INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL For Sensation and Perception 11th Edition. Bruce Goldstein, Laura Cacciamani. by welldoneassistant

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 1: Introduction to Perception

Sensation and Perception 11e Bruce Goldstein, Laura Cacciamani (Instructor's Manual All Chapters, 100% Original Verified, A+ Grade) (Lecture Notes Only)

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 1: Introduction to Perception

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 5 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 5 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 6 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 8 Standard Writing Rubric ............................................................................................................................ 8 Standard Discussion Rubric ....................................................................................................................... 9

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 1: Introduction to Perception

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Why did early computer scientists think they would be able to create a computer capable of human-like perception within a decade or so, when it has actually taken over 60 years, and we still aren’t there yet? One answer to this question is that perception—the experiences that result from stimulation of the senses—is something we usually accomplish so easily that we often don’t even give it a second thought. Perception seems to “just happen.” We open our eyes and see a landscape, a campus building, or a group of people. But the reality, as you will appreciate after reading this book, is that the mechanisms responsible for perception are extremely complex. Throughout this book, we’ll see many more examples illustrating how complex and amazing perception is. Our goal is to understand how humans and animals perceive, starting with the detectors—located in the eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose, and mouth—and then moving on to the “computer”—the brain. We want to understand how we sense things in the environment and interact with them. In this chapter, we will consider some practical reasons for studying perception, how perception occurs in a sequence of steps, and how perception can be measured.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center. • • • • •

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 01.01

Explain the seven steps of the perceptual process.

01.02

Differentiate between “top-down” and “bottom-up” processing.

01.03

Describe how knowledge can influence perception.

01.04

Understand how perception can be studied by determining the relationships between stimulus and behavior, stimulus and physiology, and physiology and behavior.

01.05

Explain “absolute threshold” and “difference threshold” and the various methods that can be used to measure them.

01.06

Describe how perception above threshold can be measured by considering five questions about the perceptual world.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 1: Introduction to Perception

01.07

Understand the importance of the distinction between physical stimuli and perceptual responses.

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Key Terms Absolute threshold: The smallest stimulus level that can be detected Action: The final behavioral response (Step 7) that involves motor activities in response to a stimulus Bottom-up processing (data-based processing): Processing that is based on the stimuli reaching the receptors Categorize: To place objects into categories Cerebral cortex: A 2-mm-thick layer of the brain that contains the machinery for creating perceptions, as well as other functions, such as language, memory, emotions, and thinking Classical psychophysical methods: The three methods for measuring a threshold: the method of limits, the method of constant stimuli, and the method of adjustment Difference threshold: The smallest difference between two stimuli that enables us to tell the difference between them Distal stimulus: A stimulus that is distant, or out in the environment Electromagnetic spectrum: A band of energy ranging from gamma rays at the short-wave end of the spectrum to AM radio and AC circuits on the long-wave end Frontal lobe: Receives signals from all of the senses, and plays an important role in perceptions that involve the coordination of information received through two or more senses Grating acuity: The smallest width of lines that participants can detect Knowledge: Any information that the perceiver brings to a situation, such as prior experience or expectations Magnitude estimation: The mathematical formulas relating physical intensity and perceptual magnitude for brightness Method of adjustment: The participant adjusts the stimulus intensity continuously until they can just barely detect the stimulus Method of constant stimuli: Stimulus intensities are presented in random order, rather than in descending or ascending order Method of limits: Stimuli is presented in either ascending order (intensity is increased) or descending order (intensity is decreased)

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 1: Introduction to Perception

Neural processing: The changes in signals that occur as they are transmitted through the maze of neurons Oblique effect: People see vertical or horizontal lines better than lines oriented obliquely Occipital lobe: The primary receiving area for vision in the brain Parietal lobe: The primary receiving area for the skin senses—touch, temperature, and pain Perceived magnitude: A value assigned by the participant to each intensity of stimuli Perception: The complex processes that involve higher-order mechanisms such as interpretation and memory that involve activity in the brain Perceptual process: The journey from stimuli to responses by seven steps Phenomenological report: Describing what is out there Physiology–behavior relationship: The relationship between physiological responses and behavioral responses Primary receiving area: The area where electrical signals created through transduction are often sent in the cerebral cortex of the brain Principle of representation: Everything a person perceives is based not on direct contact with stimuli but on representations of stimuli that are formed on the receptors and the resulting activity in the person’s nervous system. Principle of transformation: Stimuli and responses created by stimuli are transformed, or changed, between the distal stimulus and perception. Proximal stimulus: A stimulus that is “in proximity” to the receptors Psychophysics: A measurement of the relationships between the physical (the stimulus) and the psychological (the behavioral response) Rat–man demonstration: A demonstration that shows how recently acquired knowledge can influence perception. Reaction time: The time between presentation of a stimulus and the person’s reaction to it Recognition: Placing an object in a category Sensation: Simple “elementary” processes that occur right at the beginning of a sensory system Sensory receptors: Cells specialized to respond to environmental energy Stimulus–behavior relationship: The relationship between stimuli and behavioral responses, such as perception, recognition, and action

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 1: Introduction to Perception

Stimulus–physiology relationship: The relationship between stimuli and physiological responses, like neurons firing Temporal lobe: The primary area for hearing in the brain Thresholds: Measurements of the limits of sensory systems Top-down processing (knowledge-based processing): Processing that is based on knowledge Transduction: The transformation of environmental energy (such as light, sound, or thermal energy) to electrical energy Visual form agnosia: An inability to recognize objects [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: •

The initial chapters, which introduce basic concepts and research approaches, have been completely reorganized to make the opening of the book more inviting to students, to create a more logical and smooth flow, and to include all of the senses up-front.

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Chapter Outline I. II. III.

IV.

Why Read This Book? Why Is This Book Titled Sensation and Perception? The Perceptual Process a. Distal and Proximal Stimuli (Steps 1 and 2) b. Receptor Processes (Step 3) c. Neural Processing (Step 4) d. Behavioral Responses (Steps 5–7) e. Knowledge Studying the Perceptual Process a. The Stimulus–Behavior Relationship (A) b. The Stimulus–Physiology Relationship (B) c. The Physiology–Behavior Relationship (C) Measuring Perception a. Measuring Thresholds b. Measuring Perception Above Threshold

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 1: Introduction to Perception

Activities and Assignments (1) Inherent Interest in Perception: Encourage students to bring in examples of visual phenomena that they may have seen. Many students have had websites with illusions forwarded to them. Students may have 3-D magazines, books, or video games. I have an old box of Apple Jacks cereal that has numerous visual illusions on the back, and paper diner placemats with illusions. Emphasize the point that the ubiquity of these examples shows how inherently interesting perception is. (2) Human Factors and Perception: Goldstein cites applications of perception as one of the reasons for studying perception. A major contributor in this field is Donald Norman, the author of “The Psychology of Everyday Things” (1988), “Emotional Design” (2004), and “Living with Complexity” (2010). His JND (Just Noticeable Difference, a psychophysiological term related to difference thresholds) website has links to many of his essays and sample chapters (including “Attractive Things Work Better” from “Emotional Design” and “Memory is More Important than Actuality”). Two examples I like to use from “The Psychology of Everyday Things” are: (1) the beer-handle controls (Figure 4.6) to have visual and tactual discrimination of controls; and (2) the relatively well-known stove-top design and controls (Figures 3.3, 3.4 , and 3.5). The latter example shows the idea of natural mapping, which highlights the problem associated with the disputed “butterfly ballot” of the 2000 Presidential election. (Wikipedia provides a photo of the ballot and more information regarding its use in Florida). Goldstein also specifically mentions highway sign visibility. Don Meeker and James Montalbano have recently designed a new typeface for interstate highway signs; a slideshow of the development of this new typeface can be found at The New York Times website in a 2007 slideshow entitled “What’s Your Sign?”. (3) “Do The Math” behind Stevens’s Power Law (Appendix B): Give your students a concrete example of how Stevens’s Law works by plugging in actual values. To keep it simple, assume K=1. Then demonstrate response expansion by using n=3, and varying S from 2 to 8. Students will see how rapidly P increases. Then demonstrate response compression by using n=0.67 (or 2/3). This introduces the student to the wonderful world of fractional exponents, where you first square S, then take the cubed root of that quantity. Again, varying S from 2 to 8, the student will see that P does increase, but at a slower rate. (4) Signal Detection Theory and “Phantom Vibration Syndrome”(Appendix D): Signal detection theory is introduced in the “Something to Consider” segment of Chapter 1. Another way to initiate conversation about SDT is the phenomenon of “phantom vibration syndrome” (for example, a USA Today article from 2007 entitled “Good Vibrations? Bad? None at all?). Some people report that they feel their cell

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 1: Introduction to Perception

phone vibrating, only to find out that it isn’t. The simplest explanation would be in terms of the role of expectation in SDT. The Spokesman - Review, June 19th 2007, story “Phantom vibration syndrome” provides a few plausible explanations, one of which relates to differences in response criterion. In addition, a 2010 study published in BMJ - “Phantom vibration syndrome among medical staff: a cross sectional survey” - reports a 68% incidence rate of this phenomenon. (5) Scavenger Hunt Icebreaker: This first-day activity can introduce the students to some major topics in perception, and introduce them to each other! In this type of scavenger hunt, which has been used as an icebreaker in various situations, the student is given a list of “characteristics” and must find someone else in the classroom that fits that characteristic. For example, the item might be “Has a dog or a cat,” and then the student finds a classmate who has a dog or cat. The key element here is to generate items that can be linked to the course. For example, the above item could be used to address the differences in perception between humans and other animals (“Are dogs colorblind?”; “How is a dog’s sense of smell different than humans?”). It can also help to add pop culture references: I included “Knows what was distinctive about Amanda Swafford on Cycle 3 America’s Next Top Model” (she was legally blind), or “Has seen the U23D movie.” I usually use about 12-14 items for the scavenger hunt in a class of 24-30 students. (6) Classic Psychophysical Methods: Students can get “hands-on” experience with classic psychophysical methods by being the experimenter and the participant with the right equipment. In order to demonstrate Weber’s weight lifting discrimination studies (Appendix B), Lafayette Instruments (ordering information can be found online) has “Discrimination Weights” (Model 16015). To measure two-point cutaneous sensitivity, Lafayette also has a Two Point Aesthesiometer (Model 16022). The advantage of using these devices is that the student/researcher can easily manipulate the stimulus intensities to present to a classmate, according to the psychophysical method being demonstrated. (7) Blindfolds: One key concept in a perception course is to not take your senses for granted. To demonstrate this point, you can bring in some blindfolds and ask for volunteers to wear them. It isn’t unusual to have no one volunteer, at which point you can discuss everyone’s reluctance to wear them. If you do have volunteers, let them wear the blindfolds and keep the class quiet for about two minutes. Then have the volunteers take the blindfolds off, and report their reactions to the experience. (8) Method of Adjustment/ Social Psychophysics (Appendix A): Wally Beagley developed the EyeLines software for doing method of adjustment experiments. This free software can introduce students to this classic psychophysical method. One © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 1: Introduction to Perception

way to use this software to highlight a key concept in Chapter 1 is to do a magnitude estimation task that demonstrates Stevens’s idea of social psychophysics. Stevens, in his book “Psychophysics: An Introduction to its Perceptual, Neural, and Social Prospects” (1975), believes that magnitude estimation can be used to scale attitudes, such as watch preferences or attitudes to crimes or monarchs. Based on Exercise #28 in “Workshops in Perception” by Power, Hausfeld, and Gorta (1981), you can use EyeLines to have students estimate how happy they would be to receive various money amounts. It is fairly simple to program EyeLines to present a range of money amounts to the student, and the student then uses the mouse to draw a line that reflects how happy he/she would be to win that amount of money: the longer the line drawn, the happier he/she would be with that money amount. The results can be discussed in terms of response compression or expansion. This also introduces the student to the concept of cross-modal matching in magnitude estimation.

Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments. Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize this rubric template as you wish. Both the writing rubric and the discussion rubric indicate 30 points.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment. 15 points The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are logically related and consistent. 10 points

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment. 8 points The assignment presents ideas in a mostly clear manner and with a mostly strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent. 7 points The assignment has three to five grammatical and spelling errors. 3 points

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent. 0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible. 0 points

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 1: Introduction to Perception

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Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses. 5 points Comments stay on task. Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond. 20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback. 5 points

Needs Improvement Does not participate or submit discussion by the posted deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses. 3 points Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic. Comments may not motivate other students to respond. 10 points Does not always maintain appropriate language. Offers criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback. 3 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Sensory Physiology

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Sensory Physiology

Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 5 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 5 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 6 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 6 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 6 Standard Writing Rubric ............................................................................................................................ 6 Standard Discussion Rubric ....................................................................................................................... 8

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Sensory Physiology

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The pathway from receptors to the brain is not a non-stop expressway. Every signal leaving a receptor travels through a complex network of interconnected signals, often meeting and being affected by other signals along the way. What is gained by taking a complex, indirect route? If the goal were simply to send a signal to the brain that a particular receptor had been stimulated, then the straight-through method would work. But, the purpose of electrical signals in the nervous system goes beyond signaling that a receptor was stimulated. The information that reaches the brain and then continues its journey within the brain is much richer than this. As we will see in this and upcoming chapters, there are neurons in the brain that respond to certain stimuli like slanted lines, faces, movement across space in a specific direction, movement across the skin in a specific direction, or salty tastes. These neurons didn’t achieve these properties by receiving signals through a straight-line transmission system from receptors to brain. They achieve these properties by neural processing—the interaction of the signals of many neurons.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 02.01

Identify the key components of neurons and their respective functions.

02.02

Explain how electrical signals are recorded from neurons and the basic properties of these signals.

02.03

Describe the chemical basis of electrical signals in neurons.

02.04

Describe how electrical signals are transmitted from one neuron to another.

02.05

Understand the various ways that neurons can represent our sensory experiences.

02.06

Explain how brain imaging can be used to create pictures of the locations of the brain’s activity.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Sensory Physiology

02.07

Distinguish between structural and functional connectivity between brain areas and describe how functional connectivity is determined.

02.08

Discuss the mind–body problem.

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Key Terms Action potential: A signal identified by the predictable rise and fall of the charge inside the axon relative to the outside Axon: A part of the neuron that is filled with fluid that conducts electrical signals, also called a nerve fiber Brain imaging: Recording the brain responses in neurologically normal humans Broca’s area: An area in the left frontal lobe of the brain identified as the speech production area Cell body: A part of the neuron that contains mechanisms to keep the cell alive Dendrites: A part of the neuron that branches out from the cell body to receive electrical signals from other neurons Depolarization: An increase in positive charge inside the neuron Distributed representation: The concept that the brain represents information in patterns distributed across the cortex, rather than in one single brain area Excitatory response: When the neuron becomes depolarized, and the inside of the neuron becomes more positive Falling phase of the action potential: Hyperpolarization from +40 mV back to –70 mV Functional connectivity: The neural activity associated with a particular function that is flowing through this structural network. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): A technique that enables researchers to determine how various types of cognitions, or functions, activate different areas of the brain. Grandmother cell: The idea that neurons could be so specific that there could be one neuron in your brain that fires only in response to your grandmother Hyperpolarization: An increase in negative charge inside the neuron Inhibitory response: When the inside of the neuron becomes more negative, or hyperpolarized Ions: Molecules that carry an electrical charge

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Sensory Physiology

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): A technique that makes it possible to create images of structures within the brain Mind–body problem: How do physical processes like nerve impulses become transformed into perceptual experience? Modularity: The idea that specific brain areas are specialized to respond to specific types of stimuli or functions Module: A specific brain area that is specialized to respond to a specific type of stimulus or function Nerve fiber: A part of the neuron that is filled with fluid that conducts electrical signals, also called an axon Neurons: Structures that conduct electrical signals, composed of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon Neuropsychology: Studies relating the location of brain damage to specific effects on behavior Neurotransmitters: Chemicals stored in structures called synaptic vesicles at the end of the sending neuron Permeability: The ease with which a molecule can pass through a membrane Phrenology: The belief that there is a correlation between the shape of a person’s skull and their abilities and traits, which he called “mental faculties.” Population coding: The idea that our experiences are represented by the pattern of firing across a large number of neurons Propagated response: Once a response is triggered, it travels all the way down the axon without decreasing in size Receptor sites: Small areas on the receiving neuron that are sensitive to specific neurotransmitters Refractory period: The interval between the time one nerve impulse occurs and the next one can be generated in the axon Resting potential: The electrical potential in a neuron that stays roughly the same as long as there are no signals in the neuron Resting-state fMRI: An fMRI when the brain is not involved in a specific task Resting-state functional connectivity: The resting state activity of the brain Rising phase of the action potential: The quick and steep depolarization from –70 mV to +40 mV during an action potential

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Sensory Physiology

Seed location: The brain location associated with carrying out a specific task Sensory coding: How neurons represent various characteristics of the environment Sparse coding: When a particular stimulus is represented by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent Specificity coding: Notion of a specialized neuron that responds only to one concept or stimulus is called Spontaneous activity: Action potentials that occur in the absence of stimuli from the environment Structural connectivity: The “road map” of fibers connecting different areas of the brain Synapse: The very small space between neurons Task-related fMRI: An fMRI measured as a person is engaged in a specific task, Test location: The resting-state fMRI at a location other than the seed location Wernicke’s area: An area in the temporal lobe involved in understanding speech [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: •

Discussing a number of senses in Chapter 2 corrects a problem perceived by some teachers, who felt that the opening of the 10th edition was too “vision-centric.” Chapter 2 also contains a new section discussing structural and functional connectivity.

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Chapter Outline I.

II.

III.

Electrical Signals in Neurons a. Recording Electrical Signals in Neurons b. Basic Properties of Action Potentials c. Chemical Basis of Action Potentials d. Transmitting Information Across a Gap Sensory Coding: How Neurons Represent Information a. Specificity Coding b. Sparse Coding c. Population Coding Zooming Out: Representation in the Brain a. Mapping Function to Structure b. Distributed Representation

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Sensory Physiology

c. Connections Between Brain Areas [return to top]

Activities and Assignments (1) Interactive Class Demonstrations: There have been at least three articles that have addressed how to get the class directly and actively involved in simulating neural functioning. Some have been used for introductory psychology and physiological psychology, but certainly would be appropriate for this chapter. Here are the references for these three: Bockoven, J. (2004). The pedagogical toolbox: Computer-generated visual displays, classroom demonstration, and lecture. Psychological Reports, 94, 967-975. Hamilton, S. B., & Knox, T. A. (1985) The colossal neuron: Acting out physiological psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 12(3), 153-156. Reardon, R.R., Durso, F.T., & Wilson, D.A.. (1994). Neural coding and synaptic transmission: Participation exercises for introductory psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 21(2), 96-99.

(2) Evolution and Synapses: An interdisciplinary approach to neural functioning was addressed in a 2008 New York Times article on the relationship between evolution and synapse formation. The article is entitled, “Brainpower may lie in the complexity of synapses”.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment. 15 points The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment. 8 points The assignment presents ideas in a mostly clear

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Sensory Physiology

and with strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are logically related and consistent. 10 points

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

manner and with a mostly strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent. 7 points The assignment has three to five grammatical and spelling errors. 3 points

manner and with strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent. 0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible. 0 points

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Sensory Physiology

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 6 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 6 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 6 Appendix ...................................................................................................................................... 11 Generic Rubrics ....................................................................................................................................... 11 Standard Writing Rubric .......................................................................................................................... 11

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Larry lost his vision and was left in complete darkness for the next 33 years. Then something amazing happened; He had the opportunity to have some of his vision restored. Larry was a candidate for a new technology referred to as the bionic eye—an array of electrodes implanted in the back of the eye that, through a camera mounted on eyeglasses, sends signals to the visual system about what is “out there” in the world. The bionic eye doesn’t completely restore vision, it allows the person to see contrasting lightness versus darkness, such as the edge between where one object ends and another begins—a concept we’ll return to later in this chapter. Larry’s story demonstrates the importance of light, the eyes, and the cells at the back of the eyes. A great deal of processing takes place within the eyes. This chapter focuses on these processes and marks the beginning of our journey into the sense of vision. After we discuss the early stages of the visual perceptual process in this chapter, Chapter 4 will continue to discuss the later stages of processing that occur when the signals leave the eye and reach the brain.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 03.01

Identify the key structures of the eye and describe how they work together to focus light on the retina.

03.02

Explain how light is transduced into an electrical signal.

03.03

Distinguish between the influence of rods and cones on perception in both dark and light environments.

03.04

Use your knowledge of neural processing to explain how signals travel through the retina.

03.05

Describe how lateral inhibition and convergence underlie center-surround antagonism in ganglion cell receptive fields.

03.06

Understand the development of visual acuity over the first year of life.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

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Key Terms Absorption spectrum: A plot of the amount of light absorbed versus the wavelength of the light Accommodation: The change in the lens’s shape that occurs when the ciliary muscles at the front of the eye tighten and increase the curvature of the lens Amacrine cells: Provides a path for signals travel between bipolar and ganglion cells Axial myopia: A condition in which the eyeball is too long Bipolar cells: Receives signals generated in the receptors Blind spot: A location, lacking photoreceptors, where the nerve fibers that make up the optic nerve leave the eye Center-surround antagonism: An effect that shows that ganglion cells respond best to specific patterns of illumination Center-surround receptive field: Ganglion cells that are arranged like concentric circles in a center-surround organization Chevreul illusion: The perceived light and dark bands at borders that are not present in the actual physical stimuli Cone spectral sensitivity: A measurement of the participant’s sensitivity to each wavelength Cones: One of the two types of photoreceptors in the retina Convergence: When a number of neurons synapse onto a single neuron Cornea: The part of the eye that, along with the lens, focuses light on the retina Dark adaptation: The process of increasing sensitivity in the dark Dark adaptation curve: The measurement of dark adaptation Dark-adapted sensitivity: The sensitivity at the end of dark adaptation Detached retina: When a person’s retina becomes detached from the pigment epithelium Edge enhancement: An increase in perceived contrast at borders between regions of the visual field Excitatory area: The area that increases firing when a spot of light is presented

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

Excitatory-center, inhibitory-surround receptive field: A receptive field that responds with excitation when the center is stimulated and inhibition when the surround is stimulated Eyes: Organs that contain the receptors for vision Farsightedness: A condition in which people have trouble seeing nearby objects, also called hyperopia Fovea: A part of the retina that contains only cones Ganglion cells: Receives signals generated in the receptors Horizontal cells: Provides a path for signals travel between receptors Hyperopia: A condition in which people have trouble seeing nearby objects, also called farsightedness Inhibitory area: An area in which the stimulation of the surround causes a decrease in firing Inhibitory-center, excitatory-surround receptive field: A receptive field that responds with inhibition when the center is stimulated and excitation when the surround is stimulated Isomerization: When incoming light hits the retina and causes the retinal within that molecule to change its shape from being bent to being straight Lateral inhibition: Inhibition that is transmitted across the retina Lens: The part of the eye that, along with the cornea, focuses light on the retina. Light-adapted sensitivity: The sensitivity to flashing lights measured in the light Mach bands: Light and dark bands created at fuzzy borders Macular degeneration: A condition most common in older people that destroys the conerich fovea and a small area that surrounds it Monochromatic light: Light of a single wavelength Myopia: An inability to see distant objects clearly, also called nearsightedness Nearsightedness: An inability to see distant objects clearly, also called myopia Neural circuits: Interconnected groups of neurons Neural convergence: When a number of neurons synapse onto a single neuron Ommatidia: A small lens on the Limulus eye’s surface that is located directly over a single receptor Optic nerve: Nerve fibers that conduct signals toward the brain © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

Outer segments: The part of the receptor that contains light-sensitive chemicals Peripheral retina: All of the retina outside of the fovea, containing both rods and cones Photoreceptors: The receptors for vision, which consist of the rods and cones Preferential looking technique: Two stimuli are presented to an infant and the experimenter watches the infant’s eyes to determine where the infant is looking Presbyopia: The age-related loss of the ability to accommodate Pupil: The part of the eye through which light enters Purkinje shift: The enhanced perception of short wavelengths during dark adaptation Receptive field: The region of the retina that must receive illumination in order to obtain a response in any given fiber Refractive errors: Errors that can affect the ability of the cornea and/or lens to focus the visual input onto the retina Refractive myopia: A condition in which the cornea and/or the lens bends the light too much Retina: The network of neurons that covers the back of the eye and that contains the receptors for vision Retinitis pigmentosa: A degeneration of the retina that is passed from one generation to the next Rod monochromats: People who have no cones because of a rare genetic defect Rod–cone break: The place where the rods begin to determine the dark adaptation curve instead of the cones Rod spectral sensitivity curve: A measurement of sensitivity to a wavelength after the eye is dark adapted Rods: One of the two types of photoreceptors in the retina Spectral sensitivity: The eye’s sensitivity to light as a function of the light’s wavelength Spectral sensitivity curve: The measure of the eye’s sensitivity to light as a function of the light’s wavelength Transduction: The transformation of one form of energy into another form of energy Visible light: The energy within the electromagnetic spectrum that humans can perceive Visual acuity: The ability to see details Visual evoked potential: An electrical response generated by the visual system

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

Visual pigment bleaching: The change in shape and separation of the retinal from the opsin causes the molecule to become lighter in color Visual pigment regeneration: The process of reforming the visual pigment molecule Visual pigments: Chemicals that react to light and trigger electrical signals Wavelength: The distance between the peaks of the electromagnetic waves [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: •

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Chapter Outline I.

