Taken together, the West Indies and South Carolina, with their embattled coastlines, black majorities, opulent wealth, and consistently high mortality rates, constitute an apt counterpoint to the colonial Chesapeake.

Teaching Suggestions Indentured Servitude and Unfree Labor An approach that works especially well for stirring up interest in the early Chesapeake is to inform a roomful of students that, since the majority of them are likely late adolescents with few skills and little income, they have much in common with those boatloads of indentured servants who made up the majority of immigrants to Virginia and Maryland. (If men outnumber women in the class, the analogy is even more effective.) That opener helps to remind students that most early inhabitants of the Chesapeake were bound laborers, not free workers; even more important, identifying them with the immigrants can bring a certain energy and edge into any discussion of the reasons for signing an indenture and moving to the New World. And since later in the seventeenth century the Chesapeake’s population still contained large numbers of young single men, many of them landless and all of them armed, the class can more easily appreciate the relationship between demography and political instability. You may also want to show how the African slave trade began to fill the demand for labor as the practice of indentured servitude became less common in the later seventeenth century. The idea of slaves and indentured servants uniting together in rebellion was a particularly terrifying one for elites. For a fine collection of original sources covering not only indentured servitude but other aspects of life in early Virginia, see Warren Billings, ed., The Old Dominion. Puritanism The topic in this chapter with which students may be least familiar is Puritanism. While lectures can amplify the text’s coverage, assigning short selections of original sources for discussion is often the most effective way of enhancing an understanding of Puritanism. There are a number of excellent anthologies to consult, among them Perry Miller and Thomas Johnson, eds., The Puritans; and Edmund S. Morgan, ed., Puritan Political Ideas. Deeper insight into Puritanism will help students get inside the mental universe of many early New England settlers, and perhaps provide them with a more nuanced understanding of the Salem witchcraft trials.

Chapter 4 The Empire in Transition Learning Objectives • • • • •

Describe the influence of the Seven Years’ War on British attitudes and policies toward the North American colonies. Identify the Native American groups who fought in the French and Indian War, and describe the effect of the war’s outcome on these groups and on groups that did not participate in the war. Describe the change in British attitudes that occurred between the Seven Years’ War and the start of the American Revolution. Identify the philosophical underpinnings of the colonial revolt against Britain. Explain the importance of the slogan “no taxation without representation” as a rallying cry for the colonists.

Chapter Overview Despite a number of disagreements, by 1763 Anglo-American ties seemed stronger than ever. The colonies had prospered under British rule, had developed local institutions through which they seemed to govern themselves, and with the defeat of France, appeared ready to expand into the heart of the continent. No sooner was the war ended, however, than the British began to alter the pre-1763 system in an effort to make it more efficient and more responsive to control from London. The means chosen to do so⎯enforced regulations to end the illegal trade that had flourished under salutary neglect, plus taxation to pay for the colonial administration⎯were seen by the colonists as threats to the way of life they had come to accept as rightfully theirs. Rising in protest, the colonies faced a British government determined to assert its authority, and with neither side willing to give in, the cycle of action and reaction continued. Finally, spurred by a propaganda campaign that characterized the mother country as a tyrant determined to bring America to its knees, the colonies acted. The Coercive (Intolerable) Acts proved the final straw, and in September 1774, twelve of the thirteen British colonies met in a Continental Congress in hopes that a united front would cause London to reconsider and that conflict would be avoided. But it did not work; in the spring, fighting broke out at Lexington and Concord. Although independence was not yet declared, the American Revolution had begun.

Themes •

How it was that colonists who, for the most part, had enjoyed benefits unattainable by their European counterparts rose in rebellion against the nation that was responsible for their circumstances IM – 4 | 1

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How changes in the colonies as well as in England contributed to damaging the imperial relationship beyond repair

Lecture Strategies Improbability of the American Revolution A useful theme of this chapter is the improbability of the American Revolution. Seen from the perspective of 1754, the prospect of a majority of Americans engaging in concerted action of any kind appeared a dim possibility. The sources of that political improbability were primarily social: the increasing diversity of Americans owing to the divisions of race, religion, ethnicity, and geography. Lectures should emphasize that close correspondence between social and political development. If the American Revolution, viewed from the vantage point of 1754, was a historical accident, the failure of the Albany Plan of Union was not. Religion and Reason The First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s was an event of considerable importance in shaping the outlook of ordinary Americans, and one that will both intrigue and puzzle many students. The Great Awakening attracted many converts among young people, influencing the attitudes and behavior of the men and women who would be the adult leaders of their communities at the time of the American Revolution. That lecture should explore both the possible sources of religious fervor and its consequences, focusing especially on attitudes toward political authority and social order among the new converts. The role of evangelical religion in intensifying sectional differences deserves emphasis as well. A fine source on the revival is Patricia Bonomi’s Under the Cope of Heaven. At the same time, it is important to make students aware of the Enlightenment ideas permeating the educated white male elite, emphasizing rational thought and scientific observation. Obviously these ideas would play an enormous role in the American Revolution. Political Ideologies and Economic Realities It may be a good idea to complement the social history focus of the text with a lecture on political ideology. The best single source is still Bernard Bailyn’s The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. It might also be useful to amplify the economic background of the imperial crisis, especially the impact of the recession following the Seven Years’ War. John McCusker and Russell Menard’s The Economy of British America, 1607–1789 contains a wealth of information on that subject, as well as the entire span of colonial economic development. Probably the most successful effort to bring together the ideological and economic interpretations of the Revolution is Robert Gross, The Minutemen and Their World, a book that also works well as collateral reading even in introductory courses. Extra-Governmental Politics The topic of crowd actions and the evolution of resistance tactics and extralegal organizations might also merit a lecture. Information about the character and perception of crowds in early modern society will help to establish continuities between the popular uprisings of earlier eras and the political riots of the pre-revolutionary decade. A lecture on this subject will also help IM – 4 | 2 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

students to sort out the various extralegal organizations, to understand their social basis and the dynamics of popular politicization, and to appreciate the ways in which the resistance became institutionalized over time and expanded its influence to inland regions. In addition, students can develop a clearer understanding of the way in which extralegal resistance structures came to function as “shadow governments” as the imperial crisis worsened and royal authority started to come apart. A good source on this subject is Pauline Maier’s From Resistance to Revolution. Liberty across the Ocean The Maier book also performs the important service of placing the American resistance within a broader context by discussing the kinship that colonial radicals felt with the “friends of liberty” on the other side of the Atlantic. As early as the 1760s, American leaders became increasingly interested in other movements for political reform, insurrections against oppressive regimes, and wars of liberation occurring elsewhere in the Western world. Just as many radicals in the 1960s admired figures like Che Guevara, Americans lionized the English radical John Wilkes, Irish opponents of English colonialism, and the Corsican patriot Pascal Paoli. As Americans started to see their opposition to Britain as part of a worldwide struggle for liberty, the resistance took on greater legitimacy and significance. Students are probably aware of the influence of the American Revolution on the French Revolution, but it is less well known that agitation against oppressive rule in Europe influenced some Americans in the decade before independence.

Teaching Suggestions Origins of American Resistance Debate over the imperial crisis focuses on two main issues, the first concerning the origins of American resistance. Reduced to its simplest terms, that disagreement pits those historians who locate the sources of American opposition in political ideals and ideology against those who emphasize the decisive role of economic interests. There is, of course, a middle ground—the view that economic changes created a climate that predisposed Americans to respond ideologically to the imperial crisis, to perceive Britain’s attempts to centralize its empire as a sinister conspiracy against liberty. Engaging students in this debate over the sources of American resistance not only advances their understanding of the events leading up to the Revolution, but also encourages them to think more broadly about the relationship between interests and ideas in shaping political outlook and behavior. Working with original sources offers the best way of generating an informed discussion; Merrill Jensen has published most of the major American pamphlets of the imperial crisis in an anthology entitled Tracts of the American Revolution. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense is the most accessible and provocative of these pamphlets. American Views of England It may also be worthwhile to explore Anglo-American connections in the middle of the eighteenth century, focusing primarily on American views of England. Students could be asked to consider the significance of American concern over the greater inequality of English society and alarm at the perceived corruption of English politics. Did these reservations mark the beginning of the colonies’ alienation from the parent country, an estrangement that deepened after 1763 and finally ruptured the empire? Does American ambivalence toward England signal IM – 4 | 3 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

the first stirring of national identity? Did the arrival of the Enlightenment in America or the First Great Awakening affect in any way the American perception of England? Mid-Eighteenth-Century Sources There are some excellent primary sources that work well alongside this chapter. There are original sources from which excerpts can be drawn that illustrate colonial social evolution effectively. Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography offers vivid portraits of both English and American society in the middle of the eighteenth century; The Secret Diary of William Byrd affords an intimate record of the life of a Virginia planter and political leader; and Richard Hooker, ed., The Carolina Backcountry on the Eve of the American Revolution contains an entertaining if idiosyncratic view of the southern frontier, that of Charles Woodmason, an Anglican itinerant. The “Point of No Return” Another significant contested issue in the historiography of this era devolves upon identifying the “point of no return” in the imperial crisis: When did the American Revolution become, in some sense, inevitable? It could be argued that the die was cast in 1763 when the removal of the French from the borders of British America obviated the need for the protective umbrella of the empire. Or it could be argued that the outcome was certain in 1765, when the Stamp Act and Grenville’s other measures forced Americans to recognize that Britain did not regard them as political equals and that colonial interests and political ideals diverged substantially from those of the parent country. Or it could be argued that the decisive moment came with the institutionalization of the resistance in response to the Townshend duties. Or that the Coercive Acts, an unmistakable signal that the British would not back down from a confrontation, marked the beginning of the end. Or that the first shedding of blood at Lexington and Concord, followed by Paine’s scathing attack on George III, fatally undermined emotional ties to Britain. All of these possibilities could be aired in class discussion so that students can assess for themselves the seriousness of the resistance at any given stage in the imperial crisis and consider what, if anything, Britain might have done to restore harmony.