II.

III.

IV.

Light, the Eye, and the Visual Receptors a. Light: The Stimulus for Vision b. The Eye Focusing Light onto the Retina a. Accommodation b. Refractive Errors Photoreceptor Processes a. Transforming Light Energy into Electrical Energy b. Adapting to the Dark c. Spectral Sensitivity What Happens as Signals Travel through the Retina a. Rod and Cone Convergence b. Ganglion Cell Receptive Fields

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Activities and Assignments (1) Classroom Pinhole Camera: Prull and Banks (2005) have developed an outstanding demonstration to teach about the functioning of the eye. They created a “classroomsized pinhole camera” to demonstrate pupil functioning, image inversion, and focusing (including myopia and hyperopia). Details can be found at: Prull, M. W., & Banks, W. P. (2005). Seeing the light: A classroom-sized pinhole camera demonstration for teaching vision. Teaching of Psychology, 32, 103-106. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

(2) Online Tests for Visual Disorders: Free online eye “exams” for macular degeneration, myopia, and hypermyopia can be found online at the Optometric Eye Site. The St. Luke’s Cataract and Laser Institute website has a page entitled “Eye Q” which also contains the Amsler grid (can be printed) and information. For the test, the student would cover one eye and look at the fixation point. While doing this, they should see if the lines appear wavy or if portions of the grid are missing; either result would be a potential indicator of an abnormality. (3) Visual Disorders: The topic of visual disorders always leads to numerous questions from students. Be prepared for questions about LASIK and other surgical treatments, macular degeneration, and astigmatism. The websites listed below contain information, photos, and animations on numerous disorders. (4) Eye Models: For instructors with larger budgets, Denoyer-Geppert Science Company offers a range of eye models that provide students with “hands-on experience.” There is a less-expensive student version, and a more detailed and expensive “Giant Five-Part Eyeball.” “Rubin’s Eye and Vision Lab” also may be a good investment, in which you can change lenses to demonstrate focusing problems. These can be ordered from the website. (5) Video Suggestion: Denoyer-Geppert also has a video series – “The Special Senses” – that covers some information presented in Chapter 2. The video reviews each sensory receptor (vision, hearing, smell, taste). For vision, there is discussion of the eyeball and the process of refraction. (6) Create your own Hermann Grid: Students will occasionally ask about variants of the Hermann Grid, e.g., “What happens if you use colors?”; “What happens if you change the spacing between the squares?” To provide a brief answer to these questions, have the students create the “Hermann Grid” that answers the question. This is very easy using PowerPoint ™, which most students have used. Simply use the “auto-shapes”, make 15 copies of the original square, and then place the squares in the appropriate pattern and the desired fill colors. (This takes about 10 minutes for even an inexperienced user). They can then answer their own questions. (7) A different theory of brightness illusions: A review article by Purves et al. summarizes the Mach bands brightness illusions covered in Chapter 3 in addition to the Chubb-Sperling-Solomon illusion and the Craik-O’Brien-Cornsweet edge effects. The main premise of the article, however, is to propose a counterargument to the “conventional” lateral inhibition explanations (as used in Goldstein): an “empirical

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

framework” theory. This theory is based, not on visual neural circuits, but on the probability of the source of the ambiguous stimulus. Purves, D., Williams, M., Nundy, S., & Lotto, R.B. (2004). Perceiving the intensity of light. Psychological Review, 111, 142158. Corney and Lotto (2007) use computational methods to study illusory perception, with the aim to show why these illusions come about. They show that natural stimuli are ambiguous, and that these ambiguities are resolved by encoding the statistical relationships between images and scenes in past visual experience. Corneym D. and Lotto, R.B. (2007). What are Lightness Illusions and Why Do We See Them? PLOS Biology. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.0030180. (8) How did they do that? Chubb-Sperling-Solomon Illusion: An interesting aspect of perceptual phenomenon is how an effect is discovered. I contacted Charlie Chubb to find out the origins of the Chubb-Sperling-Solomon illusion. Chubb had been doing work on motion with George Sperling. One of the displays they were developing was to start with a visual noise stimulus and “window” the noise with a drifting sinusoidal pattern. Through brainstorming, the three authors wondered whether texture would work the same way as luminance changes in the display. To test this idea, they used simultaneous contrast displays with the visual noise. This first attempt even surprised them (it “pretty much knocked our socks off,” according to Chubb), and resulted in the illusion that now bears their names. The moral: Knowledge, brainstorming, and playing with the stimuli can lead to amazing discoveries! Chubb, C.F., Sperling, G., & Solomon, J.A. (1989). Texture interactions determine perceived contrast. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 86, 96319635.

(9) How did they do that? White’s Illusion: Michael White also graciously supplied a narrative of the creative process behind the discovery of the illusion that now bears his name. He had some setbacks in his early undergraduate and graduate career, and had doubts about his career path, when: “… early in 1976, and Vicki and I had a two-year-old son and baby daughter, with the scholarship income available only to the end of the year. I was despondent about my prospects as a scientist. Then, in February 1976 something wonderful happened. I had been interested in the relationships between art (particularly modern art) and illusions. I was reading Optical Art by Rene Parola (1969), when I saw an astonishing picture by Susan Hirth, who was one of Parola’s 11th Grade students. It was a ‘busy’ design with black, white and grey elements, where two wedge-shaped sets of physically identical mid-grey annular segments appeared to be very different in lightness (shade of grey).

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

Although the new illusion was in a chapter explaining various lightness contrast and lightness assimilation (the opposite of contrast) effects, Parola offered no real explanation for it. Presumably, he assumed that it was some sort of contrast or assimilation effect, and he simply noted that “The grey wedges seem different.” To me, it seemed that the illusion was not readily explicable in terms of classical lightness contrast or assimilation, and I believed that I had stumbled across a powerful new effect. The following days, weeks and months were very exciting. I started by designing simple variants of the illusion to extract its essence. This was before image digitization was readily available, so the designs were created by cutting shapes from black, white and mid-grey paper and gluing them together. Eventually, I isolated what I considered to be the essential effect - now commonly known as ‘White’s Illusion.’ This history is described in my PhD thesis, but is absent from my journal articles. As well as producing the designs, I read the relevant research literature, and speculated about possible explanations. I would sometimes get out of bed in the middle of the night to scribble down my latest bright idea. By the end of 1976, I had produced scores of designs, and conducted some simple experiments. Progress was satisfactory, but the remainder of my PhD research would take another five years (1977-1981) during which time I was again employed as a tutor in the Psychology Department. One of my greatest thrills was to produce a ‘dotty’ version of the illusion. It had seemed to me that the illusion essentially consisted of patterned black/grey and white/grey test regions in patterned black/white surrounds. While the pattern in the original illusion was a square-wave grating, it occurred to me that the illusion might also work with regular ‘dotty’ patterns. My father and I spent many hours creating such patterns from black, white and mid-grey paper with the help of a large leather punch to make the circular holes. The results were amazing. The different combinations of test-region and surround patterns led to very different apparent shades of grey in the objectively mid-grey test regions. The difference in lightness between two particular test regions was even stronger than in the grating version of the illusion. It was an amazing feeling to be the first person ever to see the strongest effect yet produced in what is one of the most basic human capacities - the ability to perceive differences in lightness.” Another wonderful and inspiring message for our students! White, M. (1979). A new effect of pattern on perceived lightness. Perception, 8, 413-416.

(10) Contrast sensitivity and acuity and performance: Students will be familiar with the Snellen eye chart as a measure of acuity, but will not be aware of the uses of contrast sensitivity to measure acuity. Various applications include testing jet pilots,

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

driving, computer usage, and sports. Age-related differences (in Evans and Ginsburg) and dynamic visual acuity (in Long and Zavod) can also be discussed. Evans, D. W., & Ginsburg, A. P. (1985). Contrast sensitivity predicts age-related differences in highway-sign discriminability. Human Factors, 27, 637-642. Grimson, J. M., Schallhorn, S. C., & Kaupp, S. E. (2002). Contrast sensitivity: Establishing normative data for use in screening prospective naval pilots. Aviation, Space, & Environmental Medicine, 73, 28-35. Jacko, J. A., Rosa, Jr., R.H., Scott, I.U., Pappas, C.J., & Dixon, M. (2000). Visual impairment: The use of visual profiles in evaluations of icon use in computer-based tasks. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 12, 1044-1054. Long, G. M., & Zavod, M. J. (2002). Contrast sensitivity in a dynamic environment: Effects of target conditions and visual impairment. Human Factors, 44, 120-132. Rabin, J. (1995). Small letter contrast sensitivity: An alternative measure of visual resolution for aviation candidates. Aviation, Space, & Environmental Medicine, 66, 5658. (11) Dog Eye Charts: A humorous spin on the issues involving testing visual acuity of non-verbal individuals (infants and dogs) is the construction of “dog eye charts.” An original example of this was used in a “Peanuts” cartoon in which Charlie Brown takes Snoopy to the “eye doctor,” where Snoopy reads a “Snellen-like” chart where the stimuli are different-sized paw prints. Local Paper Studio (online vendor) provides humorous dog and cat “eye charts”.

(12) VEP and Dyslexia: Although the chapter focuses on the use of VEPs to study infant development of acuity, VEPs can also be used to determine if there are differences in the visual processing of older children. One area where this has been tested is to see if there is a difference in early visual processing between dyslexic and nondyslexic children. Solan et al. (1990) found that the VEP amplitude for response to reversing checkerboards was generally higher for control children than dyslexic children, but the binocular advantage was similar for the two groups. Solan, H.A., Sutija, V.G., Ficarra, A. P., & Wurst, S. A. (1990). Binocular advantage and visual processing in dyslexic and control children as measured by visual evoked potentials. Optometry and Visual Science, 67, 105-110.

(13) Animal research ethics: The research on selective rearing will elicit some strong reactions from some students. An instructor might want to be prepared for some questions about animal research. Each instructor probably covers this at some point in his/her courses, and has appropriate references. One suggestion is:

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

McCarty, R. (1998). Making the case for animal research. APA Monitor, Nov., 18. Bennett, A.J. (2012). Animal research: The bigger picture and why we need psychologists to speak out. Psychological Science Agenda, April 2012.

(14)

Video suggestions: “Vision and Movement” from “The Brain” series (from WNET) has segments that show Hubel and Wiesel’s work on discovering simple and complex cells in the cat visual cortex, and Russell DeValois’ research on mapping the monkey visual cortex. The video also contains an example of how different spatial frequencies synthesize to form a complex visual image. “Discovering Psychology” by Zimbardo contains a chapter titled “Sensation and Perception.” A segment toward the beginning of this chapter also has an interview with Hubel about mapping cortical cells, as well as Misha Pavel explaining feature and edge detection.

(15) Book Recommendation: Steven Yantis’s collection of important articles in visual perception is a great resource for additional readings. The readings most appropriate for this chapter are Helmholtz’s “Concerning the perceptions in general”; Barlow’s “Single units and perception”; and Hubel and Wiesel’s “Receptive fields and functional architecture of monkey striate cortex.” The whole book has other readings that could be assigned as well for later chapters. Yantis, S. (ed.), (2001). Visual perception: Essential readings. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment. 15 points The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment. 8 points The assignment presents ideas in a mostly clear

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 3: The Eye and the Retina

and with strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are logically related and consistent. 10 points

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

manner and with strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent. 0 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible. 0 points

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Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

[return to top]

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 4: The Visual Cortex and Beyond

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 4: The Visual Cortex and Beyond

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 5 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 5 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 5 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 5 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 7 Standard Writing Rubric ............................................................................................................................ 7 Standard Discussion Rubric ....................................................................................................................... 8

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 4: The Visual Cortex and Beyond

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter In Chapter 3, as we began our exploration of the perceptual process for vision, we saw that a number of transformations take place in the retina, before we get to the brain. Now, we will focus our attention on the later stages of the visual process by looking at how electrical signals are sent from the eye to the visual cortex, what happens once they get there, and where they go next. Historically, understanding the functions of different parts of the brain often began with case studies of people with brain damage. Our knowledge of how the brain responds to visual input can be traced back to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. During this war, Japanese physician, Tatsuji Inouye, was treating soldiers who survived gunshot wounds to the head, and, in doing so, he made an interesting observation. He noticed that if a soldier had a wound to the back of the head, his vision was impaired. Not only that, but the area of the head that was injured was correlated with the area of vision that was lost. For example, if the bullet wound was to the right side of the brain, then visual impairments were noticed on the left side of the soldier’s visual field, and vice versa.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 04.01

Explain how visual signals travel from the eye to the lateral geniculate nucleus, and then to the visual cortex.

04.02

Distinguish between the different types of cells in the visual cortex and their role in perception.

04.03

Describe experiments that illustrate the connection between neurons called “feature detectors” and perception.

04.04

Discuss how perception of visual objects and scenes depends on neural “maps” and “columns” in the cortex.

04.05

Describe visual pathways beyond the visual cortex, including the what and where streams and how the functions of these streams have been studied.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 4: The Visual Cortex and Beyond

04.06

Describe higher-level neurons, how they are involved in perceiving objects, and the connection between higher-level neurons and visual memories.

04.07

Explain what is meant by “flexible” receptive fields.

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Key Terms Ablation: The destruction or removal of tissue in the nervous system Action pathway: Determines how a person carries out an action Area V1: Another name for the visual receiving area Complex cells: Cells that respond only when a correctly oriented bar of light moves across the entire receptive field Contextual modulation: The effect of stimulating outside the receptive field Contralateral: The opposite side of the visual field Contrast threshold: The minimum intensity difference between two adjacent bars that can just be detected Cortical magnification: The apportioning of a large area on the cortex to the small fovea Cortical magnification factor: The size of the cortical magnification Dorsal pathway: Another name for the where pathway, refers to the top of the brain Double dissociations: In one person, damage to one area of the brain causes function A to be absent while function B is present; in the other person, damage to another area of the brain causes function B to be absent while function A is present End-stopped cell: A cell that fires to moving lines of a specific length or to moving corners or angles Experience-dependent plasticity: The idea that the response properties of neurons can be shaped by perceptual experience Extrastriate cortex: Areas outside the striate cortex known as V2, V3, V4, and V5 Feature detectors: Simple, complex, and end-stopped cells that fire in response to specific features of the stimulus, such as orientation or direction of movement Hippocampus: An area associated with forming and storing memories. How pathway: Determines how a person carries out an action Hypercolumn: A location column with all of its orientation columns

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 4: The Visual Cortex and Beyond

Inferotemporal (IT) cortex: Neurons in this area in the temporal lobe have the largest receptive fields Landmark discrimination problem: A monkey’s task was to remove the cover of the food well that was closest to the “landmark” Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN): A part of the brain that receives approximately 90 percent of the signals from the retina Location columns: columns with neurons that have their receptive fields at the same location on the retina. Neural plasticity: The idea that the response properties of neurons can be shaped by perceptual experience Object discrimination problem: A monkey was shown one object, such as a rectangular solid, and was then presented with a two-choice task Optic chiasm: An x-shaped bundle of fibers on the underside of the brain Orientation columns: columns containing cells that respond best to a particular orientation Orientation tuning curve: The relationship between a neuron’s orientation and firing Retinotopic map: The electronic map of the retina on the cortex Selective adaptation: Firing causes neurons to eventually become fatigued or adapt Selective rearing: The idea that if an animal is reared in an environment that contains only certain types of stimuli, then neurons that respond to these stimuli will become more prevalent Simple cortical cell: Cells with these side-by-side receptive fields Striate cortex: Another name for the visual receiving area Superior colliculus: A structure involved in controlling eye movements Tiling: A series of columns covering the entire visual field Ventral pathway: Another name for the what pathway, refers to the lower part of the brain Visual receiving area: The place where signals from the retina and LGN first reach the cortex What pathway: The pathway leading from the striate cortex to the temporal lobe Where pathway: The pathway leading from the striate cortex to the parietal lobe [return to top]

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 4: The Visual Cortex and Beyond

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: •

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Chapter Outline I.

II.

III.

IV.

From Retina to Visual Cortex a. Pathway to the Brain b. Receptive Fields of Neurons in the Visual Cortex The Role of Feature Detectors in Perception a. Selective Adaptation b. Selective Rearing Spatial Organization in the Visual Cortex a. The Neural Map in the Striate Cortex (V1) b. The Cortex Is Organized in Columns c. How V1 Neurons and Columns Underlie Perception of a Scene Beyond the Visual Cortex a. Streams for Information About What and Where b. Streams for Information About What and How Higher-Level Neurons a. Responses of Neurons in Inferotemporal Cortex b. Where Perception Meets Memory

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Activities and Assignments (1) Video Suggestion: The “what” and “where” pathways are described in WNET Program (1988) The Brain: Vision and movement. Mortimer Mishkin is interviewed about his research. Check your institution’s holdings for this popular series. (2) Preferential Looking and Confounds: A research method issue of experimenter effects can be highlighted by research involving the preferential looking technique. Goren, Sarty, and Wu (1975) reported that newborns preferred looking at “scrambled faces” than “unscrambled faces.” Maurer and Young (1983) were skeptical about the results, and replicated the study, with two important differences: (1) they put the infant in a baby seat, instead of the experimenter’s lap; and (2) made sure that the experimenter could not see the stimulus. These changes

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 4: The Visual Cortex and Beyond

eliminated the preference for the scrambled faces. The implication is that the experimenters in the first study may have unintentionally influenced the infant’s looking behavior. The bottom line is that care must be taken in using these techniques when testing infants.

(3) Prosopagnosia: Students tend to be very interested about what a person with agnosia experiences. First-hand accounts can be found through links on Harvard’s Prosopagnosia Research Center website. The Research page contains information about prosopagnosia (a.k.a., face blindness) as well as links to recent media attention related to the disorder. These include interviews with people who have prosopagnosia, research articles, and news stories. A prosopagnosic is also interviewed in the video The Mind’s Eye: How the Brain Sees the World. Added bonus: This film demonstrates pathway differences using visual vs. grasping tasks. Another activity on prosopagnosia that is based on Oliver Sacks’ work has been posted by Steven Lloyd on APA’s Division 2 ”Office of Teaching Resources in Psychology” website. The pdf is entitled “Enhancing the Physiological Psychology Course through the Development of Neuroanatomy Laboratory Experiences and Integrative Exercises”. (4) Charles Bonnet Syndrome: Another disorder that can be addressed in this chapter is Charles Bonnet Syndrome, which is characterized by visual hallucinations in people with low vision. Apparently, visual cortex activity is misinterpreted as perceptual experience. Some introductory information can be found at the Lighthouse International website under Vision Disorders. A more scholarly case study can be found at the Journal of Neuropsychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences in a letter, “Charles Bonnet Syndrome: Two Case Reports”. Gupta, R., Singhal, A., Goel, D., Srivastava, R., and Mittal, S. (2008) Charles Bonnet Syndrome: Two Case Reports. Journal of Neuropsychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences: Letters. doi: 10.1176/appi.neuropsych.20.3.377

(5) Suggested Readings: Rita Carter’s Mapping the mind is a wonderful, generalaudience book on brain imaging and functions. Chapter 5 (A World of One’s Own) has nice information about agnosias and face recognition. Martha Farah’s book addresses the various types of agnosia, including a dairy farmer who had trouble recognizing his cows. Oliver Sacks’s popular book, cited in Chapter 1 of Goldstein, can be discussed more thoroughly in this chapter. Carter, R. (1998). Mapping the mind. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 4: The Visual Cortex and Beyond

Farah, M. J. (1991). Visual agnosia: Disorders of object recognition and what they tell us about normal vision. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Sacks, O. (1985). The man who mistook his wife for a hat. New York: Summit Books.

(6) Rod and Frame Task: The rod-and-frame task (can be used to investigate the difference between the “what” and “how” streams) has a long history in psychology (at least the visual task rather than the grasping task). Witkin (1950) introduce this task, and it has become the basis for the concept of “perceptual” (or cognitive) style. Perceptual style has been applied to a wide range of topics, including cognitive abilities, personality, and educational psychology. Table top versions of the rod-andframe task can be found, but you can also program the EyeLines software to create a “rod-and-frame” task. Witkin, H. A. (1950). The perception of the upright. Scientific American, 200, 50-70.

(7) Controversy in ERP Studies of Face Perception: A blog post entitled “The problem with comparing faces to other stimuli” provides an informative, yet accessible, introduction into the controversy surrounding ERP investigations of face perception (the N170). The piece discusses Thierry et al.’s (2007) finding that the N170 reflects stimulus variability, not face perception. (8) Faces in Cars: Another way of showing the important of face perception is to cite research that we tend to perceive faces when we look at cars. (Not a big surprise, I guess, to fans of the movie “Cars”!). A 2008 New York Times article, “Perceptions: Putting a Face Value on Cars”, provides a brief summary of Sonja Windhager’s research in this area.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly

Needs Improvement The assignment partially

Incomplete The assignment does not

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 4: The Visual Cortex and Beyond

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment. 15 points The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are logically related and consistent. 10 points

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

addresses some or all questions in the assignment. 8 points The assignment presents ideas in a mostly clear manner and with a mostly strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent. 7 points The assignment has three to five grammatical and spelling errors. 3 points

address the questions in the assignment. 0 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent. 0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible. 0 points

[return to top]

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

[return to top]

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 05: Perceiving Objects and Scenes

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 05: Perceiving Objects and Scenes

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 6 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 6 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 7 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 9 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 9 Standard Writing Rubric ............................................................................................................................ 9 Standard Discussion Rubric ..................................................................................................................... 10

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 05: Perceiving Objects and Scenes

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter One of the messages of this chapter is that we need to go beyond the pattern of illumination that a scene creates on the retina to determine what is “out there.” One way to appreciate the importance of this “going beyond” process is to consider how difficult it has been to program even the most powerful computers to accomplish perceptual tasks that humans achieve with ease. We saw an example of computer errors in Chapter 1, when we discussed a recent study showing how computers, when learning how to identify objects in a scene, sometimes make errors that humans wouldn’t make, like mistaking a toothbrush for a baseball bat. In that study, the computer was programmed to generate descriptions of a scene based on the objects that it detected in the image. To create the description, “a young boy is holding a baseball bat,” the computer first had to detect the objects in the image and then match those objects to existing, stored representations of what those objects are—a process known as object recognition. In this case, the computer recognized the objects as (1) a boy and (2) a baseball bat, and then created a description of the scene.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 05.01

Discuss why object perception is challenging for both humans and computers.

05.02

Explain Gestalt psychology and the laws of perceptual organization.

05.03

Define figure–ground segregation and identify the properties that determine which area is perceived as a figure.

05.04

Describe the recognition by components theory and how it accounts for our ability to recognize objects from different viewpoints.

05.05

Explain the role of past experience, inference, and prediction in perception.

05.06

Describe experiments that show how the brain responds to faces, bodies, and scenes, and what is meant by “neural mind reading.”

05.07

Analyze the evidence for and against the idea that faces are “special.”

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 05: Perceiving Objects and Scenes

05.08

Discuss the development of face recognition in infants.