Chapter 5 The American Revolution Learning Objectives • • • • • •

Identify the major debates in the Second Continental Congress and their outcomes. Assess the impact of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense on the colonial view of the war with Britain. Explain the reasons for American success in the War for Independence. Identify the new American ideological ideals and compare these with the realities of American society. Assess the impact of the Revolution on republicanism, religion, and slavery. Explain the purpose of the Articles of Confederation.

Chapter Overview Between 1775 and 1787, Americans struggled to win a war, make a peace, and create ideologically sound, stable governments on both the state and the national levels. By the end of the era, there was little doubt that they had accomplished the first two of their goals, but serious questions were being raised concerning the success of the last. Despite problems that would have stopped lesser men, George Washington and his army had been able to successfully keep the British at bay, winning when they could and losing as seldom as possible. Meanwhile, the Continental Congress, blessed with some remarkable diplomats, maintained a foreign policy— the success of which can be seen in the Franco-American alliance of 1778 and the Treaty of Paris of 1783. But once the war ended, the government that the British threat had held together found that its member states’ unwillingness to centralize power created more problems than it solved. Economic dislocation, exemplified by Daniel Shays and his followers, plagued the nation, as many thoughtful men searched for a way to transform Revolutionary rhetoric into reality and to restore order without sacrificing liberty.

Themes • • • •

How the thirteen American colonies were able to win their independence from one of the most powerful nations on earth How the American Revolution was not only a war for independence, but also a struggle to determine the nature of the nation being created How Americans attempted to apply Revolutionary ideology to the building of the nation and to the remaking of society The problems that remained after, or were created by, the American Revolution

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The American Revolution as the first and in many ways the most influential of the Enlightenment-derived uprisings against established orders

Lecture Strategies The Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence deserves fuller coverage in a lecture. Both the events that prodded the Second Continental Congress into approving the radicals’ aim of independence and the contents of the Declaration itself should be drawn to students’ attention. While the persistent hopes for reconciliation among moderate and conservative delegates will help to underscore points about royalism raised in discussion, Jefferson’s appeal to a “candid world” will remind students that Americans conceived of their struggle as part of a wider campaign for liberty. Jefferson’s language in the Declaration merits a close analysis as well, and some time should be devoted to explaining phrases like “self-evident truths,” “pursuit of happiness,” and “all men are created equal.” A good source on the meaning of the Declaration is Garry Wills, Inventing America. James W. Davidson and Mark Lytle also spend a chapter analyzing the document in After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection. At the same time, it might be mentioned that most Americans were probably less interested in Jefferson’s transcendent justifications for revolution than in the second part of the Declaration, which lists the “long train of abuses” prompting the rebellion. In this context, it is interesting to note that Jefferson directed his attack at George III rather than Parliament, reflecting, perhaps, the influence of Paine’s Common Sense. But unlike Paine, Jefferson stopped short of condemning the institution of monarchy itself. Approaches to a Military History of the War While a few students have a keen interest in military history, many dismiss it as a dull exercise in troop movements and battle maneuvers. The way to arouse more general interest on this important topic is with a lecture based on Charles Royster’s A Revolutionary People at War. Royster provides a vivid and detailed picture of the Continental Army—the different reasons that men enlisted, what motivated them to fight rather than to run, relations between officers and the rank-and-file, the life in the camps, the winter at Valley Forge. There is also useful material here on the experience of civilians during the fighting, and relations between civilians and the military. Some military historians describe the American Revolution as a war that the British lost rather than as a war that the rebels won. It might be stressed in lecture that the alliance with France, which widened the rebellion into a European war, made a considerable difference in the fighting in America after 1778—certainly in the timing of the British surrender and perhaps in the outcome of the war itself. The British were forced to divert troops from the American theater to defend their interests elsewhere, and Yorktown secured independence mainly because the British were too beleaguered on other fronts to continue the contest with their former colonies. It might also be pointed out that if, from the vantage point of 1754, American independence seemed improbable, so too was the way in which it was won—through an alliance with France. The fine irony of Protestant American republicans making common cause with their historic enemies, Catholic French monarchists, is epitomized by an event that took place immediately after the British surrender at Yorktown, when both French and American armies attended a Roman Catholic mass to commemorate their victory. IM – 5 | 2 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Teaching Suggestions A Civil War? One effective way to start discussion of this chapter is by asking whether the War for Independence was, in fact, the first American civil war. Many students are under the impression that the Revolution commanded support from all Americans, or that Loyalists comprised only a tiny fraction of the colonial population. Unfortunately, it is impossible to prove or disprove John Adams’s impression that one-third of all Americans were Loyalists and another third were neutral. But most historians now believe that Loyalists, although never dominant in any colony, were numerous nonetheless, and that many, possibly a majority, of all Americans wished to maintain a neutral stance at the beginning of the Revolution and chose sides only when the war came to their neighborhoods. In other words, allegiances altered—and the number of people professing allegiances increased—as the war went on. Indeed, rebel forces were able to prevent the British from taking the South by persuading neutral and even Loyalist civilians that the opponents of the king and Parliament were more likely to restore order than the British. It could also be emphasized in discussion that rebels were not the only “Patriots.” The ranks of Loyalists included large numbers of people who had upheld American rights and liberties during the imperial crisis but feared that independence would produce an internal crisis. In view of the violent sectional tensions and intercolonial disputes and jealousies in the decades before the Revolution, such apprehensions were not unfounded. The War as a Politicizing Process Once students appreciate the extent to which Americans were divided over the Revolution—or indifferent to its outcome—discussion can focus on the ways in which the experience of the war itself was a politicizing process. The arrival of one of the armies or partisan militias in a neighborhood forced men and women to choose sides, often for the first time. It was also the case that service in the Continental Army or the militia constituted a political education for those who enlisted or were drafted. Emphasizing the politicizing effects of the fighting will help students to understand the influences that shaped mutinies in the Continental Army in 1778. It will also underscore the key reason that the British were unable to translate military victories into a restoration of political control: Their troops abused and robbed civilians, gaining a reputation for mistreatment more notorious than that of the rebel forces. The War’s Effect on Different Americans One way of making the experience of the war more direct and immediate for students is by asking them to think about how the Revolution affected different Americans—black slaves, white southerners in the backcountry, poor men and women, women in areas occupied by the British, and so forth. Students always act with some surprise to the irony that the British army was one of the greatest liberators of African American slaves during the conflict. Students might also be encouraged to speculate on the ways that the war affected social roles and social relationships between blacks and whites, richer and poorer Americans, and men and women.

Chapter 6 The Constitution and the New Republic Learning Objectives • • • • •

Describe the impact of the Constitution of 1787 on resolution of the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Describe the role the Federalist Papers played in the debate on the ratification of the Constitution. List the main tenets of Alexander Hamilton’s financial program. Identify the diplomatic crises that the United States faced during its first decade, and the government’s response to these crises. Describe the “Revolution of 1800” and evaluate just how it constituted a “revolution.”

Chapter Overview The period between 1785 and 1800 was one of the most politically productive in American history. During these fifteen years, the nation, guided by some of the most talented men in its history, reorganized itself under a new framework of government and then struggled to define⎯for itself as well as for others⎯just what had been created. It was a period marked by the rise of a party that called itself Federalist, although the philosophy it espoused was, as its opponents were quick to point out, more “nationalist” in emphasis. Arguing that in order to prosper, the United States had best follow the economic and political example of Great Britain, these Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, injected foreign policy into domestic differences and set the stage for one of the earliest and most serious assaults by the government on individual civil liberties. Seeing their less-elitist, pro-agriculture Republican opponents as supporters of the enemy in an undeclared war with France, the Federalists set out to suppress dissent and those who promoted it. The Federalist assault on liberties brought a swift response and so heightened tensions that many feared that the nation could not survive. It was against this background that a shift of power occurred. By end of the decade, the Federalists, who had been the moving force for so many years, were clearly losing ground to the Republicans. This meant that if wounds were to be healed and divisions mended, it would have to be done by the man many believed to be the personification of all that separated the two groups⎯Thomas Jefferson.

Themes • •

How and why the Constitution replaced the Articles of Confederation How differing views of what the nation should become led to the rise of America’s first political parties

• •

The way in which the new United States was able to establish itself as a nation in the eyes of foreign powers and of its own people The rise and fall of the Federalist Party

Lecture Strategies The Confederation and Women The Confederation period warrants a separate lecture on women because of important changes in their lives ushered in by the Revolution. Although women did not gain political rights—and even lost ground in the realm of property rights during the early national period—they did win both greater rights to divorce and expanded educational opportunities, the latter resulting in a steady rise in female literacy. Equally important, the revolutionary generation of women for the first time openly advanced claims to a political role by contending that they shared with men the capacity for civic virtue and patriotic action. From those claims, thinkers like Mercy Otis Warren elaborated the notion of “republican motherhood” that asserted the crucial political influence of women within their households. All of these developments are an important prologue to the later development of feminist thought and agitation for women’s rights. An excellent source is Linda Kerber’s Women of the Republic. The Early State Constitutions The early state constitutions should also receive fuller coverage, and here the best information can be found in the relevant chapters of Gordon Wood’s The Creation of the American Republic. A lecture on the state constitutions and the significance with which they were endowed by the revolutionaries will assist students in seeing the connection between social realities and political behavior in the Confederation period. Because of their social experience as colonials, most Americans did not think “nationally” in 1776. The localism of their outlook and interests, reinforced by the belief that large republics inevitably collapsed into despotism or anarchy, concentrated political attention on state constitutions. It should be emphasized that the founders started thinking through federalism only during the postwar period, not during the Revolution itself. The Formation of the Constitution The formation of the Constitution offers a number of lecture topics. A lively description of debates and delegates is available in Clinton Rossiter’s 1787: The Grand Convention and Christopher Collier and James Lincoln Collier, Decision in Philadelphia, while Forrest McDonald’s most recent book, Novus Ordo Seclorum, provides an excellent discussion of the intellectual origins of the Constitution. Some of the most recent scholarship on specific topics relating to the framing of the Constitution—slavery, religion, the ratification debates, and Antifederalism—appears in Richard Beeman, Stephen Botein, and Edward Carter, eds., Beyond Confederation. In lectures as well as in discussion, the novelty of the Constitution and its departures from the republicanism of 1776 might be emphasized, as well as the ways in which debates at the Constitutional Convention prefigured political controversies that would survive and intensify into the nineteenth century.