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Key Terms Apparent movement: Movement that is perceived when nothing is actually moving Bayesian inference: The estimate of the probability of an outcome is determined by two factors: the prior probability and the likelihood Binocular rivalry: A situation in which the observer perceives either the left-eye image or the right eye image, but not both at the same time. Border ownership: The property of the border belonging to one area Decoder: A computer program that can predict the most likely stimulus based on the voxel activation patterns observed Expertise hypothesis: The idea that our proficiency in perceiving faces, and the large face response in the FFA, can be explained by the fact that we have become “experts” in perceiving faces Extrastriate body area (EBA): Activated by pictures of bodies and parts of bodies, but not by faces or other objects Figural cues: Cues within the image that determine which areas are perceived as a figure Figure: A separate object that stands out from its background Figure–ground segregation: When we see a separate object, it is usually seen as a figure that stands out from its background, which is called the ground Fusiform face area (FFA): An area of the brain located in the fusiform gyrus on the underside of the brain directly below the inferotemporal (IT) cortex Geons: Individual geometric components Gestalt psychologist: A school of thought that rejected the idea that perceptions were formed only by “adding up” sensations Gist of a scene: A general description of a type of scene Global image features: Features that can be perceived rapidly and are associated with specific types of scenes Ground: A background to a figure Grouping: The process by which elements in a visual scene are “put together” into coherent units or objects

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 05: Perceiving Objects and Scenes

Illusory contour: An edge that appears present when there are actually no physical edges present Inverse projection problem: The task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina Lateral occipital complex (LOC): An area of the brain that is active when the person views any kind of object Light-from-above assumption: The assumption that light is coming from above because light in the environment usually comes from above Likelihood: The extent to which the available evidence is consistent with the outcome Likelihood principle (Helmholtz): States that we perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli that we have received Multivoxel pattern analysis (MVPA): An analysis of the pattern of activation across multiple voxels Neural mind reading: Using a neural response, usually brain activation measured by fMRI, to determine what a person is perceiving or thinking Object recognition: The process of detecting the objects in an image and then matching those objects to existing, stored representations of what those objects are Parahippocampal place area (PPA): A specialized area in the temporal lobe that responds to places but not objects or faces Perceptual organization: The process by which elements in a person’s visual field become perceptually grouped and segregated to create a perception Persistence of vision: The perception of a visual stimulus continues for about 250 ms (1/4 second) after the stimulus is extinguished Physical regularities: Regularly occurring physical properties of the environment Pragnanz: Translated from the German, this term means “good figure” Prediction: The idea that our past experiences help us make informed guesses about what we will perceive Predictive coding: A theory that describes how the brain uses our past experiences to predict what we will perceive Principle of common fate: Things that are moving in the same direction appear to be grouped together Principle of common region: Elements that are within the same region of space appear to be grouped together

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 05: Perceiving Objects and Scenes

Principle of good continuation: Points that, when connected, result in straight or smoothly curving lines are seen as belonging together, and the lines tend to be seen in such a way as to follow the smoothest path. Principle of good figure: Every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible. Also called the principle of pragnanz, or the principle of simplicity Principle of pragnanz: Every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible. Also called the principle of good figure, or the principle of simplicity Principle of proximity (nearness): Things that are near each other appear to be grouped together. Principle of similarity: Similar things appear to be grouped together. Principle of simplicity: Every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible. Also called the principle of pragnanz, or the principle of good figure Principle of uniform connectedness: A connected region of the same visual properties, such as lightness, color, texture, or motion, is perceived as a single unit Principles of perceptual organization: A set of principles that determine how elements in a scene become grouped together. Prior: Our initial estimate of the probability of an outcome Prior probability: Our initial estimate of the probability of an outcome Prosopagnosia: Difficulty recognizing the faces of familiar people Recognition by components (RBC) theory: A theory that objects are comprised of individual geometric components called geons, and we recognize objects based on the arrangement of those geons Regularities in the environment: Characteristics of the environment that occur frequently Reversible figure–ground: An image that can be perceived alternately either as two dark blue faces looking at each other, in front of a gray background, or as a gray vase on a dark blue background Scene: A view of a real-world environment that contains background elements and multiple objects that are organized in a meaningful way Scene schema: Knowledge of what a given scene typically contains Segregation: The process of separating one area or object from another

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 05: Perceiving Objects and Scenes

Semantic regularities: Characteristics associated with activities that are common in different types of scenes Spatial layout hypothesis: Proposes that the PPA/PHC responds to the surface geometry or geometric layout of a scene Structuralism: A school of thought that distinguished between sensations—elementary processes that occur in response to stimulation of the senses—and perceptions, more complex conscious experiences such as our awareness of objects Unconscious inference: Our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions, or inferences, that we make about the environment Viewpoint invariance: The ability to recognize an object seen from different viewpoints Visual masking stimulus: A random pattern that covers the original stimulus [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • •

Updated section on computer vision Predictive coding Pre-wiring of functional connectivity for faces in human infants

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Chapter Outline I.

Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine? a. The Stimulus on the Receptors Is Ambiguous b. Objects Can Be Hidden or Blurred c. Objects Look Different from Different Viewpoints II. Perceptual Organization a. The Gestalt Approach to Perceptual Grouping b. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization c. Perceptual Segregation III. Recognition by Components IV. Perceiving Scenes and Objects in Scenes a. Perceiving the Gist of a Scene b. Regularities in the Environment: Information for Perceiving c. The Role of Inference in Perception V. Connecting Neural Activity and Object/Scene Perception a. Brain Responses to Objects and Faces b. Brain Responses to Scenes c. The Relationship Between Perception and Brain Activity

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 05: Perceiving Objects and Scenes

d. Neural Mind Reading [return to top]

Activities and Assignments (1) Figure/Ground and Logos: A common application of figure/ground reversals is in many company logos. For example, the FedEx logo contains an arrow between the last “E” and the “x.” Most students are unaware of this, even though they have seen the logo numerous times. Other logos that have arrows in figure/ground patterns are the logos for McLane Food Distribution, and Equal Exchange Coop. Ravenswood Winery has a reversible figure/ground stimulus as its logo (the ravens are actually less likely to be seen as the figure at first glance). One of the most clever examples was the previous Big Ten Conference logo. When Penn State was added to the conference, there were 11 teams in the Big Ten: The logo reflected this by having the white area between the letter “T” as an “11” when seen as the figure. In 2011 the conference expanded to include the University of Nebraska – Lincoln. At that point, the logo was redesigned so that is was just the word “BIG”, but the white between the “I” and “G” can be seen as the number “10”, this preserves the full name without explicitly referencing the number of member institutions. (2) Camouflage as a Case of Visual Segregation: The natural world provides us with a fair share of examples in which figure group segmentation can be difficult. To reinforce the concepts related to figure/ground issues and Gestalt principles, students could examine good examples of camouflage in light of those concepts. One web resource for animal examples of camouflage can be found at “Dr. Dave’s House of Fun” on the “Invisible Animals” page.

(3) Meaningfulness on Gestalt laws and Perceptual Segregation: Two other examples of how meaningfulness and familiarity affect object perception can be presented. One is to show students an example of flame-painting techniques, used most often on cars. Students with more familiarity with these techniques will easily see the “flames” as the figure; less car-oriented students will most likely see “tadpole” shapes as the figure. For examples of flame-painting, go to the Kustom Flames website. A second example is to present the numbers “25” and/or “52” using a traditional LCD font (e.g., digital clock display). No matter how close you get the numbers, students will still recognize the number, showing that meaningfulness outweighs closure. You can make the point that humans before being familiar with LCD displays might have been more likely to perceive the stimulus as a unitary figure (like a vase in the case of “25”).

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 05: Perceiving Objects and Scenes

(4) Figure/ Ground “Transposition” and Cognitive Therapy: Rian McMullin, a clinical psychologist, has proposed that seeing the different percepts in figure-ground stimuli and other bi-stable stimuli can generalize to more flexible and adaptive thinking patterns. Beyond some anecdotal evidence, actual research support is not provided, but it is still an interesting application, especially for students who may have interest in counseling or clinical psychology.

McMullin, R. E. (2000). The new handbook of cognitive therapy techniques. New York: Norton. (5) Book suggestions: Chapter 4 in Block and Yuker’s “Can You Believe Your Eyes?” is a great resource for examples of figure-ground reversible figures. “The Mediterranean Sea” (Figure 4.1) example is a great way to introduce object perception to your class. Block and Yuker also devote a chapter to illusory contours, and another to perceptual organization, providing examples for many Gestalt laws. Roger Shepard’s “Mind Sights” is also an excellent reference for figure-ground stimuli. Block, J. R., & Yuker, H. (1989). Can you believe your eyes? Bristol, PA: Brunner/Mazel. Shepard, R. N. (1990). Mind sights. New York: Freeman.

(6) “DISNEP” and Other Context/Priming Effects: One of the topics in the chapter discusses context effects in relation to perceptual intelligence. You can present some additional, classic examples of context effects, such as the “13”/”B” figure and “THE CAT” figure (Figures 15.1 and 15.3, respectively) in Block and Yuker (1989). A similar effect can be accomplished by downloading the “Disney font”. The “Y” will be perceived as a “P” if the context is appropriate. For example, if you type “DEEY” in Disney font, students will read it as “DEEP,” and “SNIY” will be read as “SNIP.” If you then present “DISNEY,” most students will read it as “DISNEY,” but occasionally a priming effect will occur, and read it as “DISNEP.” Shepard (1990) also has the unambiguous versions of the “woman’s face” and “saxophone player” that can be used to prime the ambiguous version of “Sara Nader” (Figures III-4 and III-5) to show the top-down effects on figure-ground.

(7) Regions and Figure/Ground: Vecera’s discovery of the lower vs. upper region determinant of figure-ground is discussed in the textbook. If you want to expand on the text material, Vecera (2004) describes an interesting follow-up study. Vercera tested the influence of reference frame in determining figure-ground by manipulating the observer’s head position. The article also highlights the differences between theories of figure-ground.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 05: Perceiving Objects and Scenes

Vecera, S. P. (2004). The reference frame of figure-ground assignment.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 05: Perceiving Objects and Scenes

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 6 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 6 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 7 Appendix ...................................................................................................................................... 11 Generic Rubrics ....................................................................................................................................... 11 Standard Writing Rubric .......................................................................................................................... 11 Standard Discussion Rubric ..................................................................................................................... 11

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The idea that mental processing plays an important role in determining our perceptions is a story that continues throughout this book. This chapter continues this story by describing how we pay attention to certain things and ignore others, and what that means for visual processing. The idea of paying attention to some things while ignoring others was described in the 19th century by William James (1842–1910), the first professor of psychology at Harvard. According to James, we focus on some things to the exclusion of others. As you walk down the street, the things you pay attention to—a classmate you recognize, the “Don’t Walk” sign at a busy intersection, the fact that just about everyone except you seems to be carrying an umbrella—stand out more than many other things in the environment. The reason you are paying attention to those things is that saying hello to your friend, not crossing the street against the light, and your concern that it might rain later in the day are all important to you. But there is also another reason for paying attention to some things and ignoring others. Your perceptual system has a limited capacity for processing information (Carrasco, 2011; Chun et al., 2011). Thus, to prevent overloading the system and therefore not processing anything well, the visual system, in James’s words, “withdraws from some things in order to deal more effectively with others.”

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 06.01 Describe early attention experiments using the techniques of dichotic listening, precueing, and visual search. 06.02 Describe how we scan a scene by moving our eyes, and why these eye movements don’t cause us to perceive the scene as smeared. 06.03 Describe four different factors that determine where we look and the experiments that support each factor. 06.04 Describe how attention affects physiological responding.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

06.05 Understand what happens when we don’t attend and when distraction disrupts attention. 06.06 Describe how disorders of attention teach us about basic mechanisms of attention. 06.07 Understand the connection between meditation, attention, and mind-wandering. 06.08 Describe how head-mounted eye tracking has been used to study how infants learn the names of objects. [return to top]

Key Terms Attention: The process of focusing on some objects while ignoring others. Attention can enhance the processing of the attended object. Attentional capture: Occurs when stimulus salience causes an involuntary shift of attention. For example, attention can be captured by movement. Binding: The process by which features such as color, form, motion, and location are combined to create our perception of a coherent object. Binding can also occur across senses, as when sound and vision are associated with the same object. Change blindness: Difficulty in detecting differences between two visual stimuli that are presented one after another, often with a short blank stimulus interposed between them. Also occurs when part of a stimulus is changed very slowly. Cocktail party effect: The ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli, so called because at noisy parties people are able to focus on what one person is saying even though there are many conversations happening at the same time. Comparator: A structure hypothesized by the corollary discharge theory of movement perception. The corollary discharge signal and the sensory movement signal meet at the comparator to determine whether movement will be perceived. Conjunction search: A visual search task in which it is necessary to search for a combination (or conjunction) of two or more features on the same stimulus to find the target. An example of a conjunction search would be looking for a horizontal green line among vertical green lines and horizontal red lines. Continuity error: Mismatch, usually involving spatial position or objects, that occurs from one film shot to another. Corollary discharge signal (CDS): A copy of the motor signal that is sent to the eye muscles to cause movement of the eye. The copy is sent to the hypothetical comparator of corollary discharge theory.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

Corollary discharge theory: The theory that explains motion perception as being determined both by movement of the image on the retina and by signals that indicate movement of the eyes. Covert attention: Attention without looking. Seeing something “out of the corner of your eye” is an example of covert attention. Dichotic listening: Attention experiment technique involving hearing where dichotic refers to presenting different stimuli to the left and right ears. Experience sampling: Technique used to measure the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of people at various random points in time during the day. This technique has been used to measure the frequency of mind-wandering. Extinction: A condition associated with brain damage in which there is a lack of awareness of what is happening in one side of the visual field. Feature integration theory (FIT): A theory proposed by Anne Treisman to explain how an object is broken down into features and how these features are recombined to result in a perception of the object. Feature search: A visual search task in which a person can find a target by searching for only one feature. An example would be looking for a horizontal green line among vertical green lines. Fixation: The brief pause of the eye that occurs between eye movements as a person scans a scene. Focused attention meditation: Common form of meditation in which a person focuses on a specific object, which can be the breath, a sound, a mantra (a syllable, word, or group of words), or a visual stimulus. Focused attention stage: The stage of processing in feature integration theory in which the features are combined. According to Treisman, this stage requires focused attention. Head-mounted eye tracking: Eye tracking technique in which the perceiver is fitted with two devices: (1) a head-mounted scene camera, which indicates the orientation of the perceiver’s head and their general field of view, and (2) an eye camera, which indicates the precise location where the person is looking within that field of view. Illusory conjunction: Illusory combination of features that are perceived when stimuli containing a number of features are presented briefly and under conditions in which focused attention is difficult. For example, presenting a red square and a blue triangle could potentially create the perception of a red triangle. Image displacement signal (IDS): In corollary discharge theory, the signal that occurs when an image moves across the visual receptors.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

Inattentional blindness: A situation in which a stimulus that is not attended is not perceived, even though the person is looking directly at it. Meditation: A practice that originated in Buddhist and Hindu cultures, which involves different ways of engaging the mind. Mind wandering: Non-task-oriented mental activity. Also called daydreaming. Motor signal (MS): In corollary discharge theory, the signal that is sent to the eye muscles when the observer moves or tries to move his or her eyes. Operant conditioning: A type of learning in which behavior is controlled by rewards, called reinforcements, that follow behaviors. Overt attention: Attention that involves looking directly at the attended object. Perceived contrast: The perceived difference in the appearance of light and dark bars. Preattentive processing: Hidden processing that happens within a fraction of a second, below one’s level of awareness. Preattentive stage: An automatic and rapid stage of processing, proposed by Treisman’s feature integration theory, during which a stimulus is decomposed into individual features. Precueing: A procedure in which a cue stimulus is presented to direct an observer’s attention to a specific location where a test stimulus is likely to be presented. This procedure was used by Posner to show that attention enhances the processing of a stimulus presented at the cued location. Predictive remapping of attention: Process in which attention begins shifting toward a target just before the eye begins moving toward it, enabling the perceiver to experience a stable, coherent scene. Saccadic eye movement: Rapid eye movement between fixations that occurs when scanning a scene. Saliency map: A “map” of a visual display that takes into account characteristics of the display such as color, contrast, and orientation that are associated with capturing attention. Same-object advantage: The faster responding that occurs when enhancement spreads within an object. Faster reaction times occur when a target is located within the object that is receiving the subject’s attention, even if the subject is looking at another place within the object. Scene schemas: An observer’s knowledge about what is contained in typical scenes. An observer’s attention is affected by knowledge of what is usually found in the scene. Selective attention: Occurs when a person selectively focuses attention on a specific location or stimulus property. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

Shadowing: Listeners’ repetition aloud of what they hear as they are hearing it. Spatial attention: Attention to a specific location. Spatial neglect: Neurological condition in which patients with damage to one hemisphere of the brain do not attend to the opposite side of their visual world. Visual salience: Characteristics such as bright colors, high contrast, and highly visible orientations that cause stimuli to stand out and therefore attract attention. Visual search: A procedure in which a person’s task is to find a particular element in a display that contains a number of elements. [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • • •

Predictive remapping of attention Mere presence of smartphones can negatively impact performance. Head-mounted tracking devices to measure infant attention STC: Focusing Attention by Meditating DD: Infant Attention and Learning Object Names

[return to top]

Chapter Outline I. II.

III.

IV.

What is Attention The Diversity of Attention Research a. Attention to an Auditory Message: Cherry and Broadbent’s Selective Listening Experiments b. Attention to a Location in Space: Michael Posner’s Precueing Experiment c. Attention as a Mechanism for Binding Together an Object’s Features: Anne Treisman Feature Integration Theory What Happens When We Scan a Scene by Moving our Eyes? a. Scanning a Scene with Eye Movements b. How Does the Brain Deal with What Happens When the Eyes Move? Things That Influence Visual Scanning a. Visual Salience b. The Observer’s Interests and Goals c. Scene Schemas d. Task Demands The Benefits of Attention a. Attention Speeds Responding

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

b. Attention Influences Appearance VI. The Physiology of Attention a. Attention to Objects Increases Activity in Specific Areas of the Brain b. Attention to Locations Increases Activity in Specific Areas of the Brain c. Attention Shifts Receptive Fields VII. What Happens When We Don’t Attend? VIII. Distraction by Smartphones a. Smartphone Distractions While Driving b. Distractions Beyond Driving IX. Disorders of Attention: Spatial Neglect and Extinction [return to top]

Activities and Assignments (1) Video Suggestion: “The Mind’s Eye: How the Brain Sees the World” has a clever example of change blindness. Participants walk up to a counter where the researcher presents the consent form. The researcher then ducks down below the counter to get something, and a second researcher replaces the first. Very few participants notice the change! The film includes the reaction of the participants when they are informed of the change. Video is available from Films for the Humanities & Sciences (KWX11458-KS for DVD). (2) Attention Operating Characteristics (AOCs): Ronald Kinchla developed a way of analyzing the results of attention experiments that is similar to signal detection theory. If you cover Appendix D earlier in the course, you can show the similarities between the ROCs and the AOCs. The references below expand on Kinckla’s pioneering work. Kinchla, R.E. (1980). The measurement of attention. In Nickerson, R.S. (ed), Attention and Performance VIII. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Sperling, G., & Melchner, M. J. (1978). The attention operating characteristic: Examples from visual search. Science, 202, 315-318. Sperling, G., & Dosher, B. A. (1986). Strategy and optimization in human information processing. In K. Boff, L. Kaufman, and J. Thomas (eds.), Handbook of Perception and Performance Vol. 1, 2-1 – 2-65. New York: Wiley. Sperling, G., Wurst, S. A., & Lu, Z-L. (1993). Using repetition detection to define and localize the processes in selective attention. In Meyer, D. E., & Kornblum, S. (eds.), Attention and Performance XIV. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

(3) How Did They Do That?: Attentional Blink: An additional phenomenon that has generated much research is the attentional blink, in which a second target stimulus is not reported in RSVP (rapid serial visual presentation) tasks. The idea is that attention directed to the first target stimulus uses up attentional resources for about 500 ms, in which time the second target is presented. Jane Raymond is a prominent researcher on the attentional blink. She has graciously submitted a narrative of her discovery of the effect: “At about the time we discovered the ‘attentional blink’ in the lab, I was actually doing a lot of work on visual motion perception, thinking about visual information that changes in both space and time and is perceived in episodes. Attention research at this time was tightly focused on spatial attention, the spotlight metaphor, and how we select information from static scenes. I wondered if attention, the spotlight, could also operate in a space-time framework like motion. Could the spotlight work in episodes, switching on and off? These ideas were the beginning of the conceptual groundwork for the attentional blink. “During this time period, I was becoming too busy to do my own computer programming in the lab. I had little kids at home, too many students, university committees, etc. My life just wasn’t compatible with zoning out for three or four days at a time writing computer code. So I decided to try one of the new (at that time) high-level software packages that could generate behavioral experiments more easily. As a test, I decided to re-do a simple experiment reported by Wechselgartner and Sperling (1987) that involved presenting a rapid sequence of letters. Moreover, their procedure seemed well suited for looking at how attention is used across time, something I was developing curiosity about. However, their procedure seemed overly complicated to me, so I slimmed it down devising a simple dual task RSVP procedure optimal for probing attention in time. I left it with my student, Karen Arnell, and went off for a holiday. When I can back, she had collected a stunning set of data that we realized very quickly was something important. It turned out that the software package was terrible (its timing was hopeless); we had to redo the programming (back to creating code from scratch) and run the experiments all over again. So much for short cuts! After many hours of discussion with Kim Shapiro and Karen Arnell, we hammered out the critical control experiments and developed an interpretation of what we had found. The name, the attentional blink came to me because we were also doing some eye movement studies of a visual perception task … and noticed that people habitually blink just when a trial ends. It seemed to me that when an attentional episode is over, the attentional system does just what the eyes do—blink!” Raymond, J. E., Shapiro, K. L., & Arnell, K. M. (1992). Temporary suppression of visual processing in an RSVP task: An attentional blink? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18, 849-860. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

Raymond, J. E. (2003). New objects, not new features, trigger the attentional blink. Psychological Science, 14, 54-59. Shapiro, K.L., Arnell, K. M., & Raymond, J.E. (1997). The attentional blink. Trends in Cognitive Science, 1, 291-296. (4) Feature Integration Theory: The best way for students in understand Treisman’s feature integration theory is to be an observer in a visual search task. Ask students to search for different targets, to demonstrate the difference between pre-attentive processes and focused attention. (5) Brain scanning studies of attention: For a great reference for information on the physiology of attention, get Attention & Performance XX. Part 3 includes many reviews in this area, including a chapter by Hillyard, who is a leading researcher in this field. Hillyard, S. (2004). Imaging of visual attention. In Kanwisher, N., & Duncan, J. (eds), Attention & Performance XX. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Osman also has a great chapter on the physiology of attention in a cognitive science book. Osman, A. (1998). Brainwaves and mental processes: Electrical evidence of attention, perception, and intention. In Scarborough, D., & Sternberg, S. (eds), An invitation to cognitive science, Volume 4: Methods, models, and conceptual issues (2nd edition). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (6) Annual Reviews of Psychology: A great place to get an overview of the major issues in any topic area is the Annual Reviews of Psychology. Several chapters have been devoted to attention. Some of the topics included in these chapters match the text material, such as early vs. late selection, theories of attention, and processing of non-attended stimuli. Some specific resources are provided below. Posner, M.I., & Rothbart, M.K. (2007). Research on Attention Networks as a Model for the Integration of Psychological Science. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 1-23. Pashler, H., Johnston, J.C., & Ruthruff, E. (2001). Attention and Performance. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 629-651. Egeth, H.E., & Yantis, S. (1997). Visual attention: Control, representation, and time course. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 269-297. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

Johnston, W. A., & Dark, V. J. (1986). Selective attention. Annual Review of Psychology, 37, 43-75. Kinchla, R. E. (1992). Attention. Annual Review of Psychology, 43, 711-742. (7) Eye movements and Attention: The textbook reviews some research on scanning and attention, but instructors may want to expand on this fascinating area of attention. The classic work in this area is by Yarbus (as cited in Chapter 6). Noton and Stark are credited with coining the term “scan paths,” a concept mentioned in Chapter 6. Another major researcher in this area is Eileen Kowler from Rutgers University; a sample of her work is listed below also. Gersch, T. M., Kowler, E., & Dosher, B. A. (2004). Dynamic allocation of visual attention during execution of saccades. Vision Research, 44, 1469-1483. Kowler, E. (1995). Eye movements in visual cognition. In Kosslyn, S.M., & Osherson, D.N. (eds.) An invitation to cognitive science: Volume 2 (2nd ed). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Noton, D., & Stark, L. (1971). Scanpaths in saccadic eye movements while viewing and recognizing patterns. Vision Research, 11, 929-942. Yarbus, A. L. (1967). Eye movements and vision. New York: Plenum. (8) Pop Culture and Change Blindness: Similar to the concept of continuity errors discussed in the chapter, there are many videos depicting how changes can go undetected. YouTube provides some great examples. The “colour changing card trick,” by “Quirkology” and “Test Your Awareness: Whodunnit?” by “dothetest” are excellent examples with many changes that easily go undetected. Also, puzzle books that require the observer to “spot the differences” between two (or more) pictures are very popular. “Life” magazine’s “Picture Puzzle” books are probably the most popular, and can easily be purchased at amazon.com. Many grocery store checkouts will also carry “Brain Games Picture Puzzles,” published by Publications International Ltd. The underlying challenge here is directly related to change blindness. And lastly, a 2008 New York Times article by Natalie Angier entitled “Blind to Change, Even as It Stares Us in the Face” provides an accessible summary of change blindness research.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

[return to top]

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 6: Visual Attention

Etiquette

other students to respond. 20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback. 5 points

motivate other students to respond. 10 points Does not always maintain appropriate language. Offers criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback. 3 points

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

[return to top]

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 7: Taking Action

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 7: Taking Action

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 4 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 4 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 5 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 8 Standard Writing Rubric ............................................................................................................................ 8 Standard Discussion Rubric ....................................................................................................................... 9

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 7: Taking Action

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter What does “action” have to do with perception? One perspective on this question is provided by the sea squirt, a tadpole-like creature with a spinal cord connected to a primitive brain, an eye, and a tail, which helps it find its way as it swims through the water. However, early in its life, the sea squirt gives up its traveling ways and finds a place like a rock, the ocean floor, or the hull of a ship to attach itself. Once the sea squirt finds the place where it will remain for the rest of its life, it has no more use for its eye, brain, or flipping tail, and so absorbs its brain and eye into its body. The message of the sea squirt is that once it becomes totally stationary, it doesn’t have any use for the perceptual capacities provided by the brain. We can appreciate what this has to do with human perception by noting that in most of the early research on perception, human participants were much like sea squirts—attached firmly to their chairs, responding to stimuli or scenes on a computer screen. Drawing an analogy between brainless sea squirts and participants in perception experiments might be going a bit far, but the fact is that people, in contrast to mature sea squirts, are in almost constant motion while awake and one of the purposes of their brains is to enable them to act within the environment. In fact, Paul Cisek and John Kalaska (2010) state that the primary purpose of the brain is “to endow organisms with the ability to adaptively interact with the environment.” So, to understand perception, we need to take a step beyond our discussion in the previous chapter, when we described how people direct their attention to specific objects or areas in the environment, and broaden our perspective to consider the interaction between perception and our ability to interact with the environment.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 07.01

Understand the ecological approach to perception.