The Hamilton and Jefferson Rivalry A lecture on the growing conflict between Hamilton and Jefferson brings the advantage of combining issues of ideology and substance with personality. Hamilton’s character, his political thought, and his vision of how America should develop are all interesting topics, since he really stood apart from the rest of the founding generation in his political philosophy. John Miller’s biography is an older treatment; Jacob Cooke’s is more recent (both are titled Alexander Hamilton). One of the most striking things about Hamilton’s program is that it split the nationalist leaders of the 1780s, so that Hamilton’s previously close ally, James Madison, quickly assumed leadership of the opposition. One way to explain this development is to examine the specific parts of Hamilton’s program, which groups his policies aided, which groups they hurt, and why. Another interesting question is the role of personalities, particularly the rivalry between Hamilton and Jefferson, in the rise of political parties. You might discuss why Jefferson was a more reluctant party leader than was Madison. Impact of Foreign Affairs Also critical to the formation of parties in this society were foreign affairs, particularly the impact of the French Revolution on American politics and diplomacy. Since students may well be a bit hazy on the events of the Revolution, it might be useful to retell the story in outline, in lecture (at least the movement from moderate reform to the Terror, perhaps narrated from the point of view of the news traveling across the Atlantic, bit by bit, each new revelation more violent and surprising than the last). One way to approach this question is to examine why the French Revolution, which Americans initially hailed, became so controversial, and the opposing views that members of each party took toward it. The Revolution thus became a kind of litmus test—a useful indicator of party sentiments. As events across the Atlantic became increasingly entangled with domestic politics, matters came to a head in the bitter struggle over Jay’s Treaty. Attention might be given to why Jay’s Treaty, in which even Washington was disappointed, was so controversial, and how the struggle over its ratification precipitated the formation of party organizations. Unlike earlier debates, divisions in Congress on virtually every important issue now followed party lines. The Dilemma of the Federalists The 1796 election heralded the emergence (but not the acceptance) of the two-party system. During the next four years, John Adams confronted serious problems abroad and increasing turmoil and dissent at home. A discussion of Adams’s presidency could conclude with an examination of the causes for the Federalist Party’s defeat in 1800, the significance of Jefferson’s triumph, and the Federalist legacy. The comment of Noah Webster that the Federalists failed to pay sufficient heed to the power of public opinion in a republic could be developed more fully. In addition, the defection of the South and urban workers from the Federalist coalition can be analyzed in terms of the party’s economic program and social policies. You may wish to conclude by highlighting the irony of the Federalist accomplishments. Although the Washington and Adams administrations had set the Republic on a stable course, the Federalists were convinced doom awaited. In the short run, they could not see that the peaceful passing of power from one party to another, without the overthrow of the framework of government, was a crucial test that had been passed.

Teaching Suggestions A Revolt against “Patriarchy” and “Aristocracy”? It is important to convey to students that most revolutionary political leaders understood equality in terms of a dismantling of the ancien régime and eradicating artificial hereditary legal privilege. Most were strangers to the modern notion of enhancing equality by raising the bottom of society, offering opportunity to previously disadvantaged groups. Students should be encouraged to explore why most members of the revolutionary generation conceived of equality conservatively, particularly since there were so few vestiges of the ancien régime in America. Discussions might also address why the understanding of what constitutes artificial privilege has widened over time, or what understanding of equality is embodied in the proposed Equal Rights Amendment or affirmative-action programs. The work of Mary Wollstonecraft should also provoke lively discussion. Antifederalists at the Constitutional Convention There are any number of approaches to discussing the Constitutional Convention, but one promising tack can be pursued by focusing on the Antifederalist opposition. What would be the response today if a similar convention were convened for revising the present Constitution, and if that body departed from its stated purpose as radically as the delegates did in 1787? Were the Antifederalists truer than the framers to the republican principles of the Revolution, with their concern to limit executive power, to preserve the sovereignty of the states, and to protect individual rights from encroachment by the government? Both Cecilia Kenyon and Herbert J. Storing have published excellent collections of Antifederalist writings, from which selections can easily be adapted for collateral readings. Ratification bears consideration as well. Why, in so short a time after the Revolution, were Americans willing to approve a centralized government with strong executive powers? Answering that question will help to impress upon students the extent of uncertainty and disruption during the Confederation period.

Chapter 7 The Jeffersonian Era Learning Objectives • • • • • •

Assess the impact of the Second Great Awakening on women, African Americans, and Native Americans. Discuss early American industrialism. Describe Jefferson as president. Identify American responses to the Louisiana Purchase. Describe the foreign affairs issues that preoccupied Jefferson during his presidency, and the influence that these events had on his political philosophy. Describe the consequences of the War of 1812.

Chapter Overview The period covered in this chapter was marked by definition and expansion. Having achieved political independence, Americans struggled to achieve cultural independence as well, and this search for self-identity touched almost every phase of the nation’s life. “American” tastes in music, literature, and art developed. Religious bodies with ties to colonial ways declined as the Second Great Awakening swept America. The global process of industrialization began to have an impact in the United States, while technology, unrestrained by mercantile regulations, expanded to solve problems that were particularly American. Meanwhile American politics began to take on characteristics and respond to needs with little precedent in European systems. At the center of this activity, at times leading it and at times being led, was Thomas Jefferson, a president whose versatility seemed to mirror the diversity of the nation. A pragmatic politician, Jefferson was also a committed idealist⎯one who deserves to be the symbol of the age that bears his name. The War of 1812 did more than test the army and navy of the United States⎯it tested the nation’s ability to survive deep internal divisions that threatened America’s independence as surely as did the forces of Great Britain. Hoping to keep his nation out of war, Jefferson followed a policy that kept the peace but raised fears among his political enemies. The rest of the nation, feeling that Britain was insulting its sovereignty, rallied to the president. In the end, these divisions, although they hampered the war effort, did not survive the conflict, and the United States entered the postwar period with a new sense of nationalism.

Themes • • •

How Americans expressed their cultural independence The impact of industrialism on the United States and its people The role that Thomas Jefferson played in shaping the American character IM – 7 | 1

• • •

How the American people and their political system responded to the nation’s physical expansion How American ambitions and attitudes came into conflict with British policies and led to the War of 1812 How Americans were able to “win” the war and the peace that followed

Lecture Strategies Western Expansion from the Native American Perspective While expansion is usually examined from the white perspective, it is always interesting, and crucial, to consider the subject from the Indian perspective as well. Students might be asked to compare the Prophet and Tecumseh as leaders, and evaluate the support each one received. Could Tecumseh’s pan-Indian movement have succeeded, or was it already too late? How did the lack of Indian unity create problems for Tecumseh, as it did along the Chesapeake in the early seventeenth century or in New York during the eighteenth? The discussion could also consider the parallels between the Prophet’s religious movement and frontier revivalism. The social pressures that accompanied these religious outbreaks (anxieties over changes caused by the intruding market economy, excess consumption of alcohol) could be fruitfully discussed. The War of 1812 and Its Consequences Since the War of 1812 was a minor affair militarily, it is often glided over, yet discussion of the conflict demonstrates the extent of American unpreparedness, the ineffectiveness of the government, and the critical victories won by the American forces. In many ways, the war illustrated the inadequacy of Jefferson’s principles of limited government and drastic economizing. The lessons of the war and the reasons for the poor American performance are good topics for consideration. However indecisive the war was militarily, the ways in which it resolved some of the problems of the Revolutionary era deserve attention. Officially the war resolved nothing; the Treaty of Ghent reflected the desire of both sides simply to end the conflict. But in reality the war and its aftermath marked a turning point in American history. Diplomatically, the shift can be seen in the symbolic importance of the agreements with Great Britain, the Transcontinental Treaty, and the Monroe Doctrine. Buffeted by the 25-year struggle between France and England for supremacy in Europe, the United States was at last, with the end of the Second War for American Independence, able to turn away from its instinctively European orientation. A new generation of younger leaders reflected that priority. Perhaps the most significant legacy of the Jeffersonian era is that the republic had survived what might well have been a rockier transition, both domestically and internationally, and now looked forward to the future.

Teaching Suggestions Semi-Subsistence versus Commercializing Economies It is important to distinguish the differences between the subsistence and commercial economies in the United States of the 1790s, and to explain their relevance to the political divisions that IM – 7 | 2 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

emerged during the decade. Students should understand that the commercial world included not only the cities but commercial farming areas as well; and that the occasional shorthand reference to “subsistence” farming usually means, in reality, semi-subsistence. Artisans and merchants in cities and towns were obviously dependent on commercial networks for their survival, but increasingly farmers were incorporated into these networks as well. Differences between the Federalists and Republicans The differences between the two parties raise several potentially fruitful avenues of inquiry. Discussions could focus on differences in ideology, leadership, policies, and constituencies. Which social groups rallied to each party, and why? How was each party’s base of support influenced by the specific policies it advocated? What changes occurred in each party’s support between 1796 and 1800? What were the causes of these changes? Parties can also be analyzed in terms of their respective ideologies. How did each draw on the ideology of republicanism and the American Revolution? A useful question to explore is the role of ideology versus economic selfinterest in the creation of the parties. Emphasizing the role of ideology in the politics of the 1790s not only helps clarify differences between the parties, it provides important insights into the overcharged political rhetoric of the decade. Discussion of the Alien and Sedition Acts would be especially useful here.

Chapter 8 Varieties of American Nationalism Learning Objectives • • • • •

Explain how the War of 1812 stimulated the national economy. List the reasons for the rise of sectional differences in this period, and evaluate how well the attempts to resolve these differences worked. Describe the “Era of Good Feelings.” Explain the reasons for the proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine, and describe the impact this has had on U.S. relations with other nations in the hemisphere. Explain the significance of Andrew Jackson’s presidential victory in 1828.