07.02

Describe the information people use to find their way when walking and driving.

07.03

Understand how the brain’s “GPS” system creates cortical maps that help animals and people find their way.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 7: Taking Action

07.04

Describe how carrying out simple physical actions depends on interactions between the sensory and motor components of the nervous system, combined with prediction.

07.05

Understand the physiology behind our ability to understand other people’s actions.

07.06

Understand what is behind the idea that the purpose of perception is to enable us to interact with the environment.

07.07

Understand what it means to say that “prediction is everywhere.”

07.08

Describe what an infant affordance is and how research has studied this phenomenon.

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Key Terms Action affordance: Takes into account both the object’s affordance and the action associated with it Action-specific perception hypothesis: States that people perceive their environment in terms of their ability to act on it Affordances: Information that indicates how an object can be used Audiovisual mirror neurons: Neurons in the premotor cortex that respond when a monkey performs a hand action and when it hears the sound associated with this action Cognitive map: The idea that we have a map in our heads that helps us keep track of where we are Ecological approach to perception: To determine how movement creates perceptual information that helps people move within the environment Focus of expansion (FOE): The absence of flow at the destination point Gradient of flow: The different speed of flow—fast near the observer and slower farther away Grid cells: Neurons in an area near the hippocampus called the entorhinal cortex that are arranged in regular, grid-like patterns Invariant information: Information that remains constant regardless of what the observer is doing or how the observer is moving Landmark: An object on a route that serves as a cue to indicate where to turn Mirror neurons: Neurons that respond both when a monkey observes someone else grasping an object and when the monkey itself grasps the food

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 7: Taking Action

Mirror neuron system: Mirror neurons that are distributed throughout the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes in a network Optic flow: Movement of an observer creates movement of objects and the scene relative to the observer Parietal reach region (PRR): The area in the monkey parietal lobe involved in reaching Place cells: Neurons that only fire when an animal is in a certain place in the environment Place field: The area of the environment within which a place cell fires Proprioception: The ability to sense body position and movement Size-weight illusion: Shows that when observing two differently sized objects, we predict that the larger one will be heavier, so we exert more force to lift it, causing it to be lifted higher and to feel lighter Spatial updating: The process by which people and animals keep track of their position within a surrounding environment while they move Visual direction strategy: People keeping their body pointed toward their goal Visuomotor grip cells: A neuron that initially responds when the monkey sees a specific object and also responds as the monkey is forming its hand to grasp the same object Wayfinding: A kind of navigation in which we take a route that usually involves making turns [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • •

New material on proprioception Hippocampus-related navigation differences in non-taxi drivers STC: Prediction Is Everywhere DD: Infant Affordances

[return to top]

Chapter Outline I.

The Ecological Approach to Perception a. The Moving Observer Creates Information in the Environment b. Reacting to Information Created by Movement c. The Senses Work Together d. Affordances: What Objects Are Used for

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 7: Taking Action

II.

III.

IV.

VI.

Staying on Course: Walking and Driving a. Walking b. Driving a Car Finding Your Way Through the Environment a. The Importance of Landmarks b. Cognitive Maps: The Brain’s “GPS” c. Individual Differences in Wayfinding Interacting with Objects: Reaching, Grasping, and Lifting a. Reaching and Grasping b. Lifting the Bottle c. Adjusting the Grip Observing Other People’s Actions a. Mirroring Others’ Actions in the Brain b. Predicting People’s Intentions Action-Based Accounts of Perception

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Activities and Assignments (1) J.J. Gibson and “Big Bangs in Perception”: Murray White (1987) identified the most cited authors and publications in perception, taking citations from numerous books and the Social Science Citation Index and Science Citation Index. Although his results could be used for practically any chapter in the textbook, it seems appropriate to include it here to emphasize J.J. Gibson’s contribution to perception. Gibson had 249 citations (fourth behind Hubel at 532, Neisser at 261, and Stevens at 250), which exceeded Gregory (99), Boring (84) and Helmholtz (67). Three of Gibson’s books were also among the most cited publications, such as“The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems” had 56 citations, which placed it in a similar position as Juelsz’s (1971) “Foundations of Cyclopean Perception” (52 citations) and Hubel and Wiesel’s Journal of Physiology article on receptive fields in the monkey striate cortex. (54 citations). White, M. J. (1987). Big bangs in perception: The most cited authors and publications. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 25, 458-461. (2) Strobe and Balance: An embellishment to the demonstration of “Keeping Your Balance” is to not only have the “eyes closed” vs. “eyes open” conditions, but to use a strobe light (with the room lights off) to test intermediate levels of visual condition. I typically set the strobe at 2.25 flashes/second, using a strobe from Electronic Brazing Company (Model #510-AL), which typically results in a significant difference in balance time between the “eyes closed” condition and “strobe” condition, and between the “strobe” and “eyes open” conditions. I impose a 2-minute limit on the “balancing time” also. Run as a repeated-measures experiment (if you have a lab

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 7: Taking Action

section), it is also a nice example of the logic of repeated-measures designs and counterbalancing treatment order. Note: BE CAREFUL! Alert anyone with any possible problems with strobe lights (e.g., epilepsy) not to do that condition! Also, keep a penlight handy for the strobe condition. Lastly, make sure that students do not struggle to keep their balance: hopping around on one foot to maintain balance can possibly lead to injury. This possibility will be minimized if the student simply put his/her foot down when they start losing balance. (3) Humans Catching a Fly Ball: Chapter 7 discusses research on skilled actions like somersaulting. Another example from sports is how baseball players catch fly balls. The following journal articles can be used to provide information for any baseball fans in your class. The Marken article also has good background information on many of the issues involved in catching. Gray, R., & Sieffert, R. (2005). Different strategies for using motion-in-depth information in catching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 31, 1004-1022. Marken, R.S. (2001). Controlled variables: Psychology as the center fielder views it. American Journal of Psychology, 114, 259-281. (4) Dogs Catching a Frisbee: In the previous edition of the textbook, Goldstein briefly discussed research that relates the strategies used by humans in catching balls to how dogs catch Frisbees. This research still is associated with this chapter. The two dogs in this study (a springer spaniel named Romeo and a border collie named Lilly) perform the LOT strategy and the Optical Accleration Cancellation (OAC) strategy. Depending on the level of your students, the information in this article may be difficult, so you may want to lecture about the study, rather than assigning it as a reading. Shaffer, D. M., Krauchunas, S. M., Eddy, M., & McBeath, M. K. (2004). How dogs navigate to catch Frisbees. Psychological Science, 15, 437-441. (5) Watching a Pitched Baseball: In addition to catching, “perception and action” research can be applied to watching a pitched ball. Obviously, batting is one situation where this occurs, but there is also research on how umpires watch the pitch. In regard to batting, a nice example of science and practice is work by Tony Abbatine, who has worked with the New York Mets and high-caliber players such as Manny Ramirez. Articles about Abbatine have appeared in the New York Times (“2001 Baseball Preview; Mets Set Sights on New Techniques), USAToday and Baseball Weekly (“Vision specialist schools hitters on pitch tracking”). He is the founder of Frozen Ropes, a training program for batting that includes a visual component. Part of the program involves using cues from the pitcher’s body and characteristic seam

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 7: Taking Action

spins on the baseball to recognize the type of pitch. Research on umpires by Ford (full citation below) is interesting for its methodology, as well as definitive application of the results to positioning umpires. Ford, G. G., Gallagher, S. H., Lacy, B. A., Bridwell, A. M., & Goodwin, F. (1999). Repositioning the home plate umpire to provide enhanced perceptual cues and more accurate ball-strike judgments. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22, 28-38. (6) “Sport Vision”: The link between sports and perception is highlighted in this chapter, but a more debatable aspect of this topic is whether vision “exercises” can actually improve sports performance. The New York Times article “A little flabby around the eyeballs” addresses some of these issues, with anecdotal evidence and links to some practitioners’ websites. The article also describes four of these exercises that you can do in class to get students up and moving. The “apparatus” needed are easily obtainable (e.g., spaghetti, straws, beanbags, etc.). (7) Mirror Tracing: Another classic demonstration of the role of vision on action is mirror tracing. A “mirror tracing”-type task is found on Walter Beagley’s Eye Lines software webpage. The participant tries to trace a star pattern, but the mouse lateral direction is opposite the cursor direction (e.g., you move the mouse to the left, the cursor goes right). The difficulty in doing this task shows how disrupting the visual information leads to motor difficulties. (8) Video Suggestion: “Seeing beyond the obvious: Understanding perception in everyday and novel environments [#AAV-1343]” (1990), the NASA/University of Virginia collaboration cited in the depth perception chapter, also has nice segments about optic flow and “perception in novel environments,” such hyper-gravity (highlighting the vision/vestibular interaction) and zero-gravity. (9) Inverted Goggles: Speaking of disrupting visual information, another famous study on sensori-motor processes is the “inverted vision” study first done by Stratton (1897). You can also have your students experience the effect first-hand by getting inverting goggles. Jim Matiya, a psychology teacher in San Francisco, is a great source for these goggles. They can also be obtained from PsychKits, an online distributor. (10) Proprioception Reading: A thorough treatment of proprioception was written by John Dickinson (1976). Among the interesting information is a review of research on balancing ability of various athletes, including swimmers and wrestlers. Dickinson, J. (1976). Proprioceptive control of human movement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Book Company.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 7: Taking Action

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

[return to top]

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 7: Taking Action

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

[return to top]

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 8: Perceiving Motion

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 8: Perceiving Motion

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 4 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 5 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 5 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 8 Standard Writing Rubric ............................................................................................................................ 8 Standard Discussion Rubric ....................................................................................................................... 9

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 8: Perceiving Motion

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Perhaps the most dramatic way to illustrate the importance of motion perception to daily life (and survival) comes from case studies of people who, through disease or trauma, suffer from damage to parts of the brain responsible for perceiving and understanding movement. When this happens, a person is said to suffer from a condition called akinetopsia or “motion blindness,” where motion is either very difficult or impossible to perceive. The most famous and well-studied case of akinetopsia is a 43-year-old woman known as L.M. (Zihl et al., 1983, 1991). Without the ability to perceive motion following a stroke, L.M. was unable to successfully complete activities as simple as pouring a cup of tea. As she put it, “the fluid appeared to be frozen, like a glacier,” and without the ability to perceive the tea rising in the cup, she had trouble knowing when to stop pouring. Her condition caused other, more serious problems, as well. It was difficult for her to follow dialogue because she couldn’t see the motions of a speaker’s face and mouth, and people suddenly appeared or disappeared because she couldn’t see them approaching or leaving. Crossing the street presented serious problems because, at first, a car might seem far away, but, then, suddenly and without warning, it would appear very near. Thus, her disability was not just a social inconvenience but enough of a threat to the woman’s well-being that she rarely ventured outside into the world of moving—and sometimes dangerous—objects.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 08.01

Describe five different functions of motion perception.

08.02

Understand the difference between real motion and illusory motion and what research has revealed about the relation between them.

08.03

Describe how we perceive motion both when we move our eyes to follow a moving object and when we keep our eyes steady as an object moves across our field of view.

08.04

Understand the multiple neural mechanisms that explain motion perception.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 8: Perceiving Motion

08.05

Describe why we need to go beyond considering the responses of single neurons to understand the physiology of motion perception.

08.06

Understand how perceiving movement of the body has been studied both behaviorally and physiologically.

08.07

Describe what it means to say that we can perceive motion in still pictures.

08.08

Describe how infants perceive biological motion.

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Key Terms Akinetopsia: A condition also called “motion blindness,” in which motion is either very difficult or impossible to perceive Aperture problem: The neuron’s receptive field functions like an aperture, which reveals only a small portion of the scene Apparent motion: When two stimuli in slightly different locations are alternated with the correct timing, an observer perceives one stimulus Biological motion: The self-produced motion of a person or other living organism Coherence: Indicates the degree to which the dots move in the same direction Comparator: A brain structure that receives CDS and IDS signals Corollary discharge signal (CDS): A copy of the motor signal Corollary discharge theory: Explains why we don’t see the scene blur when we move our eyes from place to place when scanning a scene Delay unit: Slows down the signals from A as they travel toward the output unit Event: A segment of time at a particular location that is perceived by observers to have a beginning and an end Event boundary: The point in time when each of these events ends and the next one begins Global optic flow: The fact that everything moves at once in response to movement of the observer’s eyes or body Illusory motion: The perception of the motion of stimuli that aren’t actually moving Image displacement signal (IDS): Occurs when an image moves across the retina Implied motion: A still picture depicting an action involving motion Induced motion: When motion of one object (usually a large one) causes a nearby stationary object (usually smaller) to appear to move

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 8: Perceiving Motion

Local disturbance in the optic array: Occurs when a stimulus moves relative to the environment, covering and uncovering the stationary background, which causes the viewer to perceive the stimulus as moving, even though the image is stationary on the viewer’s retina. Microstimulation: Lowering a small wire electrode into the cortex and passing a weak electrical charge through the tip of the electrode Middle temporal (MT) area: contains many directionally selective neurons and is specialized for processing information about motion Motion aftereffect: Occurs when viewing a moving stimulus causes a stationary stimulus to appear to move Motor signal (MS): Sent from the motor area to the eye muscles to cause the eye to move Optic array: The structure created by the surfaces, textures, and contours of the environment Output unit: Compares the signals it receives from neurons A and B Point-light walker: Created by placing small lights on people’s joints and then filming the patterns created by these lights when people move Real motion: Perceiving motion when something moves across our field of view Reichardt detector: Consists of two neurons, A and B, which send their signals to an output unit that compares the signals it receives from neurons A and B Representational momentum: The idea that the motion depicted in a picture tends to continue in the observer’s mind Shortest path constraint: Apparent movement tends to occur along the shortest path between two stimuli Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): Temporarily disrupting the functioning of a particular brain area by applying a strong magnetic field using a stimulating coil placed over the person’s skull Waterfall illusion: If you look at a waterfall for 30 to 60 seconds and then look off to the side at part of the scene that is stationary, everything you are looking at appears to move upward for a few seconds [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • •

Changes in motion perception over the first year Motion and social perception STC: Motion, Motion, and More Motion

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 8: Perceiving Motion

[return to top]

Chapter Outline I.

Functions of Motion Perception a. Detecting Things b. Perceiving Objects c. Perceiving Events d. Social Perception e. Taking Action II. Studying Motion Perception a. When Do We Perceive Motion? b. Comparing Real and Apparent Motion c. Two Real-Life Situations We Want to Explain III. The Ecological Approach to Motion Perception IV. The Corollary Discharge and Motion Perception V. The Reichardt Detector VI. Single-Neuron Responses to Motion a. Experiments Using Moving Dot Displays b. Lesioning the MT Cortex c. Deactivating the MT Cortex d. Stimulating the MT Cortex VII. Beyond Single-Neuron Responses to Motion a. The Aperture Problem b. Solutions to the Aperture Problem VIII. Motion and the Human Body a. Apparent Motion of the Body b. Biological Motion Studied by Point-Light Walkers IX. Motion Responses to Still Pictures [return to top]

Activities and Assignments (1) Video Suggestions: The Mind’s Eye: How the Brain Sees the World has a segment on Zihl et al.’s motion agnosia patient. This is highly recommended; students tend to have many questions about her situation, and the film answers most of the questions. The application of apparent movement to the creation of movies is explored in The Movies Begin: A Treasury of Early Cinema 1894-1914 (Kino Video, 1994). “The Great Train Robbery” and “A Trip to the Moon” are included, along with a description of Muybridge’s, Lumiere’s, and Edison’s early motion work. Preview the video first for anything you might consider objectionable (e.g., nudity, cockfights). © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 8: Perceiving Motion

(2) Attention and Apparent Motion: This is a lecture topic that links top-down processes with illusory motion. The following references investigate different stimuli, but are related by the focus on attentional processes. Both works provide good background information on the mechanisms that might underlie the phenomenon of interest. Downing, P. E., & Treisman, A. M. (1997). The line-motion illusion: Attention or implementation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 23, 768-779. Lu, Z.-L., & Sperling, G. (1995). Attention-generated apparent motion. Nature, 377, 237-239.

(3) Waterfall Illusion in Video Games: Since 2005 when the video game “Guitar Hero” was made widely available, many people have firsthand experience with the waterfall illusion. A search of “Guitar Hero Illusion”, or “Guitar Hero Vision Problem”, yields numerous reports of individuals experiencing the illusion. The “Perceptionsense” blog, topic “Guitar Hero Illusion”, provides a nice description of the phenomenon and a video of someone playing the game that can be used to induce the effect in the classroom.

(4) Biological Motion LIVE! The computer-generated examples of biological motion are interesting, but nothing is better than a live performance! Purchase some “glow-in-the-dark” stars (available from many stores or go to amazon.com) and some extra tacky stuff (“poster putty”), get 2-4 student volunteers (who are not in the class), some appropriate music, and a dark room, and voila! you have a cheap biological motion demonstration. In a lighted room, put 12 stars on each person (a la Johannson). Have the class close their eyes, and have them keep their eyes closed until all the “point-light dancers” are in the room. Turn on the music, have the dancers stay stationary, and then tell the class to open their eyes. Keep the dancers stationary for about 5 seconds, and then start dancing. Students will be able to see that no “structure” is seen in the stars until movement occurs, but once movement occurs, students easily identify

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 8: Perceiving Motion

the dancers’ movements, and sometimes can get the gender of the dancers as well. Music I’ve used for this exercise included: Springsteen’s Dancing in the Dark; Led Zeppelin’s In the Light, Village People’s YMCA, the Ramones’ Do You Wanna Dance, Moby’s We Are All Made of Stars, and perhaps most appropriately, Maria Muldaur’s It Ain’t the Meat (It’s the Motion). A word of warning: Be careful!! You are in dark room!! Have the point-light dancers stay in the same location, and avoid bumping into each other. You may want a practice session to work out any problems, and bring a penlight to use.

(5) “Motion Capture”: Video Games, Movies and Sports: Johannson’s research on biological motion is really the precursor to what is called “motion capture” by computer-graphics professionals (the term has a different meaning in perception research). Points of light are placed on individuals (usually many more than 12!) to create characters in video games and movies (e.g., “The Polar Express” used point-lights on Tom Hanks’ face to create the conductor). This technique has also been used to help analyze performance of athletes, such as golfers and baseball pitchers. The American Sports Medicine Institute’s “Biomechanical Evaluations” page, provides a detailed discussion and video of motion analysis for pitchers.

(6) Spiral Aftereffects and Interocular Transfer: As you present the waterfall illusion, you may also discuss the spiral aftereffect. With that introduction, you can lead into the logic of interocular transfer. Specifically, for the spiral after effect, if you adapt to the spiral with just the right eye, and then switch to just the left eye when viewing a test stimulus, you still get the effect. Have students discuss what this would mean in terms of the locus of the effect, and what other phenomena might be tested with this procedure.

(7) Induced Movement: A couple of examples of induced movement can be easily achieved. One example, found in previous editions of Goldstein, is to record a basketball game or hockey game, and select a segment that has a lot of end-to-end action. Put a dot on the screen while you play that segment. The dot will appear to fly around, even though observers know that the dot is not physically moving. A second example is the opening credits of the film Star Trek: Insurrection. The names

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 8: Perceiving Motion

on the screen stay in the same position on the screen, but appear to move as the camera pans over a scene of a village.

(8) Apparent Motion and Scanimation Books: Rufus Butler Seder has published two immensely popular children’s books that make use of apparent motion: Gallop! and Swing!. Although aimed at children, the technique he devised for these books is amazing: you can take one apart to reveal how it is done (or if you have a problem with “defacing” a book, there are now “scanimation” note cards!)

(9) Camouflage and Motion Perception: This chapter addresses how motion can affect form perception in regard to how different species can use camouflage and “freezing” to help them to survive. Another interesting link to vision is how the animal uses their vision to determine how it should camouflage itself. A nice video demonstration can be found at The New York Times, in “Revealed: Secrets of the Camouflage Masters”, by Carl Zimmer. This article presents the work of Roger Hanlon on his research of cuttlefish camouflage.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 8: Perceiving Motion

arguments, and conclusions are logically related and consistent. 10 points

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent. 7 points The assignment has three to five grammatical and spelling errors. 3 points

arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent. 0 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible. 0 points

[return to top]

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

[return to top]

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 9: Perceiving Color

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 9: Perceiving Color

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 6 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 7 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 7 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 9 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 9 Standard Writing Rubric .......................................................................................................................... 10 Standard Discussion Rubric ..................................................................................................................... 10

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 9: Perceiving Color

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Color is one of the most obvious and pervasive qualities in our environment. We interact with it every time we note the color of a traffic light, choose clothes that are color coordinated, or appreciate the colors of a painting. We pick favorite colors (blue is the most favored; Terwogt & Hoeksma, 1994); we associate colors with emotions (we turn purple with rage, red with embarrassment, green with envy, and we feel blue; Terwogt & Hoeksma, 1994; Valdez & Mehribian, 1994); and we imbue colors with special meanings (e.g., in many cultures red signifies danger; purple, royalty; green, ecology). Yet, for all of our involvement with color, we sometimes take it for granted, and—just as with our other perceptual abilities—we may not fully appreciate color unless we lose our ability to experience it.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 09.01

Describe a number of important functions of color perception.

09.02

Understand the relationship between the wavelength of light and color and be able to apply this in explaining what happens when wavelengths are mixed.

09.03

Understand how we can perceive millions of colors, even though there are only six or seven colors in the visible spectrum.

09.04

Describe the trichromatic theory of color vision and how the theory explains color deficiency.

09.05

Describe the opponent-process theory of color vision, and why some researchers have questioned a proposed link between opponent neural responding and color perception.

09.06

Understand limitations on our understanding of how color is represented in the cortex.

09.07

Describe experiments that show that we need to go beyond wavelength in order to fully understand color perception.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 9: Perceiving Color

09.08

Understand what it means to say that we perceive color from colorless wavelengths.

09.09

Describe how behavioral experiments have been used to study infant color vision.