Chapter Overview After the War of 1812, a new spirit of nationalism and expansion swept the nation. Party and sectional divisions fell by the wayside during the “era of good feelings,” with a president who was determined to heal old wounds, but this spirit of unity did not last. Sectional tensions reappeared during the Missouri debates, which brought the issue of slavery and its expansion to the forefront. The immediate question⎯which section would control the Senate⎯found resolution through the Missouri Compromise, but the underlying problem proved more difficult to settle. The Missouri debates revealed that some of the nation saw the addition of slave states as a threat to the Union, as southern politicians (and many of their northern counterparts) had come to equate the expansion of slavery with the expansion of southern political power. Divisions within the Republican Party led to the appearance of a new two-party system, which temporarily seemed to overshadow sectional concerns. With the election of Andrew Jackson to the presidency in 1828, the nation again seemed concerned more with unity than division. How long this would last was another question.

Themes • • •

How postwar expansion shaped the nation during the “era of good feelings” How it was that sectionalism and nationalism could exist at the same time and in the same country How the “era of good feelings” came to an end and a new, two-party system emerged

Lecture Strategies Note: These first two strategies are also included for chapter 10; they work equally well in both. Causes of Economic Growth Because students often find it difficult to integrate structural economic themes with the more personal flow of American history, it might be useful to set out in a lecture the primary causes of economic growth, and why that growth came after 1815 and not before. Prior to this time, American economic growth was tied to international trade, limited not only by the vicissitudes of Europe but by limitations on American production. Because of the high price of transporting goods overland, most of the United States was not integrated into this European trade network in any case. After 1815, however, the United States developed an internal market that consumed increasing quantities of foodstuffs, cotton, and manufactured goods produced in this country. Growth became self-sustaining—population growth expanded the domestic market, which in turn stimulated economic expansion. The creation of this domestic market depended on government policies (the new nationalism), the cotton trade, and the development of new forms of transportation. You could note the role of all of these in creating a domestic market. Then, too, the new nationalism that flourished with the War of 1812 represented both the ideas of a new generation and the realization that a greater government role in the economy was needed than had been envisioned by Jefferson and Madison. The importance of John Marshall and the Supreme Court could be highlighted here. Lowell Textile Mills Some of the earliest and most prominent factories were those of the textile industry. Lowell, Massachusetts, provides an excellent case study of factory development. It was conceived as a model community, based on paternalism and profits, which would alleviate the harshness of industrial communities in England (see the illuminating discussion of this point in John Kasson’s Civilizing the Machine). As such, it became a stop on many tourists’ itineraries, Dickens among them, as well as the backcountry member of Congress from Tennessee, Davy Crockett. It is important, however, to show how Lowell changed over time, with work becoming harder, wages lower, and company concern for workers’ lives minimal. Lowell in 1860 was quite different from its situation in 1830. Thomas Dublin’s Women at Work traces these changes from the perspective of the women in the mills. For a comparison with Lowell, Paul Faler’s Mechanics and Manufactures in the Early Industrial Revolution looks at Lynn shoemakers. Faler’s book concludes with an excellent discussion of the largest strike in America before the Civil War (in 1860), in which many women participated. Impact of the Market Revolution on Society A worthwhile topic is the impact of the market on society at large (Charles Sellers’s The Market Revolution discusses many of these changes from a decidedly hostile perspective). European travelers’ accounts contain much information on the American penchant for speed, the rampant materialism, and the belief in progress. (See Edward Pessen’s discussion of travelers’ accounts in Jacksonian America, including descriptions of food bolted at meals.) Economic growth also altered social structure, creating greater discrepancies of wealth. Crèvecoeur’s vision of America as a land of citizens relatively equal in status and wealth gave way in the wake of the market to an emphasis on opportunity. A good lecture topic is the nature and extent of social mobility, IM – 8 | 2 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

which might be contrasted with popular beliefs (the rags-to-riches mythology of the self-made American, which will reappear in the novels of Horatio Alger in the text’s Chapter 17). The market economy brought with it the promise of financial rewards, but it also generated fear of failure. The swings of the economy meant individuals no longer felt they completely controlled their own lives. Driven on by the quest for wealth, Americans became caught up in a vast, impersonal national and international economic matrix. American society at mid-century was remarkably different from the static, leisurely society of when Jefferson was elected.

Teaching Suggestions Anxiety about Factories Students might be asked why Americans were uneasy about factories (Jefferson’s fear of cities and a propertyless urban proletariat could be noted). Lowell was designed to alleviate the fear that industrialization would undermine the social foundation of the Republic. Furthermore, because we live in an industrial society and take many features of this type of economic organization for granted, students may not appreciate the difficulty of this shift for the first generation of factory workers, and the sense of loss they often felt. Yet the labor movement remained weak. You might ask about the difficulties confronted by unions and the problems workers faced in organizing and waging strikes. Discussion might also focus on the fact that many early factory workers were women, and how this altered their self-perception and place in society. The Costs and Benefits of the Market The market brought opportunity and wealth, as well as anxiety, more complex social structures, a loss of individual autonomy, and the decline of a sense of community. You might refer to Crèvecoeur’s vision of America, and how it had been transformed by these economic changes. As a way to integrate the various developments discussed in this chapter, students could be asked why Americans of this period seem more “modern,” how they seem more like us, and how their society seems more like our society than that of Jefferson’s time. Ask students how the roots of their own society and values stem from the fundamental social and economic transformation that occurred in the quarter-century after 1815.

Chapter 9 Jacksonian America Learning Objectives • • • • •

Describe the political philosophy of Andrew Jackson and how this was reflected in the policies and actions of his administration. Explain who benefited from Jacksonian democracy, and who suffered. Explain the evolution of white attitudes toward Native Americans and their impact on the Indian Removal Act and Trail of Tears. Identify who supported and who opposed the Bank of the United States; explain their reasons and which side you think was right. Describe how Andrew Jackson changed the office of the presidency.

Chapter Overview At first glance, Andrew Jackson seems a study in contradictions: an advocate of states’ rights who forced South Carolina to back down in the nullification controversy; a champion of the West who vetoed legislation that would have opened easy access to part of the area and who issued the specie circular, which brought the region’s “flush times” to a disastrous halt; a nationalist who allowed Georgia to ignore the Supreme Court; and a defender of majority rule who vetoed the Bank after the majority’s representatives, the Congress, had passed it. Perhaps he was, as his enemies argued, simply out for himself. But in the end, few would argue that Andrew Jackson was not a popular president, if not so much for what he did as for what he was. Jackson symbolized what Americans perceived (or wished) themselves to be⎯defiant, bold, independent. He was someone with whom they could identify. The image may have been a bit contrived, but it was still a meaningful image. Thus, Jackson was reelected by an overwhelming majority and was able to transfer that loyalty to his successor, a man who hardly lived up to the image. But all of this left a curious question unanswered: Was this new democracy voting for leaders whose programs they favored or, rather, for images that could be altered and manipulated almost at will? The answer was essential for the future of American politics, and the election of 1840 gave the nation a clue.

Themes • • •

How mass participation became the hallmark of the American political system The growing tension between nationalism and states’ rights The rise of the Whig Party as an alternative to Andrew Jackson and the Democrats

Lecture Strategies Symbolic and Politic Significance of Andrew Jackson One or more lectures could be given on Andrew Jackson and his impact on American politics. Jackson is, of course, an extremely colorful individual, and few presidents have been as intensely loved and hated. A charismatic figure, he was important as a symbol of democracy, as an activist president, a strong nationalist, and as both a southerner and a westerner. Robert Remini’s threevolume biography is always a good source for fleshing out the color in Jackson’s career, and John William Ward’s Andrew Jackson: Symbol for an Age is a fascinating explication of cultural symbols. This could be followed by a more concrete examination of the policies Jackson pursued as president. The nullification crisis could be treated from the viewpoint of both Jackson and South Carolina (William Freehling’s Prelude to Civil War is especially good on the latter). The basic question of federal authority and states’ rights would become increasingly important in the years before the Civil War. The Bank War Jackson is also at the center of the storm over the role of banking in the Republic. An analysis of the topic would include Biddle’s role in the struggle over the Bank’s recharter, why Jackson (and those who followed him) feared and opposed the Bank, and the economic and political consequences of the Bank’s destruction. (Remini has the best short treatment on this, in a separate book, Andrew Jackson and the Bank War.) More than any other question, the issue of banking defined the essence of the two parties’ popular appeals and support. Harry Watson, Liberty and Power, is a good introduction to this and other important controversies in the recent historical literature.

Teaching Suggestions Relationship between Politics and Economics It is fruitful to treat the interrelationship of social and political change from several perspectives. One way to open a discussion on this theme is to ask students about the relationship between equality and opportunity in this period. It is important that they understand why the opening of opportunity (treated in the previous chapter) inevitably undermined the equality of condition celebrated by Crèvecoeur. You might also raise the question of how economic concerns shaped politics in this period (note the importance of the panics in 1819 and 1837 in the development of the Jacksonian party system), and discuss to what extent Jacksonian politics revolved around the question of the proper role of the government in the economy. Political Equality after 1820—Inclusion and Exclusion The new democratic political system also merits a lecture. What changes occurred after 1820 that were associated with the rise of democracy? How was the Jacksonian political system different from that of the Federalist-Jeffersonian era? It is important, too, for students to understand why certain groups—Indians, blacks, and women—were excluded from this system.

Andrew Jackson’s Significance in American History A look at Jackson’s broader significance in American history may be warranted. Jackson came to symbolize the new democratic system, and he skillfully portrayed himself as the champion of the common people. Does the fact that Jackson was a wealthy slaveowner invalidate this identification? Students could also evaluate Jackson’s political skills in the handling of three major events in his presidency: Indian removal, the nullification crisis, and the Bank War. Certainly his forceful temperament and approach infused the institution of the presidency with new power. In what sense does the modern presidency derive from Jackson’s conception of the office, rather than from that of Washington or Jefferson? The 1840 Presidential Election One way to conclude is by considering the significance of the 1840 presidential campaign. It has been called the first modern presidential campaign in our history. In what ways does that campaign resemble those of our own time? How did the 1840 campaign differ from that of 1824? There are many similarities between Jackson and Harrison: Both were popular military heroes, had limited political records before becoming president, were quite wealthy, and had popular images as champions of the people. Students might discuss the role of symbols in presidential elections (again, the 1840 campaign provides excellent examples). Does the use of such symbols mean issues had no significance? You might note that the two parties took sharply contrasting positions on banking and elucidate the significance of this point, both in terms of public policy and popular support. It should also be remembered that the 1840 campaign took place during a serious depression. You could ask whether in hard times voters are likely to be more interested in campaign pageantry or economic programs. Michael Holt’s essay on the 1840 election in Political Parties and American Political Development from the Age of Jackson to the Age of Lincoln presents interesting material on this theme.