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Key Terms #TheDress: The online address for a picture of a dress that is seen as alternating blue and black stripes by some people and as alternating white and gold stripes by others. Aberration: Imperfections on the eye’s cornea and lens that distort light on its way to the retina Achromatic colors: Color without hue. White, black, and all the grays between these two extremes are achromatic colors Adaptive optical imaging: A technique that makes it possible to look into a person’s eye and take pictures of the receptor array in the retina. Additive color mixture: The creation of colors that occurs when lights of different colors are superimposed Anomalous trichromatism: An anomalous trichromat is not as good as a trichromat at discriminating between wavelengths that are close together Cerebral achromatopsia: A loss of color vision caused by damage to the cortex Chromatic adaptation: This adaptation can cause a decrease in sensitivity to light from the area of the spectrum that was presented during adaptation Chromatic colors: Color with hue, such as blue, yellow, red, or green Color blind: A condition in which a person perceives no chromatic color Color circle: Perceptually similar colors located next to each other and arranged in a circle Color constancy: The effect in which the perception of an object’s hue remains constant even when the wavelength distribution of the illumination is changed Color deficiency: Condition (sometimes incorrectly called color blindness), in which people see fewer colors than people with normal color vision Color matching: A procedure in which observers are asked to match the color in one field by mixing two or more lights in another field Color solid: A solid in which colors are arranged in an orderly way based on their hue, saturation, and value Cone mosaic: Arrangement of short-, medium-, and long-wavelength cones in a particular area of the retina

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 9: Perceiving Color

Desaturated: Low saturation in chromatic colors as would occur when white is added to a color Deuteranopia: A form of dichromatism in which a person is missing the mediumwavelength pigment Dichromat: A person who has a form of color deficiency Dichromatism: A form of color deficiency in which a person has just two types of cone pigment and so can see chromatic colors but confuse some colors that trichromats can distinguish Dishabituation: An increase in responding that occurs when a stimulus is changed Habituation procedure: Procedure in which a person pays less attention when the same stimulus is presented repeatedly Hue: The experience of a chromatic color, such as red, green, yellow, or blue, or combinations of these colors Hue cancellation: Procedure in which a subject is shown a monochromatic reference light and is asked to remove, or “cancel,” the one of the colors in the reference light by adding a second wavelength Hue scaling: Procedure in which participants are given colors from around the hue circle and told to indicate the proportions of red, yellow, blue, and green that they perceive in each color Illumination edge: The border between two areas created by different light intensities in the two areas Ishihara plate: A display of colored dots used to test for the presence of color deficiency Lightness constancy: The constancy of our perception of an object’s lightness under different intensities of illumination Memory color: The idea that an object’s characteristic color influences our perception of that object’s color Metamerism: The situation in which two physically different stimuli are perceptually identical Metamers: Two lights that have different wavelength distributions but are perceptually identical Microspectrophotometry: A technique in which a narrow beam of light is directed into a single visual receptor Monochromat: A person who is completely color-blind and therefore sees everything as black, white, or shades of gray

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 9: Perceiving Color

Monochromatism: Rare form of color blindness in which the absence of cone receptors results in perception only of shades of lightness (white, gray, and black) Munsell color system: Depiction of hue, saturation, and value developed by Albert Munsell in the early 1900s, in which different hues are arranged around the circumference of a cylinder with perceptually similar hues placed next to each other Neutral point: The wavelength at which a dichromat perceives gray Nonspectral colors: Colors that do not appear in the spectrum because they are mixtures of other colors Novelty-preference procedure: A procedure used to study infant color vision, in which two side-by-side squares of different colors are presented and the infant’s looking time to the two squares is measured Opponent neurons: A neuron that has an excitatory response to wavelengths in one part of the spectrum and an inhibitory response to wavelengths in the other part of the spectrum Opponent-process theory of color vision: A theory originally proposed by Hering, which claimed that our perception of color is determined by the activity of two opponent mechanisms: a blue–yellow mechanism and a red–green mechanism. Partial color constancy: A type of color constancy that occurs when changing an object’s illumination causes a change in perception of the object’s hue, but less change than would be expected based on the change in the wavelengths of light reaching the eye Penumbra: The fuzzy border at the edge of a shadow Primary colors: Red, yellow, green, and blue Principle of univariance: Once a photon of light is absorbed by a visual pigment molecule, the identity of the light’s wavelength is lost Protanopia: A form of dichromatism in which a protanope is missing the long-wavelength pigment Ratio principle: A principle stating that two areas that reflect different amounts of light will have the same perceived lightness if the ratios of their intensities to the intensities of their surroundings are the same Reflectance: The percentage of light reflected from a surface Reflectance curves: A plot showing the percentage of light reflected from an object versus wavelength Reflectance edge: An edge between two areas where the reflectance of two surfaces changes.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 9: Perceiving Color

Saturation: The relative amount of whiteness in a chromatic color Selective reflection: When an object reflects some wavelengths of the spectrum more than others Selective transmission: When some wavelengths pass through visually transparent objects or substances and others do not Spectral colors: Colors that appear in the visible spectrum Subtractive color mixture: The creation of colors that occurs when paints of different colors are mixed together Transmission curves: Plots of the percentage of light transmitted through a liquid or object at each wavelength Trichromacy of color vision: The idea that our perception of color is determined by the ratio of activity in three receptor mechanisms with different spectral sensitivities Trichromat: A person with normal color vision Tritanopia: A form of dichromatism in which a person is missing the short-wavelength pigment Unilateral dichromat: A person who has dichromatic vision in one eye and trichromatic vision in the other eye Unique hues: Name given by Ewald Hering to what he proposed were the primary colors: red, yellow, green, and blue Value: The light-to-dark dimension of color Young-Helmholtz theory: The idea that our perception of color is determined by the ratio of activity in three receptor mechanisms with different spectral sensitivities [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • • • •

Color and judging emotions of facial expressions Reevaluation of the idea of “unique hues” Social functions of color Color areas in cortex sandwiched between face and place areas #TheDress and what it tells us about individual differences and color constancy Novelty-preference procedure for determining infant color categorization

[return to top]

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 9: Perceiving Color

Chapter Outline I. II.

Functions of Color Perception Color and Light a. Reflectance and Transmission b. Color Mixing III. Perceptual Dimensions of Color IV. The Trichromacy of Color Vision a. A Little History b. Color-Matching Evidence for Trichromacy c. Measuring the Characteristics of the Cone Receptors d. The Cones and Trichromatic Color Matching e. Color Vision with Only One Pigment: Monochromacy f. Color Vision with Two Pigments: Dichromacy V. The Opponency of Color Vision a. Behavioral Evidence for Opponent-Process Theory b. Physiological Evidence for Opponent-Process Theory c. Questioning the Idea of Unique Hues VI. Color Areas in the Cortex VII. Color in the World: Beyond Wavelength a. Color Constancy b. Lightness Constancy c. Perception [return to top]

Activies and Assignments (1) Christine Ladd-Franklin: Experimental psychology has historically been a maledominated field. One important exception is Ladd-Franklin, who was a pioneer in color vision research, including an evolutionary approach. Listed below is a small sample of her work, along with an important recent article by Furumoto that focuses more on her struggles against the gender discrimination in the 1890s than her research. Furumoto, L. (1992). Joining separate spheres – Christine Ladd-Franklin, Womanscientist. American Psychologist, 47, 175-182. Ladd-Franklin, C. (1992). Tetrachromatic vision and the development of vision. Science, 55, 555-560. Ladd-Franklin, C. (1922). Practical logic and color theories. Psychological Review, 29, 180201.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 9: Perceiving Color

(2) Color and design: A major application of color research is design. The two books below have extensive information and great examples about how color is used in paintings, print, and websites. These resources have additional information on color mixing, historical information, and emotion aspects and symbolism of colors. Lauer, D. A., & Pentak, S. (2005). Design basics. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Pipes, A. (2004). Introduction to design. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson-Prentice Hall.

(3) Pink locker rooms: Controversy at the University of Iowa concerned the pink color of visiting football team’s locker room. Critics maintained that painting everything pink was homophobic and sexist; painting the pink was akin to writing “sissy” on the wall. Supporters claim that the color has nothing to do with these issues: The origin of the tradition was former Iowa coach Hayden Fry, who used his undergraduate psychology knowledge to attempt to generate a more passive ambience for the visiting team. The pink color scheme was preserved in the 2004 stadium remodel. The reason for highlighting this story is to show how use of color can generate such emotional controversy. ESPN presented a short report on the locker room in 2005 entitled, “Opponents seeing red over Iowa’s pink locker room.” Following suit, Bondurant-Farrar High School received a substantial gift to renovate their football facilities. There was one catch … the opponents’ locker room should designed after the University of Iowa’s. The story is entitled, “Iowa stadium forced to include pink visitors’ locker room as part of $3 million donation.”

(4) Retinal color mapping: An oldie but goodie that emphasizes the link between perception and physiology. Chapter 1 in Power, Hausfeld, and Gorta (1981) details how students can use a perimeter to determine the retinal areas where colors can be detected. Using small color patches of red, yellow, green, and blue, students can map out the regions when these colors can be seen. Lafayette Instruments is a good source for the apparatus needed, including the perimeter, retinal maps, and the color disks. There also is a white disk, which you can use to introduce the concept of “catch trials.” Power, R. P., Hausfeld, S., & Gorta, A. (1981). Workshops in perception. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (5) Classic readings: Highly recommended is an “instant classic”: Margaret Livingstone’s Vision and Art. Although depth and object perception are also covered here, it’s the information on color and the stunning examples that make this book such an amazing resource. The Mollon chapter is another great resource for the physiological aspects of color vision.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 9: Perceiving Color

Livingstone, M. (2002). Vision and art: The biology of seeing. New York: Abrams. Mollon, J. D. (1982). Colour vision and colour blindness. In Barlow, H.B.& Mollon, J. D. (eds), The senses. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

(6) Video suggestions: A great video that covers the vision of different species is Through Animal Eyes (1985), from the PBS series Nature. The film simulates what dogs, cats, birds, insects, and fish might be experiencing. Much of the video is about color vision, but also addresses some other issues, such as eye movements and compound eyes. Another video that my students have enjoyed is “The Island of the Colorblind,” a documentary by Oliver Sacks from his “Mind Traveler” BBC/WNET series. It is a fascinating look at a “perfect storm” (somewhat literally!) of conditions that led to widespread color deficiency on the island of Pingelap. Sacks also has a conversation with Knut Nordby, a Norwegian scientist who was born colorblind. As an added bonus, students get to see the engaging Dr. Sacks, after reading about him in the textbook a couple of times. (Sacks also has a book of the same title). Additional information can be obtained at Oliver Sacks’ website.

(7) Fish Color Vision and Evolution: Another animal related article on color vision can be found from a 2008 The New York Times article, “Seeing Red and Blue Can Divide a Species – of Fish.” This article, with a link to the original journal article, discusses how the depth of the water in which the cichlid fish in Lake Victoria is related to the color of the fish.

(8) Color Across Disciplines: The importance of color in marketing, emotion, and therapy can be highlighted as a way of introducing this chapter. For example, the colors of the iMacs have been identified as a reason for the early success of these computers. Leslie Harrington is one of the highest profile “color consultants.” She has appeared on the Today Show and has a professional website containing more information about her work.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 9: Perceiving Color

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

[return to top]

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

[return to top]

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 7 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 7 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 8 Appendix ...................................................................................................................................... 11 Generic Rubrics ................................................................................................................................... 11 Standard Writing Rubric .................................................................................................................... 11 Standard Discussion Rubric .............................................................................................................. 12

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The final chapter on vision focuses on the perception of depth and size. At first, you might think that depth and size are separate issues in perception, but they are in fact closely related. This chapter examines illusions that create misperceptions of distance, depth, and size. It also explores the many ways we use different sources of optical and environmental information to help us determine the depth and size of objects in our everyday environments.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 10.01 Describe the basic problem involved in perceiving depth based on the two dimensional information on the retina. 10.02 Describe the different monocular (one-eyed) cues for depth. 10.03 Understand how the two eyes cooperate to create binocular (two-eyed) cues for depth. 10.04 Describe how neural signals coming from the two eyes are combined to create depth perception. 10.05 Understand how animals ranging from monkeys, to cats, to pigeons, to insects perceive depth. 10.06 Understand how perceiving an object’s size depends on being able to perceive how far away it is. 10.07 Describe how the connection between the perception of size and depth has been used to explain size illusions.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

10.08 Describe procedures that have been used to determine the types of information young infants use to perceive depth. [return to top]

Key Terms Absolute disparity: The degree to which an image deviates from falling on corresponding points. Accommodation: In vision, bringing objects located at different distances into focus by changing the shape of the lens. Accretion: A cue that provides information about the relative depth of two surfaces. Occurs when the farther object is uncovered by the nearer object due to sideways movement of an observer relative to the objects. Ames room: A distorted room, first built by Adelbert Ames, that creates an erroneous perception of the sizes of people in the room. The room is constructed so that two people at the far wall of the room appear to stand at the same distance from an observer. In actuality, one of the people is much farther away than the other. Angle of disparity: The visual angle between the images of an object on the two retinas. When images of an object fall on corresponding points, the angle of disparity is zero. When images fall on noncorresponding points, the angle of disparity indicates the degree of noncorrespondence. Angular size contrast theory: An explanation of the moon illusion that states that the perceived size of the moon is determined by the sizes of the objects that surround it. According to this idea, the moon appears small when it is surrounded by large objects, such as the expanse of the sky when the moon is overhead. Apparent distance theory: An explanation of the moon illusion that is based on the idea that the horizon moon, which is viewed across the filled space of the terrain, should appear farther away than the zenith moon, which is viewed through the empty space of the sky. This theory states that because the horizon and zenith moons have the same visual angle but are perceived to be at different distances, the farther appearing horizon moon should appear larger. Atmospheric perspective: A depth cue. Objects that are farther away look more blurred and bluer than objects that are closer because we look through more air and particles to see them. Binocular depth cell: A neuron in the visual cortex that responds best to stimuli that fall on points separated by a specific degree of disparity on the two retinas. Also called a disparity-selective cell.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

Binocular disparity: Occurs when the retinal images of an object fall on disparate points on the two retinas. Binocularly fixate: Directing the two foveas to exactly the same spot. Conflicting cues theory: A theory of visual illusions proposed by R. H. Day, which states that our perception of line length depends on an integration of the actual line length and the overall figure length. Convergence: The inward movement of the eyes that occurs when we look at nearby objects. Correspondence problem: The problem faced by the visual system, which must determine which parts of the images in the left and right eyes correspond to one another. Another way of stating the problem is: How does the visual system match up the images in the two eyes? This matching of the images is involved in determining depth perception using the cue of binocular disparity. Corresponding retinal points: The points on each retina that would overlap if one retina were slid on top of the other. Receptors at corresponding points send their signals to the same location in the brain. Crossed disparity: Disparity that occurs when one object is being fixated, and is therefore on the horopter, and another object is located in front of the horopter, closer to the observer. Cue approach to depth perception: The approach to explaining depth perception that focuses on identifying information in the retinal image that is correlated with depth in the scene. Some of the depth cues that have been identified are overlap, relative height, relative size, atmospheric perspective, convergence, and accommodation. Deletion: A cue that provides information about the relative depth of two surfaces. Deletion occurs when a farther object is covered by a nearer object due to sideways movement of an observer relative to the objects. Disparity-selective cell: A neuron in the visual cortex that responds best to stimuli that fall on points separated by a specific degree of disparity on the two retinas. Also called a binocular depth cell. Disparity tuning curve: A plot of a neuron’s response versus the degree of disparity of a visual stimulus. The disparity to which a neuron responds best is an important property of disparity-selective cells, which are also called binocular depth cells. Echolocation: Locating objects by sending out high-frequency pulses and sensing the echo created when these pulses are reflected from objects in the environment. Echolocation is used by bats and dolphins.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

Emmert’s law: A law stating that the size of an afterimage depends on the distance of the surface against which the afterimage is viewed. The farther away the surface, the larger the afterimage appears. Familiar size: A depth cue in which judgment of distance is based on knowledge of the sizes of objects. Epstein’s coin experiment illustrated the operation of the cue of familiar size by showing that the relative sizes of the coins influenced perception of the coins’ distances. Frontal eyes: Eyes located in front of the head, so the views of the two eyes overlap. Horopter: An imaginary surface that passes through the point of fixation. Images caused by a visual stimulus on this surface fall on corresponding points on the two retinas. Lateral eyes: Eyes located on opposite sides of an animal’s head, as in the pigeon and the rabbit, so the views of the two eyes do not overlap or overlap only slightly. Misapplied size constancy scaling: A principle, proposed by Richard Gregory, that when mechanisms that help maintain size constancy in the three-dimensional world are applied to two dimensional pictures, an illusion of size sometimes results. Monocular cue: Depth cue—such as overlap, relative size, relative height, familiar size, linear perspective, movement parallax, and accommodation—that can work when we use only one eye. Moon illusion: An illusion in which the moon appears to be larger when it is on or near the horizon than when it is high in the sky. Motion parallax: A depth cue. As an observer moves, nearby objects appear to move rapidly across the visual field whereas far objects appear to move more slowly. Müller-Lyer illusion: An illusion in which two lines of equal length appear to be of different lengths because of the addition of “fins” to the ends of the lines. Noncorresponding points: Two points, one on each retina, that would not overlap if the retinas were slid onto each other. Also called disparate points. Occlusion: Depth cue in which one object hides or partially hides another object from view, causing the hidden object to be perceived as being farther away. A monocular depth cue. Oculomotor cue: Depth cue that depends on our ability to sense the position of our eyes and the tension in our eye muscles. Accommodation and convergence are oculomotor cues. Perspective convergence: The perception that parallel lines in the distance converge as distance increases.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

Pictorial cue: Monocular depth cue, such as overlap, relative height, and relative size, that can be depicted in pictures. Ponzo illusion: An illusion of size in which two objects of equal size that are positioned between two converging lines appear to be different in size. Also called the railroad track illusion Random-dot stereogram: A pair of stereoscopic images made up of random dots. When one section of this pattern is shifted slightly in one direction, the resulting disparity causes the shifted section to appear above or below the rest of the pattern when the patterns are viewed in a stereoscope. Relative disparity: The difference between two objects’ absolute disparities. Relative height: A monocular depth cue. Objects that have bases below the horizon appear to be farther away when they are higher in the field of view. Objects that have bases above the horizon appear to be farther away when they are lower in the field of view. Relative size: A cue for depth perception. When two objects are of equal size, the one that is farther away will take up less of the field of view. Size constancy: Occurs when the size of an object is perceived to remain the same even when it is viewed from different distances. Size-distance scaling: A hypothesized mechanism that helps maintain size constancy by taking an object’s perceived distance into account. According to this mechanism, an object’s perceived size, S, is determined by multiplying the size of the retinal image, R, by the object’s perceived distance, D. Stereopsis: The impression of depth that results from binocular disparity—the difference in the position of images of the same object on the retinas of the two eyes. Stereoscope: A device that presents pictures to the left and the right eyes so that the binocular disparity a person would experience when viewing an actual scene is duplicated. The result is a convincing illusion of depth. Stereoscopic depth perception: The perception of depth that is created by input from both eyes. Stereoscopic vision: Two-eyed depth perception involving mechanisms that take into account differences in the images formed on the left and right eyes. Strabismus: Misalignment of the eyes, such as crossed eyes or walleyes (outward looking eyes), in which the visual system suppresses vision in one of the eyes to avoid double vision, so the person sees the world with only one eye at a time.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

Texture gradient: The visual pattern formed by a regularly textured surface that extends away from the observer. This pattern provides information for distance because the elements in a texture gradient appear smaller as distance from the observer increases. Uncrossed disparity: Disparity that occurs when one object is being fixated, and is therefore on the horopter, and another object is located behind the horopter, farther from the observer. Visual angle: The angle of an object relative to an observer’s eyes. This angle can be determined by extending two lines from the eye—one to one end of an object and the other to the other end of the object. Because an object’s visual angle is always determined relative to an observer, its visual angle changes as the distance between the object and the observer changes. [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • •

Praying mantis cinema used to test binocular depth perception STC: The Changing Moon

Chapter Outline I. II. III.

Perceiving Depth Oculomotor Cues Monocular Cues a. Pictoral Cues b. Motion-Produced Cues IV. Binocular Depth Information a. Seeing Depth with Two Eyes b. Binocular Disparity c. Disparity (Geometrical) Creates Stereopsis (Perceptual) d. The Correspondence Problem V. The Physiology of Binocular Depth Perception VI. Depth Information Across Species VII. Perceiving Size a. The Holway and Boring Experiment Size Constancy VIII. Illusions of Depth and Size a. The Muller-Lyer Illusion b. The Ponzo Illusion c. The Ames Room d. Binocular Disparity e. Pictorial Cues © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

Activities and Assignments (1) Field Trip: This chapter affords a great opportunity to get out of the classroom and into a museum. Most campuses have an art gallery. If the exhibit is appropriate, you can take your class to the gallery, and asked them to find examples of pictorial depth cues in the paintings or photographs. Off campus possibilities might be any exhibit on depth illusions (I took my class to such a traveling exhibit at the Museum of Science and Technology in Syracuse one year that had a full size Ames room and many other examples). Students were thrilled by the experience. (2) Familiar Size with Oversized Coins: A demonstration of familiar size that is similar to the Epstein study cited in the text can be easily accomplished. You can get 3” diameter versions of American coins. I got mine at Wall Drug in South Dakota, but they can also be found online at the House of Chuckles (under “Novelties: Money Fun”). If you have a document camera (e.g., an ELMO) in your classroom, you demonstrate the effect of familiar size by placing a real quarter on the ELMO and holding the “jumbo” quarter just slightly higher. (Be sure that the students cannot see the document camera as you’re doing this). Students will report that the “jumbo” quarter is much closer to them than the real quarter, and won’t suspect the fake coin is oversized. One exception: Occasionally, a particularly observant student will notice the size of your fingers compared to the coin, and realize the coin is oversized. (3) Book Suggestions: There are numerous books on depth perception and depth illusions, but I’ll suggest just a couple of my favorites. Frisby, J. P. (1979). Seeing: Illusion, brain, and mind. New York: Oxford University Press. (Great information and numerous anaglyphs.) Horibuchi, S. (1994). Stereogram. San Francisco: Cadence Books. (The best book I know of for explaining stereograms and techniques for free-fusing stereoviews and autostereograms. Includes a chapter on Christopher Tyler’s invention of the autostereogram.) Ittelson, W. H. (1968). Ames demonstrations in perception. New York: Hafner Press. (A classic book that reveals the “secrets” to constructing the Ames room and other similar illusions.) (4) Cues in Conflict: An excellent paradigm for investigating the strength of individual depth cues to put them in conflict with each other, and see which one “wins out.”