Chapter 10 America’s Economic Revolution Learning Objectives • • • • • •

Detail the political responses to immigration in mid-nineteenth century America, and consider possible parallels to immigration today. Describe the major innovations in transportation and communications in the 1820s and 1830s and their effect on the U.S. economy. Explain why the rail system supplanted the canal system as the nation’s major transportation network. Describe how the industrial workforce changed between the 1820s and 1840s, including the effects on American society. Describe how the industrial revolution and factory system altered family life and the social and economic roles of women. Detail how agriculture in the North changed as a result of industrialization and urbanization.

Chapter Overview After the War of 1812, a combination of rapid population growth, the expansion of communication and transportation systems, and the development of an agricultural system sufficient to feed an urban population gave rise to the American industrial revolution. The two sections of the nation most affected by these changes were the Northeast and the Northwest, which were drawn closer together as a result. Canals, railroads, and the telegraph made it easier to move goods and information. Business grew as corporations began to shape the world of trade and commerce. Technological innovations helped expand industries as the factory system began to replace the artisan tradition. In the Northwest, agriculture expanded to meet the increasing demand for farm products. All these developments had profound implications for American men and women, both in the ways they worked and in their family lives.

Themes • • •

How the American population changed between 1820 and 1840, and the effect this had on the nation’s economic, social, and political systems How the dramatic economic growth of the 1820s and 1830s was accomplished How the rapid development of the economy and society of the North influenced the rest of the nation

Lecture Strategies Note: Both these strategies were included with chapter 8, but they work equally well here. Causes of Economic Growth Because students often find it difficult to integrate structural economic themes with the more personal flow of American history, it might be useful to set out in a lecture the primary causes of economic growth, and why that growth came after 1815 and not before. Prior to this time, American economic growth was tied to international trade, limited not only by the vicissitudes of Europe but by limitations on American production. Because of the high price of transporting goods overland, most of the United States was not integrated into this European trade network in any case. After 1815, however, the United States developed an internal market that consumed increasing quantities of foodstuffs, cotton, and manufactured goods produced in this country. Growth became self-sustaining—population growth expanded the domestic market, which in turn stimulated economic expansion. The creation of this domestic market depended on government policies (the new nationalism), the cotton trade, and the development of new forms of transportation. You could note the role of all of these in creating a domestic market. Then, too, the new nationalism that flourished with the War of 1812 represented both the ideas of a new generation and the realization that a greater government role in the economy was needed than had been envisioned by Jefferson and Madison. The importance of John Marshall and the Supreme Court could be highlighted here. Lowell Textile Mills Some of the earliest and most prominent factories were those of the textile industry. Lowell, Massachusetts, provides an excellent case study of factory development. It was conceived as a model community, based on paternalism and profits, which would alleviate the harshness of industrial communities in England (see the illuminating discussion of this point in John Kasson’s Civilizing the Machine). As such, it became a stop on many tourists’ itineraries, Dickens among them, as well as the backcountry member of Congress from Tennessee, Davy Crockett. It is important, however, to show how Lowell changed over time, with work becoming harder, wages lower, and company concern for workers’ lives minimal. Lowell in 1860 was quite different from its situation in 1830. Thomas Dublin’s Women at Work traces these changes from the perspective of the women in the mills. For a comparison with Lowell, Paul Faler’s Mechanics and Manufactures in the Early Industrial Revolution looks at Lynn shoemakers. Faler’s book concludes with an excellent discussion of the largest strike in America before the Civil War (in 1860), in which many women participated.

Teaching Suggestions Immigration and Nativism In addition to discussion of the impact of railroads on economic development, a lecture might also treat the unprecedented wave of immigration experienced by the United States, stimulated by upheavals and distress in Europe. The vast numbers involved, especially in proportion to the population, provoked fears among many Americans because of the immigrants’ different cultures and because, for the first time, large numbers of Catholics were entering the United States. Philip IM – 10 | 2 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Taylor’s The Distant Magnet is by far the best available survey of the subject. Students may also underestimate the depth of nativist sentiments and fears. Ray Billington’s book, The Protestant Crusade, though written three-quarters of a century ago, provides good concrete detail. Students can relate (especially if the comparison is drawn) to the soap opera sensationalism of that era’s Awful Disclosures of Maria Monk, whose lurid revelations would shame the current crop of tabloid television news programs. The reasons for the nativist movement—and the way it draws on the economic and social dislocation of the times—should be stressed. Whigs, Know-Nothings, and Republicans The emergence of the nativist movement sets the stage for the political realignment of the 1850s, since the Know-Nothings’ meteoric rise, along with the debate over the Kansas-Nebraska bill, spurred the collapse of the Whigs and the beginning of realignment. In tracing the history of the Know-Nothings, note how they, too, were divided and eventually destroyed by sectional issues. It is important to explain why the Republican Party, and not the rival Know-Nothings, eventually replaced the Whigs in the two-party system. The nature of the early Republican Party, the difficulties it confronted in its early history, and its sudden emergence in 1856 as a viable political party are worth examining. William Gienapp’s The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852–1856, is a detailed account; it might be mined for a case study, such as the example of the elections of 1855, in which the Republicans won in Ohio by making a deal with the KnowNothings, but lost in Massachusetts and New York when they did not. The Nativist vote was pivotal. The importance of the violence and voting frauds in Kansas and the caning of Charles Sumner might also be discussed. Republicans exploited the situation in Kansas particularly well, and made effective use of Bleeding Kansas in their propaganda. The same propaganda also strengthened the negative stereotype of southerners among many northern voters. The discussion of Republican propaganda suggests the importance of image and ideology in the developing sectional split; and a lecture might elaborate fruitfully on the counter-images fostered: the Slave Power that the Republicans stressed (whose roots can be found in Revolutionary ideology), and the “Black Republicans” who inspired fear among southerners. That ideology, too, had its Revolutionary roots. Michael Holt explores both in The Political Crisis of the 1850s. The “Cult of Domesticity” The question of a “women’s sphere” may provoke useful debate. In an age when feminism is more commonly taken for granted and career choices are wider, students may disdain all too easily the notion of a “cult of domesticity.” Discussion should try to bring out why the ideal arises at this time, and the way it drew upon not just the revivals but also the market revolution. In what ways does the cult of domesticity liberate women? In what ways does it restrain or control them? Domesticity was not imposed on women by men, but did it have the effect of keeping women down and making them less threatening? You might also ask why so few women responded to the women’s rights movement, why it made only limited headway before the Civil War, and why men so strongly opposed women’s suffrage. Discussion might also consider how the ideal of domesticity contributes to the changing nature of the American family in this period. How is it different from the family of the previous century? In what ways does it seem modern?

Chapter 11 Cotton, Slavery, and the Old South Learning Objectives • • • •

Explain how cotton, not industry, came to dominate the South. Describe how slavery functioned, from economic and social perspectives. Contrast the effect of slavery on white slaveowners, on nonslaveowning whites, on free blacks, and on slaves themselves. Explain how slaves managed to maintain a distinct African American culture.

Chapter Overview The North and South differed in many ways, but none proved more significant than the South’s staple-crop economy and the labor force that worked it. Cotton (and in some areas tobacco, rice, and sugar) created a system of business and commerce that made Dixie different from the rest of the nation, and the most obvious difference was the region’s reliance on slavery. More than an economic system, slavery was a critical, creative force in a social order that included planters, their ladies, plain folk (men and women), and, of course, the slaves themselves. The result was a complex society that has often been romanticized and frequently misunderstood. Bound together by race and by a firm belief in a patriarchal, hierarchical system, whites of different classes and genders shared many of the same beliefs and wanted many of the same things. At the same time, there were significant differences among members of the white community, differences that were not always apparent to the casual observer. African Americans, also united by race and in most cases by slavery, found a variety of ways to maintain their dignity and, in so doing, managed to create an enduring cultural system that transcended their condition and enabled them to endure the hardships they faced.

Themes • • •

How economic power shifted from the “upper” to the “lower” South, and the impact this had on southern social and political development How society in the South developed in both myth and reality The nature of the South’s “peculiar institution” and the effect it had on the southern way of life for both whites and blacks