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

There is parametric research in this area (e.g., Dosher, Sperling, & Wurst, 1986), but this concept can be demonstrated easily with 3-D glasses and the photographs on the Virtual Lab CD-ROM. If students look at “Lincoln Park” with the glasses on in a way consistent with the scene (e.g. blue on right eye; red on left eye), strong depth is perceived. When the glasses are turned around (e.g., blue on left eye; red on right eye), the pictorial cues seem to be weighted more than stereopsis, so the scene looks “normal” but with less depth. If you look at the “Ballerina” photograph, consistent disparity and pictorial cues will lead the student to see the ballerina’s leg coming out toward them, but by turning the glasses around (having conflicting disparity information with the pictorial cues), most students see a bizarre perception of the ballerina’s leg being sucked into her body! Dosher, B. A., Sperling, G., & Wurst, S. A. (1986). Tradeoffs between stereopsis and proximity luminance covariance as determinants of perceived 3-D structure. Vision Research, 26, 973-990. (5) 3-D Movies and Books: A good way to preview stereopsis is show a scene from a 3D movie in class. My current favorite is Spy Kids 3-D, and I use a segment from the “Mega-Racer” scene (DVD scene 14). The DVD comes with 4 glasses; additional glasses can be purchased from American Paper Optics (website is given below). Since this is scene is really a combination of video game and film, you can also highlight how movement parallax and exaggerated pictorial cues are used to increase the perception of depth. You can be even more current by watching out for TV shows and other films that use 3-D. For example, the NFL is presenting some games in 3-D, the 2008 version of Journey to the Center of the Earth is in 3-D, as is Avatar, Frankenweenie, and Life of Pi. ViewMasters, Wheatstone-type stereoscopes (available in most antique stores), and 3-D magazines (October 2013 had a “Sports Illustrated Kids Wheels” 3-D issue, May 2011, a “Sports Illustrated Kids Sports Blast!”). can be educational, especially if you point out the disparity in the magazines or the stereoview cards. One card in particular I use is The Keystone Eye Comfort and Depth-Perception Series (#E.C. 2 – V32930), which was created to help people see depth by labeling the different objects in the scene. Another interesting book is Masterpieces in 3D: M.C. Escher and the Art of Illusion, a book of M.C. Escher prints that have disparity; the book comes with a built-in 3-D viewer. (6) Video Suggestions: The first video suggestion is an educational video created by the Ames Research Lab of NASA, titled “Seeing Beyond the Obvious: Understanding

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

Perception in Everyday and Novel Environments.” Hosted by Dennis Proffitt (University of Virginia), pictorial, oculomotor, binocular, and motion-related depth cues are presented and explained. NASA’s interest in this area is also revealed. The other video suggestions are less scholarly. The most easily accessible of these is the “Men in Black” music video by Will Smith, that is included in the Men in Black DVD and VHS. The hallway in the beginning of the video is a nice example of perspective convergence and relative size, and the background in the dance sequence is a classic stimulus to illustrate shading as a depth cue! Another music video that contains numerous size and depth illusions, including the Ames Room and other “construction-related” illusions, is “Hourglass” by Squeeze, available in the “Squeeze Play” VHS compilation of their videos, or on YouTube. Clips from “The computer that ate Hollywood” documentary can be found online. One segment about the Ames Room is explained by V. S. Ramachandran. One other entertaining video is the Saturday Night Live skit “Mr. No-Depth Perception” (from the 1990-1991 season) where Kevin Nealon demonstrates just how important depth perception for everyday tasks, sports, and social interactions. It can be found online if you search for “Saturday Night Live Skit Mr. No-Depth Perception”. (7) Eyelines and Stereoscopic Images: The software Eyelines by Wally Beagley (available online) can also be used to create stereograms, and experiments that use stereopsis, with little training. The following article details the instructional and research applications: Wurst, S. A. (1994). Generating stereoscopic displays with Eye Lines: Applications in instruction and research. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 26 (2), 148-150. (8) A Newer Variant of the Müller-Lyer Illusion: Pennel and Mershon reported an “unexpected variation” of the Müller-Lyer illusion that is easy to replicate. The length of diagonal lines that are placed below a square are misperceived. The other interesting aspect of this illusion is how it was discovered: The authors were creating a paper-folding tutorial using a computer-assisted drawing program. This helps show students the applications of the illusion, rather than just a curiosity. Pennell, T. K., & Mershon, D. H. (1998). An unexpected variation of the MüllerLyer illusion. Insight: The Visual Performance Technical Group Newsletter, 20, 1-3. (9) “The Headcrusher” and Visual Angle: One way I have introduced visual angle is by presenting a video of the “headcrusher” character from “The Kids in the Hall” TV series (can be found by searching online). In this series of skits, the “headcrusher” © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

separates his thumb and index finger by about an inch at arm’s length to “crush the head” of the image of a passerby’s head. The visual angle of the separation of the fingers needs to match the visual angle of the person’s head. For example, the finger separation of 1 inch, at a distance of 18 inches, subtends 3.18 degree visual angle. You can ask the students to determine how far away the person should be for his/her head to match that visual angle, assuming the length of a person’s head is about 11 inches. It’s a great, entertaining way to get the students involved in this topic. (10) The Visual Cliff: Another classic method for determining an infant’s depth perception is the visual cliff by Eleanor Gibson. Although it does not isolate depth cues like the use of random dot stereograms, the method is interesting from a historical perspective, and videos are available (e.g., a video is available online on Vimeo; search for “Visual Cliff Psychology Video”) where seeing the infants can pique students’ attention. You can also use this as a preview of the chapter, and have students critique the method.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

7 points The assignment has three to five grammatical and spelling errors. 3 points

The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible. 0 points

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 7 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 7 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 7 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Generic Rubrics ........................................................................................................................ 11 Standard Writing Rubric .......................................................................................................... 11 Standard Discussion Rubric .................................................................................................... 12

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Our ability to hear events that we can’t see serves an important signaling function for both animals and humans. For an animal living in the forest, the rustle of leaves or the snap of a twig may signal the approach of a predator. For humans, hearing provides signals, such as the warning sound of a smoke alarm or an ambulance siren, the distinctive high-pitched cry of a baby who is distressed, or telltale noises that indicate problems in a car engine. Hearing not only informs us about things that are happening that we can’t see, but, perhaps most important of all, it adds richness to our lives through music and facilitates communication by means of speech. This chapter is the first of four chapters on hearing. We begin, as we did for vision, by asking some basic questions about the stimulus: How can we describe the pressure changes in the air that is the stimulus for hearing? How is the stimulus measured? What perceptions does it cause? We then describe the anatomy of the ear and how the pressure changes make their way through the structures of the ear in order to stimulate the receptors for hearing.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 11.01

Describe the physical aspects of sound, including sound waves, tones, sound pressure, and sound frequencies.

11.02

Describe the perceptual aspects of sound, including thresholds, loudness, pitch, and timbre.

11.03

Identify the basic structures of the ear and describe how sound acts on these structures to cause electrical signals.

11.04

Describe how different frequencies of sound vibrations are translated into neural activity in the auditory nerve.

11.05

Understand evidence supporting the idea that perceiving a tone’s pitch depends on both where vibrations occur in the inner ear and on the timing of these vibrations.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

11.06

Describe what happens as nerve impulses travel along the pathway that leads from the ear to the cortex, and how pitch is represented in the cortex.

11.07

Describe some of the mechanisms responsible for hearing loss.

11.08

Describe procedures that have been used to measure infants’ thresholds for hearing and their ability to recognize their mother’s voice.

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Key Terms Amplitude: The pressure difference between atmospheric pressure and the maximum pressure of the wave Amplitude modulation: Adjusting the level (or intensity) of a sound stimulus so it fluctuates up and down Amplitude-modulated noise: A noise sound stimulus that is amplitude modulated Aperiodic sound: Sound waves that do not repeat Apex (of the cochlea or basilar membrane): The end of the cochlea farthest from the middle ear Attack: The buildup of sound energy that occurs at the beginning of a tone Audibility curve: A curve that indicates the sound pressure level (SPL) at threshold for frequencies across the audible spectrum Audiogram: Plot of hearing loss versus frequency Auditory canal: The canal through which air vibrations travel from the environment to the tympanic membrane Auditory response area: The psychophysically measured area that defines the frequencies and sound pressure levels over which hearing functions Base (of the cochlea or basilar membrane): The end of the cochlea nearest the middle ear Basilar membrane: A membrane that stretches the length of the cochlea and controls the vibration of the cochlear partition Characteristic frequency: The frequency at which a neuron in the auditory system has its lowest threshold Cochlea: The snail-shaped, liquid-filled structure that contains the structures of the inner ear Cochlear amplifier: Expansion and contraction of the outer hair cells in response to sound sharpens the movement of the basilar membrane to specific frequencies. Cochlear nucleus: The nucleus where nerve fibers from the cochlea first synapse © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

Cochlear partition: A partition in the cochlea, extending almost its full length, that separates the scala tympani and the scala vestibuli Decay: The decrease in the sound signal that occurs at the end of a tone Decibel (dB): A unit that indicates the pressure of a sound stimulus relative to a reference pressure Eardrum: Another term for the tympanic membrane, the membrane located at the end of the auditory canal that vibrates in response to pressure changes Effect of the missing fundamental: Removing the fundamental frequency and other lower harmonies from a musical tone does not change the tone’s pitch Equal loudness curve: A curve that indicates the sound pressure levels that result in a perception of the same loudness at frequencies across the audible spectrum First harmonic: The first harmonic of a complex tone; usually the lowest frequency in the frequency spectrum of a complex tone Frequency: The number of times per second that pressure changes of a sound stimulus repeat Frequency spectra: A plot that indicates the amplitudes of the various harmonics that make up a complex tone Frequency tuning curve: Curve relating frequency and the threshold intensity for activating an auditory neuron Fundamental: A pure tone with frequency equal to the fundamental frequency of a complex tone Fundamental frequency: The first harmonic of a complex tone; usually the lowest frequency in the frequency spectrum of a complex tone Hair cells: Neurons in the cochlea that contain small hairs, or cilia, that are displaced by vibration of the basilar membrane and fluids inside the inner ear Harmonic: Pure-tone components of a complex tone that have frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental frequency Hertz (Hz): The unit for designating the frequency of a tone Hidden hearing loss: Hearing loss that occurs at high sound levels, even though the person’s thresholds, as indicated by the audiogram, are normal Higher harmonics: Pure tones with frequencies that are whole-number (2, 3, 4, etc.) multiples of the fundamental frequency Incus: The second of the three ossicles of the middle ear. It transmits vibrations from the malleus to the stapes © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

Inferior colliculus: A nucleus in the hearing system along the pathway from the cochlea to the auditory cortex Inner ear: The innermost division of the ear, containing the cochlea and the receptors for hearing Inner hair cells: Auditory receptor cells in the inner ear that are primarily responsible for auditory transduction and the perception of pitch Leisure noise: Noise associated with leisure activities such as listening to music, hunting, and woodworking Level: Short for sound pressure level or sound level. Indicates the decibels or sound pressure of a sound stimulus Loudness: The quality of sound that ranges from soft to loud Malleus: The first of the ossicles of the middle ear. Receives vibrations from the tympanic membrane and transmits these vibrations to the incus Medial geniculate nucleus: An auditory nucleus in the thalamus that is part of the pathway from the cochlea to the auditory cortex Middle ear: The small air-filled space between the auditory canal and the cochlea that contains the ossicles Middle-ear muscles: Muscles attached to the ossicles in the middle ear Noise: A sound stimulus that contains many random frequencies Noise-induced hearing loss: A form of sensorineural hearing loss that occurs when loud noises cause degeneration of the hair cells Octave: Tones that have frequencies that are binary multiples of each other Organ of Corti: The major structure of the cochlear partition, containing the basilar membrane, the tectorial membrane, and the receptors for hearing Ossicles: Three small bones in the middle ear that transmit vibrations from the outer to the inner ear. Outer ear: The pinna and the auditory canal Outer hair cells: Auditory receptor cells in the inner ear that amplify the response of inner hair cells by amplifying the vibration of the basilar membrane Oval window: A small, membrane-covered hole in the cochlea that receives vibrations from the stapes Periodic sound: A sound stimulus in which the pattern of pressure changes repeats Periodic waveform: For the stimulus for hearing, a pattern of repeating pressure changes © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

Phase locking: Firing of auditory neurons in synchrony with the phase of an auditory stimulus Pinnae: The part of the ear that is visible on the outside of the head Pitch: The quality of sound, ranging from low to high, that is most closely associated with the frequency of a tone Pitch neuron: A neuron that responds to stimuli associated with a specific pitch. Place theory of hearing: The proposal that the frequency of a sound is indicated by the place along the organ of Corti at which nerve firing is highest Presbycusis: A form of sensorineural hearing loss that occurs as a function of age and is usually associated with a decrease in the ability to hear high frequencies Primary auditory cortex: An area of the temporal lobe that receives signals via nerve fibers from the medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus Pure tone: A tone with pressure changes that can be described by a single sine wave Resolved harmonics: Harmonics in a complex tone that create separated peaks in basilar membrane vibration, and so can be distinguished from one another Resonance: A mechanism that enhances the intensity of certain frequencies because of the reflection of sound waves in a closed tube Resonant frequency: The frequency that is most strongly enhanced by resonance Sound: The physical stimulus for hearing Sound level: The pressure of a sound stimulus, expressed in decibels Sound pressure level (SPL): A designation used to indicate that the reference pressure used for calculating a tone’s decibel rating is set at 20 micropascals, near the threshold in the most sensitive frequency range for hearing Sound wave: Pattern of pressure changes in a medium Stapes: The last of the three ossicles in the middle ear. It receives vibrations from the incus and transmits these vibrations to the oval window of the inner ear Stereocilia: Thin processes that protrude from the tops of the hair cells in the cochlea that bend in response to pressure changes Subcortical structures: Structure below the cerebral cortex Superior olivary nucleus: A nucleus along the auditory pathway from the cochlea to the auditory cortex. The superior olivary nucleus receives inputs from the cochlear nucleus Tectorial membrane: A membrane that stretches the length of the cochlea and is located directly over the hair cells © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

Temporal coding: The connection between the frequency of a sound stimulus and the timing of the auditory nerve fiber firing Timbre: The quality that distinguishes between two tones that sound different even though they have the same loudness, pitch, and duration Tip links: Structures at the tops of the cilia of auditory hair cells, which stretch or slacken as the cilia move, causing ion channels to open or close Tone chroma: The perceptual similarity of notes separated by one or more octaves Tone height: The increase in pitch that occurs as frequency is increased Tonotopic map: An ordered map of frequencies created by the responding of neurons within structures in the auditory system Traveling wave: In the auditory system, vibration of the basilar membrane in which the peak of the vibration travels from the base of the membrane to its apex Tympanic membrane: A membrane at the end of the auditory canal that vibrates in response to vibrations of the air and transmits these vibrations to the ossicles in the middle ear Unresolved harmonics: Harmonics of a complex tone that can’t be distinguished from one another because they are not indicated by separate peaks in the basilar membrane vibration [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: •

TC: Explaining Sound to an 11-Year-Old

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Chapter Outline I.

II.

III.

Physical Aspects of Sound a. Sound as Pressure Changes b. Pure Tones of Pressures c. Complex Tones and Frequency Spectra Perceptual Aspects of Sound a. Thresholds and Loudness b. Pitch c. Timbre From Pressure Changes to Electrical Signals a. The Outer Ear

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

IV.

b. The Middle Ear c. The Inner Ear How Frequency Is Represented in the Auditory Nerve a. Békésy Discovers How the Basilar Membrane Vibrates b. The Cochlea Functions as a Filter c. The Outer Hair Cells Function as Cochlear Amplifiers V. The Physiology of Pitch Perception: The Cochlea a. Place and Pitch b. Temporal Information and Pitch c. Problems Remaining to Be Solved VI. The Physiology of Pitch Perception: The Brain a. The Pathway to the Brain b. Pitch and the Brain VII. Hearing Loss a. Presbycusis b. Noise-Induced Hearing Loss c. Hidden Hearing Loss d. Thresholds and the Audibility Curve e. Recognizing Their Mother’s Voice

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Activities and Assignments (1) Measuring Sound Levels: Although a list of typical sounds and the related decibels are provided in the text, you may want to purchase a sound meter (D.A.S. Distribution is one affordable dealer) and record, in class, the level of some common sounds, such as hair dryers, music from boom boxes at different “volume settings”, cow bells, or the ring of a cell phone. You could also purchase some “Thunder Sticks” or other popular noise-makers that are used in sporting arenas to show how loud just a couple can be, and relate this to hearing loss. (2) “The Mosquito” Teen Repellent and Ringtones: An application of audibility curves for different age groups was reported by Sarah Lyall in The New York Times (November 29, 2005) article “What’s the Buzz? Rowdy Teenagers Don’t Want to Hear it.” Howard Stapleton has invented the “Mosquito”, which emits a high frequency sound that most people under 30 years old can’t detect, but is detected by most people under 20 years old. He is testing out this “antiloitering” device so that teens will be annoyed by the sound, and won’t © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

congregate where the Mosquito is. The application has now gone one step further, and to the teens’ advantage. Companies are now marketing ringtones that teens can hear but “parents and teachers can’t.” The Mosquito Ringtones website provides free ringtones and excellent sample stimuli. For instance, I can’t hear the 14,000 Hz tone, but it drives most class members nuts if I let it go on. This is bound to create some discussion in class. (3) Video Suggestions: A brief description of cochlear implants was presented in the chapter. Your students may be surprised to find out that there is some controversy surrounding their use. A point to consider is this: does the recommendation that someone have this procedure imply that there is something fundamentally wrong with them that needs fixing? Sound and Fury (the documentary by Josh Aronson) and its follow up, Sound and Fury: 6 years later are great film dealing with cochlear implants and the related controversy. It can be purchased online at amazon.com. A slightly older, but excellent film that addresses the same topic is Cochlear Implants: The Deaf Community’s View (Beyond Sound Productions, 1994), narrated by Mel Carter and Sharon Carter. (4) Simulating Disabilities: One way for students to gain a greater appreciation of their sensory systems is to simulate a perceptual disability. This is a more expanded version of Goldstein’s suggestion to close your eyes as you sit at your desk, and similar to Eileen Lusk’s simulation. My colleague Karen Wolford and I have detailed the exercise we used in the reference that follows. By working with your Disabled Students Office, you can make a daylong activity of simulating a hearing disability (using ear plugs), or a visual disability (using light-reducing goggles). An inexpensive exercise, but has a lasting effect on the participants. Wurst, S.A., & Wolford, K. (2000). Incorporating disability awareness into psychology courses: Applications in abnormal psychology and perception. In Ware, M. E., & Johnson, D. E. (eds), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology: Volume 3 (2nd ed). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 89-91. (5) Inside the Actor’s Studio: One way to introduce the relationship between audition and emotion is to cite the questionnaire used by James Lipton on the Bravo program “Inside the Actor’s Studio.” (Unfortunately, some students will be more familiar with the Saturday Night Live parody than the actual

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

show!) After interviewing the actor on his/her childhood, career, and craft, Lipton uses a ten-item questionnaire to delve into the actor’s personality. Two of the questions are about audition: “What is your favorite sound or noise?” and “What is your least favorite sound or noise?” Elton John, for example, answered “a church choir” and a “fork scraping on a surface” as his favorite and least favorite sounds. Other favorites tend to be “my spouse’s voice” or “my children’s laugh”; least favorites have been “jackhammers” and “screeching brakes.” But why ask about sounds? Why not smells or sights? Is there something more inherent about the relationship between sound and emotion? (6) Hearing Dogs: Another way that deaf people can navigate the world is by using “hearing dogs.” Most students will be aware of “seeing eye dogs,” but might be less familiar with companion dogs for deaf people. If possible, you may want to contact your local agency, and see if they would do a class presentation. If not, there is much information about this service at many websites, such as: Hearing Dogs for Deaf People; Dogs for the Deaf, Inc; and Canine Companions for Independence. (7) Preventing Hearing Loss: One of the most important topics you can cover with students is noise-related hearing loss. Several anecdotal experiences can be cited, such as President Clinton, Steven Stills, and Pete Townshend. A search of the literature can result in numerous research studies that show the link between loud music and hearing loss. One example that has generated some recent publicity is David Opperman’s (University of Minnesota) research about the effectiveness of wearing ear plugs at rock concerts. Jeannie Chung and her colleagues at Harvard Medical School have also researched the link between loud music and hearing loss. Sports performers and fans are also exposed to dangerous noise levels. The use of “ThunderStix” in arenas and stadiums (especially dome stadiums) contribute to the noise level, and race tracks are not surprisingly high noise locales. Richard Petty, for example, has hearing loss, and Luann VanCampen of NIOSH has measured SPLs of 140 dBs at races. A readable article on the link between race car events and hearing, “The Sound and the Fury, and Possibly the Danger”, can be found at The New York Times. An unexpected danger to hearing also lurks in children’s toys. Hilton and Caicedo’s Sight & Hearing Association study tested dB levels from toys near the ear and at arm’s length

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

(approx. 10 inches). One toy electric guitar in this study produced 114 dB; all 14 toys in the study measured over 90 dB at the speaker. (8) “Snapshots”: An interesting inter-modal experience was undertaken by The Elements Quartet chamber music group. These performers contacted contemporary composers and asked them to select a personal photograph (such as a child on a swing, or a parrot dressed up as a cowboy), and compose music that matched the “snapshot.” This project highlights the link between music and vision. The quartet did perform this project on my campus, and did a bonus performance in my class also! You might want to consider working with your music department to get funding for a performance at your institution: It is well worth the effort! (9) Video Suggestions: The PBS program The Mind: Development has some good clips on sensory testing of newborns, including Fifer’s “sucking to mother’s voice” study. The companion book also has information on research by Fifer, DeCasper, and Couchesne. Another PBS program The Secret Life of the Brain presents sensory testing of infants and children in “Program 2: The Child’s Brain: Syllable from Sound” Restak, R.M. (1988). The mind. New York: Bantam Books.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment. 15 points The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with strong

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment. 8 points The assignment presents ideas in a mostly clear manner and with a

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 11: Hearing

organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are logically related and consistent. 10 points

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

mostly strong organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent. 7 points The assignment has three to five grammatical and spelling errors. 3 points

organizational structure. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent. 0 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible. 0 points

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Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

[return to top]

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 12: Hearing in the Environment

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 12: Hearing in the Environment

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 5 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 5 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 6 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 7 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 7 Standard Writing Rubric ............................................................................................................................ 7 Standard Discussion Rubric ....................................................................................................................... 7

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 12: Hearing in the Environment

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The last chapter was focused mainly on laboratory studies of pitch, staying mostly within the inner ear, with a trip to the cortex. This chapter broadens our perception beyond pitch to consider other auditory qualities, most of which depend on higher-order processes. Every sound comes from someplace. This may sound like an obvious statement because, of course, something, with a specific location, must be producing each sound. But while we often pay attention to where visible objects are− because they may be destinations to reach, things to avoid, or scenes to observe− we often pay less attention to where sounds are coming from. However, locating the sources of sounds, especially ones that might signal danger, can be important for our survival. And, even though most sounds don’t signal danger, sounds and their locations are constantly structuring our auditory environment. In this section, we describe how you are able to extract information that indicates the location of a sound’s source, and how the brain uses this information to create a neural representation of sounds in space.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 12.01

Describe experiments that show how people use different cues to determine the location of a sound source.

12.02

Describe the physiological processes that are involved in determining the location of a sound source.

12.03

Understand how our perception of sound location is determined when listening to sounds inside a room.

12.04

Understand how auditory scene analysis describes how we separate different sound sources that are occurring simultaneously in the environment.

12.05

Describe several ways hearing and vision interact in the environment.

12.06

Describe interconnections between vision and hearing in the brain.

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 12: Hearing in the Environment

Key Terms Acoustic shadow: The shadow created by the head that decreases the level of highfrequency sounds on the opposite side of the head Anterior belt area: The front of the posterior belt in the temporal lobe, which is involved in perceiving sound Architectural acoustics: The study of how sounds are reflected in rooms Auditory localization: The perception of the location of a sound source Auditory scene: The sound environment, which includes the locations and qualities of individual sound sources Auditory scene analysis: The process by which the sound stimuli produced by different sources in an auditory scene become perceptually organized into sounds at different locations and into separated streams of sound Auditory space: Perception of where sounds are located in space Auditory stream segregation: The effect that occurs when a series of sounds that differ in pitch or timbre are played so that the tones become perceptually separated into simultaneously occurring independent streams of sound Azimuth: In hearing, specifies locations that vary from left to right relative to the listener Binaural cue: Sound localization cue that involves both ears Coincidence detectors: Neurons in the Jeffress neural coincidence model, which was proposed to explain how neural firing can provide information regarding the location of a sound source Cone of confusion: A surface in the shape of a cone that extends out from the ear Direct sound: Sound that is transmitted directly from a sound source to the ears Distance: How far a stimulus is from the observer Echolocation: Locating objects by sending out high-frequency pulses and sensing the echo created when these pulses are reflected from objects in the environment Elevation: In hearing, sound locations that are up and down relative to the listener Indirect sound: Sound that reaches a listener’s ears after being reflected from a surface such as a room’s walls Interaural level difference (ILD): The difference in the sound pressure (or level) between the left and right ears

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 12: Hearing in the Environment

Interaural time difference (ITD): When a sound is positioned closer to one ear than to the other, the sound reaches the close ear slightly before reaching the far ear, so there is a difference in the time of arrival at the two ears ITD detector: Interaural time difference detector. Neurons in the Jeffress neural coincidence model that fire when signals reach them from the left and right ears ITD tuning curves: A plot of the neuron’s firing rate against the ITD (interaural time difference) Jeffress model: The neural mechanism of auditory localization that proposes that neurons are wired to each receive signals from the two ears, so that different neurons fire to different interaural time differences Location cues: In hearing, characteristics of the sound reaching the listener that provide information regarding the location of a sound source Melodic channeling: An illusion that occurs when successive notes of a scale are presented alternately to the left and right ears Melody schema: A representation of a familiar melody that is stored in a person’s memory Multisensory interactions: Use of a combination of senses Posterior belt area: Posterior (toward the back of the brain) area of the belt area, which is an area in the temporal lobe involved in auditory processing Precedence effect: When two identical or very similar sounds reach a listener’s ears separated by a time interval of less than about 50 to 100 ms, the listener hears the first sound that reaches his or her ears Reverberation time: The time it takes for a sound produced in an enclosed space to decrease to 1/1,000th of its original pressure Scale illusion: An illusion that occurs when successive notes of a scale are presented alternately to the left and right ears Sequential grouping: In auditory scene analysis, grouping that occurs as sounds follow one another in time Simultaneous grouping: The situation that occurs when sounds are perceptually grouped together because they occur simultaneously in time. Spectral cue: In hearing, the distribution of frequencies reaching the ear that are associated with specific locations of a sound Speechreading: Process by which deaf people determine what people are saying by observing their lip and facial movements Two-flash illusion: An illusion that occurs when one flash of light is presented, accompanied by two rapidly presented tones

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 12: Hearing in the Environment

Ventriloquism effect: When sound is heard coming from a seen location, even though it is actually originating somewhere else Visual capture: When sound is heard coming from a seen location, even though it is actually originating somewhere else What auditory pathway: Pathway that extends from the anterior belt to the front of the temporal lobe and then to the frontal cortex Where auditory pathway: Pathway that extends from the posterior belt to the parietal lobe and then to the frontal cortex [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • •

Human echolocation STC: Interactions Between Hearing and Vision

[return to top]

Chapter Outline I.