Lecture Strategies Myth of the Old South One way to begin a lecture would be to examine the myth of the Old South, which constitutes the impression most students have of what the South was like before the Civil War. This myth puts the plantation at the center of southern life, and assumes that the typical white was a slaveowner and a member of the planter class. It posits a three-class social structure, with elegant and refined planters (representing most whites) at the top, their obedient slaves, and the despised poor whites. While this myth continues to dominate the popular imagination today, it began before the Civil War and, most interestingly, northern writers actively contributed to its creation. The refined, leisurely, hospitable South became a counterpoise to the materialistic, fast-paced North. See William R. Taylor’s Cavalier and Yankee for the literary origins of this idea. Southern Class Structure Having traced the myth of the Old South, a number of topics can be examined to show the inaccuracy of this view. The southern class structure, in which a majority of whites were yeoman farmers who did not own a single slave, is important to stress. The planter class and the differences between the Tidewater and the frontier are also relevant. Important work has been done on women and plantation mistresses that could be discussed; Elizabeth Fox-Genovese’s Within the Plantation Household examines both white and black women, while Susan Lebsock’s Free Women of Petersburg is an excellent counterpoint looking at town life. In discussing Southern class structure, the role of slavery should be considered, both in determining class lines and in dampening white divisions. The lack of class conflict and opposition to slavery and slaveowners in the South, especially in view of the economic disadvantages of nonslaveholding whites, is a crucial issue. Predominance of Agriculture in the South In the South (unlike the North), agriculture remained predominant before the Civil War, the consequences of which deserve elaboration. The rural nature of the South—the lack of urbanization and industrialization—encouraged a continuing agrarian culture. Planters remained at the top of southern society, and rural life was considered superior. At the same time it is important to dispel the idea that cotton was grown everywhere in the South. The importance and geographical distribution of the five main staple crops (tobacco, sugar, rice, cotton, and hemp) should be noted. But it should also be noted that other crops, like corn and wheat, were important and widely grown by non-slaveowners. The differences in the production of staple crops might be examined. Cotton was the largest, but was confined to the lower South; sugar and rice were specialized crops that required large capital investment; cotton in the lower South, and tobacco in the upper South, were the cash crops grown by yeoman farmers and small slaveowners. You might also examine why slavery produced a high level of per capita wealth among whites, yet retarded southern economic growth. The Institution of Slavery The other important topic to consider is the institution of slavery, both as a labor system and as a means of regulating race relations. How masters organized and controlled slave labor and the general treatment slaves received might be discussed; good material is available in Kenneth IM – 11 | 2 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Stampp’s classic, The Peculiar Institution, as well as in the more recent study by James Oakes, The Ruling Race (Oakes, in his chapter “Factories in the Fields,” makes clear that many planters actively embraced the capitalistic economy as a means of maximizing profits). One could then shift to the black experience and explore the nature of slave resistance, the degree to which slaves created their own culture, and the idea of a slave community. The best sources here are John Blassingame’s The Slave Community, Albert Raboteau’s Slave Religion, Charles Joyner’s Down by the Riverside, and Eugene Genovese’s Roll, Jordan, Roll. Possible topics include the nature and significance of slave religion, folk tales, and family structure. You might wish to give a lecture on comparative slavery, drawing on studies of slavery in other New World societies to demonstrate what was unique and different about slavery in the United States. In this regard, Carl Degler’s Neither Black Nor White focuses on a comparison between the two largest slave cultures in the Americas, those of the United States and of Brazil. The Pro-Slavery Argument One might conclude this section by examining the rise of the pro-slavery argument and perhaps contrasting it with abolitionism. It is important to get across to students the various ways southerners defended slavery, including the use of violence and intimidation to silence critics at home, the unity of southern politics on the issue, and why southerners resorted to such tactics to preserve white solidarity. Non-slaveholders as well as slaveholders rallied to the defense of the institution as it came under increasing attack after 1830.

Teaching Suggestions Diversity or Unity? One important question to ask is whether diversity or unity characterized the Old South. Or to rephrase the question: Why, despite so many factors working toward diversity, did a sense of regional unity develop? You can approach the question of diversity in many ways: by examining the class structure of the Old South, the nature of southern society, and its geographic and agricultural diversity. Then the question of why, in the face of these differences, the South developed a sense of regional identity and unity might be introduced—or you may wish to save the issue for the end of the discussion, after you have fully explored other aspects of southern culture and society. White Southern Identity Why white southerners developed a regional identity and sense of psychological unity is a major question posed by the history of the Old South. It is useful here to consider why such an identity developed. Because of the Civil War, the tendency is to emphasize southern uniqueness, but you might also ask what the South shared in common with the rest of the nation: In what sense was southern culture American, and in what sense was it southern? Approaches to Slavery The issue of slavery, of course, is central. Slavery is what set the South apart from the North; and it is important to get across to students the manifold ways, both broad and subtle, in which slavery shaped southern society and the lives of not only southern blacks but southern whites, IM – 11 | 3 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

including the majority who owned no slaves. Topics that might be considered include the prominence of agriculture in the South, slavery’s impact on southern economic development, southern values, and class structure, all discussed in the text. You might ask whether slavery benefited the South as a whole and, if not, why non-slaveholders continued to support the institution. On this matter, you might explore the dream of social mobility, the belief in the need for white unity, and especially the role of racism. In discussion, it is important also to consider the meaning of slavery for African Americans. One way to approach this question is by looking at the ideas of slave culture and a slave community. Did slaves develop their own culture? How was it different from white culture? What pressures did slavery put on enslaved African Americans, and how did they cope with these pressures? It has been noted that slavery bound the two races together. You might also discuss in what sense black slaves were also southerners. What did the two races share in common, and what separated them? You might also explore the problem of slave resistance. What forms did slave resistance take? Why were revolts and acts of violence unusual? What evidence is there that slaves were not content?

Chapter 12 Antebellum Culture and Reform Learning Objectives • • • •

Explain the phenomenon of romanticism, and describe how it was expressed in American literature and art. Describe how religion influenced reform movements, and in turn, how these movements affected religion. List the goals of the nineteenth-century women’s rights movement and assess the movement’s success. Detail the arguments and strategies used by both abolitionists and their pro-slavery opponents.

Chapter Overview By the 1820s America was caught up in the spirit of a new age, and Americans, who had never been shy in proclaiming their nation’s promise and potential, concluded that the time for action had come. Excited by the nation’s technological advances and territorial expansion, many set as their goal the creation of a society worthy to be part of it all. What resulted was an outpouring of reform movements, the like of which had not been seen before. Unrestrained by entrenched conservative institutions and attitudes, these reformers attacked society’s ills wherever they found them, producing in the process a list of evils so long that many were convinced that a complete reorganization of society was necessary. Most, however, were content to concentrate on their own particular cause; thus, at least at first, the movements were many and varied. But in time, most reformers seemed to focus on one evil that stood out above the rest. The “peculiar institution,” slavery, denied all the Enlightenment ideals for which they stood⎯equality, opportunity, and, above all, freedom. With world opinion on their side, slavery became the supreme cause.

Themes • • •

How American intellectuals developed a national culture committed to the liberation of the human spirit How this commitment to the liberation of the human spirit led to and reinforced the reform impulse of the period How the crusade against slavery became the most powerful element in this reform movement

Lecture Strategies American Romanticism The second stream feeding the quest for perfection—romanticism—is equally difficult to present succinctly. Paul F. Boller’s American Transcendentalism provides one starting place; Gay Wilson Allen’s biography, Waldo Emerson, another. Emerson, in his own way, exhibits the tension between liberation and unconventionality with a certain complacency. But students should understand that, while his sentiments at times could be reduced to homilies suitable for the almanac, his revolt against Unitarianism was genuine, and shocking. The various utopian communities that formed in this period could also serve as a topic for a lecture, illustrating the more organized social efforts at achieving utopian perfection. Humanitarian Reform Movements Humanitarian reform movements attracted more support and had greater influence on society. You might choose several examples and examine their history, their sources of support, and their significance. (Alice Felt Tyler’s Freedom’s Ferment is the hoary standby; see also Ronald Walters, American Reformers, for a more current perspective.) It would be possible to explore the high goals set by these movements, with their incredible optimism, as well as the centrifugal tendency toward “ultraism.” This shift is most apparent in the abolitionist movement; its origins lie in the earlier, milder form of antislavery. Garrison is the pivotal figure here. But you could note there were many other abolitionist leaders, and discuss the types of men and women who joined the movement. The issue of race is significant: the racial views of abolitionists; free blacks’ support of the movement and their growing estrangement from white abolitionists; and the reality of the entrenched racism the abolitionists confronted. The abolitionists did not limit their attack to the institution of slavery; they also challenged northern racism, which helps account for their unpopularity even in the free states. You might explore why, of all reform movements, abolitionism was the most controversial and encountered the greatest hostility. Finally, the link between abolitionism and the women’s rights movement, and the eventual schism in the movement in 1840, are important topics. You might conclude with an examination of the accomplishments and failures of the abolitionist movement, and its significance in American history.

Teaching Suggestions The Impact of Reform Movements A good way to conclude is to consider the achievements and failures of reform, and how the movements under discussion differed from later reform periods (the doctrines of millennialism and perfectionism are crucial here). Since these reformers set such high standards, it is easy to focus on their failures, but they were not without their accomplishments. And you might ask in the case of a movement like abolitionism, which made little headway against slavery and racism, whether this means the movement had no impact.

Chapter 13 The Impending Crisis Learning Objectives • • • •

Contrast the resolution of boundary disputes over Oregon and Texas. Explain how the decisions of President Polk intensified the sectional conflict. Explain the issue involved in Bleeding Kansas as a reflection of the intensifying division between North and South. Describe the Dred Scott decision and its impact on the sectional crisis.

Chapter Overview Between 1845 and 1860, critical events and issues seemed to come in a rush, giving Americans little time to analyze what was happening and to reflect on long-range solutions. Emotion seemed to replace reason as the debate grew increasingly repetitious and loud. The question, or so it seemed, was the expansion of slavery into the territories gained during the Polk administration. But something far more fundamental was at stake⎯the future of the nation. Northerners had become convinced that the expansion of slavery threatened the democratic foundations of the United Sates and that expansion would give the South control of the government, which would lead to economic stagnation, unemployment, and financial ruin⎯all the effect of the depression of 1837 but magnified. From their point of view, the South, and its peculiar institution, threatened the nation’s growth and progress and had to be overcome. The South, however, convinced of the legality of its position and the validity of its institutions, fought back and with remarkable success. By combining its power in the Democratic Party (which gave it extraordinary influence in Congress and with the president) with its supporters on the Supreme Court, the slave states seemed secure. But still, they were fearful. Convinced that they had given up all they could in earlier compromises, they feared future gains by those they considered to be enemies—and those they feared most were the Republicans.

Themes • • •

How the idea of Manifest Destiny influenced America and Americans during this period How the question of the expansion of slavery deepened divisions between the North and the South How the issue of slavery reshaped the American political-party system

Lecture Strategies Manifest Destiny The doctrine of Manifest Destiny is worth exploring in more detail. Of particular interest in this regard is Thomas Hietala’s Manifest Design, which explores the arguments in favor of expansion and concludes that American expansion in this period was a response to several internal crises. Alternative perspectives can be found in Reginald Horsman’s Race and Manifest Destiny, Norman Graebner’s Empire on the Pacific, Frederick Merk’s Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History, and Albert Weinberg’s Manifest Destiny. At the heart of this problem is whether this ideology was idealistic or self-serving, and whether it was an expression of American confidence or anxiety. Western Expansion and Settlement versus Expansion and National Politics A good lecture topic is American-Mexican relations from the settlement of Texas to the outbreak of war in 1846. Discussion would include not only the political and diplomatic aspects, but the cultural conflict between Americans and Mexicans in Texas. (One old standby, Ray Billington’s Far Western Frontier, is engagingly written but rather dated in terms of cultural treatment; David Weber’s The Mexican Frontier provides more sensitive coverage of the Mexican background.) As for the Overland Trail, John Unruh’s The Plains Across provides a wealth of anecdotal material that can be put to good use destroying stereotypes (the “lonely” trail, the constant Indian threat, the lack of government aid); while Julie Roy Jeffrey’s Frontier Women, Sandra Myres’s Westering Women, and John Mack Faragher’s Women and Men on the Overland Trail bring out the differing experiences and perspectives of men and women along the trail. Proposed Solutions to the Territorial Crisis In the wake of the Mexican War and the treaty of peace giving the U.S. the territory Polk sought, it is important to outline the possible solutions to the territorial crisis. The options split both parties along sectional lines, but in different ways. Whigs were divided between northern opponents of slavery expansion and southern moderates like Clay, who wanted to keep slavery out of national politics; while Democrats were divided between northern moderates (willing to accept popular sovereignty) and southerners such as Calhoun, who insisted that slavery be legalized in all the territory acquired from Mexico. It is also important that students understand exactly what the Compromise of 1850 was, both in terms of legislation and with regard to national policy concerning slavery. Holman Hamilton’s Prologue to Conflict and David M. Potter’s The Impending Crisis skillfully analyze the process by which the Compromise was hammered together and passed, and Potter includes an excellent account of its acceptance by public opinion in both sections. One of the ironies is that none of the parts of the Compromise worked, in practice, as its drafters had envisioned (see Hamilton on this point).

Teaching Suggestions The Timing of Expansion and “Manifest Destiny” “Timing”—why a series of events occurs when it does—is a problem historians routinely address. Why did slavery entrench itself in Virginia in the 1670s and 1680s rather than during IM – 13 | 2 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

the tobacco boom of the 1620s? Why did the 13 colonies assert their independence in the 1770s rather than the 1750s or 1800s? And in this chapter, why did the United States embark on a program of expansion in the 1840s and not earlier? What factors came together to propel the expansion movement forward? Asking this question also provides a chance to place the events of the chapter in the context of previous material. In particular, the connections between Manifest Destiny and the idea of America’s mission, with its millennial overtones, are worth pursuing. In what ways does Manifest Destiny adopt these and/or alter them? Conversely, was Manifest Destiny simply an ideology conveniently cloaking aggressive expansion? You might discuss the situation in Texas, which offers more than a little evidence that Americans were not merely waiting for the “ripe fruit” to fall into their hands. The situation may also be compared with that in Oregon. Was conflict inevitable in Texas but not in Oregon? The Overland Trail Students are often fascinated by the Overland Trail. A discussion on this topic might begin by asking why they think it is so interesting, and what misperceptions they held about this subject before reading the chapter. In a discussion of the need to break misunderstandings about the “frontier,” it may be worth suggesting here that one way to do so would be to explore the vocabulary that is second-nature to most histories of the “move West.” (What about the “move East” for the Chinese, the “move North” for Mexican missionaries and rancheros?) The language is full of conceptual minefields (the “howling wilderness,” “trackless plains,” “virgin lands,” and so forth). Comparing New Western Societies Students may also want to discuss the new societies formed in the West, comparing and contrasting societies in various areas of the West. Those particular topics offer an effective counterpoint between individualism and community. The religious mission and unity of the Mormons contrast sharply with the economic individualism of the Forty-niners—a clash similar to that of the seventeenth-century Puritans of Massachusetts and the tobacco lords of the Chesapeake Bay. Both San Francisco and Salt Lake City can be taken as case studies in community formation and evolution. Pursuing a different theme, it is worth noting how quickly pioneers tried to reestablish institutions they had known back home (you might ask about the special difficulties on the frontier in doing this). The Compromise of 1850 In the end, the system produced the Compromise of 1850. Students should understand its specific provisions and the process by which it passed Congress. It is especially important to emphasize that a majority in Congress was unwilling to accept all the provisions of the Compromise as a unit, and that it was support of the Compromise in both sections by public opinion that converted it into a compromise. Yet did the Compromise really settle any questions? Had affairs reached the point where compromise was impossible? As a way of summarizing these developments, students might consider how the situation had changed since 1820, when the Missouri Compromise passed, or 1832–1833, in the nullification crisis. The escalating nature of fears in both sections and the importance attached to the expansion of slavery merit discussion. In particular, you might ask why Americans in either section cared whether slavery existed in the territory acquired from Mexico, and what implications this had for the future. IM – 13 | 3 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter 14 The Civil War Learning Objectives • • • • •

Assess the advantages of the North and of the South at the beginning of the war and over the course of the war. Describe the mobilization of the North. Describe the mobilization of the South. Explain the different military and diplomatic goals of the North and the South. Compare Lincoln and Davis as heads of government and commanders in chief.

Chapter Overview Before 1860, reference to the nation generally began “these United States are,” but after 1865 it became more frequently “the United States is.” In that change, one might well see the most important outcome of the American Civil War. The question of the nature of the Union, which had been debated since its inception, was settled; the nation was one and indivisible. As such, the United States joined a worldwide movement to create large, consolidated nation-states. The cost had been great, in both human and financial terms, but the war had done more than defeat secessionist rebellion. It had set the nation on a new course. States’ rights, as an alternative to nationalism, had been dealt a fatal blow. The tariff and internal improvements were law and would remain so. Slavery was abolished, free labor was triumphant, and industrial growth and material progress seemed to lie ahead. The war, therefore, represented more than a victory for the armies of the Union. The real victor had been the Union itself. Never again would the supremacy of national laws be seriously questioned. The Civil War gave birth to the modern United States. Indeed, it ended an era and began another.

Themes • • •

How the South came to attempt secession and how the government of the United States responded How both sides mobilized for war, and what that mobilization revealed about the nature and character of each How the North won the Civil War

Lecture Strategies Total War and Resources That the Civil War was a total war may not strike students as a remarkable proposition, partly because much of what they associate with the concept is old hat to today’s civilization, which has fought two global wars and remains armed for a nuclear conflict. From the modern point of view, the Confederacy seemed at such a disadvantage because it was so unequally matched in resources. Yet, as a lecture might point out, that assumption indicates how much our concept of war differs from that of the mid-nineteenth century. Most outside observers expected the Confederacy to win, having merely to defend its own ground. It should be noted, in a discussion of resources, that the Union (and Lincoln’s diplomacy) won a critical victory when the border states failed to join the Confederacy. Centralization of Power It might be interesting to lecture about the similar effects that the war had on both sides. A good framework might be an explanation of the many ways Lincoln and the Republicans in Congress centralized power in the national government at the expense of the states, as well as the degree to which Davis centralized power in the Confederate government, and the fervid opposition his policies provoked among states’ rights advocates. Lincoln, too, came under fire, and the close presidential election of 1864 demonstrated how unpopular Lincoln was during most of his presidency. The significance of the election should be underlined—particularly concerning slavery—since, unlike McClellan, Lincoln had committed himself to abolishing slavery in the restored Union. The election also showed how close the Union population came to cracking first under the war’s heavy toll and abandoning the conflict. The war was truly “in the balance” in the summer of 1864, its outcome dependent as much on civilian morale and commitment to the cause as on generalship and fighting. African Americans and Women during the War The experiences of African Americans and women in the war could also be treated by comparing the Union and the Confederacy, or as part of a lecture on the home fronts in each section. For blacks, both behind the lines and under Union control, the war was a liberating experience. The early chapters of Leon Litwack’s Been in the Storm So Long provide abundant vibrant material on the reactions of enslaved African Americans to the coming of freedom. Similarly, Mary Elizabeth Massey (in Bonnet Brigades) provides useful material on women’s experiences during wartime. George Rable, Civil Wars, looks only at Southern women, but avoids an exclusive focus on women at the top of the social scale. The lecture should also examine the increasing hardship and suffering among the Southern civilian population, covered not only in Massey but in Charles Ramsdell’s older but still judicious Behind the Lines in the Southern Confederacy, as well as general histories of the Confederacy. This would lead naturally to a discussion of the collapse of Southern will in the final year of the war, and the reasons for this. (Perhaps the best treatment of the Confederacy in general is Emory Thomas’s The Confederate Nation.) The Experiences of Common Soldiers Students usually find the experiences of the common soldiers in both armies interesting. Bell Wiley’s two books, Johnny Reb and Billy Yank, provide a full complement of anecdotes that IM – 14 | 2 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

should help make clear to students what the war was like for ordinary troops. A more interesting interpretation is offered by Gerald Linderman in Embattled Courage, which traces soldiers’ changing attitudes as the war progresses; Linderman demonstrates that a much harsher, more destructive view of war develops on both sides. Extremely important in this regard is Charles Royster’s The Destructive War, which looks at William Tecumseh Sherman and Stonewall Jackson as metaphors to comprehend the meaning of the war. The War as Revolution? A good way to tie together the series of Civil War lectures would be to conclude by looking at the war as a revolution. Lincoln declared that he did not want the war to become a remorseless revolution, but events propelled the conflict far beyond what he and others had ever imagined. Note the war’s impact in many areas of American life: the destruction of slavery, the impetus to industrialization, the centralization of power, changes in women’s lives, and the hardening of American values. Much like the Revolution and the wars of our own century, the Civil War accelerated social change.