II.

III.

IV.

Sound Source Localization a. Binaural Cues for Sound Localization b. Spectral Cues for Localization The Physiology of Auditory Localization a. The Jeffress Neural Coincidence Model b. Broad ITD Tuning Curves in Mammals c. Cortical Mechanisms of Localization Hearing Inside Rooms a. Perceiving Two Sounds That Reach the Ears at Different Times b. Architectural Acoustics Auditory Scene Analysis a. Simultaneous Grouping b. Sequential Grouping c. The Ventriloquism Effect d. The Two-Flash Illusion e. Understanding Speech f. Interactions in the Brain g. Echolocation in Blind People h. Listening to or Reading a Story

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 12: Hearing in the Environment

Activities and Assignments (1) Obsolete Sounds: Experience is cited in the text as an auditory localization cue. However, the sounds that we are exposed to are constantly changing. For example, the sound of a rotary phone and the sound of a hand-held telephone slammed down are probably not as familiar to college students as to their professors. Potentially, in a few years, the “dial-up” screech will also be obsolete. Many of these sounds are being preserved, however, usually for sound effects purposes, but can also be used in research and class presentations. Valentino Production Music is a leading sound effects company. (2) Role of Vision in Auditory Localization: Historical Perspective: An early, and fascinating, apparatus to test this issue was the “pseudophone,” invented by P.T. Young in 1928 (as cited in Boring, Landfeld, and Weld’s Foundations of Psychology, 1948). The wearer of this device had an artificial pinna on the left side of the head that attached to the right ear, and vice versa. According to Boring et al., the wearer of the device did a daily routine; not too surprisingly “Automobiles at a busy intersection created a real hazard.” After a while adaptation did occur. A somewhat more recent version was the “Bice Device”. Some information about both of these devices can be found in a 2001 Psychology Today article, “Auditory Illusion” by Kaja Perina. A 2007 story in the University of Virginia Magazine, “Bice Devices”, includes a photo of the Bice device and information about Raymond Brice. (3) Role of Vision in Auditory Localization: Lab Exercise: Power, Hausfeld, and Gorta detailed a workshop on the role of vision in auditory localization. Using speakers, you can present sounds to the participant in three conditions: lights on, lights off, and eyes closed, but instruct the participant not to move his/her eyes. This workshop, therefore, also addresses the role of eye movements in locating sounds. Power, R.P., Hausfeld, S., & Gorta, A. (1981). Workshops in perception. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (4) Virtual Auditory Space Systems: For any more technologically-oriented students, you may refer them to a recent presentation by Scarpaci et al. that details a system created for generating VAS. Scarpaci, J. W., Colburn, H. S., & White, J. A. (2005). A system for real-time virtual auditory space. Proceedings of the ICAD 2005 Conference, Dublin.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 12: Hearing in the Environment

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

[return to top]

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 12: Hearing in the Environment

20 points Etiquette

Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback. 5 points

to respond. 10 points Does not always maintain appropriate language. Offers criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback. 3 points

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 13: Perceiving Music

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 13: Perceiving Music

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 5 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 5 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 6 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 6 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 6 Standard Writing Rubric ............................................................................................................................ 7 Standard Discussion Rubric ....................................................................................................................... 7

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 13: Perceiving Music

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Music is a special type of sound. One thing that makes it special, which we noted in Chapter 11, is that musical pitches have a regularly repeating pattern of pressure changes, in contrast to the more random pressure changes of many environmental noises, such as the sound of waves crashing. Yet, what’s really special about music is its popularity. While it is unlikely that someone would spend much time listening to individual tones, people spend vast amounts of time listening to sequences of tones strung together to create songs, melodies, or longer compositions. But, as we will see, music not only has melody, it also has rhythm, a beat that causes people to move, and music also elicits memories, feelings, and emotions.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 13.01

Answer the questions “What is music?” “Does music have an adaptive function?” and “What are the benefits of music?”

13.02

Understand the different aspects of musical timing, including the beat, meter, rhythm, and syncopation.

13.03

Describe how the mind can influence the perception of meter.

13.04

Understand the different properties of melodies.

13.05

Describe behavioral and physiological evidence that explains the connection between music and emotion.

13.06

Understand the evidence for and against the idea that music and language share mechanisms in the brain.

13.07

Describe experiments that have studied how infants respond to the beat.

13.08

Understand what it means to say that music is “special.”

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 13: Perceiving Music

Key Terms Arch trajectory: The rise and then fall in pitch commonly found in music Beat: In music, equally spaced intervals of time, which occurs even if there are no notes Broca’s aphasia: Language problems including labored and stilted speech and short sentences, caused by damage to Broca’s area in the frontal lobe Cloze probability task: Task in which a listener is presented with a melody, which suddenly stops. The listener’s task is to sing the note they think comes next. Cognitivist approach (to musical emotion): Approach to describing the emotional response to music, which proposes that listeners can perceive the emotional meaning of a piece of music, but that they don’t actually feel the emotions Congenital amusia: A condition in which a person doesn’t recognize tones as tones and therefore does not experience sequences of tones as music Consonance: The positive sound quality created when two or more pitches are played together Dissonance: The negative sound quality created when two or more pitches are played together Dopamine: Neurotransmitter that is involved in reward-motivated behavior Duple meter: In Western music, meter in which accents are in multiples of two Early right anterior negativity (ERAN): Physiological “surprise response” experienced by listeners, occurring in the right hemisphere of the brain, in reaction to violations of linguistic or musical syntax Emotivist approach (to musical emotion): Approach to describing the emotional response to music which proposes that a listener’s emotional response to music involves actually feeling the emotions Event-related potential (ERP): The brain’s response to a specific event, such as flashing an image or presenting a tone, as measured with small disc electrodes placed on a person’s scalp Evolutionary adaptation: A function which evolved specifically to aid in survival and reproduction Gap fill: In music, when after a large jump from one note to another, the next notes of the melody turn around, progressing in the opposite direction, to fill the gap Harmony: The qualities of sound (positive or negative) created when two or more pitches are played together Inter-onset interval: In music, the time between the onset of each note

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 13: Perceiving Music

Interval: In music, the spacing between notes Melody: The experience of a sequence of pitches as belonging together Meter: In music, organization of beats into bars or measures, with the first beat in each bar often being accented Metrical structure: The pattern of beats indicated by a musical time signature like 2:4, 4:4, or 3:4. Music: Sound organized in a way that, in traditional Western music, creates a melody Music-evoked autobiographical memory (MEAM): Memory triggered by listening to music Musical phrases: How notes are perceived as forming segments like phrases in language Musical syntax: Rules that specify how notes and chords are combined in music Nucleus accumbens: Brain structure closely associated with the neurotransmitter dopamine, which is released into the nucleus accumbens in response to rewarding stimuli Pitch: The quality of sound, ranging from low to high, that is most closely associated with the frequency of a tone Return to the tonic: Occurs when a song begins with the tonic and ends with the tonic, where the tonic is the pitch associated with a composition’s key Rhythm: In music, the series of changes across time (a mixture of shorter and longer notes) in a temporal pattern Semitone: The smallest interval in Western music—roughly the difference between two notes in a musical scale Syncopation: In music, when notes begin “off the beat” on the “and” count, which causes a “jumpiness” to the music Syntax: In language, grammatical rules that specify correct sentence construction Temporal structure: The time dimension of music, which consists of a regular beat, organization of the beat into measures (meter), and the time pattern created by the notes (rhythm) Timbre: The quality that distinguishes between two tones that sound different even though they have the same loudness, pitch, and duration Tonal hierarchy: Ratings of how well notes fit in a scale Tonality: Organizing pitches around the note associated with a composition’s key Tonic: The key of a musical composition Triple meter: In Western music, meter in which accents are in groups of three

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 13: Perceiving Music

Vestibular system: The mechanism in the inner ear that is responsible for balance and sensing the position of the body [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • • • • • • • •

New chapter, greatly expanding coverage of music, which was part of Chapter 12 in the 10th edition Music and social bonding Therapeutic effects of music Infant emotional response to music Chemistry of musical emotions Effect of syncopation on music-elicited movement Cross-cultural similarities Music and prediction Behavioral and physiological differences between music and speech DD: How Infants Respond to the Beat

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Chapter Outline I. II. III.

IV.

VI.

What Is Music? Does Music Have an Adaptive Function? Outcomes of Music a. Musical Training Improves Performance in Other Areas b. Music Elicits Positive Feelings c. Music Evokes Memories Musical Timing a. The Beat b. Meter c. Rhythm d. Syncopation e. The Power of the Mind Hearing Melodies a. Organized Notes b. Intervals c. Trajectories d. Tonality Creating Emotions a. Structural Features Linking Music and Emotion b. Expectancy and Emotion in Music

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 13: Perceiving Music

c. Event-Related Potential d. Physiological Mechanisms of Musical Emotions e. Evidence for Shared Mechanisms f. Evidence for Separate Mechanisms g. Newborns’ Response to the Beat h. Older Infants’ Movement to the Beat i. Infants’ Response to Bouncing to the Beat VII. Coda: Music Is “Special”

Activities and Assignments (1) The Perception of Music: A recent Scientific American article by Eckart Altenmuller is an excellent supplemental reading for undergraduates. He addresses physiological mechanisms involved in music listening, cross-modal experiences, the effect of learning, and a detailed example of what occurs when we hear the song “Happy Birthday.” Altenmuller, E. O. (2004). Music in your head. Scientific American: Mind Special Issue, 14 (1), 24-29. (2) Perception of Musical Meter and Dyslexia: While discussing the perception of meter, students could be asked to speculate on why humans would benefit from having this type of mechanism. One straightforward talking point from the chapter is that meter perception might be important for language acquisition and speech sound segmentation. Building on this idea, you could discuss Huss et al.’s (2011) finding of a link between developmental dyslexia and meter perception. Huss, M., Verney, J.P., Fosker, T., Mead, N., & Goswami, U. (2011). Music, rhythm, rise time perception and developmental dyslexia: perception of musical meter predicts reading and phonology. Cortex, 47, 674-689.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 13: Perceiving Music

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 14: Perceiving Speech

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 14: Perceiving Speech

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 3 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 5 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 5 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 6 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 8 Standard Writing Rubric ............................................................................................................................ 9 Standard Discussion Rubric ....................................................................................................................... 9

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 14: Perceiving Speech

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Although we perceive speech easily under most conditions, beneath this ease lurks processes as complex as those involved in perceiving the most complicated visual scenes. One way to appreciate this complexity is to consider attempts to use computers to recognize speech, a process called automatic speech recognition (ASR). Attempts to create ASR systems began in the 1950s, when Bell Laboratories designed the “Audrey” system, which could recognize single spoken digits. Many decades of work, combined with vastly improved computer technology, culminated in the introduction of ASR systems like Apple’s Siri, Amazon’s Alexa, and Google’s Voice, which do a good job of recognizing spoken commands. However, Siri, Alexa, and Voice notwithstanding, the performance of modern ASR systems ranges from very good, under ideal conditions, when ASR can create printed transcriptions of spoken language with as high as 95 percent accuracy (Spilleet al., 2018), to not so good, under less-than-ideal conditions. For example, Adam Miner and coworkers (2020) had a person listen to a recording of a two-person conversation in which the microphone was not optimally placed and there was noise in the room. Despite the microphone placement and the noise, the person was able to create an accurate written transcription of the conversation. However, when an ASR device created a transcript from the same recording, it made mistakes such as identifying words incorrectly, missing words, and inserting words that weren’t said, so that only 75 percent of the words were correct. Other experiments have shown that ASR systems make errors when confronted with accents and non-standard speech patterns (Koenecke et al., 2020). Thus, while ASR has come a long way since the 1950s, 70 years of development has resulted in computer speech recognition systems that still fall short of human listeners, who can perceive speech even when confronted with phrases they have never heard, and under a wide variety of conditions, including the presence of various background noises, variations in pronunciation, speakers with different dialects and accents, and the often chaotic give-and-take that routinely occurs when people talk with one another (Huang et al., 2014; Sinha, 2002). This chapter will help you appreciate the complex perceptual problems posed by speech and will describe research that has helped us begin to understand how the human speech perception system has solved some of these problems.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 14: Perceiving Speech

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 14.01

Describe how the acoustic signal is created by the action of articulation and is represented by phonemes.

14.02

Understand the processes responsible for variability in the acoustic signal.

14.03

Describe the motor theory of speech perception and evidence for and against the theory.

14.04

Describe the multiple sources of information for speech perception.

14.05

Understand how people perceive degraded speech.

14.06

Describe how research involving brain damage and neural recording has contributed to our understanding of how speech is processed by the brain.

14.07

Understand how cochlear implants work and how they have been used in children.

14.08

Describe infant-directed speech and how it affects infants.

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Key Terms Acoustic signal: The pattern of frequencies and intensities of the sound stimulus Acoustic stimulus: The pattern of frequencies and intensities of the sound stimulus Adult-directed speech: Speech that is directed toward an adult Aphasia: Difficulties in speaking or understanding speech due to brain damage Articulator: Structure involved in speech production, such as the tongue, lips, teeth, jaw, and soft palate Audiovisual speech perception: A perception of speech that is affected by both auditory and visual stimulation Automatic speech recognition (ASR): Using computers to recognize speech Broca’s aphasia: Language problems including labored and stilted speech and short sentences, caused by damage to Broca’s area in the frontal lobe Broca’s area: An area in the frontal lobe that is important for language perception and production Categorical perception: In speech perception, perceiving one sound at short voice onset times and another sound at longer voice onset times

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 14: Perceiving Speech

Coarticulation: The overlapping articulation that occurs when different phonemes follow one another in speech Cochlear implant: A device in which electrodes are inserted into the cochlea to create hearing by electrically stimulating the auditory nerve fibers Dual-stream model of speech perception: Model that proposes a ventral stream starting in the temporal lobe that is responsible for recognizing speech, and a dorsal stream starting in the parietal lobe that is responsible for linking the acoustic signal to the movements used to produce speech Formant: Horizontal band of energy in the speech spectrogram associated with vowels Formant transitions: In the speech stimulus, the rapid shift in frequency that precedes a formant Infant-directed speech: A pattern of speech that has special characteristics that both attract an infant’s attention and make it easier for the infant to recognize individual words Manner of articulation: How a speech sound is produced by interaction of the articulators—the mouth, tongue, and lips—during production of the sound McGurk effect: A perception of speech that is affected by both auditory and visual stimulation Motor theory of speech perception: A theory that proposes a close link between how speech is perceived and how it is produced Multimodal: The involvement of a number of different senses in determining perception Noise-vocoded speech: A procedure in which the speech signal is divided into different frequency bands and then noise is added to each band Phoneme: The shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word Phonemic restoration effect: An effect that occurs in speech perception when listeners perceive a phoneme in a word even though the acoustic signal of that phoneme is obscured by another sound, such as white noise or a cough Phonetic boundary: The voice onset time when perception changes from one speech category to another in a categorical perception experiment Phonetic feature: Cues associated with how a phoneme is produced by the articulators Place of articulation: In speech production, the locations of articulation Sensorimotor hearing loss: Decrease in the ability to hear and perceive speech caused by damage to the hair cells in the cochlea Shadowing: Listeners’ repetition aloud of what they hear as they are hearing it

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 14: Perceiving Speech

Sound spectrogram: A plot showing the pattern of intensities and frequencies of a speech stimulus Speech segmentation: The process of perceiving individual words from the continuous flow of the speech signal Speech spectrograph: Machine that records the time and frequency patterns of acoustic signals Statistical learning: The process of learning about transitional probabilities and other characteristics of the environment Transitional probabilities: In language, the chances that one sound will follow another sound Variability problem: In speech perception, the fact that there is no simple relationship between a particular phoneme and the acoustic signal Voice cells: Neurons in the temporal lobe that respond more strongly to same-species voices than to calls of other animals or to “non-voice” sounds Voice onset time (VOT): In speech production, the time delay between the beginning of a sound and the beginning of the vibration of the vocal chords Wernicke’s aphasia: An inability to comprehend words or arrange sounds into coherent speech, caused by damage to Wernicke’s area Wernicke’s area: An area in the temporal lobe involved in speech perception Word deafness: Occurs in the most extreme form of Wernicke’s aphasia, when a person cannot recognize words, even though the ability to hear pure tones remains intact [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • •

Role of motor processes in speech perception STC: Cochlear Implants DD: Infant-Directed Speech

[return to top]

Chapter Outline I.

The Speech Stimulus a. The Acoustic Signal b. Basic Units of Speech

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 14: Perceiving Speech

II.

III.

IV.

V. VI.

Variability of the Acoustic Signal a. Variability from Context b. Variability in Pronunciation Some History: The Motor Theory of Speech Perception a. The Proposed Connection Between Production and Perception b. The Proposal That “Speech Is Special” Information for Speech Perception a. Motor Processes b. The Face and Lip Movements c. Knowledge of Language d. The Meaning of Words in Sentences e. Learning About Words in a Language Speech Perception in Difficult Circumstances Speech Perception and the Brain

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Activities and Assignments (1) Word segmentation and humor: One way to introduce this topic is to note how many jokes are based on word segmentation. I use two that are favorites of my parents (and it also highlights the difference between my father’s and mother’s sense of humor!). My mom’s joke is: A little boy tells his mother that he knows what God’s name is. “What is it?” asks the mother. “Andy,” replies the boy. “Why is that?” asks the mother. “Because,” said the boy, I heard you singing “And He (Andy) walks with me /And He (Andy) talks with me/ And He (Andy) tells me I am His own.” (These are the lyrics to the hymn “In the garden”) Dad’s joke: A little boy and a man are standing at a bus stop on a cold, sleety day. The boy looks up at the man and asks “Is that an icicle on your nose?”. Man replies “No, it’s not (It’s snot).” The class will then be able to come up with plenty on their own, including people’s names (e.g., the doctor “Ben Dover,” etc.)

(2) “Mad Gabs” and Segmentation: The board game “Mad Gabs” is based on the same principle as “segmenting strings of sounds”, as phrased in the text. You can use the game for more examples, or develop some on your own. You can also demonstrate top-down processes using these by using priming stimuli. For example, I’ll present a “Smiley face” to half the class before showing “Heaven Iced Hay.” The primed students generally tend to get “Have a nice day” before the non-primed students. Other primes and word strings I’ve used are: “No Doubt” / “Go when stiff on knee” (Gwen Stefani); “Dentyne” / “Shook Hurl His Gum” (“sugarless gum”); and (“Award”/ “Pull It Sir Pries” (Pulitzer Prize). What you can also try (although I’ve had limited success) is to see if prior experience in playing Mad Gabs helps. See if the students who have experience get the correct segmentation faster than “Mad Gab” novices; this would also exemplify the effect of knowledge on speech perception.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 14: Perceiving Speech

(3) “Nobody expects the Spanish… lyrics!”: Billa Reiss, in the instructor’s manual for the 6th edition of Goldstein’s text, suggests the book “ ‘Scuse Me While I Kiss This Guy” by Gavin Edwards for examples of misheard lyrics. There is a website for these mondegrens on the website “Kissthisguy: The Archive of Misheard Lyrics”. One of my favorites to present to students is the song Loser by Beck. The chorus contains the lyric “Soy un perdador” (Spanish for “I’m a Loser”), but since all other lyrics are in English, students tend to perceive the acoustic signal as English words, such as “Sores on me head to toe” (which also would fit a song about a “loser”). Two others that work for me: Don’t Stand So Close to Me by The Police, contains the line “Just like the old man in the book by Nabokov”, which no one gets unless they have a knowledge of Lolita, and The Ramones’ Commando. I’ve had a whole class get none of the lyrics correct. All three of these songs are easily found in video form. One word of warning about the website: some of the misheard submissions don’t make a lot of sense, and some of them, while not profane, can be inappropriate for class. I did Pink Floyd’s “The Wall” because a student asked, and we found some hate-related phrases and sexual references (“More orgasms in the classroom” instead of “No dark sarcasm in the classroom”). Speaking of sarcasm and music lyrics…. (4) Isn’t it Ironic…don’t you think?: Kristen Link and Roger Kreusz have conducted interesting research on indexical speaker characteristics. “Ostensible speech acts” occur when a speaker is saying one thing, but the speaker is not being serious and the listener knows it. Irony/ sarcasm, jokes, and lies are examples. Some factors that they have investigated are sincerity and speech-act category, and regional dialect differences. Link, K. E., & Kreuz, R. J. (2005). The comprehension of ostensible speech acts. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24, 1-25. (5) Video Suggestion: An interdisciplinary approach to speech perception can be used with the video “Playing Shakespeare: Irony and Ambiguity”. The use of speaker characteristics by actors reading Shakespeare, demonstrates the relationship between speech perception and theater. Also, you get to see Ben Kingsley when he had hair! (6) Evolutionary Theory and Voice: Gordon Gallup and his colleagues have conducted research on attractiveness ratings of people’s voices, and applied the findings to evolutionary theory. Their findings are remarkable in the amount of information that a person can get just by listening to a voice. For example, voice attractiveness predicted the shoulder-to-hip ratio in males, and the waist-to-hip ratio in females. Hughes, S. M., Harrison, M. A., & Gallup, G. G., Jr. (2002). The sound of symmetry: Voice as a marker of developmental instability. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 173-180.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 14: Perceiving Speech

Hughes, S. M., Dispenza, F., & Gallup, G.G., Jr. (2004). Ratings of voice attractiveness predict sexual behavior and body configuration. Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 295304. (7) Phonemic Restoration and Censorship: A possible application of the phonemic restoration effect that you may want to discuss involves how radio programs use beeps to mask censored words. However, if the first and phoneme of the censored word is presented, with a beep in-between, the phonemic restoration effect should occur, meaning that a listener would still perceive the profanity. The question is: Is the word actually censored if the acoustic signal is changed, but the perception doesn’t? (8) Suggested Readings: Winifred Strange edited a book on cross-language research in speech perception. Given that many curriculums emphasize cross-cultural issues, this book would be an excellent source, and may help provide a background on second-language learning. Another suggestion for a broad range of issues in speech perception, including methodologies, historical background, physiology, and evolutionary issues, is Raphael et al.’s “Speech Science Primer.” Raphael, L.J., Borden, G.J., Harris, K.S. (2007). Speech science primer: Physiology acoustics, and perception of speech, Fifth Edition. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Strange, W. (1995). Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research. Baltimore: York Press. Several cross-language speech perception studies have been conducted. Consider looking at work by Catherine Best., and for developmental cross-language research, work by Janet Werker. (9) Interesting and Unexpected Aspects of Language Development: A 2013 New York Times article is relevant to the chapter discussion of audition development. It is entitled, “Babies seems to pick up language in utero.” The article discusses Christine Moon and colleagues’ finding that babies only 7 – 75 hours old were able to discriminate between English and Swedish vowel sounds. This suggests that something more specific than prosody is “picked” before birth. Going along with the topic of how language develops, a 2012 article in Frontiers in Auditory Cognitive Neuroscience, discusses the role of music (“Music and Early Language Acquisition” by Brandt, Gebrian, & Slevc). The authors approach “spoken language as a special type of music”, an assertion that lends itself well to discussion!

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 14: Perceiving Speech

Customize this rubric template as you wish. Both the writing rubric and the discussion rubric indicate 30 points.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 15: The Cutaneous Senses

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 15: The Cutaneous Senses

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter..................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements .................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2 Key Terms ....................................................................................................................................... 3 What’s New in This Chapter .......................................................................................................... 6 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................................. 6 Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................................... 7 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 8 Standard Writing Rubric ............................................................................................................................ 9 Standard Discussion Rubric ....................................................................................................................... 9

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 15: The Cutaneous Senses

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter When asked which sense they would choose to lose, if they had to lose either vision, hearing, or touch, some people pick touch. This is understandable, given the high value we place on seeing and hearing, but making a decision to lose the sense of touch would be a serious mistake. Although people who are blind or deaf can get along quite well, people with a rare condition that results in losing the ability to feel sensations though the skin often suffer constant bruises, burns, and broken bones in the absence of the warnings provided by touch and pain (Melzack & Wall, 1988; Rollman, 1991; Wall & Melzack, 1994). Not only are the perceptions we experience through our skin crucial for carrying out everyday activities and protecting ourselves from injury, but they can, under the right conditions, create good feelings! These good feelings come under the heading of social touch, which we will see can have beneficial effects beyond being pleasant. Considering all of the functions of the skin senses, we could make a good case for the idea that perceptions felt through the skin are as important both for day-to-day functioning and survival as are seeing and hearing.

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 15.01

Describe the functions of the cutaneous senses.

15.02

Describe the basic anatomy and functioning of the parts of the cutaneous system, ranging from skin to cortex.

15.03

Describe the role of tactile exploration in perceiving details, vibrations, texture, and objects.

15.04

Understand how receptors in the skin, brain connectivity and knowledge a person brings to a situation are involved in social touch.

15.05

Describe the different kinds of pain and the gate-control theory of pain.

15.06

Describe how top-down processes affect pain.

15.07

Understand the connection between the brain and pain.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 15: The Cutaneous Senses

15.08

Describe how pain can be affected by social touch and social situations.

15.09

Understand the connection between pain and brain plasticity.

[return to top]

Key Terms Active touch: Touch in which the observer plays an active role in touching and exploring an object, usually with his or her hands Affective (or emotional) component of pain: The emotional experience associated with pain—for example, pain described as torturing, annoying, frightful, or sickening Affective function of touch: The eliciting of emotions by touch CT afferents: Unmyelinated nerve fibers found in hairy skin, which have been shown to be involved in social touch Cutaneous receptive field: Area of skin that, when stimulated, influences the firing of a neuron Cutaneous senses: The ability to perceive sensations, such as touch and pain, that are based on the stimulation of receptors in the skin Dermis: The layer of skin below the epidermis Direct pathway model of pain: The idea that pain occurs when nociceptor receptors in the skin are stimulated and send their signals to the brain Discriminative function of touch: Functions of the touch system such as sensing details, texture, vibration, and objects Duplex theory of texture perception: The idea that texture perception is determined by both spatial and temporal cues that are detected by two types of receptors Empathy: The ability to share and vicariously experience what someone else is feeling Endorphin: Chemical that is naturally produced in the brain and that causes analgesia Epidermis: The outer layers of the skin, including a layer of dead skin cells Exploratory procedures (EPs): People’s movements of their hands and fingers while they are identifying three-dimensional objects by touch Gate control model: Melzack and Wall’s idea that perception of pain is controlled by a neural circuit that considers the relative amount of activity in nociceptors, mechanoreceptors, and central signals. Grating acuity: The narrowest spacing of a grooved surface on the skin for which orientation can be accurately judged

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 15: The Cutaneous Senses

Hand dystonia: A condition which causes the fingers to curl into the palm Haptic perception: The perception of three-dimensional objects by touch Homunculus: Latin for “little man”; refers to the topographic map of the body in the somatosensory cortex Inflammatory pain: Pain caused by damage to tissues, inflammation of joints, or tumor cells Interpersonal touching: One person touching another person Kinesthesis: One person touching another person Knowledge-based processing: Mechanoreceptor: Receptor that responds to mechanical stimulation of the skin, such as pressure, stretching, or vibration Medial lemniscal pathway: A pathway in the spinal cord that transmits signals from the skin toward the thalamus Meissner corpuscle (RA1): A receptor in the skin, associated with RA1 mechanoreceptors Merkel receptor (SA1): A disk-shaped receptor in the skin associated with slowly adapting fibers and the perception of fine details Microneurography: Technique used to record neural signals that involves inserting a metal electrode with a very fine tip just under the skin Multimodal nature of pain: The fact that the experience of pain has both sensory and emotional components Naloxone: A substance that inhibits the activity of opiates Neuropathic pain: Pain caused by lesions or other damage to the nervous system Nocebo effect: A negative placebo effect, characterized by a negative response to negative expectations Nociceptive pain: This type of pain, which serves as a warning of impending damage to the skin, is caused by activation of receptors in the skin called nociceptors Nociceptor: A fiber that responds to stimuli that are damaging to the skin Opioid: A chemical such as opium, heroin, and other molecules with related structures that reduce pain and induce feelings of euphoria Pacinian corpuscle (RA2 or PC): A receptor with a distinctive elliptical shape associated with RA2 mechanoreceptors Passive touch: A situation in which a person passively receives tactile stimulation

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 15: The Cutaneous Senses

Phantom limb: A person’s continued perception of a limb, such as an arm or a leg, even though the limb has been amputated Physical-social pain overlap hypothesis: Proposal that pain resulting from negative social experiences is processed by some of the same neural circuitry that processes physical pain Placebo: A substance that a person believes will relieve symptoms such as pain but that contains no chemicals that actually act on these symptoms Placebo effect: A relief from symptoms resulting from a substance that has no pharmacological effect Primary somatosensory cortex (S1): Area of the cortex in the parietal lobe that receives signals that originate from the body and stimulation of the skin Proprioception: The sensing of the position of the limbs RA1 fiber: Fiber in the skin associated with Meissner corpuscles that adapts rapidly to stimuli and fires only briefly when a tactile stimulus is presented RA2 fiber: Fiber in the skin associated with Pacinian corpuscle receptors that is located deeper in the skin than RA1 fibers Rapidly adapting (RA1) fiber: Fiber in the cutaneous system that adapts rapidly to a stimulus and so responds briefly to tactile stimulation Ruffini cylinder (SA2): A receptor structure in the skin associated with slowly adapting fibers SA1 fiber: Fiber in the skin associated with Merkel receptors that adapts slowly to stimulation and so responds continuously as long as a tactile stimulus is applied SA2 fiber: A slowly adapting fiber in the cutaneous system that is associated with the Ruffini cylinder and is located deeper in the skin than the SA1 fiber Secondary somatosensory cortex (S2): The area in the parietal lobe next to the primary somatosensory area (S1) that processes neural signals related to touch, temperature, and pain Sensory component of pain: Pain perception described with terms such as throbbing, prickly, hot, or dull Slowly adapting (SA) fiber: See SA1 fiber; SA2 fiber Social touch: One person touching another person Social touch hypothesis: Hypothesis that CT afferents and their central projections are responsible for social touch Social pain: Pain caused by negative social situations, such as rejection Somatosensory system: An area in the parietal lobe that receives inputs from the skin and the viscera associated with somatic senses such as touch, temperature, and pain

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 15: The Cutaneous Senses

Spatial cue: In tactile perception, information about the texture of a surface that is determined by the size, shape, and distribution of surface elements such as bumps and grooves Spinothalamic pathway: One of the nerve pathways in the spinal cord that conducts nerve impulses from the skin to the somatosensory area of the thalamus Surface texture: The visual and tactile quality of a physical surface created by peaks and valleys Tactile acuity: The smallest details that can be detected on the skin Temporal cue: In tactile perception, information about the texture of a surface that is provided by the rate of vibrations that occur as we move our fingers across the surface Top-down processing: Processing that starts with the analysis of high-level information, such as the knowledge a person brings to a situation Transmission cell: According to gate control theory, the cell that receives 1 and 2 inputs from cells in the dorsal horn. T-cell activity determines the perception of pain Two-point threshold: The smallest separation between two points on the skin that is perceived as two points; a measure of acuity on the skin Ventrolateral nucleus: Nucleus in the thalamus that receives signals from the cutaneous system [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • • • • •

Social touch and CT afferents Cortical responses to surface texture Top-down influences on social touch Pain reduction by social touching Pre- and post-partum touch perception STC: Plasticity and the Brain DD: Social Touch in Infants

Chapter Outline I.

II.

Overview of the Cutaneous System a. The Skin b. Mechanoreceptors c. Pathways From Skin to Cortex and Within the Cortex d. Somatosensory Areas in the Cortex Perceiving Details a. Receptor Mechanisms for Tactile Acuity

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 15: The Cutaneous Senses

III.

IV.

b. Cortical Mechanisms for Tactile Acuity Perceiving Vibration and Texture a. Vibration of the Skin b. Surface Texture Perceiving Objects a. Identifying Objects by Haptic Exploration b. The Cortical Physiology of Tactile Object Perception Social Touch a. Sensing Social Touch b. The Social Touch Hypothesis c. Social Touch and the Brain d. Top-Down Influences on Social Touch

Activities and Assignments (1) VR and Pain Management: Goldstein briefly mentions how playing a computer game affects pain level. Hunter Hoffman is a leading researcher in this field, using VR to help decrease pain in burn victims. He also is doing fascinating research on the experience of touch in virtual vs. actual physical environments. A comprehensive overview of his research can be found at his University of Washington website and additional details (including photos, examples, and articles) can be found on the HITLab (Human Interface Technology Lab). (2) Cutaneous Sensitivity: Goldstein also describes a quick and cheap way to demonstrate two-point cutaneous sensitivity. More precise two-point aesthiometers are available from Power Medical Supplies (Item#16011). These are relatively low-cost, easily manipulated and readable, and can be used to demonstrate psychophysical methods. I usually test the cheek and the forehead, using the method of limits. Just be careful: the points are precise, and also pretty sharp. Other fun related stuff from Lafayette Instruments are the pinwheel aesthesiometer (can be painful: check with your IRB!), and an extensive cutaneous sensitivity kit (pressure, thermal stimulation, paradoxical heat) that comes with booklet of suggested activities (Model 16010). (3) Visual Capture and Touch: Power et al. describe an activity to show that visual capture occurs in haptics. (Previous chapters discussed how visual capture occurs in audition). Basically, you need an open-sided box and a lens that will increase or decrease the visual size of an object. Select an object (they suggest a small block) and have participants actively touch the block through a piece of cloth while looking at the object through the lens. Then have participants judg the size of the block. Most likely, they will make judgments based on the visual cues than haptics.

Power, R.P. (1981). The dominance of touch by vision: Occurs with familiar objects. Perception, 10, 29-33.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 15: The Cutaneous Senses

Power, R.P., Hausfeld, S., & Gorta, A. (1981). Workshops in perception. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (4) Tactile Versions of Illusions: The usual interest in visual illusions can be expanded by demonstrating and/or discussing how some visual illusions occur haptically also. One of the most researched is the Müller-Lyer illusion. A recent article by Millar and Al-Attar addresses important information in this topic area. Millar, S., & Al-Attar, Z. (2002). The Müller-Lyer illusion in touch and vision: Implications for multisensory processing. Perception & Psychophysics, 64, 353-365. (5) Dowels and Object Perception: Another demonstration in this chapter that you can expand upon is the use of “tools” in haptic object perception. Instead of using a pen, you can have students use 1/8th inch diameter dowels (available at craft and hardware stores) to use as the tool. Blindfold the participants and have them sit as they use the dowel to try and identify objects. Observe their strategies, and what information they use (vibrations through stick, sound as they tap on the object, etc.). Try to use a wide range of stimuli: I have used a basketball hoop with net, a tripod, blackboard eraser, a banana (that you don’t plan on eating!), a stuffed animal, scissors, and a Skinner box. (6) “Feelspace project”: A very recent example of a stimulus substitution device was developed by Peter Konig at the University of Osnabrück in Germany. He and his research team have created a belt that vibrates to let the wearer feel their orientation in space. For example, if the person was facing west, a vibration would be felt on the left hip. Early indications are that long-term exposure to the belts improve performance on orientation tasks. See the website “FeelSpace: The Magnetic Perception Group”. (7) Pinocchio Illusion: Another interesting tactile illusion that has received much interest is the “Pinocchio illusion,” in which vibration of the tendon of the bicep can result in participant’s feeling that the forearm is getting longer. Lackner (1988) is the discoverer of the effect, but a Google search will provide more recent information. Lackner, J. R. (1988). Some proprioceptive influences on the perceptual representation of body shape and orientation. Brain, 111, 281-297.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 15: The Cutaneous Senses

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

[return to top]

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses

Instructor Manual Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Although smell and taste are often thought of as “minor” senses, the effect of losing smell and taste argues otherwise, as this loss is associated with dramatic effects on a person’s quality of life (Croy et al., 2013). In a study of the experiences of 9,000 COVID patients who had lost their senses of smell and taste, many said that they not only lost the pleasure of eating, but also the pleasure of socializing, and reported feeling isolated and detached from reality. People who have lost smell and taste, both from COVID and other causes, not only become unmotivated to eat, which can lead to health problems (Beauchamp & Mennella, 2011), but also become more prone to hazardous events, such as food poisoning or failure to detect fire or leaking natural gas. In one study, 45 percent of people with anosmia had experienced at least one such hazardous event, compared to 19 percent of people with normal olfactory function (Cameron, 2018; Santos et al., 2004).

Instructor Manual Test Banks PowerPoint Presentations Transition Guide Educator’s Guide

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 16.01

Describe the structure of the taste system and how activity in this system is related to taste quality.

16.02

Describe genetic research on individual differences in taste.

16.03

Describe the following aspects of basic olfactory abilities: detecting odors, identifying odors, individual differences in olfaction, and how olfaction is affected by COVID-19 and Alzheimer’s disease.

16.04

Describe how olfactory quality is analyzed by the mucosa and olfactory bulb.

16.05

Understand how odors are represented in the cortex.

16.06

Understand the connection between olfaction and memory.

16.07

Describe what flavor is and how it is related to taste, olfaction, cognition, and satiation.

16.08

Describe multimodal interactions between the senses.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses

16.09

Describe how researchers have measured infant chemical sensitivity.

[return to top]

Key Terms Across-fiber patterns: The pattern of nerve firing that a stimulus causes across a number of neurons Alzheimer’s disease: Serious loss of memory and other cognitive functions that is often preceded by mild cognitive impairment Amiloride: A substance that blocks the flow of sodium into taste receptors Amygdala: A subcortical structure that is involved in emotional responding and in processing olfactory signals Anosmia: Loss of the ability to smell due to injury or infection Bimodal neuron: A neuron that responds to stimuli associated with more than one sense Calcium imaging: A method of measuring receptor activity by using fluorescence to measure the concentration of calcium inside the receptor Chemotopic map: The pattern of activation in the olfactory system in which chemicals with different properties create a “map” of activation based on these properties COVID-19: An acute respiratory illness in humans caused by a coronavirus, originally identified in China in 2019, and became a pandemic in 2020 Detection threshold: For olfaction the detection threshold is the lowest concentration at which an odorant can be detected Flavor: The perception that occurs from the combination of taste and olfaction Forced-choice method: Method in which two choices are given, and the subject has to pick one Frontal operculum: An area in the frontal lobe of the cortex that receives signals from the taste system Glomeruli: Small structures in the olfactory bulb that receive signals from similar olfactory receptor neurons Insula: An area in the frontal lobe of the cortex that receives signals from the taste system and is also involved in the affective component of the perception of pain Macrosmatic: Having a keen sense of smell; usually important to an animal’s survival Microsmatic: Having a weak sense of smell

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses

Mild cognitive impairment: Cognitive impairments that extend beyond those associated with normal aging, but which often do not interfere with activities of daily living Multimodal interactions: Interactions that involve more than one sense or quality Nasal pharynx: A passageway that connects the mouth cavity and the nasal cavity Neurogenesis: The cycle of birth, development, and death of a neuron Nucleus of the solitary tract: The nucleus in the brain stem that receives signals from the tongue, the mouth, and the larynx transmitted by the chorda tympani, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves Odor map: The pattern of activation in the olfactory system in which chemicals with different properties create a “map” of activation based on these properties Odor object: The source of an odor, such as coffee, bacon, a rose, or car exhaust Odor-evoked autobiographical memory: Memories about events from a person’s life that are elicited by odors Odotoptic map: The pattern of activation in the olfactory system in which chemicals with different properties create a “map” of activation based on these properties Olfaction: The sense of smell. Usually results from stimulation of receptors in the olfactory mucosa Olfactory bulb: The structure that receives signals directly from the olfactory receptors Olfactory mucosa: The region inside the nose that contains the receptors for the sense of smell Olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs): Sensory neurons located in the olfactory mucosa that contain the olfactory receptors Olfactory receptors: A protein string that responds to odor stimuli Oral capture: The condition in which sensations from both olfaction and taste are perceived as being located in the mouth Orbitofrontal cortex: An area in the frontal lobe, near the eyes, that receives signals originating in the olfactory receptors Papillae: Ridges and valleys on the tongue, some of which contain taste buds Piriform cortex (PC): An area under the temporal lobe that receives signals from glomeruli in the olfactory bulb Primary olfactory area: A small area under the temporal lobe that receives signals from glomeruli in the olfactory bulb Proust effect: The elicitation of memories through taste and olfaction © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses

Recognition profile: The pattern of olfactory activation for an odorant, indicating which ORNs (olfactory receptor neurons) are activated by the odorant Retronasal route: The opening from the oral cavity, through the nasal pharnyx, into the nasal cavity Secondary olfactory area: An area in the frontal lobe, near the eyes, that receives signals originating in the olfactory receptors. Also known as the orbitofrontal cortex Sensory-specific satiety: The effect on perception of the odor associated with food eaten to satiety (the state of being satiated or “full”) Sustentacular cell: Cells that provide metabolic and structural support to the olfactory sensory neurons Taste: The chemical sense that occurs when molecules—often associated with food—enter the mouth in solid or liquid form and stimulate receptors on the tongue Taste bud: A structure located within papillae on the tongue that contains the taste cells Taste cell: Cell located in taste buds that causes the transduction of chemical to electrical energy when chemicals contact receptor sites or channels located at the tip of this cell Taste pore: An opening in the taste bud through which the tips of taste cells protrude [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • • • •

Comparing human and animal perception of scent Music can influence flavor Color can influence flavor Odors can influence attention and performance Loss of smell in COVID-19 and Alzheimer’s STC: Community of the Senses

Chapter Outline I. II.

III.

IV.

Some Properties of the Chemical Senses Taste Quality a. Basic Taste Qualities b. Connections Between Taste Quality and a Substance’s Effect The Neural Code for Taste Quality a. Structure of the Taste System b. Population Coding c. Specificity Coding Individual Differences in Taste

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses

V. VI.

The Importance of Olfaction Olfactory Abilities a. Detecting Odors b. Identifying Odors c. Individual Differences in Olfaction d. Loss of Smell in COVID-19 and Alzheimer’s Disease VII. Analyzing Odorants: The Mucosa and Olfactory Bulb a. The Puzzle of Olfactory Quality b. The Olfactory Mucosa c. How Olfactory Receptor Neurons Respond to Odorants d. The Search for Order in the Olfactory Bulb VIII. Representing Odors in the Cortex a. How Odorants Are Represented in the Piriform Cortex b. How Odor Objects Are Represented in the Piriform Cortex c. How Odors Trigger Memories IX. The Perception of Flavor a. Taste and Olfaction Meet in the Mouth and Nose b. Taste and Olfaction Meet in the Nervous System c. Flavor Is Influenced by Cognitive Factors d. Flavor Is Influenced by Food Intake: Sensory-Specific Satiety e. Correspondences f. Influences

Activities and Assignments (1) Video suggestions: “Taste and Smell” is available from Insight Media, which covers the basic structures and neural processing of the chemical senses. Also, National Geographic’s Explorer series has a great program on The Science of Dogs, which addresses dog olfaction. Ordering information and a summary of the episode can be found at on their website. (2) How Did They Do It?: McClintock and Menstrual Synchrony: Although it is not discussed in the chapter, there is evidence that detection of hormonal states can lead to synchronous menstruation in women. The story of McClintock’s menstrual synchrony study is told in Miriam Horn’s Rebels In White Gloves, and is also accessible under “Menstrual Synchrony and Suppression” at the “Museum of Menstruation” website. In brief, McClintock was a 20-year-old junior at Wellesley when she attended a conference on pheromones, where the researchers (all male) concluded that pheromones did not affect humans. She intuitively believed otherwise: Based on observation of menstrual synchrony, she believed that pheromones were responsible. Within the next couple of years, she conducted her pioneering research, and published it at the age of 23. Another inspiring and insightful story of discovery for students!

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses

(3) Pheromones and Sexual Orientation: Another recent and well-publicized study on pheromones in humans was conducted by Savic et al. (2005), who reported that brain activity is different for homosexual men than heterosexual men to odors believed to be pheromones (a substance in men’s sweat, and a compound found in women’s urine). Furthermore, the gay men’s activity was similar to hetereosexual women’s response. This article was published in The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, but several popular media articles have reported the finding. A quick search will result in a number of these articles. (4) Why are Peppers Hot?: Another substance students tend to be interested in is red hot chili peppers. Scientific American Frontiers explored this with a segment entitled “Life’s Little Questions: Why are Peppers Hot?”. In addition to general information you can “Ask an Expert” about the same topic. Linda Bartoshuk is one such expert. You can see her “Q&A” session by searching for her specifically. (5) Olfactory Imagery: Olfactory imagery is another topic that overlaps perception with other areas of psychology. A very recent review by Stevenson and Case is a good supplemental reading for students. Stevenson & Case (2005). Olfactory imagery: A review. Psychonomic Bulletin, 12, 244-264. (6) General Interest Books: For a “minor sense,” there is quite a bit of interest in olfaction and taste. Three books can be used for additional readings are: Rachel Herz (2007) The Scent of Desire; Avery Gilbert’s What the Nose Knows; and Jonah Lehrer’s Proust Was a Neuroscientist, for an interdisciplinary approach. Each book has chapters that can stand alone, without assigning the whole book. (7) Higher-Order Processing and Taste Perception Activity: This excellent activity on the factors involved in taste was posted by Deb Brihl from Valdosta State University: “One easy experiment would be to look at the different factors that influence our sense of flavor. You could have them try to determine the taste of jelly beans and have them remove smell and/or vision. Here is what I have done – if you have one of those stores in which you can buy jelly beans by flavor, great. Get some different flavors. I always get some obvious color indicates the flavor (such as blue is blueberry), some that the color is not the most obvious flavor (red is apple - it is amazing how many get that wrong when they use vision) - just a general mix. Student eat a jelly bean and try guessing the flavor when they are able to use both smell and vision, some with just smell, some with just vision, and some with neither. They can discuss the importance of both senses on our perception of taste.” If you are also daring enough, you can also grab some of the “Harry Potter Bertie Bott’s Every Flavor Jelly Beans” and see what the effect of labeling is on taste perception. In addition to usual flavors like “lemon drop”, “banana” and “blueberry,” Bertie has included “booger,” “ear wax,” “sardine,” and “vomit.” I must admit, I have a box, but I’ve never tried one yet, which actually is also instructive: Just labeling something “booger” will yield an affective component, even without tasting it!

Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses

(8) Higher-Order Processing and Taste Perception Humor: One other way of introducing this topic is with the following (somewhat risqué) joke: A college professor was doing a study, testing the senses of first-graders using a bowl of LifeSavers. He gave all the children the same kind of Lifesaver, one at a time, and asked them to identify them by color and flavor. The children began to say: “Red… Cherry”; … “Yellow… Lemon”; …”Green”… Lime”; “Orange”… “Orange.” Finally, the professor gave all the children honey LifeSavers. After eating them for a few moments, none of the children could identify the taste. “Well”, said the professor, “I’ll give you a clue. It’s what your mother may sometimes call your father.” One girl looked up in horror, spit hers out, and yelled “Everybody, spit them out... they’re a**holes!!!!” (9) Development of Taste and Obesity: An important application of the issues in this chapter is how development of taste for fruits and vegetables can help healthy eating later in life. Catherine Forestell and Juile Menella are prominent researchers in this area. Below is one recent representative article. Forestell, C. A., & Mennella, J. A. (2007). Early determinants of fruit and vegetable acceptance. Pediatrics, 120 (6), 1247-1254.

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Instructor Manual: Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 978-0-357-44647-8; Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses

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