Teaching Suggestions Lincoln as a Wartime President Lincoln as a wartime president also merits debate. Why does he rank so highly in the assessment of historians? What would his historical reputation have been if he had died in the summer of 1864, or if he had not been re-elected? What qualities made him a more effective leader than his counterpart Jefferson Davis? Why did his contemporaries have so little faith in him (as evidenced by the movement to drop him in 1864)? In discussing Lincoln’s leadership, the question of emancipation deserves particular attention. Students might consider whether Lincoln was too slow in deciding to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. Does he deserve praise or criticism for taking action when he did? What was the significance of the Proclamation? In what ways was it a symbolic act? What did it mean for black Americans? Another issue that bears directly on Lincoln’s leadership is his record on civil liberties. You might raise the question of dissent in wartime and what a government can or should tolerate. A review of New England’s dissent during the War of 1812 would be useful in this regard. Democrats charged that Lincoln was a dictator. Is this a fair statement? You could also note that the Democrats had great difficulty in dealing with the dilemma of being an opposition party in wartime. Why were the Whigs more successful in this regard during the Mexican War? Total War and Resources A lecture about the war might open by having students consider what the concept of total war involves, and what it means to bring the resources of a society to bear on a military struggle. By discussing in what sense this resembles the concept of war today, you can underscore the idea that this was the first modern war in history. Students might also explore the ways in which the Civil War was different from more recent warfare; modern weaponry has made twentiethcentury wars much more destructive and much more impersonal. Under this general rubric, a comparison can be made of the relative resources each side possessed at the start of the conflict.

Sweeping Changes Wrought by the War Discussion might conclude by considering the war’s imprint on the nation. What fundamental changes did it produce? What problems in society did it resolve? What new ones did it create? What were the social, political, economic, and intellectual consequences of the war? You might extend this point further by asking students why the war had such a pervasive impact. As Lincoln noted in the Second Inaugural, no one envisioned such sweeping changes when the war began. Why did the war, as Lincoln feared, become a revolution? Experiences of Soldiers Another approach would be to contrast the experiences of civilians on the home front with soldiers in the ranks. Did the war mean the same thing to soldiers and civilians? How did the experience of combat and military life change the outlook of soldiers? Did the war have a similar impact on civilians? For the first time, photographs of battle scenes were widely distributed, particularly in the North. What impact did these photographs have on civilians? Could they gain some feeling for combat from these pictures? Did the wartime experiences of soldiers increasingly separate them from the civilian population? Did these experiences bring soldiers of the opposing armies closer together? You might ask students if they think Union and Confederate soldiers felt a common bond with one another at the end of the war. Comparing Home Fronts Students might also profitably compare the experiences of the Union and the Confederate home fronts. There were some striking similarities, such as the mobilization of women, the emphasis on industry, controversy over dissent, and centralization of power. Yet there were also fundamental differences. Hardship and suffering were much worse in the Confederacy, and disaffection and opposition to the government much more pronounced. Students should consider the difficulties a traditional society such as the South faced in waging a modern war. Earlier chapters have noted the growing modernization of Northern society; you might ask how this aided the Union in this struggle.

Chapter 15 Reconstruction and the New South Learning Objectives • • • • • •

Identify the principal questions facing the nation at the end of the Civil War. List the major achievements of Reconstruction, and suggest reasons why it also failed. Describe the new problems that arose in the South as the North lost interest in Reconstruction. Explain the major issues of the Grant administration. Discuss the reasons for the abandonment of Reconstruction and its impact on the country. Contrast the “New South” with the South as it existed prior to the Civil War.

Chapter Overview The military aspect of the American Civil War lasted less than five years and ended in April 1865, but it would take another dozen years of Reconstruction to determine what the results of the war would be. The only questions clearly settled by the time of Appomattox were that the nation was indivisible and that slavery must end. The nation faced other issues with far-reaching implications. What would be the place of the freedmen in Southern society? How would the rebellious states be brought back into their “proper relationship” with the Union? The victorious North was in a position to dominate the South, but northern politicians were not united in either resolve or purpose. For over two years after the fighting stopped, there was no coherent Reconstruction policy. Congress and the president struggled with each other, and various factions in Congress had differing views on politics, race, and union. Congress finally won control and dominated the Reconstruction process until Southern resistance and Northern ambivalence led to the end of Reconstruction in 1877. Whites who reasserted their economic and political control set out to industrialize the region but with little success. The South remained a troubled agricultural sector. No economic, political, or social issue in the South could escape the race question. The Jim Crow system of the Southern establishment succeeded in evading the spirit of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments and many African Americans began to wonder just who won the Civil War. Meanwhile the South continued its colonial relationship with the North, and Southern plain folk, black and white, found themselves trapped by crop liens in circumstances some felt were almost as bad as slavery.

Themes •

That the defeat and devastation of the South presented the nation with severe social, economic, and political problems

• • • • •

How Radical Reconstruction changed the South but fell short of the full transformation needed to secure equality for the freedman That white society and the federal government lacked the will to enforce effectively most of the constitutional and legal guarantees acquired by blacks during Reconstruction How the policies of the Grant administration moved beyond Reconstruction matters to foreshadow issues of the late nineteenth century How white leaders reestablished economic and political control of the South and sought to modernize the region through industrialization How the race question continued to dominate Southern life

Lecture Strategies The Fourteenth Amendment Of particular importance in the early part of Congressional Reconstruction is the Fourteenth Amendment—and what its framers intended in drafting this amendment. The best account is Joseph James’s The Framing of the Fourteenth Amendment. The motivation behind Republican endorsement of black suffrage—the Fourteenth Amendment allowed northern states to continue to exclude blacks from the franchise if they wished—is a controversial question and worth exploring. And students should understand the importance of the “equal protection” clause in future civil rights decisions in the coming century. Another critical question Congress confronted was land redistribution. You might examine the importance of this issue, why Congress eventually rejected all proposals for land reform, and what the consequences of this decision were for Reconstruction. Some historians believe this was the fatal mistake of Reconstruction, and that it doomed Congress’s program to failure. The best case for this remains Willie Lee Rose’s Rehearsal for Reconstruction. Reconstruction in the South Reconstruction in the South is a theme that one or more lectures can explore, both politically and socially. It is important to disabuse students of the often-held notion that blacks controlled the Radical governments. You might also examine the internal tensions that increasingly weakened the Republican parties in the South, and how Republican strength began to wane almost from the beginning of Radical Reconstruction. Two state-level case studies that provide an excellent contrast would be Mississippi and Louisiana. (For material on Mississippi, see William Harris’s Day of the Carpetbagger; for Louisiana, Ted Tunnell’s Crucible of Reconstruction.) Mississippi’s government had been reasonably honest, whereas Louisiana politicians’ mastery of the art of corruption could be characterized as truly without peer. One state with a powerful native white Southern element in the Republican Party was Alabama; Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, in The Scalawag in Alabama Politics, analyzes Reconstruction in that state. Richard N. Current’s Those Terrible Carpetbaggers demonstrates the wide range of views and experiences among that much-maligned group. For the social side of Reconstruction, the nature of black aspirations—not just in politics but in other areas of life—could be expanded on. This was the first era that offered a chance of African American self-expression in the South, and blacks’ behavior and demands provide important clues to the values they brought out of slavery. Again, Leon Litwack’s Been in the Storm So Long provides wonderfully vivid material to flesh IM – 15 | 2 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

out any lecture; Eric Foner’s Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution is also useful. For white planters, see James Roark’s Slaves without Masters, while a portion of Steven Hahn’s The Roots of Southern Populism succinctly presents a discussion of white yeoman farmers. The End of Reconstruction The end of Reconstruction raises important questions. Any full discussion must consider political, intellectual, social, and economic developments, and must look at developments at the national level as well as in the South. This topic would allow you to draw together many of the strands previously discussed. The best account of Grant’s presidency is in William S. McFeely’s Grant, which gives considerable attention to the problems of Reconstruction. William Gillette, in Retreat from Reconstruction, examines national politics, while Michael Perman’s Road to Redemption analyzes political developments in the South, particularly the failure of the Republican Party to make better use of the issues available to it. Paul Buck’s The Road to Reunion discusses the growing reconciliation between the sections from the perspective of intellectual history.

Teaching Suggestions Reconstruction and Presidential Leadership A discussion might turn to the question of whether better political leadership might have made a difference. Why was Lincoln so much more effective than Andrew Johnson in dealing with Congress and the Radicals? What were Johnson’s shortcomings as a leader? You might ask the class to speculate on what would have happened had Lincoln lived. What kind of confrontation might have developed between him and Congress? (You might refer to examples of Lincoln’s tact and flexibility during the war, such as his course on emancipation and his handling of the border states.) Students could also compare Lincoln’s and Johnson’s specific programs, and ask whether Johnson was justified in declaring that he was simply carrying out Lincoln’s plans for a just and generous peace. Why did the actions of the Johnson government so alarm Northern public opinion? Did these actions show, as the Radicals claimed, that Southerners had not accepted the verdict of the war? In this regard, you might also ask whether the black codes enacted by the Johnson government were really necessary to control blacks. What purpose did they serve? Reconstruction Legislation Another theme for discussion is the Reconstruction program eventually enacted by Congress. Were these laws poorly drafted, allowing loopholes for white Southerners to resist Congress’s intentions? Was the decision to enfranchise former slaves a mistake? Did the failure of land reform doom Reconstruction? Johnson’s obstructionism posed special problems for Congress in writing and enforcing Reconstruction legislation. How might things have been different if the executive and legislative branches had cooperated? Was impeachment a mistake on the Radicals’ part? If Johnson had been removed, would the outcome have made any difference? Was his acquittal a major factor in the failure of Reconstruction? Getting students to consider alternate strategies as live possibilities should help them to understand the role of politics in the outcome.

The Costs of Building National Unity Finally, there is the question not merely of politics but of the society at large. For Republicans hoping to build a national—not sectional—party, was it realistic to think that the party could be competitive in the former states of the Confederacy? As for the North, why did it finally decide to abandon the experiment in Reconstruction? Certainly, it had demonstrated much greater commitment to winning the war than to making Reconstruction succeed, and students might be asked why this was the case. Racism, of course, is a key ingredient. Northerners were much more concerned about ending slavery than they were committed to the cause of black rights, just as Southerners had been far more united in resisting Reconstruction than they had been in fighting the Civil War. As long as blacks were not re-enslaved, most Northerners were willing to allow white Southerners to regulate race relations in their own region. Republicans had initially insisted that a program of Reconstruction was necessary to preserve the fruits of the Union’s victory in the Civil War. You might end this discussion by asking what these fruits of victory were, and whether they had been lost with the overthrow of Reconstruction.